The Half Century: its history, political and social

Preface

. Teeee is a mechanical art and mystery in Author-craft, as in every other craft, which can only be learned by apprenticeship, or an experience tantamount thereto. "Whatever a man's fitness for his vocation, whatever the general training he has undergone, the absence of this special knowledge will betray itself. In Author craft, this secret is — the proportioning of material to space ; of the task to the time for its performance. The writer of this volume is " free to confess " what some might otherwise take an ill-natured pleasure in discovering and proclaiming — that the size of this book scarcely permitted the fulfilment of the design expounded in its introductory pages ; and that the Social bears but a small proportion to the Political in the conduct of the narrative. Others may complain, that so small a book should have been so long in preparation.

In apology for the former, the "Writer would acknowledge, that though not unaccustomed to literary labour, he is new to the art of book-making ; and that he did hope, in his inexperience, to have found room for all he had to say within twenty-three sheets of bourgeois leaded.

PREFACE.

. In explanation of its tardy appearance, be it stated, that the sub stance of this work has appeared by chapters in a weekly journal ; that it was commenced in time for its completion six months since ; but that the exciting events with which the new Half Century opened, pushed from the columns of the Newspaper a posthumous record, and subtracted from the "Writer's narrow leisure the hours he had devoted to this composition. Originality of view or statement will scarcely be expected, and will certainly not be found in these pages. The "Writer has availed himself of such larger works as covered more or less of the period under review ; but though necessarily a compiler, is not conscious of being a copyist. He has formed his judgment on the events and questions of which he has written from various sources ; and so far from endeavouring to preserve an abstracted air of indifference, has sought to vitalize and colour his records with the breath of opinions conscientiously and earnestly, but charitably entertained. Islington, February, 1852.

PREFACE.

TO THE SECOND EDITION. ' ' The Author was loudly called for, and bowed his thanks from a private box." This customary pendant to the report of a first and successful performance of a new play, just expresses the purport of these few prefatory lines. A re-issue of the following sheets having been some time "called for" by the public, the publishers inform me that a new preface will be needful, besides the corrections and additions announced on the title page. I comply, glad of the opportunity to "bow my thanks " to friendly critics and commending readers. W. "W. Hollo way, April, 1853. PAGE PKOEII p j PERIOD THE FIRST— 1800 to 1815.

Chapter I

Aspect of the World to the Dawning Century 1 Events Consequent on the French Revolution [1792] .... 2 Bonaparte's Italian Victories — Treaty of Canipoformio [Oct. 1797] . 2 Expedition to Egypt 2 Anti-Gallican Coalition [1799] 3 Bonaparte, First Consul of France 4 State of Parties and the People in England [1792— 1800] ... 4 Scottish Martyrs and London Corresponding Society [1794] . . 5 Mr. Grey's Reform Motion [1797] 6 Public Burdens — Amount of Army and Navy — Subsidies to Foreign Powers 0 Irish Rebellion [1799] 7 FaR of Tippo Sultan 7

Chapter II

Bonaparte's Letter to George III. — Lord Grenville's Reply ... 8 Mr. Fox's Speech thereon [1800] 9 Suspension of Habeas Corpus — Prevalent Dearth — Taxes and Loans . 10 Bonaparte's Preparation for War — Passage of the Alps — Campaigns of Marengo and Hohenlinden — Treaty of Luneville [Feb. 1801] . II Defection of Russia from Anti-Gallican League — Death of the Czar Paul 12 Preliminary Treaty of Peace — confirmed at Amiens [March, 1802] . 13 Union of Ireland with Great Britain [1800] 14 The ICing's Opposition to Catholic Relief — Pitt's Retirement — Addington Ministry [1801] CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF CONTENTS.

Chapter III. Page

Relative Condition of England and France 16 Bonaparte's Despotism — his Aggression on Italy 18 Division of German States at Congress of Ratisbon — Expedition to St. Domingo 19 Proclamation of War by the English Government [April, 1803] — Mr. Fox's Opposition 20 Trial of Peltier— Mackintosh's Defence 21 Responsibility of the Resumption of Hostilities ~2 Emmett and Russell's Insurrection [1803] 23 Colonel Despard's Plot 23 Overthrow of the Mahratta Confederacy — The Morality of our Conquests in India '24

Chapter IV

Feebleness of the Addington Ministry, and Illness of the King . . 25 Resumption of Power by Sir. Pitt [April, 1S04] — Position of the Catholic Question 26 Impeachment of Lord Melville for Malversation [1805] ... 27 Pitt's Illness and Death [Jan. 23, 1800] 27 Character and Career 28 Ministry of " All the Talents" 29

Chapter V

Progress of the Resumed War — Campaign of Ulm and Austerlitz [1805]— Trafalgar [Oct. 21]— Treaty of Presburg [Dec. 26] . 32 Fox's earnest efforts at Pacification ■ 33 Bonaparte, Emperor of France and King of Italy — Due D'Enghein, Pichegru, Capt. Wright, Georges, Moreau, and Palm ... 33 Death of Fox [Sept. 15, 1800] 33 His Character and Career 34 Wilberforce, and the Abolition of the Slave-Trade [1788—1807] . . 35

Chapter VI

Break-up, of the Fox-Grenville Cabinet by the Catholic Question . . 39 Composition of the Tory Ministry 40 General Election [April, 1807] — Anti-Papal Excitement ... 40 Perceval, Castlereagh, Liverpool, Huslrisson, and Canning ... 41 Battles of Jena, Pultush, Copenhagen, Eylau, and Friezland — Treaty of Tilsit [1808] 4*2 Berlin Decrees and Orders in Council [1807] — Politically and Economically considered

Chapter VII

A Scandalous Episode: the Duke of York and Mrs. Clarke [1809] . 47 Parliamentary Reform — Curwen and Burdett 48 Duel between Canning and Castlereagh 43 Modification of the Cabinet— Marquis of Wellesley and Lord Palmerston ............ 49 Citizen Jones and Sir F. Burdett [1810] — Blockade of Piccadilly — Burdett committed to the Tower 50 Mr. Brand's Motion for Parliamentary Reform — Mr. Grattan's for Catholic Emancipation 50 The King's Blindness and Insanity — Death of Princess Amelia . 51 Prince of Wales's Appointment to the Regency [1811] ... 52 The Currency Homer, Brougham, and Lord King .... 53 Catholic Question — Canning, O'Connell, Wellesley Pole, and the Catholic Committee 53 Assassination of Percival [May 11, 1812] 53 Ministerial Changes — Liverpool, Premier — Mr. Robert Peel . . 54 Lord Sidmouth and the Dissenters [1811] 54

Chapter VIII

Napoleon's lung making 56 Invasion of Portugal and Spain [1809] 57 ■Convention of Cintra [Aug. 1810] 58 Sir John Moore's Expedition and Retreat — Battle of Corunna [Dec. 1809] 58 Treaty of Alliance between England and Spain ..... 59 Campaign of Wagram [July, 1810] — Austria's Price of Peace . . 59 Disastrous Waleheren Expedition 60 Sir Arthur Wellesley in the Peninsula — Battles of Oporto aud Talavera 60 Blockade of Cadiz— Lines of Torres Vedras 62 Recovery of Almeida — Battles of Barossa and Albuera [1811] . . 03 Storming of Ciudad, Rodrigo, and Badajos — Battle of Salamanca — Relief of Cadiz [1812] 63 Battle of Vittoria— Evacuation of Spain by the French [1813] . . 63 Battles of Bayonne and Bordeaux [1814] 63

Chapter IX

Napoleon's Marriage with Maria Louisa [1810] 04 Flight of Louis Bonaparte, King of Holland — its Annexation to France 64 Bemadotte, King of Sweden 65 Alienation of Russia from France 65 Napoleon at Dresden — Campaign of Moscow [1812] .... 66 Disaffection of France, and League for the Liberation of Germany . 67 Campaign of Leipsic [1813] X CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF CONTENTS. PAGE Invasion of France on three sides — Napoleon's Resolution and Defence — Capture of Paris — Abdication of the Emperor [1814] . . 69 Treaty of Paris 70 Congress of Vienna — the Holy Alliance [1815] 71 Napoleon's Return from Elba — the " Hundred Days" .... 72 Campaign of Waterloo . . 73 Restoration of the Bourbons — Napoleon's Surrender, and Deportation to St. Helena 74 England and America — Retrospect of their Relations — Declaration of War [1812] . - 75 Actions by Sea and Land — Treaty of Peace 77 Domestic History, from 1812 to 1815 — Catholic Question — General Election [1812] — Eulogies on Wellington — his Honours and Rewards 78 The Nation's "Glory-Bill" . 79

Chapter X

Influence of Crises on National Life — Progress of Population, Pauperism, and Crime [1800—1815] 80 Rise of Prices, but not of Wages 81 Extensive Use of Machinery, and its Effect on the Poor ... 82 Exports and Imports — Revenue and Debt 83 Poetry, Criticism, and Political Philosophy 84 Symptoms of Social Amelioration 86 PERIOD THE SECOND— 1815 to 1S30.

Chapter I

The World at Peace — Settlement of Europe by the Congress of Vienna — Indemnities and Securities exacted from France ... 87 Holland United with the Netherlands — Spoils of Russia and Prussia — Re-distribution of the German States — Constitution of the Frankfort Diet 8S Re-distribution of Italy — the Two Sicilies and Great Britain . . 89 Spirit and Working of the New Regime — Assassination of Kotzebue [1819] 92 English Feeling towards the Holy Alliance. 92

Chapter II

The Plague of Plenty— the Corn-Law of 1815 93 Prophetic Protest — Demands for Increased Protection [1810] . . PAGE " Ignorant Impatience of Taxation" — Successful Opposition to the Renewal of the Income-Tax 90 Indolence and Extravagance of the Prince Regent .... 97 Marriage of the Princess Charlotte 98

Chapter III

Materials of Impartial History — Distresses and Disturbances of 1810 . 100 Parliamentary and Social Reform Clubs — Cohbett, Hunt, and the Watsons 101 Spa-fields Meetings — Riot on Snow Hill — Assault on the Prince Regent [1817] 102 Pretended Conspiracy — Suspension of Constitutional Rights : . . 103 Bamford's Sketches of London Radicals - 104 Manchester Blanket Meeting . 105 Derbyshire Insurrection — Oliver and Castles — Exposure of the Spy System ....... a ... . 100 The Press and the Jury-box — Cobbett's Flight 109 William Hone's Three Trials . 110

Chapter IV

Indemnity accorded to Ministers 112 Death of the Princess Charlotte [Nov. 5, 1817] 110 Royal Alliances and Parliamentary Perversity 114 Scotch Municipal, and Parliamentary Reform . . . - .114 Romilly and Criminal Law Reform ,115 The Police of London— Lighting with Gas — Pauperism and Vagrancy . 110 Savings' Banks — Mr. Brougham's Committee on Education [1816 and 1818] H' Consolidation of our Indian Empire — Suppression of Algerine Piracy [1810] • H8 The Slave Trade — Death of Sheridan, Romilly, and others . 119

Chapter V

Custody of the King— The Currency Settlement of 1819 . 121 Other Incidents of the Session . 123 Revival of the Reform Agitation— Drilling, and " Legislatorial Attorneys" 121 The Peterloo Massacre [Aug. 10] 125 Consequent Proceedings of Government and the Public . . - 127 The " Six Acts " ■ 129 Death of the King [Jan. 29, 1820]— and of the Duke of Kent . _ 129 Character of George III.— his vaunted "Domestic Virtues" . . . 130

Chapter VI

Cato-Street Conspiracy [Jan. 1820] 132 Return of Queen Caroline to England CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF CONTENTS. PAGE Her Reception by the Government — her Trial and Acquittal . . 134 Her Intense Popularity 135 The Coronation— The Queen's Illness, Death, and Burial [Aug. 1821] 136 Lord John Russell's Debut as a Reformer 136 Mackintosh and Criminal Law Reform — Mr. Brougham's Educational Scheme 137 Disfranchisement of Grampound ........ 138 The "Bridge-Street Gang" 138 The Duke of York and the Catholic Question 139

Chapter VII

Death of Napoleon [May 5, 1821] 140 Second Congress of Vienna [1820]— Spanish and Italian Revolutions — Greek War of Independence 141 Restoration of Absolutism in Italy — Congress of Verona . . . 142 Suicide of Lord Londonderry [Aug. 6, 1821] 143 Canning's Accession to Office — his Antecedents ..... 144 Difficulties and Triumph 146 Invasion of Spain by a French Army [Jan. 1823] 147 Canning's Speech at Plymouth 117 Necessity of Peace to England — Recognition of the Independence of the Spanish Colonies [1824] 148 Retrospect of the Struggle 149 Death of Louis XVIII. and the Czar Alexander — Revolution and Counter-Revolution in Portugal 151 Canning's Vindication of his Policy [Dec. 1826] 152 Canning on the "Balance of Power" 154 Greek Settlement — The Oregon Dispute 155 The Alien Act 156 The Ashantee and Burmese Wars 156

Chapter VIII

The New Era — Huskisson, Robinson, and Vansittart .... 158 State of the Revenue and Tariff [1823] 159 " Prosperity Robinson " — Wool 160 Spitalfields and Silk Duties 1G1 The Navigation Laws 162 Strikes and Riots — the Combination Laws 163 Respite of the Paper Currency — Joint Stock Mania — The Crash [1825] 164 A " Rebellion of the Belly"— New Com Bill [1827] .... 166

Chapter IX

The Three Eras of the Catholic Question — Canning on the Catholic Peers [1822] 168 His Supposed Unfaithfulness — Scene with Mr. Brougham [1823] . The Catholic Association — Act for its Suppression [1825] . . . 170 Canning, Peel, and the University of Oxford 171 Burdett's Catholic Relief Bill— Duke of York's Declaration . . . 172 Mr. Plunkett on Innovation — General Election [1826] . . . 173 Death of the Duke of York [1827]— Canning Premier, vice Lord Liverpool yj± Resignation of Seven Cabinet Ministers— Bitterness of Opposition . 175 Canning's Illness and Death [August 8th]— the Goderich and Wellington Ministries 176 Repeal of the Test and Corporation Acts [1828] 177 The Clare Election 179 Signs of Yielding — the Orange and Brunswick Clubs .... 180 Mr. Peel Resigns the Representation of Oxford [1829] .... 181 Introduces the Catholic Relief Bill— Expounds his Reasons and Expectations 182 Debates and Divisions in both Houses — Duke of Wellington on Civil War 184 The King's Vaccillation and reluctant Assent 185 Disfranchisement of the Irish " Forties " — O'Connell's Re-election for Clare 187 Reflections on the History of Catholic Emancipation .... 188

Chapter X

The Bishop of Peterborough's Eighty-seven Questions — A New Marriage Act [1821— 22] 189 Mr. Buxton's Resolution on Colonial Slavery — Mr. Canning's Circular [1823] 190 Smith, the Demerara Mai-tyr [1824] 191 Excitement in England and Parliamentary Debates .... 192 Emigration — Mackintosh and Criminal Law Reform .... 193 Court of Chancery 194 Progress of the Parliamentary Reform Cause 195

CHAPTER XL

Purity of Election — Disfranchisement of Penryn and East Retford [1827] 195 The Game Laws and Spring-Guns — Mr. Peel's Consolidation of Criminal Jurisprudence 196 The Greek Question— Battle of Navarino [Oct. 20th] .... 197 Provision for Mr. Canning's Family [1828] 198 Mr. Brougham on the Soldier in Office and the Schoolmaster Abroad . 199 Dismissal of Mr. Huskisson from the Colonies — Retirement of all the Caimingites 200 Mr. Brougham obtains a Committe on Law Reform — Sir J. Barrington PAGE France under Charles X. 201 Don Miguel usurps the Throne of Portugal — Donna Maria in London 203 Debates in Parliament [1829]— Sale of Game— the "Borough Market" — the Government and the Portugese Liberals — Turkey, Russia, and Greece 204 Distress and Retrenchment [1830]— Colonial Slavery— the Criminal Code 205 Marquis of Blandford on Parliamentary Reform — Proposed Enfranchisement of Birmingham 200 Duke of Newcastle and " his own" — Prosecutions of the Press . . 207 Blness and Death of the King — [June 20th] — Death of Earl St. Vincent, Erskine, Ricardo, Raffles, Liverpool, and Tierney .... 208 Character of the Monarch and the Reign . . . . ■ . .209

Chapter XII

Condition of the People from 1815 to 1830 — Population, Pauperism, Food, and Crime 210 Body-snatching and Burking — Poisoning — Cruelty to Apprentices — Machine-breaking and Rick-buming 211 National Income, Expenditure, and Debt — Exports and Imports . . 212 Comparative Expansion of Agriculture and Manufactures — Works of Public Spirit and Utility 213 Adult Education 214 Philanthropists and Public Benefactors 215 Prosecutions for Irreligion and Blasphemy ...... 216 Artists, Men of Science — Perceptive Literati, Poets — Hall, Chambers, Irving, and Arnold 217 Religious Spirit of the Age 218 PERIOD THE THIRD— 1830 to 1850.

Chapter I

The Sailor King, William IV— the French Revolution of 1830 . . 219 Its Effect on England — the General Election — Death of Mr. Huskisson [Sept. 15] 222 Duke of Wellington's Anti-Refomi Declaration — Postponement of the Royal Visit to the City 223 Downfal of the Ministry — the Whig Cabinet 224 The Reform Eill — its Reception by Parliament and People . . . 225 The Hasty Dissolution— General Election of 1831 .... 226 Reform Bill re-introduced — Carried by the Commons, and thrown out by the Bishops ' . . . PAGE Public Excitement — Nottingham and Bristol Riots .... 228 Proclamation against the Unions 230 The Bill again carried through the Commons [1832] .... 230 Second Reading carried by the Lords 231 Union Meetings at Birmingham ..... 231 Defeat and Resignation of Ministers ...... 232 The Wellington and Lyndhurst Interregnum— Intense Excitement throughout the Three Kingdoms 233 The Reform Ministry recalled — the Peers give way .... 234 The Reform Act — What it was 235

Chapter II

What France gained by the Revolution of July 236 Belgium constituted an Independent Kingdom 236 Insurrections in Switzerland, Italy, and Germany .... 237 The Polish Struggle 238 The Sublime Porte and the Pasha of Egypt — the New King of Greece 239 Civil War in Portugal and Spain 240

Chapter III

The first Reformed Parliament [1833]— the Work that lay before it . 241 Lord Althorp, the Whig Financier 242 Ireland, O'Connell, and the Irish Church 243 The " Appropriation Clause " — Secession of Stanley and Graham — the Coercion Act — Earl Grey's Retirement [1834] .... 244 Lord Melbourne, Premier — the "Rathcormac Massacre" — Lord Brougham and Earl Durham — Ministers dismissed [1834] . . 246 What they had accomplished: Negro Emancipation; the New Poor Law; East India Company and Bank of England Charters ; Chancery Reform ; Educational Grant 246 In what they had failed : Religious Liberty, and Dissenters' Grievances 249 The Ballot — the Corn Laws — Military Flogging and Naval Imprisonment — Destruction of the Houses of Parliament by Fire [Oct. 16, 1834] — the Trades' Unions and the Dorchester Labourers . . 252

Chapter IV

Another Wellington Interregnum — Sir Robert Peel, Premier — his Colleagues 253 Letter to the Electors of Tamworth — General Election [1835] — the Opposition Majority 254 What Sir Robert Peel attempted, and how he was frustrated . . 255 His Speech on resigning Office [April 8th] 257 Recall of the Whigs— their Programme for the Session . . . 258 The Municipal Refoim Act CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF CONTENTS. PAGE Tithes in England and Ireland [1836]— Ecclesiastical Commission . 260 Finance : the Newspaper Stamp 261 The Radicals and the House of Lords — Exposure of the Great Orange Conspiracy [1836] . . 262 Church Rates — Mr. Spring Rice's Scheme for their Abolition — Alarm of the Church, and Defeat of the Project [1837] .... 263 Civil and Criminal Law Amendment — Irish Poor Law Bill . . . 264 Death of the King [June 20] — his Character with Statesmen and People 265

Chapter V

Accession of Queen Victoria — Her Education and Personal Popularity 266 Feebleness of the Whigs — General Election 266 Features in the Condition of the Three Kingdoms : Parliamentary Privilege — Ecclesiastical Controversies — Commercial Apprehensions — Chartism 267 Scottish Church Extension 268 The Irish Administration : National Schools ; Father Matthew . . 269 Canadian Discontents and Rebellion 269 Jamaica — the House of Assembly — the Planters, and the Imperial Government — Negro Emancipation 270 Europe — Louis Philippe and his Subjects 270 Civil War in Spain 271 Queen of Portugal and her Ministers — Danish Constitution — Prussia and the Zollverein — the Emperors and "Young Germany" — the Zillerthal Protestants — Independence of Cracow violated — Turkey and Circassia 272

Chapter VI

Canadian Insurrection — Lord Durham's Mission [1838] . . . 273 The Jamaica Legislation and the Home Government — Resignation of the Whigs [1839] 275 The Bedchamber Crisis — Sir Robert Peel's " Chief Difficulty " . . 270 Recall of the Whigs — their Surrender of the Appropriation Clause [1838] 276 Mad Thorn of Canterbury 277 Chartism in 1838 and '39 : National Convention — Monster Petition — Birmingham Riots — Arrests and Trials — Newport Insurrection . 278 Anti-Corn-Law League in 1839 and '40 281 Free Trade Budget and Dissolution of Parliament [1841] . . . 282 Turkey and Egypt — Storming of Jean d'Acre [Nov. 3, 1840] . . 282 War upon China — Invasion of Afghanistan 283 Miscellanea of the Parliament of 1837-41 — Penny Post [1839] — Marriage of the Queen [Feb. 10, 1S40]

Chapter VII. Page

General Election of 1841— Defeat of the Ministry ... 287 Richard Cobden's first Speech in Parliament ... 288 """""" ■_7ui-i_.t-i_.ii nrst, opeecn in l*"arnament 288 The Peel Ministry — the Premier's Reserve ... 289 4.__e j. eei mmisiry — me _7*remiers JKeserve 289 The Sliding Scale, New Tariff, and Income Tax [1842]— Good Harvest 260 Scene between the Premier and Mr. Cobden [1843]— Complaints in Parliament of the League 291 The League removes to London— Free-trade Elections . . . 292 The Tariff of 1845— the " Organized Hypocrisy " . . . . [ 293 Potato-rot and Bad Harvest— The Whigs declare for total Repeal- Ministerial Crisis yn^ Sir Robert Peel's last Budget [1846]— Debates and Divisions in Parliament 295 Revenge of the Protectionists— Sir Robert Peel's Farewell to Office . 296

Chapter VIII

Questions Contemporary with Free-trade : Chartism — its Imprisoned Leaders . . . . . . ... . 297 Complete Suffrage Union [1842]— Second National Petition . . 298 Disturbances in the Midland and Northern Counties — Rebecca and her Children 299 The Humanitarians in Parliament — " Young England " and Lord Ashley — Employment of women in Mines and Collieries — Factory Labour 300 Ecclesiastical Matters — the Intrusion Controversy in Scotland — Auchterarder and Strathbogie . . 301 Disruption of the Kirk [May 18, 1843] 3*02 The Dissenters and Government Education — Anti-state-church Conference — Endowment of Maynooth — Dissensions in the Church . 303 Ireland — the Repeal Agitation — the Monster Meetings . . . 304 Trial, Imprisonment, and Liberation of O'Connell [1843] . . . 305 " Young Ireland " — Conciliatory Measures 307 Miscellanea of the Peel Ministry — Election compromises [1842] . 307 Law of Copyright— Attempt to Stop Supplies [1844] — Post Office Espionage — Dissenters' Chapels Bill 308 Bank of England Charter — Admission of Jews to Municipal Offices — Railway Legislation — Misgovernment of the Colonies . . . 309 Disputes with France* — Visit of King of Prussia and Emperor of Russia— Settlement of the Oregon Difficulty [1846] . . .310 War upon China— Terms of Peace [1841] 310 Rajah Brooke — the Army in Afghanistan 311 Retreat from Cabul [Jan., 1842] 312 Lord Ellenborough and his Proclamations — Annexation of Scinde [1843]— Mahratta War 313 Invasions of British India by the Sheiks — Annexation of the Punjab . 314 A CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF CONTENTS.

Chapter IX. Page

The Years of Revolution and Reaction — Elements of Discontent in France— The Reform Banquets [1848] 315 February the 22nd, and following days 316 The Provisional Government 319 The Constituent Assembly — Cavaignac's Dictatorship — the Election of Louis Napoleon Bonaparte [December 6th] . . ' . . • 320 The Reforming Pontiff — Sicily and Naples — Revolution at Vienna and Berlin — Italian Independence — German Unity .... 321 English Chartists — the 10th of April — the Crown and Government Security Bill — Riots, Arrests, and Convictions .... 322 Irish Sedition and Rebellion 323 Massacre and Pillage in Naples — Flight of the Pope — Bombardment of Vienna — Dispersion of the Prussian Constituent — Abdication of the Emperor of Austria ........ 324 Overthrow of Charles Albert [March, 1849] — Dispersion of Frankfort Parliament — Fall of Rome — Invasion of Hungary by Russia — Gbrgey's Surrender 325 Progress of the Reaction to the end of 1850 ..... 326 Domestic Retrospect of the years 1846 to 1850 — Sugar Duties and Navigation Laws — Irish Famine ....... 326 Minutes of Council on Education ........ 327 General Election of 1847 — Jewish Disabilities — Bishopric of Hereford 328 The Bishop of Exeter, Mr. Shore, and Mr. Gorham — The Pope and the British Government ........ 329 Ten Hour's Bill passed — Poor Law Commission — Military Flogging — County Courts — Public Libraries and Museums^-People's Party : Mr. Hume's Resolution — Irish Franchise — The Cholera . . 330 Whig Finance — Budget of 1848 — Mr. Cobden's Budget — International Arbitration — Colonial Affairs — Convict Immigration resisted at the Cape — Australian Colonies Act— Lord Torrington, Sir H. Ward, and Rajah Brooke 331 Foreign Affairs : Protest against Suppression of Republic of Cracow — the Premier and the Foreign Secretary — Great Debate of June, 1850— Sir Robert Peel's last Speech 332 His Accident and Death [July 2nd] 333 Necrology of the Period 1830 to 1850 335

Chapter X

, The People in their Social Capacity, from 1830 to 1850 . . . 335 Population, Pauperism, Food, and Crime — Occupations of the People 336 Census of 1851 — Decline of Population in Ireland — Emigration . . 337 Public Income, Expenditure, and Debt — Exports and Imports . . 338 Growth of the Railway System— Mania of 1845 PAGE Steam Navigation, and Electric Telegraphs — Peace Congresses — Visit of French National Guards to London — Design of the Great Exhibition of 1851 339 Condition of England Question — Philosophers, Literati, and Poets . 340 Ameliorative Efforts — Socialism — New Relation of Religion to the People — Concluding Remarks and Prediction .... 341 Supplementary Chapter 345 Appendix — Tabular and Chronological List of the principal Officers of State, from 1800 to 1853 HISTORY OF THE HALF CENTURY.

P EOEM. "We have reached the meridian of the nineteenth century. It is time, therefore, that we review its course, and estimate its character. Its several epochs have already and frequently been made the subject of survey and reflection — the entire period now invites and demands thoughtful retrospect. The progress of events, it is true, as little accommodates itself to as it is determined by our artificial chronologies. As " the horologe of nature has no bell on which to strike the entrance and the exit of its periods," so are human affairs very independent of almanacks. The cycles of civilization do not correspond with the great celestial circles — nor do the stages of a nation's career lie parallel with the lesser of the planetary revo lutions. Yet is it customary and useful to pursue the researches and speculations suggested by the recurrence of natural eras.

To say that the interval now completed is eventful beyond any that have preceded it, is scarcely more, perhaps, than has been said by the men of every similar lapse of time. " Oh century out half elapsed," exclaims Jules Janin, " yet reckoning the events of a thousand years !" But contemporaneous judgment is seldom just. The actors or immediate spectators of events are too excited by not to exaggerate them. With this caution, we may nevertheless challenge for the times which have just passed over us, com parison with any former, within the history of our country or of modern Europe, for interest and influence. Other ages have witnessed events of as striking and important a character — as, for example, those of the Crusades, or of the Reformation — but not such a combination, or consentaneous action, of all the social forces ; of individual character and public opinion — the vicissitudes of war and the victories of peace.

An ancient and powerful dynasty suddenly overturned — a republic rising on its ruins, repelling its foes, changing into a mighty military despotism — that, again, shattered by a league of outraged nationalities ; led on by monarchs who, from the assailants of liberty, had involuntarily come to be its unworthy and insincere defenders — the gigantic efforts of one people, in particular, successively, in PR0EJ1. both of those opposite relations— the rapid development of latent powers under the genial influence of general peace ; the augmentation of wealth, the spread of education, the heightened lustre of literature, the achieve ments of science and art, the energy of re-awakened religion, the triumphs of philanthropy — the growth of colonies — the emancipation of conscience from the heaviest and most galling of its fetters, the large concession of political power to popular claims, and the legislative recognition of the natural principles of commercial intercourse — the continued prosecution of these great achievements to their ultimatum, yet in the future — the sudden confusion of all calculations, and the precipitation of results the most hoped for and the most dreaded, by the bursting forth anew of that volcano which sixty years before had rained on the surrounding nations the heated, quickened seeds of hasty change, and now with even wider range — these are the varied phenomena of the region on which we can now look back : to arrange and theorize upon them may be a presumptuous, but cannot be an ill-timed nor an unattractive task.

An additional, though somewhat melancholy, appropriateness is given to our undertaking, by the rapidity with which the celebrities of the period I propose to review are passing away from us. The patriarchs of the poetry and criticism of the nineteenth century have sunk under the weight of reverend years. Jeffrey and Sidney Smith, Southey and Wordsworth — those brilliant lights that sat like tongues of flame on Arthur's Seat, or shone with a milder lustre over Windermere — have gone out one by one. The grey masters of the senate and the forum — the foremost wrestlers in the great struggle of parties which seems now to have paused — have fallen, almost side by side, under the hand of a common conqueror, and within our sight. Grey, Melbourne, O'Connell, Peel — they who had grown into manhood, and given promise of future eminence, while the century was yet in its adolescence — are now no more ; and invite us from their loftier seats to inform ourselves of their career, and forecast the decision of posterity upon the parts they played.