Travels in Arabia

Front matter

'■ij* *laffhc-L__lk"«__)t_M.<^i-..-»_ & T___,3__2__ ___,"*£* 1ISJ _£_5R.__-.:B __..___. „ ®1C_S_.S» . L utiJ-qd-, J M_i 1 1 ay A__bt_a_l___l TRAVELS IN ARABIA; B\ LIEUT. J. R. WELLSTED, F.R.S. WDUtV NAVY. IN TWO VOLUMES. Vol. I. OMAN and NAKAB EL HAJAR. LONDON: JOHN MURRAY, ALBEMARLE-STREET. mdcccxxxviii LONDON: Printed by William Clow ed and Son**, Stamford Street TO HER MOST EXCELLENT MAJESTY THE QUEEN, THESE "TRAVELS IN ARABIA" ARE, WITH HER GRACIOUS PERMISSION, VEH.Y HUMBLY AND RESPECTFULLY DEDICATED BY HER MAJ ESTY'S FAITHFUL SUBJECT AND SEHVANT, THE AUTHOR. Dec. 1837.

Introduction

. With the exception of that portion relating to the peninsula of Sinai, the following volumes contain the Author's researches in parts of Arabia hitherto imperfectly or wholly unknown to Euro peans. They may, therefore, derive a value from these considerations to which it is very certain they would otherwise have no claim. In the personal narrative he has endeavoured to convey to the reader the impressions produced on his mind at the moment of each particular occurrence. As to the rest, it was compiled from copious notes collected at various intervals. Many of the facts herein stated have never pre viously been made known to an European public, and it is on this ground of novelty alone that the Author diffidently hopes his researches may prove interesting to the philosopher and the naturalist, as well as those more immediately engaged in geographical pursuits. The vindication of Bruce's reputation, being

INTRODUCTION.

. VI founded on self-evident facts, can scarcely be impugned. Such readers, however, as feel in terested in the question, — and in this number the Author flatters himself the great majority are included, — will be gratified to know that one — by no means the least virulent of his detractors — did an act of tardy justice to the reputation he once actively laboured to destroy*. It remains but to acknowledge the assist ance derived from others towards the comple tion of this work. The Author's thanks are especially due to John Arrowsmith, Esq., to whose knowledge, skill, and industry, so many travellers have already recorded their deep obligations, for constructing and engraving the * The following communication from Captain W. H. Smyth, R.N., V.P.R.S., to the Author, is here alluded to:—" It may strengthen your conviction of the substantial claims of Bruce to the applause of his country, when I tell you that Mr. Salt admitted to me that he (Salt) had drawn his conclusions too hastily, and from preconceived impressions.

The late Dr. Gillies, the his torian of Greece, who criticized Bruce so severely in the Monthly Revieiv, also assured me that he afterwards altered his opinions entirely in favour of him. Indeed, those who have made journeys in the present day can readily estimate what must have been his courage, address, and perseverance, to have accomplished so much at that time ; — and when I first visited Algiers and Bengazi, he was not entirely forgotten. " It is curious that Dr. Gillies married the sister of the enter prising Captain Beaver, who, in his ' African Memoranda,' renders due tribute to the merits of Bruce, and emphatically styles him ' the Prince of Travellers.' "

INTRODUCTION.

. VII maps with which it is illustrated ; to the Rev. J. Reynolds, Secretary to the Oriental Com mittee, for the translation of a valuable manu script relative to the religion of Oman ; to Lieut. H. A. Ormsby, I.N., whose intimate acquaintance with Bedowin habits and customs has aided him considerably in his account of that interesting people ; to Captain R. Moresby, the author of the admirable Charts of the Red Sea and Coast of Arabia, which have excited the admiration of many learned societies in Europe; and to his esteemed and respected friend Ad miral Sir Charles Malcolm, to whose personal regard, as well as to his enthusiastic zeal for the extension of geographical science, the Author was indebted for facilities which mainly contributed to the satisfactory issue of his long and arduous undertaking.

In the map of Oman, the routes of Lieut. Whitelock are added to his own ; he accom panied the Author over the greater part of the province : and, after he left, succeeded in passing from Schinas to Sharja. For the drawing of the Bisharyan Camel, which embellishes this volume, the Author is indebted to J. Bonomi, Esq., introduction. who was kind enough to allow it to be taken from a model in his possession. For the more complete illustration of the text, he has availed himself of several notes by the Rev. G. C. Renouard, which were attached to papers inserted in the Journal of the Royal Geo graphical Society. The mode of spelling Arabic proper names, adopted throughout, is also that advocated by the same gentleman* who has reduced Oriental orthography to a fixed standard, as far as those papers are concerned.

Each letter has invariably its corresponding equivalent. The consonants are sounded as in English ; the vowels as in Italian ; the accents mark lonp* vowels, and an apostrophe ['] the letter 'ain. Gh and hh are strong gutturals ; the former often resembling the Northumbrian r, the latter the Welsh and Gaelic ch. A, e, i, o, are to be respectively pronounced as in far, there, ravine, and cold ; u as in rude, or oo in fool • ei as ey in they ; ou as ow in fowl ; ai as i in thin ; ch as in child. * Vol. vi. p. 51. CONTENTS OF VOLUME I. Page Arabia- — Its aspect — Burckhardt . . .1 Unexplored districts — Author engaged in Surveying Expedition . . . . .2 Oman, preparations for a journey into— Official letters 3 Arrival at Maskat— Audience with his Highness the Imam — Interesting conversation . . . . 4 Proposed route — Sayyid S'aid's magnificent present ; 5 Personal appearance . . . .6 -..Attachment to Europeans — Enlightened character — Descent — Imamship . . . . 7, 8, 9 Description of Maskat . 10 — 13 Maskat— Inhabitants . . . . 15 Trade — Marriages . ' . .

IS 4 Manufactory of arms — Personal appearance . .17 Banians — Oriental bankrupts . . . 19 Cows, adoration of . . '20 Jews . . . . .21 Population, &c. . . . . 22 Coffee, pearls, &c. . . ... 24 Dates — Arrack ... .25 Visit to hot springs— Matarah . . 26 View of Maskat from the harbour — Excessive heat — Glassy surface of sea — Laughing gull . . . .27 The Bagala and her crew .... 28 Music and dancing . . - • .29 Magnificent scene — Echo . ... 30 Bay of Matarah . . ■ 31 Town — Inhabitants . . • • .32 Bedowin caravan— appearance of . . 33 vol. i. " contents.

X Vuge Night encampment . . • .35 Arrive at springs . . . . '", Medicinal properties . . . • .37 Burka — Fruits, &c. — Beni Wahib— heat . 38 Depart for Sur— Insalubrity of Maskat . • 40 Devil's Gap — Arab manners — Kilhat . . 41 Ancient coins — Breakfast with Sheikh of Sur . . 42 Houses — Bazar — Market ... 43 Cultivation— Trade . . . . .44 Visit to the mountains . . . • 45 Kilhat— Fullah— Arab shepherds . . 46 Anecdote of Arab girls . . . .47 Letter from Sayyid S'aid . . 48 Babel Rufsur— Watch-dogs .... 50 Feuds — Beni Abu Hasan tribe . . 51, 5*2 Interview with Sheik — Attempts to discourage the author from proceeding . . . . 53 Beni-Abu-' Ali— Origin .... 54 "'Sayyid S'aid's ineffectual efforts to subdue them — Disastrous expedition of Captain Thompson . . 55 - Massacre of the British .... 56 Gallantry of Imam — Expedition from Bombay . . 57 Fortitude of Women — Final defeat " . . 58 Author's reception at their encampment — Respect for British name— Hospitality . . . . 59 Oblivion of the past . . . .60 Anecdotes .... 61 — 63 Tombs of vanquished . . . .64 British and Bedowin soldier • ■ . 65 Sooltan — Sheikh's wife . . .66 Speech of Bedowin ladies — Admiration of the English 67 Feast — War dance . . . .69 Camel race— Geneba chief — Visit to bis tribe 7 1 Anecdote — Appearance of my companion . 72 Love of song— Musical instruments— Story-telling . 74 Leap-frog — Intense cold . . .75 Singular substitute for a canoe . .

CONTENTS. XI r.ige Climate . . . . .SI Bedowin Foray .... 83 Departure from Beni-Abu-'Ali — Anecdote . . 84 Prospect — Inroads of sand ; how arrested . . 87 Melancholy fate of Bedowin family . . .88 Water in Oman — Water-skins . . 89 Bediah . . . . .91 Subterraneous canals ... 92 Magnificent trees — Fruit — Fertility ... 94 Medical patients — Anecdote . . . .96 Encamp at Ibrah . . . . 98 Presents — Description of town — Market . . 99 Inquisitiveness of Bedowin ladies . . . 101 Sagacity of the camel— Climate of Oman . . . 105 Gum Arabic . . . • 106 Laughable anecdote of cameldrivers . . . 107 Lieut. Whitelock 108 Breakfast with Sheikh of Semmed — His fortress — Hospitality . . - . .109 Gravity of Bedowin youth . . • 110 Bedowin robbers . • ■ .113 Minna — Beautiful scenery . . . '15 Honesty of women . . • .118 Neswah . . • • • 119 Trade . . . ■ • .123 Dress and habits of natives . • • "" 24 Currency — Trade . • • .1*25 Jebel Akhdar— Tanuf . • • 126 Perilous descent — Seyk . ■ • .131 Amiable character of people . • • 132 13 3 Romantic landscape .

Pomegranate wine— Shirazi . • • 134 a _. ♦ .135 A termagant . Wild animals ._,.„., . . 142 Beni Riyam . . 144 Use of wine of the tribe— Arms— Manners . • 145 b CONTENTS. Page Author's disappointment — Women . • 146 Return to Neswah . . . .147 Desertion of guides . . . 148 Anecdote . . . . .150 Bedowin Chief . . . . 153 Love of the Desert — Cheerful temperament ofthe Bedowin 154 Anecdotes — Domestic manners . . .156 Games— Story-tellers, &c. . . . 159 •"Expectation of reaching the Wahhabi capital . . 162 obstacles— Conduct of British agent at Maskat J 64 Munificence of Imam . . . 165 Dangerous illness . . . .166 Return to sea-coast . . . . 167 Affecting incident . . . 1 72 Fortitude of Bedowins . . rr.''. 174 Imam's presents of fruit, &c. — Anecdote . M . 177 Grateful recollections of Sayyid S'aid's kindness>i n . 179 Burka . . . . .183 Population — Trade . . . . 184 Revenue — Arab law-suits — Bazar . . .185 Fishery . . . . . 186 Mesnah — Sheikh . . . .187 Distillation of arrack . . . 189 Superb shells— A Sheikh's wife . . .190 Sayyid Hilal — Personal appearance, &c. . . 191 Energy and influence of Arab women . .193 Sayyid Hilal's household . . . 195 Story-tellers . . . . .196 Arab artillery — Manufactures of Suwei'k . . 197 *^Arab horsemanship — weapons . .198 Departure from Suwei'k . . . 199 Irruption of Wahhabis .... 200 Desertion of guard — Romantic situation of Feletch . 203 Ragged regiment — Dangerous ford . . 204 Mountain torrent .... 205 Cheerful scene— Dangerous ford . . . >ih, Progress of vegetation . .

CONTENTS. XIII Pa'.r. Arab bargains — Anecdote — Imposition defeated —Reflections . . . 211 Insight into character . . 213 Ophthalmia— Sheikh Nasser— Dissuades the author from proceeding . . , . .214 Makiniyat . . , 215 Arab funerals . . . , 216 Solar heat — Deresi ... 217 Shady groves .... 218 Sheikhs of Oman .... 219 Inhospitable treatment . . . 220 * The Wahhabis — Anticipated affray . 221 Cowardice of my Persian interpreter . . 222 Obri ..... 224 Advice to travellers .... 227 General honesty of Bedowins . . . 228 „_ Seyyid Hilal — h._, advice to the author — Sohar; commercial importance — Population — Trade . . 229 Ahmed Ibn Aisan .... 230 Harbours of Oman — Schinas — Asses . . 233 Milk-bush— Goats — Inhabitants . . 239, 240 Remarkable race . . . .241 .pL.Tohasmi pirates .... 243 Anecdotes .... 245—247 of Captain Wainwright . . 249 Magnificent scientific surveys of Persian and Arabian Gulfs . . . . .252 ,Johasmi pirates, why so called . . 256 Beni As- Sheikh Tamin . . .257 A foot-race . • ■ • 258 Hospitality— Arab story-tellers . . .261 Pirate Coast ... 262 Pearl fishery . . • • .263 Divers— Climate of Persian Gulf— Diving for fish . 268 Author's hopes of reaching Der'ayyah frustrated . 269 Limits and general aspect of Oman . • 270 Soil — Agriculture . • • .275 ( ON TENTS.

Pnge Cultivation on banks of streams . . '276 Oases — Subterranean water-courses . . 277 Harvest — seed-time .... 278 Soil of the Jebel Akhdar— Terraced gardens— Progress of agriculture . . . .279 Crops — Wells — Raising water . . . 280 Husbandry implements . . .281 Singular mode of irrigation — Scriptural allusion . 282 Reapers— Trees— Plants . . .283 Fruits ..... 288 Beauty of Mangoe tree .... 289 Grapes — Wine — Seed of male Palm . . 290 Wild beasts . . . .291 Habits and instincts of the camel . . 293 Rate of camel travelling— Captain Burnes — Author's experience of the camel . . . 300 Anecdotes ofthe camel — trappings — Scriptural allusion 301 The Author's Arab horse — In danger of being shot . 303 Imam's stud .... 306 Domestic animals .... 307 Game — birds — sportsmen , . . 308 Fish . . . . .309 Climate— Diseases . . . 311,312 Arab physicians . . . .312 Meteorology . . . . 314 Geological features . . . .315 Natural commercial advantages of Oman . 316 Deficiency of internal trade . . .317 Low state of knowledge — Arts — Manufactures . 319 — 322 Peculiar religious tenets — the Khuwarijites . 322 ' Power and authority of the Imam . . 329 Tlasir Ibn 'Abu Mihan, " The distressed One'" . 334 Population of Oman .... 335 Descendants of Jactan and Adnan . . 336 Of the town and desert Arabs . . 337 340 Modes of salutation . . . 344 Entertainments . . . . ..42 CONTENTS.

XV tt f Pas'6 Use of ardent spirits . . 343 Wine— Gaming — Divination . . . 344 Love of swinging, music and musical instruments 345 Feast of " the Aid "—War dance . . 34G Dress — Arms — Food . . . 349> 350 Person and ornaments of women . . 351 352 Sprightliness of character — Anecdote . .353 Freedom of Arab females . . . 354 She'ikh government — Civilization . . . 355 Patriarchal authority— Attachment to their Sheikhs — Anecdote .... 357—361 Notice of various tribes — Independence . 364 Incessant feuds . . . .367 Mutual attachment of a Bedowin tribe . . 368 Imam's Government — Court — Titles . 371—374 Administration of justice . . . 375 Family feud — Religious toleration . .376 Responsibility of Sheikhs ,-. . . 377 Public resources — Revenue . . 379 Imam's Household — Munificent character 380 Standing army .... 381 Feudalism .... 382 Population — Towns — Map of Oman . . 383,384 Houses ..... 386 Architecture — Slave-trade . . . 387 Imam's consent to its abolition — Reflections — Description and number of slaves . . 388, 390 Value — Treatment — Punishment — Household slaves — their education . . . 390, 391 Historical glance at Oman . . . 392 Our political relations with its Prince . . 400 Importance of an intimate alliance . . 401 sHis navy— Port of Maskat . . 402 Ungenerous behaviour of British Government . 403 Ras ul Aseida .... 405 Start for Nakal el Hajar— Shells . . .407 Deyabi Bedowins — their representative government .

CONTENTS XVI Pap- Shifting sands . . • .411 Excessive heat . . . • 412 Caravanserai — Comparative strength and speed of camels 415 Arak trees . . . . .416 Curiosity of natives . . . . 417 Kindness of old Arab woman . . . 419 Author recognised as Englishman . . 422 Ruins of Nakab el Hajar . . . 424 Inscriptions .... 425 Materials of the building . . . 426 Vast solidity — Excellence of masonry . . 427 Interior ..... 428 Wells — Antiquarian relics . . . 429 Superstition of Arabs .... 430 General observations . . . 431 Origin of Nakab el Hajar . . . 432 Fertility of surrounding district . . 436 Kindness of natives .... 438 Return to ship .... 440 Arab black-mail — -Anecdote of Dyabi Bedowins . 441 Best mode of penetrating into the interior . 442

Appendix

. Letters of Sayyid Ibn Kalfan . . . 443 Meteorological table . . . 446 LIST OF PLATES. Vol. I. Valley in Oman Frontispiece. Map us ditto .... (opposite) Page 1 Aral) and Bishyrean Camels .... ogg Map, &c, of Nakab el Hajar . . . . . 42(; TRAVELS IN THE PROVINCE OF OMAN.

Chapter I

Aspect of Arabia— Its unexplored Districts — The Author's preparations for his Journey — Arrives at Maskat— Interview with the Imam — His presents — Personal appearance and generosity of character — Maskat ; its ancient name and commercial importance — Position — Fortifications, Houses, fye. Arabia has been aptly compared to a coat of frieze bordered with gold, since the only cul tivated or fertile spots are found on its con fines, the intermediate space being filled with arid and sandy wastes. Nearly the whole of its Syrian or northern frontier has been examined. Burekhardt de scribes, from personal observation, the imme diate vicinity of Mecca and Medina in the Hedjaz ; and Niebuhr, in the same manner, a small portion of Yemen ; but the extensive VOL. i. b [CH. ■> [RAVELS IN OMAN. provinces of Hadramaut and Oman, together with the western side bordering on the Per sian Gulf, were still wholly unexplored.

During my employment for some years past on the survey of the southern and western coasts of Arabia, my attention was constantly directed towards attaining a knowledge of the provinces contiguous to them ; but no op portunity for penetrating the country, which presented a fair chance of success, occurred within this period, until the commencement of the year 1835, when the restless and grasping disposition of Mohammed Ali induced him to despatch a force from Egypt, in order to take possession of the Coffee country. My pro posal of accompanying his army to this point, and from thence to endeavour to reach Hadra maut, was immediately acceded to by the In dian government ; but, before their sanction could be conveyed to me, intelligence arrived of the Pacha's force having been led into a defile in the Assair country, and there de feated with great slaughter ; a miserable rem nant alone reaching the sea-shore.

Foiled, therefore, in this quarter, on my return to Bombay I turned my attention towards K] TRAVELS IN OMAN. 3 Oman, which possesses claims not inferior in interest to the other provinces, but deterred, in all probability, by the known insalubrity of its climate, and the supposed hostile character of its inhabitants, no European traveller has hitherto penetrated it, and its people, with their country, remained wholly unknown to us. In the prosecution of this project, I was induced to hope that the political relations between its liberal and enlightened ruler and our own government were of such a nature as to leave little doubt but that he would afford every facility in his power to the object of the mission. After obtaining the necessary per mission for this purpose, I passed a few days in procuring the requisite letters * and pre sents, and on November 9th, 1835, embarked on board a small schooner (the Cyrene), for * The following is a copy of one of these Official Documents : — Persian Department, No. 17, o/1835.

These are to certify, that Lieutenant Wellsted is proceeding, with the sanction of the Right Honourable the Governor in Coun cil of Bombay, through various parts of Arabia, and all those who are desirous of maintaining the friendship of the British Govern ment are requested to show him every attention and civility. By order of the Right Honourable the Governor in Council, W. H. Wathen, Sec. to Government. Bombay Castle, 7th November, 1835. B [CH. TRAVELS IN OMAN. 4 Maskat *, at which port, after a pleasant pas sage, we arrived on the 21st of the same month. Shortly after our little bark had anchored within the cove, I went on shore and waited on the Imam ; but finding that he had a full divan, I took the liberty of requesting a private audience on the morrow, which Avas im mediately granted.

November 22nd. I found no one with his Highness this morning but his son, and after delivering my presents, a few words sufficed to explain the objects of my proposed journey. Prepared as I was by my previous knowledge of Sayyid S'aid's characteristic liberality to meet with no unfavourable exception to these, I was surprised out of all former conception by the eagerness he displayed to further my views. " It is occasions like these," he said, " which afford me real pleasure, since they enable me, by meeting the wishes of your government, to evince the strength of my at tachment to them ;" and he added, in a tone the sincerity of which there was no mistaking, * Sometimes spelt " Muscat " by English writers, but more pro perly as above. !•] TRAVELS IN OMAN. 5 *' these are not words of the tongue, but of the heart."

After a conversation of some length, in which I received every aid from his perfect knowledge of the country, it was arranged that as there was but one road to the southward, which I felt no desire to re pass, that 1 should proceed first to Sur, land there, and go on to Beni- Abu-' Ali, thence cross in a line nearly parallel with the sea-shore, to the Jebel Akhdar, or Green Mountains, which are described as elevated, populous, and fruitful ; and after investigating them, finish the remaining portion of Oman ; and from thence, if the road should continue open, proceed to Der'ayyah*, the Wahhabi capital. Some other minor subjects were then dis cussed and arranged, and I took my leave, highly gratified with the prospect of success before me. November 23rd. From his Highness this morning I received a sine Nejd horse for my journey, a brace of greyhounds, and a gold mounted sword, together with an intimation, * Situated in the Wadi Beni Hanifah : it is one of the defiles by which alone the Nejd el Arid can be entered.

Tchdn Numd, p. 523. [en. (i TRAVELS IN OMAN. that so long as I remained in Oman, tlie best the country afforded should be mine ; that all expenses of camels, guides, &c, would be de frayed by him, and that letters were preparing, under his own direction, to the chiefs of the different districts through which I had to pass, requiring them to receive me with all possible attention. Placing on one side every con sideration which might have actuated this prince in furthering what he supposed the views of my government to serve me, there was, on this occasion, in the style and mode in which he exhibited it, a spirit in full ac cordance with the truly noble character which he bears. Sayyid Said is fifty-two years of age, and has reigned twenty-seven years. He possesses a tall and commanding figure ; a mild, yet striking countenance ; and an address and manner courtly, affable, and dignified.

In his personal habits, the Imam has preserved the simplicity of his Bedowin origin ; he is frugal almost to abstemiousness ; he never wears jewels ; his dress, excepting in the fine ness of the materials, is not superior to that of the principal inhabitants; and he is attended, I*] TRAVELS IN OMAN. 7 on all occasions, without pomp or ostentation. It is noticed by the Arabs, as an instance of the warmth of his affections, that he daily visits his mother, who is still alive, and pays, in all matters, implicit obedience to her wishes.. In his intercourse with Europeans, he has ever displayed the warmest attention and kindness; probably, if any native prince can with truth be called a friend to the English, it is the Imam of Maskat ; and even on our side, the political connexion with him ap pears to have in it more sincerity than is ge nerally supposed to exist.

The government of this prince is princi pally marked by the absence of all oppres sive imposts, all arbitrary punishments, by his affording marked attention to the mer chants of any nation who come to reside at Maskat, and by the general toleration which is extended to all persuasions : while, on the other hand, his probity, the impartiality and leniency of his punishments, together with the strict regard he pays to the general wel fare of his subjects, have rendered him as much respected and admired by the town Arabs, as his liberality and personal courage [CH. TRAVELS IN OMAN. 8 have endeared him to the Bedowins. These splendid qualities have obtained for him throughout the East the designation of the Second Omar. Sayyid S'aid is the son of Sooltan, the third son of Ahmed Ibn S'aid, who, in a.d. 1730, rescued his country from the Persian yoke.

Although the individuals in this line are not of the Yaharabi* ul Azad tribe, by whom the sovereignty of Oman was held for about two hundred and fifty years, and to whom, in the person of Saaef, Ahmed Ibn S'aid, of the Yaharabi ul Azedu, succeeded, yet the two dynasties are collaterally descended from the same common ancestor, Azad, which is * Jarab was the son of Sooltan, the son of Eber, and brother of Peleg, and from him the ancient Arabians derive their ancestry. The Yaharabi, therefore, who claim the nearest approach to the parent stem, trace their genealogy further back than the other tribes in Arabia, and may, undoubtedly, be pronounced the oldest family in the world. Saba, the grandson of Sooltan, sounded Saba, and the Sabeans are supposed to be identified with the Cushiles, who dwelt upon the shores of the Persian Gulf.

This was the position the Seceders occupied at the period of the dispute between Ali and Mowaiyah for the caliphat, and it throws a ray of light upon the mist that envelopes the history of this remote pe riod, when we find some direct evidence bearing on a point which has heretofore been a matter of mere conjecture. The name of Arabia, with some show of reason, has also been derived from the Jarib here alluded to. I.] TRAVELS IN OMAN. 9 also the general appellation of the tribe in which both branches are included. The present sovereign of Oman, however, is not styled Imam by the Arabs. In order to attain this title it is necessary, at the period of his election, that he should possess sufficient theological attainments to preach be fore the assembled chiefs, by whom he is chosen, and their followers ; and also that he should not embark on board ships.

The latter, as in the case of Saaf, who took possession of the ports on the African coast and their dependencies, is, after installation, over looked ; but the former they consider so in dispensably binding that Sayyid S'aid, who either does not possess the necessary attain ments, or fancies so, has dispensed with the ceremony altogether, and, in consequence, receives from his subjects the title of Sayyid, or prince, only. Reserving for a future section the details connected with the government, which apply generally to the greater portion of the towns in Oman, I shall first give an account of Maskat, and then proceed at once to the narrative of my travels. Various notices of [CH. 10 TRAVELS IN OM V N . this town may be found in the pages of Niebuhr, Hamilton, and others, but they mostly refer to a remote period, and are now, from the great change which its condition and commerce have experienced under its present ruler, scarcely applicable to it.

I shall, therefore, give the result of my own observation and inquiries at some length. It would appear that the ancient geogra phers * were acquainted at an early period with the position of Maskat |. It was pro bably Moscha, a port of the Hadramitæ, mentioned by Ptolemy : noticed also by Arrian, in the Periplus of the Erythrean Sea, as the grand emporium of the trade between India, Persia, and Arabia. But, notwithstanding this testimony, Maskat does not appear to have been a place of very considerable commercial importance until the Portuguese took possession of the town in 1508, and converted it into an interme diate port, where their ships might obtain supplies and refreshments in the passage between their Indian settlements and that on the Island of Ormuz in the Persian Gulf. Geographa, lib. vii. cap. 6, p. 153. t Edrissi writes it t$i^. 1.]