A History of China. Being the historical chapters from 'The Middle Kingdom' ... With a concluding chapter narrating recent events by F. W. Williams

Front matter

A HISTORY OF CHINA A HISTORY OF CHINA BEING THE HISTORICAL CHAPTERS FROM "THE MIDDLE KINGDOM" BY THE LATE S. WELLS WILLIAMS, LL.D. PROFESSOR OF THE CHINESE LANGUAGE ANfo LITERATURE IN TALE COLLEGE WITH A CONCLUDING CHAPTER NARRATING RECENT EVENTS BY FREDERICK WELLS WILLIAMS INSTRUCTOR IN ORIENTAL HISTORY IN YALE UNIVERSITY LONDON SAMPSON LOW, MARSTON, & COMPANY Limited St. IDunstan's Tbousc Fetteh Lane, Fleet Street, E. C Copyright, 1882 and 1897, by Charles Scribner's Sons for the United States of America Printed by the Trow Directory, Printing and Bookbinding Company New York, U. S. A.

Preface

. The need for a good history of China remains as unsatisfied to-day as when " The Middle Kingdom " was first written half a century ago. This is intended neither as a reflection upon the times in which we live, nor as a reproach to the small band of learned men that deserve the name of Sinologues ; for an age is competent to determine its own interests, and if educated Europe cares little for the Far East it but continues in the traditions of the past ; nor have scholars yet been able to investigate the unexplored mass of Chinese printed books which must supply authorities for the story of China's long career. The statement that the history of this nation has yet to be written is only made here in explanation of the reap pearance in this volume of an inadequate sketch originally designed to form part of a comprehensive study of the country and its inhabitants.

In view of an awakening interest in tlie affairs of Asia manifest throughout Europe and the United States, it has seemed advisable to provide — at least temporarily — for the wants of many readers by re-issuing the historical chapters of " The Middle Kingdom," adding thereto a summary of the more important occurrences that have marked the dozen years of Chinese history since that work was last re vised. No attempt has been made to amend the portion already in type, since it is hoped that the lessened cost of the volume secured by using the old plates would compensate for any advantages to be expected from its revision within the limited time at the editor's command. Such accounts of political and social China as have appeared in our language within the past half-century have for the most part suffered VI

PREFACE.

. from the bias, national, religions or otherwise, of their authors. While absolute impartiality is not a quality to be found here or elsewhere among human annalists, a true conception of east ern Asiatic politics is only to be obtained by forsaking so far as possible our prejudices of race and creed and approaching them with unselfish and sympathetic interest. An endeavor is made in these pages to comprehend the stand-point of the Chinese instead of either condemning or excusing their acts. Events so recent as those detailed in the last chapter of this book must needs be arranged in tlie form of a rather colorless chronicle, the perspective being too small as yet to develop them into a philosophic history. In her present distress and indecision, it is still more difficult to discuss the future than the present of the Chinese Empire.

She has now had nearly three generations of intercourse and experience with Western nations, and yet with few exceptions her statesmen to-day exhibit the same hopeless incapacity in dealing with questions involving the fate of the nation that marked the advisers of Taukwang and Hienfung. Apparently their lessons at the hands of hardier peoples have taught them nothing ; they show since their discomfiture by Japan the same abject fear that has in times past driven or drifted them into spasms of abase ment, which to the merely superficial observer seem closely bordering npon imbecility. The dread inspired by defeat is not an unaccustomed phenomenon to students of Asiatic nations. In the simple structure of an oriental despotism a disastrous campaign means, usually, the supplanting of the reigning family by a new house, native or foreign.

This event has more than once during this century been confidently awaited in the East as the normal outcome of Chinese reverses. At each catastrophe the mandarinate — which is but a ruling clique — has, as it were, bent its head for the coup de grace, involving, of course, the extinction of the dynasty, only to arise to renewed life and a lengthened lease of corrupt control. In a very real sense the government and the nation of China are two different things. The former has just escaped, thanks in part to European interference, from peril of its life ; the latter feels no sense of escape whatever, only a renewal of the

PREFACE.

. VII unjust rule under which it has repined since the present dynasty became effete. In some degree we may account, there fore, for the prostration of the governing minority in the Empire, its weakness and ineptness in war and in peace ; with characteristic oriental stoicism it has not thought seriously of guaranteeing the future, being still confident of its inevitable doom. Meanwhile, the nation itself, conscious of new forces on every side, has shown by rebellions cropping out every where, by the machinations of secret societies and by the more open and laudable efforts of a few individuals, its discontent with the old regime and its desire to participate in the profits of industrial life with modern appliances and under modern conditions. This is the New China, that the Old; the one has insisted upon the adoption of railroads and telegraphs, the circulation of newspapers, and the introduction of Western science into the curriculum of official education ; the other has excited the hatred of the ignorant people against foreigners and thwarted or ridiculed every attempt to re-establish the Empire by the adoption of European institutions.

Whether the one party or the other will eventually succeed in obtaining permanent control is now rendered doubly un certain by the active and apparently unresisted interference of Russia in Chinese affairs. While this new political factor, and the still newer phenomenon of militant Japan, introduce elements into the problem of the Far East as yet too undefined to discuss, it may be observed in conclusion that the proposed network of railroads in Manchuria to be built, equipped and guarded by Russian money and troops, shows who is the chief gainer by the late war. This is what British diplomatists have uniformly expected as a result of a contest which in volved China with anj7 other power, and for this reason they tried to prevent the war. Having failed to do so they not unnaturally declined to join their continental rival and humil iate Japan by interfering in the treaty which gave her the rewards of victory.

The hopes of political prophets as to the military value of China's millions being for the present in abevance, it is still possible for Great Britain — the represen tative of what is best in Christian civilization in Asia — to

PREFACE.

. count upon an ally that is imbued with a dislike as intense as her own for Russia, and that is willing to join her in rescu ing from the Adversary the country which each in turn has invaded and vanquished. A word ought to be said as to the spelling of proper names in this volume. Had a thorough revision been practicable the editor might have conformed to the Wade system, not because of its intrinsic superiority to others, but because of its general use in a matter where a clear majority ought to be law. While endeavoring to preserve the same forms throughout the volume, he has in the final chapter yielded to common usage in some familiar names like Foochow, Kelung, etc., and has for the sake of simplicity abandoned the accent employed to mark the Italian i. In Korean names any scientific consistency in spelling is excessively difficult to attain, since with the no menclature of three languages to choose from foreign writers naturally vary widely in their selections.

The place called in the text Ping yang, for example, is written PHng jang (or yang) in Chinese, Phyong yang in Korean, and Hei jo in Japanese, and so with every spot in that unblest and stricken peninsula. In general the consonants have their English values here while the vowels are sounded approximately as in Italian or Spanish, with the exception of a which corresponds with e in the Wade system and represents the short u in such words as fun, tun, etc. F. W. W. New Haven, Conn., February, 1897. PAGE CONTENTS.

Chapter I

Chronology and Early Hisxory, 1-53 General doubts and ignorance concerning the subject, 2 ; The mythological period, 3 ; Chinese notions of cosmogony, 4 ; The god Pwanku, 5 ; Chu Hi's cosmogony, 7 ; The legendary period, Fuh-hi, 9; The eight monarchs, 11 ; Hwangti and the sexagenary cycle, 12 ; The deluge of Yao, 13 ; The historical period: The Hia dynasty, 14; Yu the Great, his inscription on the rocks of Kau-lau shan, 15 ; Records of the Hia, 18 ; The Shang dynasty, 20 ; Chau-sin, 22 ; Rise of the house of Chau, 23 ; Credibility of these early annals, 25 ; The Tsin dynasties, Tsin Chi Hwangti, 26 ; The dynasty of Han, 28 ; From the Han to the Sui, 31 ; The great Tang dynasty, 33 ; Taitsung and the Empress Wu, 35 ; The Five Dynasties, 38 ; The Sung dynasty, 39 ; The Mongol conquest, Kublai Khan, 41 ; The Mings, 43 ; The Manchus, or Tsing dynasty, 45 ; Kanghi, 46 ; Yungching and Kienlung, 47 ; Kiaking and Taukwang, 49 ; Tables of the monarchs and dynasties, 52.

Chapter II

Foreign Intercourse with China, 54-110 Limited conception of the Chinese as to embassies, 54 ; Earliest mention of China or Cathay, 56 ; Acquaintance between Rome and Seres, or Sinæ, 57 ; Knowledge of China under the Greek Empire, 60 ; Narratives of Buddhist pilgrims, 61 *, Notices of Arab travellers, 62 ; Piano Carpini's mission from the Pope to Kuyuk Khan, 63 ; Rubruquis sent by Louis XI. to Mangu Khan, 66 *, Travels of Marco Polo and King Hayton of Armenia, 68 ; Of the Moor, Ibn Batuta, 69 ; Of Friar Odoric, 70 ; Of Benedict Goes, 72 ; Of Ibn Wahab, 73 ; The Manchus X CONTENTS. PAGE ■161 confine foreign trade to Canton, 74 ; Character of early Portu guese traders, 75 ; Their settlement at Macao and embassies to Peking, 76; Relations of Spain with China, 79; The Dutch come to China, 81 ; They occupy Formosa, 82 ; Koxinga ex pels them from the island, 85 ; Van Hoorn's embassy to Pe king, 86 ; Van Braam's mission to Kienlung, 87 ; France and China, 88 ; Russian embassies to the court at Peking, i9 ; In tercourse of the English with China, 91 ; Attempts of the East India Company to establish trade, 93 ; The Co-hong, 95 ; Treatment of Mr. Flint, 96 ; Anomalous position of for eigners in China during the eighteenth century, 98 ; Chinese action in sundry cases of homicide among foreigners, 99 ; Lord Macartney's embassy to PekiDg, 102; Attitude of the Chinese regarding Macao, 104; Regarding English and Amer ican *' squabbles," 105 ; Embassy of Lord Amherst. 106 ; Close of the East India Company monopoly, 107; American trade with China, 108 ; Chinese terms for foreigners, 109.

Chapter III

Origin op the First War with England, 111 Features of the war with England, 111 ; Lord Napier appointed superintendent of British trade, 112 ; He goes to Canton, 115 ; His contest with the governor, 116 ; Chinese notions of supremacy, 120 ; Lord Napier retires from Canton, his sudden death, 122 ; Petition of the British merchants to the king, 124 ; Trade continued as before, 126 ; Sir B. G Robinson the superintendent at Lintiu, 127 ; Is succeeded by Captain Elliot, 129 ; Hii Nai-tsi proposes to legalize the opium trade. 130; Conntermemorials to the Emperor. 131 ; Discussion of the matter among foreigners, 135 ; Canton officers enfotce the prohibitory laws, 138 ; Elliot ordered to drive the opium ships from Lintin, 139 ; Arrival of Admiral Sir F. Maitland, 140 ; Smuggling increases, 141 ; A mob before the factories, 143; Captain Elliot's papers and actions regarding the opium traffic 144 ; Commissioner Lin sent to Canton, 145 ; He demands a surrender of opium held by foreigners, 147 ; Imprisons them in the factories, 148 ; The opium given up and destroyed, 150 ; Homicide of Lin Wei-hi at Hongkong, 153 ; Motives and position of Governor Lin, 156 ; The war an opium war, 158 ; Debate in Parliament upon the question, 160. CONTENTS. XI PAGE

Chapter IV

The Opium War, 162-222 Arrival of the British fleet and commencement of hostilities, 162 ; Fall of Tinghai. 103 ; Lin recalled to Peking, 164 ; Kishen sent to Canton, negotiates a treaty with Captain Elliot at the Bogue, 165 ; The negotiations fail, 167 ; Capture of the Canton River defences, 169 ; The city ransomed, 171 ; Amoy and Tinghai taken, 173 ; Fall of Chinhai and Ningpo, 175 ; The Emperor determines to resist, 177 ; Attempt to recapture Ningpo, 179 ; The British reduce the neighboring towns, 181 ; The fleet enters the Yangtsz', capture of Wusung, 183; Shanghai taken, 184 ; Proclamations issued by both parties respecting the war, 185 ; Storming of Chinkiang, 188 ; Terrible carnage among its Manchu inhabitants, 190 ; Singular contrast at Idling, 192; Kiying communicates with Sir H. Pottinger, 194 ; The envoy and commissioners meet, 195 ; A treaty drawn up, 197 ; Conversation on the opium question, 198 ; Tlie Treaty of Nanking signed, 201 ; Massacre of shipwrecked crews on Formosa, 202 ; Losses and rewards on both sides after the war, 204 ; Settlement of a tariff and commercial relations, 205; Deaths of Howqua and John R. Morrison, 207 ; A supplementary treaty signed, 209 ; Renewal of opium vexations, 210 ; Treaties arranged with other foreign powers, 213 ; The ambassador and letter from the United States to China, 214 ; Caleb Cushing negotiates a treaty with Kiying, 215; Homicide by an American at Canton, and subsequent correspondence, 216 ; A French treaty concluded by M. de Lagrene at Whampoa, 219 ; Position of England aud China after the war, 220.

Chapter V

The Tai-ping Rebellion 223-272 Attitude of the ruling classes in China toward foreigners, 223 ; Governor Sir J. Davis and Commissioner Kfying, 225 ; Killing of six Englishmen at Canton, 226; Chinese notions of treaties, ibid. ; Causes of the Tai-ping Rebellion, 229 ; Life of Hung Siutsuen, its leader, 230 ; His wonderful vision, 231 ; He interprets it by Christian ideas, 233 ; Early phases CONTENTS. XII PAGE of the movement, 235 ; Commencement of the insurrection, 238 ; Political and religious tenets of the rebels, 240 ; Rapid advance to the Yangtsz' and occupation of Nanking, 244 ; The expedition against Peking, 245 ; Its failure, 247 ; Dissensions among the rebel wangs, or leaders, 250 ; Rebel sortie from Nanking, 253 ; Assistance of foreigners sought by imperialists, 255 ; Achievements of the Chung Wang, 256 ; Colonel Gordon assumes control of the " Ever-Victorious force," 257 ; His successful campaigns, 259 ; Environment of Suchau, 261 ; The city surrenders, 262 ; Execution of its wangs by Governor Li, 263 ; Gordon's responsibility in the matter, 264 ; Further operations against the insurgents, 265 ; The Ever- Victorious force disbanded, 266 ; Fall of Nanking and dis persion of the rebels, 269 ; Subsequent efforts of the Shi and Kan wangs, 270 ; Disastrous character of the rebellion, 271.

Chapter VI

The Second Anglo-Chinese War, 273-337 Relations between the Cantonese and foreigners after the first war, 274 ; Collecting of custom duties at Shanghai entrusted to foreigners, 275 ; Common measures of defence against the rebels there, 277; The insurrection in Kwangtung, 278; Frightful destruction of life, 281 ; Governor Yeh's policy of seclusion, 281 ; Smuggling lorchas at Hongkong and Macao, 282 ; The lorcha Arrow affair, 283 ; The initial acts of the war, 286 ; Collision with Americans at the Barrier forts, 287 ; View of the war in England, 289 ; Arrival of Lord Elgin and Baron Gros in China, 291 ; Bombardment and capture of Canton, ibid. ; Problem of governing the city, 294 ; The allies repair to the Pei-ho. 297 ; Capture of the Taku forts, 299 ; Negotiations with Kweiliang and Hwashana at Tientsin, 300 ; Unexpected appearance of Kiying, 301 ; Difficulties of Lord Elgin's position at Tientsin, 302 ; The treaties signed and ratified, 304 ; Revision of the tariff undertaken at Shanghai, 305 ; Effect of treaty stipulations and foreign trade on the people of China, 306 ; Lord Elgin visits the Tai-ping rebels at Hankow, 307 ; Sentiment of officials and people in China regarding foreigners, 308; Coolie trade outrages, 311; The foreign ministers repair to Taku, 312 ; Repulse at the Taku forts, 314 ; The American minister conducted to Peking, 316 ; Discussion concerning the formalities of an audience, 317 ; CONTENTS.

XIII PAGE 389 He retires and ratifies the treaty at Pehtang. 318 ; Lord Elgin and Baron Gros sent back to China, 319 ; War resumed, the allies at Pehtang, 321 ; Capture of villages about Taku, 322 ; Fall of the Taku forts, 324 ; Lord Elgin declines to remain at Tientsin, 325 ; Interpreters Wade and Parkes sent to Tungchau, 326 ; Capture of Parkes and Loch, 328 ; Skirmish of Pa li-kiau, 330 ; Pillage of Yuen-ruing Yuen, 331 ; Its de struction upon the return of the prisoners, 332 ; Entry into Peking and signing of the treaties. 334 ; Permanent settlement of foreign embassies at the capital, 336.

Chapter VII

The Administration of the Empresses, 338 Palace conspiracy upon the death of Hienfung, 338 ; The regency established at Peking. 339 ; The Lay -Osborne flotilla, 341 ; Collapse of the scheme and dismissal of Lay, 343 ; The Burlingame mission to foreign countries, 344 ; Its treaty with the United States, 346 ; Outbreak at Tientsin, 348 ', Investigation into the riot, 351 ; Bitter feeling among foreigners, 353 ; Memorandum from the Tsung li Yamun on the missionary question, 355 ; Conclusion of the Kansuh insurrection, 357 ; Marriage of the Emperor Tungchi, 358 ; The foreign ministers demand an audience, 360 ; Reception of the ambassadors by Tungchi, 362 ; Stopping of the coolie trade, 303 ; Japanese descent upon Formosa, 365 ; English expedition to Yunnan, 367 ; Second mission, murder of Margary, 369 ; The Grosvenor mission of inquiry, 371 ; The Chifu Convention between Li Hung-chang and Sir T. Wade, 373 ; Death of Tungchi and accession of Kwangsii, 375 ; The rebellion of Yakub Beg in Turkestan, 375 ; He overthrows the Dungani Confederation, 378 ; His forces conquered by Tso Tsung-tang. 379 ; Negotiations as to the cession of Kuldja, 380 ; The great famine of 1878, 382 ; Efforts of foreigners for its relief, 384 ; Chinese boys sent to America for education, 387 ; Grounds of hope for the future of China, 389. CONTENTS. PAGE -402

Chapter VIII

390 Narrative of Recent Events, Three important occurrences mark the close of the century, 390 ; Beginning of French interference in Indo China, 391 ; Chinese suzerainty over Annam, 392 ; The French raid ou Tongking. 395 ; Death of Riviere at Hanoi, 396 ; The conquest of Tongking, 397 ; The Fournier convention and renewal of hostilities, 395 ; A War-no war, 401 ; The Franco Chinese treaty of 1883, 403 ; A spasm of progress in China, 405 ; Agreements as to Hongkong and Macao, 406 ; The English in Burma and Port Hamilton, 409 ; Kwangsu's accession and retirement of the Dowager-Empress Hi, 411; Audience negotiations, 413; Western science and railroads, 415 ; The Yellow River flood, 417 ; Reactionary tendencies, 420 ; Outrages committed on foreigners, 421 ; Riots at Wuhu, 422 ; At Wusneh, Icbangand Kirin, 425 ; At Sungpu, Chingtu and elsewhere, 426 ; The massacre at Hwashan. 429 ; Causes of Anti-foreign fanaticism, 430 ; Necessity of punishment rather than indemnity, 435 ; The rivalry of China and Japan over Korea, 437 ; Political demoralization of Korea, 441 ; The Kowshing affair, 443 ; The Battle of Piug yang, 444 ; The Battle of Hai yang, 447; The fall of Port Arthur. 451 ; The Japanese in Manchuria, 454 ; The capture of Wei hai wei, 456 ; The treaty of Shimonoseki, 461.

Chapter I. Chronology And Early History

The history of the Chinese people has excited less attention among western scholars than it deserves, though in some re spects no nation offers more claims to have its chronicles carefully and fairly examined. The belief is generally entertained that their pretensions to antiquity are extravagant and ridiculous, and incompatible with the Mosaic chronology ; that they not only make the world to have existed myriads of years, but reckon the succession of their monarchs far beyond the creation. and ascribe to them a longevity that carries its own confutation on its face. In consequence of this opinion, some have denied the credibility of native historians altogether, and the whole subject of the settlement and early progress of this ancient race has been considered beyond the reach, and almost unworthy the attempt, of sober investigation.

This erroneous and hasty con clusion is gradually giving way to a careful inquiry into those histories which show that the early records of the sons of Han contain much which is worthy of credence, and much more that is highly probable. A wide field is here opened for the re searches of a Gibbon or a Niebuhr; for as long as we are destitute of a good history of China and its connections with other Asiatic nations, we shall not only be unable to form a correct opinion respecting the people, but shall lack many important data for a full illustration of the early history of the human race. It is easy to laud the early records of the Chinese to the skies, as French writers have done ; and it is quite as easy to cry them down as worthless — manufactured in after-ages to please the variety of their writers.

The reputation both people and records have received is owing, in some measure, to this undue laudation and depreciation, as well as to the intrinsic merits and defects of their histories. These, however, still mostly remain in their originals, and will require the united labors of many scholars to be fully brought to light and made a part of the world's library. The enormous difficulties arising from the extent and tedious minuteness of native historians, coupled with the scarcity of translators competent or willing to undertake the labor of even such a resume of these works as will satisfy rational curiosity, are now being slowly overcome, both by Chinese and foreign students. These researches, it is to be earnestly hoped, will be rewarded by promoting a juster estimate in the minds of both classes of their relative positions among the nations of the earth.

China, like other countries, has her mythological history, and it should be separated from the more recent and received, as her own historians regard it, as the fabrication of subsequent times. She also has her ancient history, whose earliest dates and events blend confusedly with the mythological, but gradu ally grow more credible and distinct as they come down the stream of time to the beginning of modern history. The early accounts of every nation whose founding was anterior to the practice of making and preserving authentic records must necessarily be obscure and doubtful. What is applicable to the Chinese has been true of other ancient people : " national vanity and a love of the marvellous have influenced them all, and furnished materials for many tales, as soon as the spirit of investigation has supplanted that appetite for wonders which marks the infancy of nations as well as of individuals."

The ignorance of the "art preservative of all arts" will greatly ex plain the subsequent record of the wonderful, without suppos ing that the infancy of nations partook of the same traits of weakness and credulity as that of individuals. There is neither space nor time in this work to give the details concerning the history and succession of dynasties that have swayed the Middle Kingdom, for to one not specially engaged in their examination their recital is proverbially dry ; the array of uncouth names destitute of lasting interest, and the absence of the charm THE STUDY OF EARLY CHINESE HISTORY. 3 of association with western nations render them uninviting to the general reader. Some account of the leading events and changes is all that is necessary to explain what has been else where incidentally referred to.' Chinese historians have endeavored to explain the creation and origin of the world around them ; but, ignorant of the sublime fact that there is one Creator who upholds his works by the word of his power, they have invented various modes to account for it, and wearied themselves in theorizing and disput ing with each other.

One of them, Yangtsz', remarks, in view of these conflicting suppositions : " Who knows the affairs of remote antiquity, since no authentic records have come down to us ? He who examines these stories will find it difficult to be lieve them, and careful scrutiny will convince him that they are without foundation. In the primeval ages no historical records were kept. Why then, since the ancient books that described those times were burnt by Tsin, should *we misrepresent those remote ages, and satisfy ourselves with vague fables ? How ever, as everything except heaven and earth must have a cause, it is clear that they have always existed, and that cause pro duced all sorts of men and beings, and endowed them with their various qualities. But it must have been man who in the beginning produced all things on earth, and who may therefore be viewed as the lord, and from whom rulers derive their dignities."

This extract is not a bad example of Chinese writers and historians ; a mixture of sense and nonsense, partially laying the foundation of a just argument, and ending with a tremendous non-sequitur, apparently satisfactory to themselves, but showing pretty conclusively how little pains they take to gather facts and discuss their bearings. Some of these writers imagine that the world owes its existence to the retroactive agency of the dual powers yin and yang, which first formed the outline of the universe, and were themselves influenced by ' Among the works which will repay perusal on this topic are Mailla's His toire de la Chine and Pauthier's Chine, in French, and Du Halde's History, translated into English ; besides the briefer compilations of Murray, Grosier, Gutzlaff, Davis, and more recently of Boulger and Richthofen, Band I. their own creations.

One of the most sensible of their authors says: Heaven was formless, an utter chaos ; the whole mass was nothing but confusion. Order was first produced in the pure ether, and out of it the universe came forth ; the universe produced air, and air the milky-way. When the pure male principle yang had been diluted, it formed the heavens ; the heavy and thick parts coagulated, and formed the earth. The refined par ticles united very soon, but the union of the thick and heavy went on slowly ; therefore the heavens came into existence first, and the earth afterward. From the subtle essence of heaven and earth, the dual principles yin and yang were formed ; from their joint operation came the four seasons, and these putting forth their energies gave birth to all the products of the earth. Tlie warm effluence of the yang being condensed, produced fire ; and the finest parts of fire fprmed the sun.

The cold exhalations of the yin being likewise condensed, produced water ; and the finest parts of the watery substance formed the moon. By the seminal influence of the sun and moon, came the stars. Thus heaven was adorned with the sun, moon, and stars ; the earth also re ceived rain, rivers, and dust. ' But this acute explanation, like the notions of Hesiod among the Greeks, was too subtle for the common people ; they also wanted to personify and deify these powers and operations, but lacking the imaginative genius and fine taste of the Greeks. their divine personages are outrageous and their ideal beings shapeless monsters. No creator is known or imagined who, like Brahm, lives in space, ineffable, formless ; but the first being, Pwanku, had the herculean task to mould the chaos which produced him and chisel out the earth that was to con tain him.

One legend is that " the dual powers were fixed when the primeval chaos separated. Chaos is bubbling turbid water, which enclosed and mingled with the dual powers, like a chick in ovo, but when their offspring Pwanku appeared their distinctiveuess and operations were apparent. Pwan means a ' basin,' referring to the shell of the egg ; ku means ' solid,' ' to secure,' intending to show how the first man Pwanku was hatched from the chaos by the dual powers, and then settled and exhibited the arrangement of the causes which produced him." The Rationalists have penetrated furthest into the Dædalian 1 Chinese Repository, Vol. III., p. 55. CHINESE COSMOGONY. 5 mystery of this cosmogony,1 and they go on to show what Pwanku did and how he did it. They picture him holding a chisel and mallet in his hands, splitting and fashioning vast Pwanku Chiselling Out the Universe. masses of granite floating confusedly in space.