Italy in the Nineteenth Century, contrasted with its past condition

Front matter

J KrsictzLnge.r pinz: 6'. freeman, sc ]LIS(Q)P-<a)ILILy III TC. EMPKROE. OF AUSTRIA . ITALY IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY, CONTRASTED WITH ITS PAST CONDITION. BY JAMES WHITESIDE, ESQ., A.M., M.R.I.A., ONE OF HER MAJESTY'S COUNSEL. IN THREE VOLUMES. VOL. I. LONDON: RICHARD BENTLEY, NEW BURLINGTON STREET; _guoI.i.I)tr in ©roinarg to filer JJMajesitg. 1848. LONDON : Prir.ted by S. & J. Bentley, Wilson, and Fley, Bangor House, Shoe Lane. DEDICATION. My dear Brother, I dedicate these pages to you, knowing that to few will they prove more acceptable. A portion of the matter contained in them was originally addressed to yourself during my residence in Italy in search of health. I ought to add, I am indebted to you for some kind assistance in looking up the classical references of Canina, in his Book on Ancient Rome, — an agreeable occupation we found it during the autumn of last year, for it reminded us of happy days spent together in our native University. Your affectionate brother. JAMES WHITESIDE. Mountjoy Square, Dublin, July, 1848.

Preface

. I venture with some hesitation to submit these Volumes to the public. So much has been printed of late concerning Italy, that a new book may be regarded as superfluous. But those who travel are apt to consider governments and political systems according to their profession, education, and the past habits of their lives, and thus may treat even the same subject, and observe facts, differently from each other. Two years were passed by me in Italy, namely, the last year ofthe reign of Pope Gregory, and the first of Pope Pius — periods of extraordinary interest. Accus tomed to active professional exertion, I did not wish, although impaired in health, to spend so long a period of life unprofitably, and therefore, "occupied myself in collecting, from time to time, the matter now pub lished. Some subjects of importance, I remarked, had been passed over lightly by most travellers, namely, the codes of law, the judicial system, agriculture, benevolent insti tutions, the administration of justice, morals, politics, and history of Italy, while minute descriptions were given of palaces and pictures.

Having, in repeated visits to Tuscany, been delighted with its flourishing agriculture and apparent civilization, I conceived that a few chapters might be drawn up useful, if not entertain- VI

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. ing, to the reader, illustrative of the past and present condition, history, and institutions of that favoured king dom. One of these Volumes is almost wholly occupied with Tuscany. In the first chapter I have contrasted the passes into Italy in the hope of affording some assistance to the invalid or tourist, in fixing the order of their route. The incidents of Italian travel have been described with a view also of making a comparison. I have put into a single chapter the experience of several journeys over the Alps, performed at different seasons of the year. The reader will excuse the allusions occasionally made to Ireland, my native country, w ich I dearly love ; perhaps they were more applicable when written than at present, but unfortunately they are too applicable still. My remarks being kindly meant, happy should I be, did they produce even the smallest beneficial result.

The chapter on the Fine Arts, is not intended to describe painters or pictures, but to remind the reader of the causes which have at certain periods in their history led a people to excel in these arts — of the principles by which that excellence has been obtained. The mistaken notion, so prevalent, that the Art-Unions of our day will raise art to a pitch of unequalled glory, had some influence in inducing me to draw up this chapter. I have next touched on the habits, condition, and judicial tribunals of the Florentine people. The chapter on the Agriculture of Tuscany is in tended to exhibit the effects produced by a system of tenure, so opposite to our own. The mode by which land is held in these countries, is becoming daily more interesting, and especially in reference to Ireland. For the tables of the division of landed property in Tuscany, I am indebted to Von Raumer. What the

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. VII condition of literature was in Florence, and what liberty of printing formerly existed, are briefly detailed. The chapters relating to Religious Toleration on the Continent, and especially in Tuscany, follow. To enable the reader to comprehend the state of religious knowledge in Italy, I have faithfully translated the greater part of a tract published by authority in Flo rence, in the truth of which, I was assured, many, including some most distinguished in rank, believed. I have next given a compressed account of the benevolent institutions of Tuscany, taken wholly from the Italian. Some of these institutions humane men desire to introduce into England, to others of them might perhaps be traced much of the crime, immorality, and unhappiness existing in Italian society. An apology seems due for touching on the subject of Florentine history.

The reason I did so was simply this. In common with other travellers, I read with in terest Mr. Roscoe's "Biography of Lorenzo d1 Medicis." As a piece of literary criticism, it is not only entertaining, but most instructive ; but, when compared with other authorities, and indeed with the truth of history, it appeared to me that Mr. Roscoe's view of the political character of Lorenzo the Magnificent was not only mistaken but mischievous. I therefore at tempted a brief sketch of the Medici, and of Flo rentine history: it is not intended as a substitute for serious historical reading, but many who may not have time or inclination for a larger work, may per haps amuse a leisure hour with a lighter sketch. It was not my wish to encumber these pages with refer ences ; I have not therefore done so, although in writing even this sketch I had occasion to refer to a number of authorities. The style may be censured,

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. VIII but my object was to entertain. The history of the Medici is as interesting " as a fairy tale." Having traced this extraordinary family from their rise to their extinction, it remained to show the miserable condition in which these patrons of the fine arts left their country. A more agreeable task I found it to describe how Tuscany was raised to its present prosperous condition ; that was to be learned in the history of Leopold the Reformer. I do not believe any biography of this great man has been published in the English language : if there be any such, I have never seen it. The history of his life has become scarce even in Italy, and in some countries was proscribed. I have given a sufficiently full, although compressed, account of the life of Leopold, which must be read with astonishment ; the narrative is derived wholly from the Italian.

It occurred to me, that the his tory of Leopold contained much that might be useful and instructive, as well to Englishmen as to Italians at the present day. The celebrated code of Tuscany, framed by the great Leopold, its practical operation, and the amount of crime which exists thereunder in Tuscany, seemed fitly to succeed the narrative of the reformer's life. These chapters are succeeded by one on " recent events," which completes the picture I have endeavoured to give of Tuscany. The Second Volume begins with a comparison of the routes from Florence to Rome, and I have described truly my feelings during an early residence in that celebrated capital. The method I meant to adopt was first to examine topographically Ancient Rome. Having myself made use of the Cavaliere Canina's topographical book for the Ancient City, and find ing a general agreement as to its usefulness and

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. IX accuracy, I had it translated while in Rome, and have since corrected the references to the classics, added some notes, and expanded others — an humble task, but which delayed the publication of these Volumes. Ca nina replaces all the chief buildings of Ancient Rome in their appropriate region : his descriptions are not prolix, and are admitted to be generally accurate. I have placed Canina's topography, illustrated by a map, in a separate Volume, for the convenience of travellers ; subjoining two chapters on the street architecture of Rome, and the vicissitudes of the City. Occasional references are made to that separate Volume, in my description of Modern Rome. With respect to the Modern City, I have attempted, in a series of morning walks, to conduct the reader over Rome, inverting the order generally pursued in guide books, and describing the city in districts, the mode in which ultimately the visitor must examine them.

I have not confined myself to a dry detail of ceremo nies, or description of buildings, but have expressed freely what I saw and felt, or what was passing around me. In describing my visit to the Barberini palace and the celebrated picture by Guido of Beatrice Cenci, I have given a translation of her affecting history. My reason for so doing was, that not only Shelley, in the preface to his tragedy, but all modern writers who have referred to the subject, have asserted that no narrative of the life of Beatrice Cenci was ever published in Italy. This is a mistake : I procured the printed biography, and, I believe, for the first time, the exact history of Beatrice Cenci now appears in an English dress. I have added a chapter on the incidents of a Roman winter, meant to convey some idea of what Rome was during the last winter of Pope Gregory's reign, and the a X

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. Second Volume is concluded by a compressed but accurate translation of the celebrated political essay by II Marchese Massimo Azeglio, which produced so deep an impression throughout Italy, and of which scarcely any notice has been taken in England. It has all the value of history, and is worthy of preservation. In con sidering the events now occurring in Italy, it is of the utmost consequence to comprehend accurately the political and social condition of the Papal States, shortly before the accession of Pius IX. This is shewn by what Massimo Azeglio has written. Honorable men (Italians), in Rome, assured me that his statements fell short of the truth. Understanding the amount of in justice and tyranny which existed in Rome up to the hour of the accession of Pope Pius, we can easily ascribe the effects which have since ensued to their proper cause.

Every other government in the Penin sula could have maintained itself; Tuscany was flou rishing, and had an excellent system of law ; Austrian Italy, stripped of political liberty, was ruled with high administrative ability, and Lombardy was prosperous ; Sardinia had a good code of laws, and although the King was disliked, yet his government was conducted with ability ; even Naples could have stood, although no doubt in matters of administration far below the States enumerated ; but Rome had reached such a pitch of corruption, that to remain in the condition in which Pope Gregory left her was a thing impossible. Hence, to Rome and her government must be traced all the present confusion of the Peninsula, and a know ledge of that deplorable condition, will help to the right comprehension of the character and actions of the present Pope. The Third Volume is occupied with the route to

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. Naples ; some account of that city and the beautiful environs, in a series of excursions, are described. The disclosures I have made, relative to the admi nistration of justice, the church, religion, and morals, are given on authority not capable of exaggeration or falsehood. For the tables of crime, and some other matters, I am indebted to the work on Italy by Professor Mit termaer, of Heidelberg, translated into Italian, and greatly commended for its impartiality. He travelled recently through Italy. The autumn of 1846 was spent by me in Genoa, during the meeting of the Scientific Congress. I have given some account of the proceedings of what I regarded as a political confederacy, and also of the opinions of the literary men in Italy, including Manzoni, whose writings have produced the greatest effect upon the public mind of the present day.

For the poetic translation of Manzonfs odes, I am indebted to the Rev. Charles Girdlestone, rector of Kingswinford, my fellow-traveller through a portion of Italy, and to Dr. Anster, already known by his masterly translation of Faustus. The winter, 1846-7, was passed in Rome, revolutionized under Pope Pius. I have drawn the character of Pius IX. as I understand it : my view is, that the Pope, when he ascended the throne, did not mean to be a great political reformer, and had not the remotest intention of granting a free constitution to his subjects, but that what he has done has been through the force of circumstances. This opinion I have endeavoured to prove, by the facts which have occurred. In his ecclesiastical capacity, I believe Pius IX. to be every inch a Pope.

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. XII In touching upon religious matters, I disclaim, utterly, all sectarian or party spirit, still less would I desire to excite the least animosity against my Roman Catholic countrymen, from whom I have all my life received marks of confidence and kindness : when all men are on terms of political equality, a religious discussion ought to be conducted without aspe rity. They will recollect that a bold attack has been made on the principle of the Reformation, by a learned body of Oxford divines, who, both in England, and in Rome during my residence, assailed the Church of England and the Reformation, and insisted on the superior purity of the Church of Rome. I heard a priest, preaching before Pius and the Sacred College, pronounce an eulogium (deserved, I admit) on these gentlemen of Oxford, for their services to the Church of Rome.

It made a deep impression on my mind. I acknowledge the right of all men to think for them selves on the vital subject of religion ; the Tractarians of Oxford, or many of them, apostatized openly to the Church of Rome, and no one would deny it was their privilege to do so. Backed by a zealous priesthood, they unsparingly attack the principle of the Reforma tion, and insist that we Protestants, one and all, should return to the bosom of the Infallible Church. I have not the least objection to their reasoning on this im portant subject, and, if the matter be submitted to the test of reason, nothing more can be desired. The same right which the priests and men of Oxford have to charge Protestants with schism, Protestants have to examine closely what the Church of Rome is at the pre sent day, and consider whether it be most consistent with Apostolic purity. If it be, I admit that we Protestants are in error, and should retrace our steps. The effect

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. XIII of my residence in Rome has been, I must frankly admit, to confirm me more strongly than ever in the Protestant faith ; and I think if my educated Roman Catholic countrymen would apply to this great question the same reasoning powers which distinguish them in every walk of life, they would discover abundant reason, were it only on the great principle of religious toleration, to justify a resolute dissent from the Papal system. I have not searched back into musty books of divinity to rake up accusations against Rome, but merely recorded what any resident in Italy may observe — things are not consistent (according to the light of my understanding) with reason or the Scriptures. I had written these observations when the " Quarterly Review," just published, reached my hands. It contains an ably written article on the ' Revolutions in Italy.1 In the strictures passed on the character of Charles Albert of Sardinia, I entirely agree ; his conduct has been marked by perfidy.

I also agree that the Court of Vienna was right, in asserting that a plan was early formed for the expulsion of the Austrians from Lom bardy. The political paper, translated in the Third Volume, on that subject, was given to me in Rome, a few months after the accession of Pius IX ; and that the Austrians would be attacked at the first opportunity, was commonly believed by well-informed per sons. That a British minister should not have heard what was generally asserted and believed, seems very strange. That the Roman people should, in common with the inhabitants of Lombardy and Tuscany, desire to expel the Austrians, was natural ; they put it on the ground of self-defence. The Roman people say, we know by sad experience that the Austrians are ever ready

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. to help the Pope with an army, to crush us in our efforts for liberty ; and, no doubt, in this assertion they are right. No honest man of the liberal party (Azeglio, for example,) ever denied the liberty, prudence, integrity, and impartiality with which the ad ministration of Lombardy was conducted under Prince Metternich ; the aspect of the country and condition ofthe people shewed this, whilst the comfort and cleanliness of Verona, Milan, Brescia, and Venice, proved the aptitude of the governor for matters of detail, of police and of administration. But Austria abhorred political liberty, and would not yield it, and therefore she has fallen ; and if political liberty be a blessing, which no Englishman can dispute, the Italians are justified in struggling to obtain it. The reviewer in the " Quar terly" is severe in his censures on the Italian press ; I have not seen the journals for the last few months, but I read " II Contemporaneo di Roma" for a considerable period after it was established, and it was then conducted with ability and moderation ; there was, no doubt, at that time, a censorship existing.

The reviewer condemns the creation of national guards, as a rash measure ; no doubt under ordinary circumstances, in a well-regulated State, the condemna tion would be just ; but we should listen to the inhabitants of Rome or Naples before we unhesitat ingly condemn them for desiring the formation of a National Militia. They say we have no confidence in our rulers, who are sustained by regiments of Swiss mercenaries, and backed by the power of Austria ; unless we get arms in our hands, we feel we have no security for what we have acquired ; and I confess, for the present, I think the Italians are right; they best under stand their own position.

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. XV What the reviewer has remarked of the profession of the law in Italy is true, but my belief is, there are many highly educated and honourable men at the bar in Tuscany, Rome, and Naples ; and as to their capacity, the framers of the criminal codes of Sardinia, Tuscany, and even Naples, may bear comparison with the generality of lawyers in England. The scope of this article in the " Quarterly," is to prove the unfitness of the Italian people generally for rational liberty. While I admit there is justice in the observation so far as regards the populace of Naples, I dissent from the opinion, if I have rightly collected it, so far as it relates to the men in business and middle classes generally, throughout Italy. I believe them to be competent to enjoy freedom, and further, that they are resolved to have it.

I cannot agree with the reviewer, that to Pius IX. all the complicated evil existing throughout the Penin sula is owing. I think it is to the mass of cor ruption and abuse accumulated under the Papal government before the election of Pius IX, that the present confusion must be ascribed. Pope Pius could not help doing what he has done ; he could no longer uphold the iniquitous rule of his predecessor, nor sus tain the Jesuits ; and I confess I do not see what an Englishman and a Protestant has to regret in the down fal of either, or both. My amazement is, how such an absurd system as the Papacy has so long continued, and I have no doubt but for the power of Austria it would, by the indignant sense of the Roman people, have been long since thoroughly reformed. It is per fectly true that the rabble of Naples, popularly called lazzaroni, (in which I include the half naked men crowding the harbour, and the mole, and the streets,)

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. XVI are in favour of their king, and that the middle classes in Naples place no confidence in either, — and in this I think the respectable people are perfectly right. I believe the sovereign of Naples to be a bigot and a tyrant, his past government to have been corrupt, and, I fear, his promises are as little to be relied on as the oath of his father. The reviewer asserts that the existing population of Naples is less ignorant and ferocious than that of Rome or Milan. I think the generality of travellers are of a contrary opinion ; and, if I might venture to give my experience, it would be, that the people of Rome are incomparably superior to the same class in Naples. I was present at many of the crowded processions in honour of Pius, and neither at any of these multitudinous assemblies, nor during the carnival, nor during a residence of many months, could I detect any traces of ferocity, or even ill-humour, in the behaviour of the people.

I am disposed to agree with the Count De Tournon, (Napoleon's Preset in Rome, whose book I have frequently quoted,) that the vices of the Roman people were to be ascribed to their government, and the abominable system of the administration of justice under which they suffered. I cannot believe the possession of liberty calculated to degrade a people, while I heartily subscribe to the remark of the reviewer, " that a national constitution worthy of the name can never be the sudden achieve ment of a riotous populace — it must be the result of calm reflection." One gloomy anticipation of the reviewer, I trust, may not be verified, viz., that the agreeable intercourse heretofore maintained between the English and the Italians seems drawing to a close. I trust this is not likely to occur. According to

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. XVII my experience, the Italians respected the English and admired their virtue, and looked anxiously for their countenance and support ; and surely all who have re sided in Italy must admit that the courtesy of the people is constant and universal. I never met with a single instance of momentary incivility throughout Italy, nor have I discovered in their popular successes any in stances of cruelty or ferocity : they are unlike the sanguinary French, because the Italians have religious faith. All Englishmen, and none, I am confident, more heartily than the able writer in the " Quarterly," will concur in the hope that the Italians may work out a free constitution, and, when obtained, may enjoy the blessing with tranquillity and moderation. Dublin, July 15, 1848. PAGE 1 CONTENTS OF THE FIRST VOLUME.

Chapter I

Travel and its Uses. — Continental Tourists. — Family Travelling. — The Invalid and the Physician. — Classes of Invalids who travel. — Suggestions to the Tourist for Health. — Residence to be selected. — Voyages on the Mediterranean. — Incidents at Sea. — Journey to Italy by Land. — A Word on the Spas of Germany and the Rhine. — The Vale of Schlangenbad, and the Schoolmaster. — The Alpine Passes contrasted. — Which Route to be preferred. — By the Simplon, Splugen, or Mont Cenis. — Sir J. Mackintosh on the Scenery of Lucerne. — The St. Gothard described. — The Pass of the Brenner. — Route between Munich and Florence. — The Tyrol. — Aspect and Character of the People. — Innspruck. — Religious Procession. — The Tyrolese Physician. — Trent and its Council. — Verona and its Associations. — Mantua. — Virgil and Hofer. — Modena and the Apennines. — Inundations and Earthquakes of Italy. — A national Calamity, how mitigated in Tuscany. — Concluding Observations on Ireland. .

Chapter II. Tuscany

Anticipations of Rome. — Florence and its Cascine. — The Arno. — Papal Rebels. — Catholic Inconsistencies. — Climate in Winter. — Florence in Spring. — Aspect of People. — Pomp- XX CONTENTS. PAGE CO 93 101 ous Titles of Salutation — their Origin in Degeneracy of Modern Italy.— The Galleries of Art.— Classic Statuary — Canova and Napoleon. — The Collections in Florence. — Work of past Ages. — Reflections. — The Fine Arts, so called.— Architecture, Sculpture, Painting, Poetry, and Oratory con sidered and distinguished. — Union of Sculpture with Archi tecture.—Examples of, in Florence. — John Bell's Criticism. — Michael Angelo.— Santa Croce and its Monuments. — Causes of Excellence of Grecian and Florentine Art. — Causes of Decline.— Do Art- Unions and Engravings foster Art or Artists ?...•■•

Chapter III. Tuscany

Foreigners in Florence. — Effect of their Residence on the People. — Azeglio's Opinion. — Reflections. — Real Condition of Florentine People, and their Sources of Industry investigated. — Classification of Inhabitants. — No Middle Class. — Mode of Living, of Burial, and Amusements of the People. — Madame de Stael's Description of the Florentines.

Chapter IV. Tuscany

Domestic Servants in Italy. — Murray's Hand-book. — Law of Evidence. — Written Contracts and Administration of Civil Justice in Tuscany. — Practical Result. — Character of, and Dealings with the People. — Tribunals of Justice described. — Salaries of the Judges. — Reflections.

Chapter V. The Agriculture Of Tuscany

The Tenure of Land. — Mode of Farming.— Relation be tween Landlord and Tenant in Tuscany. — Agriculture of Italy CONTENTS. XXI PAGE in the Middle Ages' — its Condition at the present Day. — Tables of the Division of Landed Property in Tuscany — also of its Produce. — Comparison between the Agriculture of Germany, England, and France. — Opinions of Von Raumer and other Writers on the Tuscan System of Mezzadria. — Its Value considered — its Application to England or Ireland. — Suggestions in Reference to the last mentioned Country. . 113

Chapter VI. Tuscany

The Political Liberty, and Freedom of the Press in Flo rence. — The Condition of Literature. — Under what Disabi lities it labours in Italy. .... 132

Chapter VII

A Journey from Oxford to Rome in Safety. — Aspect of Religion in France. — Belgium. — Prussia. — Bavaria. — Ger many. — The great Roman Catholic Sects. — Are the Oxford Tractarians right, and was the Reformation wrong? — A Help to the Decision of that Question. — The Aspect of Religion in Italy. — Sardinia, Lombardy, and Tuscany contrasted. — The Miracles. — A practical Method of defending the Refor mation, by a Layman. . . . . . . 136

Chapter VIII

A TRACT FOR THE TIMES. Religious Education of the People. — How the Relics of a Saint are discovered and extracted from the Catacombs in Rome — in what Manner disposed of. — Narrative of Miracles worked by St. Filomena — her History. — The Veneration of this Saint spreads through Tuscany. — Reflections on the Effect of Credulity upon the Character of a People . .151 CONTENTS. XXII PAGE 173 182

Chapter IX. Tuscany

The Priests and the Monks. — Church Establishment. — English Chapel in Florence. — Leghorn.— Greek Church, and Jewish Synagogue. — Sufferance not Toleration. — The Principle of the Tuscan Government intolerant. — Pisa and Mrs. Trollope. — Suggestion to Englishwomen in Italy.

Part I

Prefatory Observations. — Turchetti's Essay. — No History as yet written of Benevolent Institutions of Tuscany — its Value. — Reflections on the proper Application of charitable Aid in Relief of the Miseries of the People. — The Author's Division of his Subject. — Charitable Institutions described with occasional Remarks. — Questions of Political Economy touched on. — Discovery of Causes of Italian Immorality. — A clear Insight into Italian Life and Morals. — Protestantism arraigned. — Bowling's Views noticed. — Fearful Results of Foundling Hospitals proved by Tables of Mortality. — Re flections. — Picture of an Austrian Hospital for masked Women. — Morality of Vienna. — Evils which poison do mestic Happiness in Italy, and encourage Crime, traced to their Source. ...... BENEVOLENT INSTITUTIONS OF TUSCANY.

Part II

The Bigallo, and other Orphan Asylums described. — In stitutions for the Reception of misguided Women. — Preven tion of Mendicancy in Florence. — The Beggars of Tuscany CONTENTS. XXIII PAGE and their Habits. — French System of Poor-house Discipline. — Night-houses of Florence. — No Asylum for the Blind in Tuscany. — Systems of Mendicancy in Pisa. — The Monte di Pieta. — Banks. — Tables of Results. — Observations on their Utility. — Sanatory Institutions. — Hospital Accommo dation. — Baths for the Poor. — Mortality of one-fifth in the largest Hospital of Tuscany. — Moral Treatment of the In sane. — The Brethren of the Misericordia — their Origin, History, and Offices. — Excellent Remarks of John Bell on this Order. — Deaf and Dumb Institutions, interesting Ex periment. ....... 195

Chapter XI

A SKETCH OF FLORENTINE HISTORY AND OF THE MEDICI. Early History of Florence. — Internal Divisions. — Guelph and Ghibelline. — Administration of Justice. — Florentine Love of Splendour and Democracy. — Sufferings from Dissen tion. — Constitution of Magistracy. — Invention of Balance of Power. — Rise and Fall of Gualtier de Brienne. — The Family of the Medici — their Origin and Influence. — Cosmo's Rule — his Policy — his Death. — Lucas Pitti and Pietro de Medici. — Lorenzo the Magnificent, and his Biographer. . .217

Chapter XII. Lorenzo The Magnificent

Era of Conspiracy. — Lorenzo's mercantile Policy.— The Pazzi. — Nice Reasonings on Murder. — Hanging of an Arch bishop. — Lorenzo's Magnificence. — Pope Sixtus IV. — Pope Innocent and his Offspring. — Lorenzo's Institution of a Per manent Senate. — Leisure Occupations. — Private Tastes of Lorenzo. — His Son the Cardinal. — Savonarola the Monk — Savonarola at Lorenzo's Death-bed. — Character of Lorenzo. ■Mr. Roscoe's erroneous Views. .... CONTENTS. PAGE 271