The historical basis of modern Europe, 1760-1815. An introductory study to the general history of Europe in the nineteenth century

Preface

. ""^HE purpose of this work is to review in their logical connection the chief groups of events which form the groundwork of European history in the nineteenth century. Though historical in form, the book does not pretend to be a history, but aims only at presenting such a preliminary view of the immediate antecedents of modern civilisation as will supply a convenient, though of course arbitrary, basis for the study of our age. To effect this object, it has been necessary to abandon the usual artifice of bringing all history under the head of politics, and to distribute the subject in the following manner. The introductory chapter endeavours to indicate as summarily as possible the evils of the monarchi co-feudal system in the eighteenth century, and the ideas of reform which were generated by the con temporary intellectual movement.

The second chapter reviews the work of the chief reforming monarchs, in order to exhibit the actual state of Europe in the latter part of the century, and to draw attention to the fact that monarchy by its good offices obtained over men's minds considerable b VI

PREFACE.

. influence, which survived the Revolution and played a prominent part in subsequent political history. The same chapter, however, shows how monarchy failed to meet all the urgent wants of the times ; and the next chapter gives an account of the causes which precipitated the Revolution. The fourth and fifth chapters follow the beaten track of the Napoleonic period for the sake of ranging in their places the most notable results of the revo lutionary movement. Two more chapters consider the changes in Germany, Italy, Spain, Russia, Scandinavia, Turkey, Servia, and Greece, from which the modern history of these countries takes its departure. The eighth chapter describes the industrial revolution in England, which operated more than any other order of causes to change the conditions of political, social, and individual life throughout civilised communities; and the ninth supplements the account by tracing the mecha nical progress to which the industrial revolution was mainly due.

The tenth chapter reviews the formation of the theory of political economy, which was to powerfully aid the development of industrialism. The eleventh and twelfth chapters treat respectively of physical science and philosophy. The aim of the former is to show how in many of its branches inductive research was placed on a new basis from which inquiry has proceeded to the present state of knowledge : that of the latter is to show how the deeper problems of existence received a new statement in Germany, which with TREFACE. VII the tendencies of British thought, has governed speculation till our own day. In Germany, too, closely connected with the national regeneration and rich in humanising elements, occurred a literary revival which is the subject of Chapter xiii. In England, also, literature entered on a new develop ment which enabled it to respond to the needs of an expanded society, and to contribute to European culture.

This subject is reviewed in Chapter xiv.; but the literary innovations in France, and some even in Germany, which fall within the chronolo gical limits covered by the above events, are so manifestly characteristic of the time of reaction that it would have exceeded the purpose of this book to have included them in the same survey. A concluding chapter briefly comments on the results of the foregoing reviews, and points out that the historical problem of our time far transcends the scope of the dictum that history is past politics and that politics are present history. The dominant order of changes is now, indeed, industrial. It is the striving of men to obtain wealth and material comfort that in this age mainly determines the form and objects of their political organisation. It is this which sets the aims of their self-culture and the ideals of their scientific research, the ends of their religious exercises and the rules of their individual conduct.

What in past times was determined by reverence for God, the state, and the family, or by fear of present or future punishment, is now for the most part controlled by the principles of co-opera-

PREFACE.

. tive production and distribution ; and only in a secondary manner do the ideas of social perfection and individual development, of speculative truth and positive belief, influence the policy which proximate utility dictates. Yet the period bears no resemblance to those moments of history when ease and luxury have been the guiding ends of a ruling few. The principle of comfort for all has yet to be exhibited in its full meaning ; but it is as clearly of quite peculiar character as its realisation is evi dently the function of our age. Perhaps it is because this relation has not been sufficiently recognised that, though we are continually under the necessity of making rough conjectural applications of history to current questions, historical science is still far from capable of meeting present wants.

Occasion has usually offered itself for mention of my principal sources of information, but in a general work of this kind it is impossible to refer all such obligations to their original authors. For much help in correcting the work for the press my thanks are due to my friend, Mr. W. H. Hadow, who also kindly aided me with information on the history of music. A. W. Enfield, February, 1886. CONTENTS. PAGE Preface v

Introduction

.

Monarchy at the head of the modern state i Persistence of the feudal order ...... 2 Consequent burdens on society ...... 4 Anomalous position of the Catholic Church ... 5 Need of agitation for reform 6 The eighteenth century movement ..... 7 Criticism of the eighteenth century 9 Rationalism of the eighteenth century . . . .10 The principle of equality . . . . . . -14 Confidence in the intervention of monarchy . . -15 Grounds for relying on reform by monarchs . . .16

Chapter II. Monarchy As A Reformer

Monarchy and the eighteenth century movement . . 19 Peter the Great 20 Character of Peter's example . . . . . .22 General influence of Peter on Russia . . . . .24 Peter's reign and Russian society ..... 25 Comparison between Peter I. and Frederick II. . .27 Position of Frederick towards the intellectual movement . 28 Personal character of Frederick's rule X CONTENTS. pace Patience of Frederick's subjects 32 Frederick's relation to Germany . . . . . ' . 34 Effect of Frederick's career on the Empire . 35 Unscrupulous character of Joseph II. .... 37 Joseph's philanthropy ....... 38 Joseph's disappointments ....... 39 Influence of Joseph on Austria's history .... 4° Persistence of foreign influences on Russia . . . . 41 Reign of Catherine II. ....... 42 Nature of Catherine's liberalism ...... 43 Nature of Catherine's despotism ..... 44 Catherine as the successor of Peter ..... 45 Reform by the lesser monarchies . . . . -47 Pombal's ministry in Portugal ...... 48 Expulsion of the Jesuits from Portugal . . . . _ 50 Expulsion of the Jesuits from other states . . . .52 Reign of Charles III. in Spain ....... 54 Reign of Charles in Naples . . . . . .56 The spirit of reform in Italy . . . . . -57 Rule of the house of Savoy in Piedmont .... 59 Monarchy in the Scandinavian States • . . . .60 The Danish revolution . . . . . . .61 Danish monarchy in the eighteenth century ... 64 Vicious rule of the Swedish aristocracy .... 66 Coup a" etat of Gustavus III. ...... 67 Reign and assassination of Gustavus III. . . - . .68 Anarchy in Poland ........ 69 Partitions of Poland . . . , . . . .71 Aristocratic government in England . . . . -73 Intrusion of a moneyed class into Parliament . . 7 r The influence of Pitt . . . . . . . -77 George III. arrogates absolute authority . . • 7S Growth of Liberalism in Parliament ..... 80 Degeneracy of the French monarchy . . . . .81 Accession of Louis XVI. . . . . . . .82, Turgot's scheme of reform ....... 84 Irresolution of Louis XVI. ...... 86 Fall of Turgot's ministry . . . . . . g7 Inevitableness of the Revolution . . . . .88 CONTENTS.

XI

Chapter III. The Advent Of The Revolution

PAGE Decline of monarchy's moral reputation . . . . . 91 The philosophers attack monarchical authority ... 92 Rousseau's theories of society and politics • . • • 93 Rousseau's republican ideas 95 Disrepute of republican government ..... 96 Decline of the Dutch republic 97 Degeneracy of the Swiss and Italian republics . . ■ . 98 France and the American republic 99 Difficulties of the French government .... 100 Conduct of the notables and parliaments . . . .101 Union of the orders in Dauphiny ..... 102 General hostility towards the government . . . .103 Feudal burdens of the French peasantry .... 105 Pressure of taxation on the French peasantry . . . 106 Position of the peasant proprietors . . . . .108 French peasants incited to discontent . . . .110 Disturbing effects of administrative changes . . .111 The French nobility . . 112 Decay of the old aristocracy 114 Offensive pretensions of the nobility . . . . 115 Importance of the middle classes . . . . .116 Paris the centre of national life 117 Paris the resort of the dangerous classes . . . .118 Widespread disturbance . . . . . . .119 The soldiers join the mob . . . . . . .120 Reforming character of States-General . . . .121 Disagreement between the orders 122 The National Assembly 123 Insurrection in Paris and the provinces . . . .124 The Assembly coerced by the mob 125 Impotence of Conservative opinion 126 The new constitution 127 Persistence of anarchy . . . . . . .129 Ascendency of enemies of the constitution . . . . 131 Girondists promote the Jacobin cause .... CONTENTS. XII PAGE Outbreak of the revolutionary war 134 Tyranny of the revolutionary governments . . . . 13S Triumph of the revolutionary armies 136

Chapter IV. Europe Disintegrated

Coup d' etat, Brumaire 18, 1799 138 Peace of Campo Formio 14° The second coalition war . . . . . . .141 Bonaparte's character and policy . . . . .142 Peace of LuneVille ........ 145 The armed neutrality of the North ..... 146 Union of Ireland with England . . . . . .148 Peace of Amiens ........ 149 The German Diet at Regensburg . . . . .15° Competition of the German States . . . . -151 Bonaparte's settlement of Germany . . . . -152 Suppression of ecclesiastical states and free cities . 153 Holland and the Revolution . . . . . .154 The Revolution in Belgium . . . . . -155 Bonaparte's dictatorship in Italy . . . . .157 Switzerland and -the Revolution . . . . -158 Concordat between Bonaparte and Pius VII. . . .160 Modern ultramontanism . . . . . . .102 The Code Napoleon . . . . . . . .163 Rupture between England and France . . . -165 Bonaparte made emperor . . . . . . .167 Third coalition . . . . . . . . .168 Peace of Presburg . . . . . . . .169 The Rheinbund . . . . . . . .170 Alliance of Prussia with Napoleon . . . . -171 Defeat of Prussia . . . . . . . .172 Submission of the Tsar . . . . . . ' _ j,_ Peace of Tilsit . . . . . . . . .176 The Continental System . . . . . . .177 State of France . . . . . . . . .181 Bombardment of Copenhagen . . . . . .182 Dethronement of Gustavus IV. ...... x8?

CONTENTS. XIII PAGE Napoleon's attack on Portugal 184 Misrule of Godoy in Spain x$c Napoleon invades Spain . . . . . . .186 Tragedy of Bayonne ........ 187 The Spanish insurrection . . . . . . .188 Alliance of England with Spain . . . . . .190 Napoleon's Spanish campaign . . . . . .191 National indignation in Germany . . . . .192 Franco- Austrian war 1809 . . . . . . .193 Peace of Vienna . . . . . . . .194 Napoleon's Austrian marriage . . . . . .195 Weakness of the Napoleonic empire 196

Chapter V. The Consolidation Of Europe

Wellington in Portugal 198 Estrangement of Napoleon from Alexander . . . 200 Fundamental cause of the rupture . . . . .201 Napoleon's Russian campaign ...... 202 Insurrectionary spirit in Germany ..... 204 Intellectual revival in Germany ....... 205 The Tugendbund ........ 206 Leadership of the Prussian state ..... 207 The regeneration of Prussia ...... 208 Vices of the Prussian army . . . . . .210 The citizen army of the Republic . . . . .211 Introduction of the short service system . . . .212 General adoption of citizen armies . . .. . .213 Origin of the volunteers in England . . . . .216 Democratic derivation of citizen armies . . . .217 Prussia turns against Napoleon . . . . . .218 Insurrection in Prussia . . . . . . .219 The coalition of 1 813 . 220 Deposition of Napoleon . . . . . • .221 Recall of the Bourbons ....... 222 Alexander superintends the Restoration .... 223 First peace of Paris . . . . • • . .224 Unpopulr.rity of the Bourbons .......

CONTENTS. PAGE The Hundred Days 227 Second return of the Bourbons 230 Reaction in France . . . . . . • -231 Second Peace of Paris 232 Congress of Vienna ........ 234 Decisions of the Congress : — Russia 236 „ „ » Prussia 237 „ , „ Austria and Italy . . . 238 „ „ „ Germany . . . .239 „ „ „ Netherlands, Scandinavia, and Switzerland . . . 240 Moral gain of Great Britain ...... 241

Chapter VI. The Quickening Of Germany, Italy, And Spain

Napoleon's influence on Germany . . . . .244 Progress of the German states ...... 245 Stein's reforms in Prussia ....... 247 The edict of emancipation ...... 248 Municipal and administrative reforms .... 250 Hardenberg's legislation ....... 252 Retrograde policy of Austria ...... 253 Political attitude of the German people . . . -255 Italy's need of autonomy ....... 256 Influence of Napoleon's rule on Italy .. . . . 257 References to Italian independence ..... 258 The Restoration in Italy . . . . . . .260 The Italian secret societies . . . . . .262 The revolutionary movement in Spain .... 264 Fall of the Central Junta ....... 265 The regency and the demand for reform . . . .266 The regency convokes the Cortes . . . . ' . 268 Meeting of the Cortes 269 The Spanish Constitution of 1812 . . . . .271 Conflict of Liberals and Conservatives .... 272 Return of Ferdinand VII. ...... 274 Restoration . . . . . . . , .27 = CONTENTS XV

Chapter VII. Russia, Scandinavia, And The Ottoman Empire

PAGE Character of Alexander I. . . . . . „ .276 First results of Alexander's reign 278 Alexander's efforts to abolish serfage 279 Alexander's early reforms and disappointments . . . 280 Speranski's reforms . 282 Fall of Speranski . . . . . . . .285 Settlement of Scandinavia . ...... 287 Sweden under Bernadotte . 288 Norway is transferred from Denmark to Sweden . . 289 War between Russia and Turkey . . . . .291 Decay of the Ottoman empire ...... 293 Degeneracy of the Janissaries ...... 294 Accession of Selim III. ....... 295 Reforming policy of Selim III. ...... 296 Fall of Selim III. . . » 297 Position of the Greeks in the Ottoman empire . . . 298 Hopes of the Greeks on Russian aid ..... 300 Commercial progress of the Greeks . . . . .301 Intellectual awakening of the Greeks . .... 302 The Philomuse Society ....... 304 Disregard of the powers at Vienna ..... 305 The Philike" Hetairia 306 The influence of Ali Pasha 307 Servia and Austria ........ 308 Servia tormented by the Janissaries 309 Revolt of the Serbs . 310 Alliance of the Serbs with Russia . . . . -311 Defective organisation of the Serbs . . . . .312 Defeat of the Serbs 313

Chapter VIII. The Industrial Revolution In England

Area of the English industrial revolution . . . 315 The dark age of agriculture 3X^ Advance of agriculture 3*8 CONTENTS. XVI PAGE Transformation of the textile trade ..... 320 Institution of cotton manufacture . . . . .321 Advance of manufactures ....... 322 Expansion of trade ........ 324 Growth of population . . . . . . . .326 Wealth and finance ........ 327 Sufferings of the labouring classes . . . . .328 Condition of hand-workers . . . . . . . 329 Rise of the factory system . . . . . . . 331 The enclosure of commons . . . . . 332 The agricultural movement ...... 334 The poor law ......... 336 Machinery and operatives ....... 339 The first Factory Act ....... 341 Prices and wages ........ 343 Leases displaced by yearly tenancy ..... 345 Decay of the yeomanry ....... 346 Social effects of the industrial revolution .... 347 Industrialism and political representation .... 348 The work of Jeremy Bentham . . . . . 350 Reform of the criminal law . . . . . -352 Abolition of the slave trade ...... 354 Popular education . . . . . . . -356 Opening of trade with India ...... 358 The rule of the middle classes 360

Chapter IX. The Introduction

OF MACHINERY.

Machinery and history ....... 362 Sources of motive power ....... Newcomen's steam-engine . . . . . . .361; Watt's double-acting steam-engine ..... 366 The steamboat ........ ,gg The incipient locomotive ...... The hydraulic press ...... ,7I Water-pressure engines ..... ,7 Smelting, puddling, and rolling iron . . . . _7_ Davy's safety lamp ...... ,7 Off CONTENTS. XVli PAGE Huntsman's cast steel . 379 Machine tools ......... 380 The Jenny and Throstle ....... 383 The power loom 384 The alkali trade 386 The steam printing-press ....... 388 The paper-making machine . . . . . -391 Moral aspect of invention ....... 393

Chapter X. The New Political Economy

The mercantile system . . . . . . -395 Failure of theoretical discussion ..... 398 The physiocratic theory ....... 400 Doctrines of the French economists ..... 401 Practical influence of the economists ..... 403 Failure of the physiocratic system ..... 404 The " Wealth of Nations " 405 Adam Smith's view of wealth . . . . . -407 The real price of commodities 408 The distribution of wealth 409 The function of capital 410 Expedience of industrial freedom . . . . .411 Adam Smith's doctrine of taxation . . . . -413 Practical influence of Adarh Smith . . . . .414 Malthus on population 415 Adam Smith on rent ........ 418 The Ricardian theory of rent . . . . . -419 The deductive method . 422 Say's theory of gluts 424

Chapter XI. Positive Theory In Inductive Science

Positive theory ......... 426 Law of gravitation . . . . . . . .428 Lunar tables ......... CONTENTS. XVIII PAGE Cometary orbits ........ 43° Nutation of earth's axis 43 l General acceptance of law of gravity . . . . • 43 2 Stability of solar system 433 The moon's motion ........ 435 Binary stars . ....... 436 The nebular hypothesis . . . . . . -437 The undulatory theory of light ...... 439 Polarisation of light ........ 443 Theory of sound ........ 445 Dynamical theory of heat ....... 446 Theory of combustion . . . . . . .450 Oxygen theory of chemistry . . . . . .451 The new chemistry . . . . . . . .452 Theory of multiple proportions ...... 453 Voltaic electricity . . . . . . . .455 Theory of the pile . . . . . . . -456 Sectarian geology . . . . . . . .458 Scientific geology . . . . . . . .459 Crystallography ......... 462 Palæontology . . . . . . . . 464 Speculative biology . . . . . . . -465 Biology and palæontology ....... 469

Chapter XII. Critical Philosophy And Sensational Psychology

Science and philosophy . . . . . . .471 The problem of philosophy ...... 473 The philosophy of sensation ...... 474 The philosophy of scepticism . . . . . .471; The philosophy of thought . . . . . .476 The philosophy of criticism . . . . . .477 Inadequacy of sensationalism . . . . . .478 Kant's critical philosophy ....... 480 Source of modern agnosticism ...... 48q Source of absolute idealism ...... 400 Kant's ethical philosophy . . . . . . .402 Kant's theory of religion ....... aqa CONTENTS. XIX PAGE The philosophy of common sense 495 Sensational psychology ....... 496 Theory of association . 497 The metaphysics of association ...... 501 British philosophy 504

Chapter XIII. National Literature And Art In Germany

Literature and general history ...... 506 German literature and modern history . . . .507 The Aufklarung ........ 508 Gottsched and German national literature .... 509 Lessing and English literature . . . . . . 510 Lessing and German national literature . . . .512 Winckelmann, Wieland, and Klopstock . . . .513 The " Sturm und Drang " episode . . . . .514 Primitive naturalism . . . . . . . 5 1 7 Herder and national culture . . . . , . -519 Herder and the historical idea . . . . . .520 Herder's influence on Goethe 521 Goethe's historical sense . . . . . . -523 Goethe's early works . . . . . . . .'524 Goethe and European culture ...... 526 Faust as a historical document . . . . . -527 Goethe's idea of self-culture ...... 531 Crisis in Goethe's life ....... 532 Schiller's first period ........ 533 Classical ideal of Goethe and Schiller .... 535 Goethe, Schiller, and German culture 537 The German ideal of culture ....... 538 Social aspect of the literary revival ..... 539 Position of the German stage . . . . . -541 Raphael Mengs and painting ...... 543 David and classicism ....... 544 Carstens and German art ...... 545 Thorwaldsen and sculpture ...... 546 Mozart and music . 547 Beethoven XX CONTENTS.

Chapter XIV Naturalism And The Revolution In English Literature

PAGE English literature national . . . . . . 551 Need of realism ........ 552 Tendency to compromise . . . . . . -553 Methodism and realism . . . . . . -554 Cowper : "The Task" ....... 555 Crabbe: " The Village " 556 Burns 557 Influence of French Revolution . . . . . .560 Southey .......... 561 Coleridge . 562 Wordsworth . . . . . . . . -563 Lyrical ballads . . . . . . . . .564 Wordsworth's theory of poetry . . . . . .565 Wordsworth's view of nature . . . . . .568 Literature and reaction ..... -57° Literature and cant . . . . . . . • 571 Byron 572 Shelley and Byron 574 Scott's poems 576 Scott's novels 577 The modern novel . . . . . . . .579 The novel of common life ....... ego

Chapter XV. Conclusion

The national idea ........ 581 The monarchical idea . . . . . . - 585 The constitutional idea . . . . . . .587 The constitutional idea and the bourgeoisie . . .588 Evils of the industrial order . . . . . -589 Elements of improvement . . . . . . .1:91 The industrial character of modern history . . . .593 The idea of progress . . . . . . . . S97 Index 6oo ilre jfMcrrical §w of %$loomx faqje.

Chapter I. Introduction

.

" 'Tis time New hopes should animate the world, new light Should dawn from new revealings to a race Weighed down so long, forgotten so long." Robert Browning. By the beginning of the eighteenth century Europe had abandoned for ever the feudal system of the Middle Ages. Monarchies had long usurped the powers of government. They had successfully centralised authority in their own hands, and had made themselves independent of partially respon sible delegates. They had given internal peace to the districts brought under their rule ; and the communities, which had thus been permitted to expand, had developed far beyond the limits covered by the old institutions. They presided over important classes, the products of the civilisation they guarded, which were unknown to the purely feudal regime; while the classes, which still seemed to fill the places they formerly occupied, had been deprived by the royal policy and the PERSISTENCE OF THE FEUDAL ORDER. 2 progress of society of their original basis and functions.

And as the monarchies had possessed themselves of a monopoly of the management of internal public affairs, so they had rendered them selves indispensable to the control of external relations. Having welded the people into nations, a system of international intercourse had grown up under their auspices, which could neither be neglected without constant danger to the com munities, nor be entrusted to the care of others without grave, even if temporary, inconvenience. In short, the modern state was too firmly founded to admit the possibility of a return to mediæval feudalism ; and monarchy had strongly established itself at the head. Yet, though irrevocably superseded, the feudal order still retained a powerful hold upon European institutions. In most countries there still remained nearly intact a great part of the old organisation which sovereigns had not found it in their power or to their interest to destroy.

From a feudal basis the monarchies had risen, and on a feudal basis they continued to rest. Hardly an institution existed beneath the throne, which did not bear on its face proof of derivation from the Middle Ages ; and the thrones themselves were often surrounded by customs and limitations which indicated to the least careful observer the origin from which they had sprung. The whole social structure was still formed after a mediæval type, notwithstanding the circumstance that it possessed a supreme centre invested with such attributes of monarchy as its antiquated institutions would permit.

The PERSISTENCE OF THE FEUDAL ORDER. 3 peasantry, when not sunk in serfage, was still subject to feudal dues and exactions ; the nobility, though stripped of its ancient power, still enjoyed most of the privileges and exemptions it had possessed in the days of its territorial greatness, together with new ones awarded as compensation for its confiscated power ; the Church, where Catholicism still guarded its acquisitions from secular impiety and Protestant reform, likewise retained its share of material and social advantages with a large measure of its intolerance and darkness ; the armies, though by their regular maintenance the final triumph of monarchy had been achieved, were divided into grades to correspond with the division between the nobility and the peasantry ; manufacturing industry and trade were controlled by an elaborate and cramping system of guilds, monopolies, and fiscal hindrances ; municipal constitutions were founded either on charter, often obtained by repeated purchase, or on mediæval tradition ; the law cheated equity with out worn precedents, and with delays, the worst product of confusion, while justice itself was perverted by prescriptive inequalities, and stained with the cruelty of barbarous times.

This social organisa tion the sovereign power strove to adapt to its authority and demands ; and when not checked by very powerful ancient interests, or thwarted by inadequate machinery, it generally succeeded in appropriating all the available national resources. Available, however, many of the national resources were not: but what the crown failed to secure was absorbed by the spongy texture of the rotten fabric, CONSEQUENT BURDENS ON SOCIETY. 4 and did not obey the laws of social gravitation by remaining to alleviate the existence of the hard worn producers. The result of this persistence of an effete system along with the development of a new order, was naturally very disastrous to the greater part of society. The former rulers and leaders of the people still received their dues and advantages without performing in return their corresponding duties.

Nay, where they retained a pretence to responsibility, they too often abused their office, or sold it to extortioners. They had been rendered superfluous by the course of events, yet they still enjoyed the most splendid share of the good things produced by the community. The power which had displaced them did not, however, demand one whit the less reward for doing the work. On the contrary, instrumental though it had been in dragging the people out of the feudal mire, it contracted, in addition to the faults which human frailty rendered inevitable, some very oppressive and almost incorrigible vices in consequence of the presence of the useless aristocracy. The better to secure the willing homage of the territorial nobility, monarchy had enveloped itself in a magnificence irresistibly attractive to a vain and idle caste ; while it also kept at the public expense a host of rich and dignified offices and sinecures, which could be dispensed as rewards to those notables who were fortunate enough to win favour, or were formidable enough to require con ciliation.

Nor were these burdens redeemed by economy in the necessary expenses of government, ANOMALOUS POSITION OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH. 5 for it is notorious that in this respect the new order could claim no advantage over the old, while it was more subject to wasteful and corrupt practices. To all of which charges must be added frequent engagements in long and costly wars undertaken from ambitious, frivolous, and unworthy motives, naturally prevalent at a centre dominated by ideas of splendour and power, and far removed from the sufferings inflicted on a country by every kind of belligerent operation. The nations, more over, found in the economic policy of the monarchies no help to enable them to sustain these gratuitous burdens. Though with the internal pacification of the land and the expansion of society, industry had long outgrown the swaddling clothes indis pensable to it in infancy, little had been done to ease it from their stifling folds ; nay, so pernicious had been the effects of shortsighted avarice, so steeped in delusion was national economic policy, that the fiscal regulations seemed to be contrived with fixed intent to aggravate to the utmost the tightness of these bands.