History of the War in Russia and Turkey; with a geographical, historical, and descriptive account of the Russian and Turkish Empires, etc

Front matter

Rev. J. B. ALEXANDER, Heath, Near Chesterfield. *■ • • ■■*. ■ .. m. a\ki iDj hihij .. . PK*I KB JACK'S i iN, ANC] 1 . MAI 1'tM I RANI '°-: • *^MM 1 , <; D ifl M T t o; t a sl t it H W V M Mk J A) €l A jAl <& ■ £ U m, A a M ,i j A.RI 18 Is in! H yj a) *m -11 /M\ J\! (M! Lr II lh ■ LOHD ON PETER JACK^ON.ANGEL SIR1: *"f iWD HISTORY OF THE WAR IN RUSSIA AND TURKEY; WITH A tograpjiiral, Sifltnrird, anb Imripta. Itratutt OF THE RUSSIAN AND TURKISH EMPIRES. ILLUSTRATED WITH ENGRAVINGS OF REMARKABLE INCIDENTS, MAPS, PLANS, BATTLES, AND VIEWS OF THE IMPORTANT PLACES, PORTRAITS OF THE PRINCIPAL COMMANDING OFFICERS, ETC, ETC. BY W. COOKE STAFFORD, ESQ. PETER JACKSON: THE CAXTON PRESS, ANGEL STREET, ST. MARTLN'S-LE-GRAND, LONDON; 11, POST-OFFICE PLACE, CHURCH STREET, LIVERPOOL. INDEX. Aberdeen and Clarendon, Earls, opinions in favour of peace, 8.

Achmet Pacha, 59. Address to Sir C. Napier, 98. Adrianople, description of, 311. Aland Isles, description of, and history, 156. Alarm at Constantinople, in consequence of demands of General d'Hilliers, 290. Alliance between England and France strengthened by the war, 604. Ambulance corps, 85. Amoor River, geography of, 2.48; acquisition of by the Russians, 248. Application, by Turkey, for the English fleet, 7. Appointment of a minister of war, 116. Archangel, description of, 169. Armenia, description of, 30. Army, navy, and ordnance estimates (1854), 82; (1855), 493. Arnaud, Marshal de St., at Constantinople, 293. Article (remarkable one) in the St. Petersburg journal, 100; debate in parliament upon it, 101. Asia, campaign in, of 1S53, 39^42 ; defeat of the Russians near Arpatschai, and capture of Toprak- Kale, 39 ; defeat of the Turks at Akhaltzik, 40 ; and at Baschkady-Iar, 41 ; campaign of 1854, 223— 245, attack on the fort Shesketil, 223; General Guyon at Kars, 224—235.

Asia, Schamyl, and the Circassians, 226; defeat of the Russians in Dariel Pass, 227 ; passage of the Arpatschai, 236; improvement in the Turkish army, 236-37 ; contests between the Russians and the Turks under Selim Pacha, 238; battle of Baya- Black Sea, fleet, 50 ; geography os, 53"— 57 ; Russian fleM in, 58 ; entry of the allied fleet, 505 ; their early operations, 65—67.; campaigns in 1834, 253—269; operations in, in March and April, 1855, 544-'45. Botnarsund, attacked by the Hecla, 153 ; its fortifications, 157; troops sent from Prance to aid in its capture, 157; siege of, and capture, 154—163. Bosphorus, Straits of the, 54, 304. British army, sad condition of, in the winter of 1854— -5, 474 ; Times' fund, 474 ; female nurses sent out, under Miss Nightingale, 475 ; the Rev. S. G. Osborne and Ms.

Chapter I. Extent And Boundaries Face Op The Country

; MOUNTAINS; RIVERS; LAKES; SEAS. POLITICAL DIVI- SIONS. THE POPULATION. DIVISIONS OF THE PEOPLE j THEIR MANNERS AND HABITS. EDUCATION" LAN- GUAGE ; GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS. Much as books are multiplied — great as are the number of readers — few persons have any idea of the extent of the vast empire of which Nicholas I., " Emperor of all the Russias," is at the head. It is the largest empire in the world; and, lying in Europe, Asia, and America, has been estimated as comprising a ninth, a seventh, and even as much as a sixth part of the habitable globe. We give from the most authentic sources, its large as Great Britain, which is computed to con tain an area of 83,817 square miles. Russia in Asia, is included between the 44th and the 78th degrees of north latitude ; the former skirting the western offset of the Altai mountains ; the latter being the position of Cape Severo-Vos tochnoi.

The longitudinal limits are from 60° east, (the Ural mountains,) to 170° west, (East Cape, Behring's Straits.) It is bounded on the north west and north by the Arctic Ocean ; on the north east by Behring's Straits, dividing it from Russia in America, the Eastern Ocean, and the North Pacific ; on the south by the Chinese empire ; on the west by Tartary. Its extreme length, from east to west, is 4,000 miles ; its greatest breadth, from north to south, is 1,900 miles; the superficial contents are estimated at 5,477,653 square miles; being about sixty-times as. large as Great Britain. EXTENT AND BOUNDARIES. Russia in Europe, extends from the 41st degree of north latitude, which is the north-east extremity of the Caucasus, to the 70th degree north, — the extremity of Russian Lapland ; — and from 18° east longitude, (the most western point of Russian Poland,) to 68° east, — the sources of the river Kara, north of the Ural or Oural mountains.

It is bounded on the north by the Arctic Ocean; on the east by Siberia, a part of Tartary, and the Caspian Sea ; on the south by those parts of Caucasia and Circassia, which form part of Russia in Asia, and the Black Sea ; on the west by Moldavia, Austria, Prussia, the Baltic, and Sweden. — Its length in English miles has been variously calculated; but, taking the meridian of 45°, north and south, it is 1 800 miles ; and its breadth, from east to west, in the parallel of 52°, is 1,700 miles. The area con tains 2,120,397 square miles, being more than half the size of Europe ; and nearly twenty -four times as Russia in America, lies between 60° and 70° north latitude; and 140° and 168° west longitude. It is bounded by the Arctic Ocean on the north ; by British North America on the east ; by the Eastern Ocean and the North Pacific on the south and west ; and by Behring's Straits on the north-west.

Its extreme length, from east to west, is upwards of 1,000 miles ; its extreme breadth, from the north to south, about 900. The number of square miles is estimated at 371,000 ; or more than four times the extent of Great Britain. Looking at the enormous tracts of territory cona tained in these three quarters of the globe, we find that Captain Sergey Plescheef was perfectly justified in affirming, as he does, in his ' Survey of Russia/ " that there is not at present, and never has been in ancient times, an empire, the extent of which might be compared with that of Russia." the government of Finland, is 180 miles long, by a breadth of 70 ; the Peypus, by which the govern ments of St. Petersburg and Livonia are divided, measures 60 miles by 30. The Ilmen, the Onega, the Bielozersk, and the Elton, (valuable as a salt lake,) are the others of most note.

The city of Novogorod stands on the banks of the Ilmen. face of the country — mountains — rivers — lakes — seas. There are several internal seas in Russia. The Baltic washes a part of its west coast. The Gulf of Bothnia runs between Russian Finland and Sweden; and the Gulf of Finland, (both branches of the Baltic,) has Finland on the north; the governments of Esthonia and St. Petersburg on the south. The Gulf of Riga, another branch of the Baltic, intersects the coast, running to the south ; having the government of Livonia on the east, and Kur land on the west; Riga is situated at the south-east extremity. .The White Sea is a branch of the Arctic Ocean, and intersects the government of Archangel, branching off to the north-west, into the Gulf of Kaudalask, to the south into the Gulf of Onega, and to the south-east into the Bay of Archangel, at the eastern extremity of which stands the town of that name.

The Black Sea washes the western fron tier of Asiatic, and the southern frontier of Euro pean, Russia. It is united, on the north-east, by the narrow Strait of Kertch, with the Sea of Azov; the latter has the countries of the Don Cossacks to the east; and the governments of the Taurida (which includes the Crimea,) and Ecatherinoslav, on the north and north-west. The Caspian Sea washes the south-eastern, and a part of the eastern coast, having Astracan on the north-west, Tartary on the east, Persia on the south, and Daghestan, on the west. — Besides its rivers, its lakes, and its seas, Rus sia is noted for its forests, which are computed to cover upwards of one-fourth of the surface of Euro pean Russia, and also a vast tract on the east of the Ural. There are, however, extensive districts entirely free from wood, especially in the govern ments of Astracan and Omsk, where many of the steppes, or plains, are mere deserts of sand.

Dif ferent accounts are given of the forests; Se»-ur describing them as consisting of full-grown trees and being nearly (in some places quite) impenetrable ■ whilst Custine says, they are swamps, with bushes, and scattered fir-trees of stunted growth. Probably both travellers are right, each speaking of what he saw himself. The Russians derive the principal part of their fuel from these forests, which are well stocked with those animals we class as " The surface of Russia," says M. L. Dussieux, in his work on the ' Force et Faiblesse de La Russie/ "is more even than that of any other part of Europe." "All the country, properly speaking, is an immense plain. We encounter no mountains except on the frontiers [of Russia in. Europe] to the east, where we find the Ural chain, dividing Euro pean Russia from Siberia.

These immense plains," he says, " are, nevertheless, traversed from east to west, between the Ural aud the Carpathian chains, by a long series of undulations, forming a plateau, from 700 to between 1,100 and 1,200 feet high. It is known by the general name of the Uvalli, or Valdai, and forms two great slopes or inclines, having the Baltic and the White Sea on the north, and the Black Sea and the Caspian to the south." The Ural mountains, above alluded to, extend from north to east, from the Arctic Ocean to the Caspian Sea, forming the boundary between European and Asiatic Russia. — There are some important rivers in European Russia. The Petchora, the Mezene, and the Dwina, fall into the Arctic Ocean ; the Tornea, the Neva, the Duna, and the Niemen, discharge them selves into the Gulfs of Bothnia or Finland; the Vis tula, into the Baltic; the Dniester and the Dnieper, into the Black Sea ; the Don, into the Sea of Azov ; whilst the Ural and the Volga add to the waters of the Caspian,— the latter at the rate of 1,000,000,000 cubic feet of water per hour.

This river, from its source in the Valdai plateau, about 180 miles S. S. E. of St. Petersburg, to the Caspian, traverses a course, at least, 2,300 miles in length, and is the largest river in Europe. In a direct line, the country it crosses is only about 900 miles, — thus, upwards of 1,400 miles are occupied in its winding course. Near its termination it is five leagues wide, divides into eight branches, inclosing seventy islands, and it discharges itself into the sea by sixty-five mouths. Being connected by canals with the rivers that fall into the Baltic and Arctic seas, it is the most important channel for internal communication in the empire. — The lakes are numerous. The Ladoga, in game; abounding also in bears and wolves, and other animals producing rich furs. of Russia. The Russians also claim Spitzbergen, the most northerly known land, consisting of a cluster of three large, and several small islands, " whose shores are coated with glaciers, the dis memberment of which, periodically loads the northern seas with immense masses of floating ice."

The most northerly of these islands lies in latitude, 80° 48'; longitude 20° 29' east. Like European Russia, the greater part of Siberia is an immense plateau, or prairie, ascending gra dually to the interior from the Polar Sea. The inclination is so gradual, that it is scarcely perceptible ; and, at a distance of 1,300 or 1,400 miles from the coast, the elevation does not exceed 1,200 feet. The face of the country is described as consisting of "treeless steppes, producing only a coarse grass; barren sands, impregnated with salt, and over spread with salt lakes; large sluggish rivers, with cultivatable tracts along their upper courses; marshes and swamps; and forests of birches, larches, and pines." — The chief rivers of Asiatic Russia have their origin in the Altai chain of mountains, which divides the Russian and Chinese empires, rising near the source of the Obi, to the height of 11,063 feet.

They are the Obi, into which the Irtish falls, the Yenessei, the Lena, and the Kolyma ; they all discharge themselves into the Arctic Sea. The Yana and the Indighirka are in the government of Irkutsk ; and the Amour, running into China, falls into the Eastern Ocean. — The largest lake in Siberia is the Baikal, on the slope of the Altai range, near Irkutsk, where it covers an area of 12,000 square miles, forming an inland sea. — The southern portion of Asiatic Russia consists of the Circassian and Caucasian provinces ; where "masses of bold highlands largely occupy the surface, rising in mount Elburz, the culminat ing point of the great Caucasian range, to the height of 18,493 feet." In this territory, we find rich and well-watered valleys, and the plains and sides of the mountains are covered with the cypress, the palm, and the plantain, in great pro fusion.

Along the Caspian Sea the surface is flat, and the sandy, saline, or bituminous soil, is barren and unhealthy. political divisions. The Russian empire in Europe and the district ot the Caucasus, with the country of the Don Cossacks, in Asia, were organized by the Emperor Alexander, in 1822, into fifty governments, to which Georgia has since been added, making fifty-one ; there are, also, several unorganized provinces. The Russian geographers include the Cossack provinces, with those of the Caucasus, and Georgia, in Europe ; and some English geographers follow their example; thus, the European governments are given as follows : — in the north. Governments. Chief Towns. 1. Archangel Archangel, Kala. 2. Oloneiz Olonetsk, Titousk. 3. Vologda Vologda, Usling, Veliki. GREAT RUSSIA, {lying in the centre of the empire.) 4.

St. Petersburg St. Petersburg, Cronstadt. 5. Novogorod Novogorod, Valda. 6. Tver Tver, Torjok. 7. Jaroslav Jaroslav, Rostov. 8. Kostroma Kostroma, Verlonga. 9. Pskov Pskov. 10. Smolensk Smolensk, Elma. 11. Kalouga Kalouga, Borousk. 12. Moscow Moscow, Klin. 13. Vladimir Vladimir, Mourom. 14. Nizni-Novogorod ... Nizni-Novogorod, Makarieff. 15. Tula Tula, Venev. 16. Rezzan Rezzan, Earaisk. 17. Tambov Tambov, Kaslov. 18. Orel Orel, Karomi. 19. Koursk Koursk, Old Oskol. THE URAL GOVERNMENTS. 20. Perm Perm, Katerinburg. 21. Viatka Viatka, Slobodskoi. 22. Orenburg Orenburg, Uralsk. THE CASPIAN AND VOLGA GOVERNMENTS. 23. Kazan Kazan, Laischev. 24. Limbirsk Limbirsk, Stavropol. 25. Penza Penza, Goroditch. 26. Saratov Saratov, Volsk. 27. Astracan Astracan, Gournev. 28. Caucasus Stavropol, Alexandropol. 29.

Georgia Tiflis, Erivan. Very little is known of American Russia; which comprises the Aleutian Islands, and the Prince of Wales's Islands, Sitka, and Kodiak. In Asia, the Isles of Kouro, to the south of Kamtschatka, and those of Behring, near the west coast of America; and in Europe, Nova Zembla, in the Arctic Ocean, — 470 miles long, with an average breadth of 56; — an ice - bound barren district ; Vaigatch, between that island and the continent; Kalgoney, also in the Arctic Ocean ; Dago, Oesel, and the Aland Isles, in the Baltic; and Kotrine, in the Gulf of Finland, famous for the fort of Cronstadt, the outworks of the Russian capital, are also part of the dominions Governments, Chief Towns. 6. Kiev Kiev. 7. Perm Perm. 8. Orenburg Orenburg. 9. Kherson Odessa. 10. Livonia Riga. 11. Tobolsk Tobolsk. 12.

Irkutsk Irkutsk. 13. Georgia Tiflis. The kingdom of Poland, consisting of about 11,000 square miles, is not included in the above arrangement ; in which it will be seen, there are four districts, named Great, Little, New, and White Russia ; it is this which gave rise to the title of " Emperor of all the Russias," which is assumed by the sovereigns of the empire. THE POPULATION. The population of this vast empire is most diversi fied; it contains more than one hundred different peoples, comprising nearly all the races and all the religions in the world ; but the most dominant race is the Sclavonian, supposed to be the descendants of the old Sarmatians. They inhabit the centre of Russia in Europe, and are composed of the Great aud Little Russians, the White Russians, the Cos sacks, the Poles, the Servians, Bulgarians, and some other of the slave races disseminated through the empire. — The next principal race is that of the Lettes or Lithuanians, inhabiting the south of Livonia, and parts of White Russia, included in the governments of Witebsk and Minsk.

The rest of the race is situated in Old Prussia. The Lettes differ in many things from the Sclavonians ; their language has a great affinity to the Sanscrit, and there is a considerable Lettish literature. This people, who were originally slaves, and have only been enfranchised since 1824.', are described as being, in general, brutal, superstitious, drunken, and slothful. — The Finns were once the most powerful race in Russia, being masters of all the country to the north, now known as Finland, Esthonia, Livonia, Lapland, and West Siberia. They are divided into two great classes, the Western or Baltic Finns, and the Ouralian or Eastern Finns. Each of these are again divided into a number of tribes; the Lives, of Kourland, the Esthes, of Estho nia and Livonia, the Ingrians, Karelians, Finns, and some others in the Grand Duchy of Finland, and government of St. Petersburg, the Lapps, of Lapland, and some parts of the government of Arch angel, are the principal branches of the West Finns.

In the Ouralian Finns we find the Samoiedes, in the GOVERNMENTS OF THE UKRAINE, OR LITTLE RUSSIA. Governments. Chief Towns. 30. Volhynia Zytomir. 31. Podolia Kaminiek, 32. Kiev Kiev, Boganslav. 33. Tchernigov Tchernigov, Nejiu. 34. Kharkoff Kharkoff-Valk. 35. Poltova Poltova, Lubin. 36. Voronetz Voronetz, Paulousk. 37. Don Cossacks Azov, Katherinoden. GOVERNMENTS OF NEW SERVIA, OR NEW RUSSIA. 38. Bessarabia Akerman, Ismail. 39. Kherson Kherson, Odessa, Nicolaov. 40. Ecatherinoslav Katherinoslav, Alexandrousk. 41. Taurida Sympheropol,Sebastopol,Kaffa. GOVERNMENTS OF WHITE RUSSIA. 42. Witebsk Witebsk, Polotsk. 43. Minsk Minsk, Boubronisb. 44. Moghilev Mogilev Therikov. GOVERNMENTS OF LITHUANIA. 45. Kowno Kowno. 46. Wilna Wilna. 47. Grodno Grodno, Dreutzol. BALTIC GOVERNMENTS. 48. Finland Abo, Wyborg, Ullaborg. 49.

Esthonia Revel, Wessenburg. 50. Livonia Riga, Dorpat. 51. Kurland Mittau. Siberia and Kamtscliatka are divided into nine governments, viz.: — IN THE WEST. Governments. Chief Towns. 1. Tobolsk Tobolsk, Berezov. 2. Omsk Omsk. 3. Tomsk Tomsk, Narino 4. Yeniseisk Krasnoiarsk. IN THE CENTRE. 5. Yakutsk Yakutsk, Gigausk. 6. Irkutsk Irkutsk. IN THE EAST. 7. Tchuktchi The most remote north-east government, containing only a few villages. 8. Okhotsk Okhotsk. 9. Kamtscliatka Petropavloosk. In 1823, a further organization took place, and the sixty governments were distributed into twelve viceroyalties, to which Georgia was added subsequently, viz.: — Governments. Chief Towns. 1. St. Petersburg St. Petersburg. 2. Tver Tver. 3. Moscow Moscow. 4. Smolensk Smolensk. 5. Nizni-Novogorod ... Nizni-Novogorod.

V government of Archangel, and the north-west of Siberia; thePermians,in the government of Perm; the Sairyanes, in the governments of Perm and Tobolsk; the Vogoules, in Perm, Tobolsk, and Tomsk; the Votiakes, in Viatka; the Tchemerisses and Tchou vaches, in Kazan ; with some others. The language of the Finns approaches that of the Turks more than any other. The people are generally red haired, and are strong, brave, honest, and hos pitable ; but slothful, rough, and slovenly. Attacked on all points, the Finnish race has been driven back, subdued, aud greatly modified, in many particulars, by their mixture with the Russians. Thus the Finns of Kazan have embraced the Greek religion, and their language is amalgamated with that of Russia. — The German race has been established in the Baltic provinces since the twelfth century.

The nobles of Livonia, of Esthonia, and of Courland, (or Kurland,) are mostly German. The Germans have, since the time of Catharine II., formed a number of agricultural colonies in the empire, especially in New Russia, or Archangel. — The Turkish race, which M. Dussieux contends is improperly named Tartar, or Tatar, comprises the Nogais, in the Crimea, and the steppes to the north-west of the sea of Azov. They are also found in the province of Caucasus, between Manitch, on the north, and Terek and Kuban, on the south, and in the steppes near the mouths of the Dauube. This nation is powerful, and has begun to renounce their nomade life, and to settle in villages, and cultivate the ground. Count Maison, a Frenchman, was the first who made the attempt to civilize this people, and to render them stationary.

Then, there are the Tar tars of Kazan; the Meschtscheriaques, in Oren burg; the Baschkirs, in Orenburg and Perm; the Kumicks, to the south of the mouths of the Terek ; the Kirghiz-Kazaks, in the steppes to the east of the Ural mountains, and in Astracan ; the Jakoutes, on the Lena ; the Teleutes, in Tomsk ; the Barabiuzas, in Siberia. — The Turcomans inhabit the Caucasus, between the Kur and the Araxes, and between the Kuma and the Terek. This tribe of Mahometans are very dangerous neighbours, from their love of pillage. They have been subdued by the Russians, aud are obliged to supply provisions for the army of the Caucasus. — The Caucasians are divided into fourteen branches, inhabiting Circassia, the Cau casian mountains, Georgia, Mingrelia, Imeritia, and Armenia. — The Jews are dispersed all over the empire. — The Mongols, or Tartars, are found in Siberia, and the Calmucs on the steppes of the lows Volga. — The Manchou - Tonguses inhabit Easteri Siberia, and are a nearly savage people.

The numbers of these different races have been variously represented, and we must take care and be upon our guard against the statements, even of the official Russian documents, with respect to the amount of the population of the Russian empire, which has been designedly exaggerated. The aim has been to deceive Europe as to the importance or Russia; to convey the belief that her population, her armies, and her finances, are unceasingly increasing; that her power is gigantic and irresistible; and to prepare other nations to accept, as an accomplished fact, against which it was impossible to contend, the superiority of Russia, and her influence in Europe. In 1846, the population was estimated as follows : Great Russia 21,225,100 White Russia 2,767,200 South or New Russia 14,604,100 — 38,596,400 The rest of European Russia — 22,111,702 Transcaucasia and Georgia, Imeritia, Mingrelia, &c. ... — 1,625,000 Siberia — 2,937,066 Russian America — 61,000 65,331,168 In 1849, the Almanack of.

St. Petersburg stated the total population of the empire to be 66,428,200. We learn, from other accounts, that this number is considerably exaggerated; but Mr. M' Queen, in a recent publication, fixes the numbers, in 1852, at 69,910,166, of whom 63,012,146 were in Euro pean Russia. The estimate of Berghaus, a German geographer and statist, is much lower than this. He thus apportions the populations amongst the different races. On this estimate, a French statist remarks, that the number of Jews is too large, as they cannot exceed 1,206,000. Sclavonians ...47,734,000 Caucasians 2,446,000 Lettes 2,000,000 Jews 2,182,000 Finns 3,000,000 Mongols 330,000 Germans 500,000 Manchoux 40,000 Turks 2,000,000 60,232,000 We subjoin another enumeration of the popu lation of Russia, in its different classes, which, although probably under-rated, will serve to show their relative proportions. b VI seventh of his property to his widow, one fourteenth to each daughter, whilst the rest is divided equally amongst the sons — are gradually decreasing.

They are exempt from corporal punishment, and from personal charges, and cannot be compelled to serve in the array, but they must recruit the military force from their serfs. Amongst the privileges of the nobility are the power of electing committees to take care of their interests, of their establishments, and of noble minors. Various local magistrates, assessors, &c, are also appointed by the nobles ; and, by a ukase of the late Emperor Alexander, the government functionaries are prohibited from interfering, in any way, with these elections. If a noble suffers the penalty of the law, his property is not confiscated, but passes to his family. There are many highly-accomplished and well educated persons to be found in the Russian nobility, of both sexes ; and, we do not believe, as a class, that they are much inferior to those of any other country on the continent.

They are accused of great subserviency to the czar ; charged with corruption, duplicity, and various other offences, social and political ; but their greatest fault — and a serious one it is — is, a too frequent disregard for the interests and feelings of their dependents, whom they oppress in a variety of ways. Of the second class, the clergy, we have spoken, when noticing the religion of the empire ; and of the third, the merchants, in the sketch of its com merce and trading relations. But we may here quote, from the institutions which Catharine II. issued to those whom she ordered to frame the laws of the empire into a code, her imperial majesty's definition of the class. — "This class, composed of freemen, belongs neither to the class of nobles, nor to that of peasants. All those who, being neither gentlemen nor peasants, follow the arts and sciences, navigation, commerce, or exercise trades, are to be ranked in this class.

First should be placed all those, who, born of plebeian parents, shall have been brought up in schools, or in places of education, religious or otherwise, founded by us, or our predecessors. Also the children of officers, of the secretaries to the chancery,-" &c. The remaining class' the peasants, is the most numerous, far exceeding, in number, all the other classes put together. There are upwards of 44,000,000 peasants or serfs ; of whom, about 21,000,000, it is estimated, belong to the crown; Clergy of all orders 538,477 Nobility of all ranks 1,115,845 Strangers 37,329 Merchants, Shopkeepers, and Artisans 3,175,901 Serfs of the Crown 21,463,993 « « "Nobles 23,362,795—44,826,788 Nomades 516,687 Cossacks, Baschkirs, and others subject to the military service 1,932,165 Poles, Finlanders, Caucasians, Siberians, Americans, &c 7,000,000 59,143,192 M. Schnitzler, another German statist, thinks that the annual increase in the population of Russia, is 660,000 souls, an increase which would double the number of inhabitants in a century.

It appears, however, from the official returns of the births and deaths in 1840, that there were 2,000,482 of the former, and 1,691,732 of the latter, being an increase of only 308,750; this makes it probable that the augmentation in Russia accords with that of France, which doubles its population in about 250 years. The proportion of the inhabitants of Russia to those of France, looking at the extent of territory, is about 1 to 6. DIVISIONS OF THE PEOPLE — THEIR MANNERS AND HABITS. The people of Russia are divided into four classes, 1. The nobles; 2. The clergy; 3. The burghers, merchants, and farmers. 4. The serfs or peasants. The first class, which, previous to the reign of Peter I., were the descendants of the former princes, or the proprietors of large estates, have, since his time, been derived from the civil and military func tionaries of the state.

He divided these officials into fourteen classes [the Tchinnovniks, or Tchin ;] and serving in any of the eight highest classes, creates an hereditary nobility, whilst some of the others confer personal nobility. There is very little prospect, at present, of the number of noble families being considerably increased, as most offices of state, and the high commands in the military and naval professions, are confined to those already noble. The usual titles are, prince, count, and baron, and all the members of noble families bear the same title as the head. In the Polish provinces, only nobles can inherit landed property ; in Great Russia this prohibition of the other classes does not exist; but there are still very few proprietors who are not noble. Their estates — from the operation of the law, that gives, ou the death of a proprietor, one- I and upwards of 23,000,000 to the nobles, some of the latter having several thousands stationed on their property, and others only a very few, the greatest number of proprietors possessing less than 20 serfs each.

The wealth of the nobles is estimated rather from the number of their serfs, than the extent of their estates. The power of the sovereign, of late years, has been directed to the improvement of the condition of the serfs, and to the procuring their enfranchisement; but, hitherto, without much effect. Nevertheless, their treatment is far better than that of the negro slaves in the West. In our notice of the agriculture of Russia, we have described, more particularly, the condition of the crown and nobility serfs ; some of the latter, however, are sometimes permitted to reside in towns, paying fixed sums, or the proceeds of so many days' labour, to their owner, for permission to do so ; and, there are instances of individuals in these classes making considerable fortunes. The rural peasauts are gene rally strong, well-made men, wearing coarse coats of drugget, fastened round their waists by a belt ; trousers of coarse linen; their legs wrapped in flannel or woollen cloths, in lieu of stockings ; with boots or shoes, sometimes of stout leather, at others, of the matted bark of the linden-tree.