Sketches of Algiers, political, historical and civil, etc

Preface

. It is with all the diffidence, which a secluded man, unused to literary labours, must naturally feel, on such an occasion, that the author ventures to lay these Sketches before the public. The absence of any work, giving a correct view of the real power and political importance of the piratical state of Algiers ; the belief that few other persons have had equal opportunities for becoming acquainted, in an authentic shape, with the facts of which they treat, and of tracing to their causes several remarka ble events, which have occurred since his residence here ; and the influence that the toleration of these freebooters must necessarily have upon the prosperity of the Ameri can commerce in the Mediterranean, — all these causes, operating together, have induced him to engage in the undertaking.

The result of his labours will show, that the intrinsic power of this redoubted government is quite insignificant ; at least, that it is unequal to the pretensions, which have been founded upon it. Within less than half a century, the United States have solved several political problems, of the deepest interest to mankind. They have, also, stripped the phantom of Barbary importance of its imagi nary terrors, and exposed to derision the frauds, by which it has been so long upheld. It seems improbable that Algiers can ever again rise to her former dignity, without their consent.

PREFACE.

. In composing these Sketches, the author has been principally indebted to the valuable work of Doctor Shaw on Barbary ; he has also consulted Chenier's Recherches sur les Maures, and the travels of Ali Bey in Africa and Asia, with advantage. He regrets that Bruce's Travels were not within his reach, though he thinks from recollection, that they add little to the information given by the first. Doctor Shaw's Travels in Barbary and the Le vant furnish, in the author's opinion, the only safe guide to the investigation of the geography, natural history, and antiquities of the kingdom of Algiers. Though the geo graphical positions laid down by him may not in all cases be strictly correct, still, as they have not yet been corrected by any better authority, they have been preferred here, and in point of fact answer every object, 'that the author has in view in this respect, which is merely to give a geographical outline of the country.

The manners, customs, and habits of a Mohammedan community are liable to few of the changes, which so rapidly succeed each other in more civilized countries ; in these respects, therefore, little variation from the accounts of that author is to be looked for. The object, which Doctor Shaw had in view, was obvi ously the investigation of the geography, natural history, and antiquities of Barbary. But from the want of the science, and even the opportunities, necessary to warrant inquiry into these interesting subjects, the author has limited his views in these Sketches to an exhibition of the moral and political power of Algiers ; and on these points he flatters himself, that his treatise may be regarded as a useful supplement to the work of Doctor Shaw. It may be thought that some notice should have been taken of the other states of Barbary. But as they differ essentially in forms of government, and have few relations with each other, either in war or peace, except such as

PREFACE.

. V are derived from a common religion, and, with the exception of Morocco, dependence upon the Ottoman Porte, the author has deemed it most prudent to limit his inves tigations to the kingdom of Algiers. About the time, when the historical part of these Sketches was finishing, an event occurred here, leading to a war with Great Britain, which endured above six months. During that period an exact Journal was kept, in the Consulate of the United States, of every occurrence of the least moment relating to it ; and, as the events of this war, the subsequent conclusion of peace, and its effects, form the best commentary, that could be offered, on the political part of these Sketches, a transcript of the Journal is inserted in the last chapter. The author claims the indulgence of the public, for the unavoidable egotism that appears in this narrative.

He is the only person existing, who could trace it correctly ; being a principal actor in the scenes narrated, circumstances compel him to be the commentator of his own actions ; but though obliged to speak of himself, it is al ways as the national representative, whose credit here, whatever it may be, must ever entirely depend upon the respect, which the power and honest policy of the United States inspire. The authentic documents in the Appendix do not appear to require any explanation, or excuse for their inser tion, except the translated article from Schoell, on the trade in negro slaves. This is incidentally introduced, not for the instruction of his countrymen, who are better informed, through the valuable work of Mr. Walsh, but to demonstrate in what light the people of the continent of Europe regard the legislation and negotiations of Great Britain, on that important question. Believing that the aboriginal languages of this country present a subject for inquiry, well worth the attention of

PREFACE.

. VI the learned, the author has inserted in the Appendix all the vocabularies, which have been published by other writers on this part of Africa, that were within his reach, for comparison with his own. When the dialects spoken at Siwah, at the Oasis Minor, at Augela, and by the various tribes of Tuariks, come to be equally well investigated, of which there is a prospect through the enterprise and industry of English travellers, his theory respecting the Showiah may be fairly put to the test ; and if discovered to be well founded, it will undoubtedly lead to measures being taken for a more thorough investigation and for the preservation of this interesting tongue. With this object in view, it is the intention of the author to continue his inquiries, as far as circumstances, and the means in his power, will permit. Algiers, March, 1825. CONTENTS.

Chapter I

Boundaries and extent of the kingdom of Algiers ; general face of the country ; mountains ; climate ; soil ; animals ; natural productions ; rivers ; seacoast ; bays and harbours ; political divisions ; towns and population 1

Chapter II

Religion and languages ; form of government, dependence upon the Ottoman Porte ; government of the provinces ; political and civil institutions ; jurisprudence ; privileges and license of the Turks ; finances, army, navy ; piracy, their avowed policy ; treaties and political relations with foreign powers ; salutes ; public forms and ceremonies; Ramadan; Byram. . . . . . 13

Chapter III

City of Algiers ; its position, extent, topography, and fortifications ; garrison, and government, civil and military ; wealth of the inhabitants, and security of person and property ; variety and character of the inhabitants ; state of the sciences ; education of children ; dress ; beauty of the women, melioration of Mohammedan customs in their favour, and their dress ; diet ; Jews, their civil condition, and the oppression under which they live ; foreign Africans resident in the city ; mechanic arts, and manufactures ; houses, streets, and quarters ; superstitious apprehension of the Algerines ; public edifices, and pious foundations ; condition of Christian slaves here, while there were such ; commerce ; opulence of Algiers, and its effects ; society of the foreign Agents; plain of Metijah; weights and measures 45

Chapter IV

Of the different nations or tribes inhabiting the kingdom of Algiers ; their probable origin ; manners ; character, religion, and languages. Tuariks 84

Chapter V

A sketch of the political history of the Regency of Algiers, from the vear 1810 to 1825 CONTENTS. VIII

Chapter VI

The probable destiny of this fine region ; the best position in Africa, from whence to prosecute discoveries in, and commerce with, the interior; influence of the establishment of a European nation in North Africa, on civilization, and the suppression of the trade in negro slaves It"'

Chapter VII. Extracts From The Journal Kept In The Consulate Of The

UNITED STATES, AT ALGIERS. Disturbance between the Kabyles and Algerines ; the American Consul's protection of his Kabyle servants; protest of the foreign Consuls ; differences of the British Consul with the government of Algiers ; he is compelled to leave the city, and his affairs are entrusted to the American Consul ; attempts at a conciliation between the British Admiral and the Algerine government; obstinacy of the Bashaw ; interview of the American Con.ul with the Bashaw ; British blockading squadron stationed in the harbour; final settlement of differences between the British and Algerines, on very extraordinary grounds ; American vessel wrecked on the Barbary coast, and the officers and crew redeemed from slavery by the Consul ; Dutch negotiation at Algiers 17*/*

Appendix

. A. Weights and Measures ; Money. . 245 B. Vocabularies of African Languages. ..... 247 C. Negotiations on the Abolition of the Slave Trade. . . 261 D. Note of the American Commissioners, and Letter of the President of the United States, to the Dey of Algiers. . 274 E. Letter from the Dey of Algiers to the President of the United States 276 F. Battle of Algiers. -..«... 270 G. Letter from the President of the United States to the Dey of Algiers.— Note of the American Commissioners. Note of the American Consul General. . . , gag H. Protocol of the Congress of Aix-la-Chapelle.— Note of the Commissioners of the Allied Powers to the Regency of A1Siers 301 K. Declarations of the Algerine Government in relation to Great Britain o^- SKETCHES OF ALGFERS.

Chapter I. Boundaries And Extent Of The Kingdom Of Algiers

; GENERAL FACE OF THE COUNTRY ; MOUNTAINS ; CLIMATE ; SOIL ; ANIMALS ; NATURAL PRODUCTIONS ; RIVERS ; SEA- COAST ; BAYS AND HARBOURS ; POLITICAL DIVISIONS ; TOWNS AND POPULATION. 1 he portion of Barbary denominated, from its capital, the Kingdom of Algiers, is bounded on the west by the country called the Empire of Moroc co, on the north hy the Mediterranean sea, on the east by the territory of Tunis, and on the south by the Sahara, or great desert. The western limit of this kingdom on the Mediterranean is at a place called Twunt, situated about forty miles east of the great river Mulucha, or Malva, and sixteen minutes of a dpgree west of the meridian of Green wich, which in these states is adopted as a first meridian whenever there is a question of longitude ; from whence to Tabarca, its eastern limit, situated at the mouth of the little river Zaine, in 9° 16' east longitude, the distance is about five hundred miles.

The breadth of this region is much more uncertain, from the positions of any part of the northern border of the Sahara never having been determined by observation. Doctor Shaw, who appears "to be better informed on this subject than any other geographer, thinks that at Tlemsen it does not exceed forty miles, at Algiers, sixty miles, and that a medium of sixty miles may be taken as its breadth from the Medi terranean to the Sahara : or as the Arabs term it, of the Tell, or arable land, without interruption of desert : though it may be remarked, that the borders of the Sahara are by no means a definite line, being interspersed with mountains, marshes, and fertile plains, which on the maps of Africa have obtained the name of Belled el Jerreed, and, un til better explored, may be regarded as douhtful territory.

I have made much inquiry of native travellers on this subject, and the result would lead me to suppose it of greater breadth ; but as the po sitions in question have not been fixed by actual observation, I do not regard this as sufficient au thority on which to contradict those laid down by this respectable traveller. According to these data, therefore, Algiers con tains a surface of about thirty thousand square miles. The whole of this territory is mountain ous, being intersected by parallel ranges of the Atlas from west to east, which form every possi ble variety of mountain and valley. It is asserted by the natives, that none of these mountains are bald, and that their summits are inhabited by the Kabyles, who find there sufficient pasturage for their flocks, and arable land to suhsist upon.

The inhabited part of this fine region, being situated between the thirty-fourth and thirty-seventh degrees of north latitude, enjoys a healthy and agreeable temperature of climate, which is neither oppressively hot in summer, nor severely cold in winter. An ex ception to this remark, however, is the winds from the Sahara, which blow occasionally in midsum mer, sometimes during four or five days, when the mercury in Fahrenheit's thermometer often rises as high as 108°. From April to September, the winds usually prevail from the eastward, and are damp, but without rain ; during the rest of the year they are generally westerly. The season of rain is from November to April ; sometimes the rains are excessive in November and December * in January and February there is generally much fine weather.

The quantity of rain, that annually falls, is from twenty-four to twenty-eight inches. The soil throughout this region has not degene rated from its ancient reputed fertility ; in some parts it is black, in others red, but equally fertile every where, being strongly impregnated with nitre and salt. The inhabitants rarely cultivate any other grain than wheat and barley ; the usual quantity sown upon an acre is five pecks, which, notwithstanding the rude state of agriculture, yields from eight to twelve for one. The Algerine wheat is of the hard species ; the flour which is made from it has the appearance of sand, and is difficult to knead ; but it makes excellent bread. This wheat has the preference in the markets of Italy over any other, on account of its superior excellence for the manufacture of maccaroni, and other pastes.

Ancient authors have represented this part of Africa as deficient in forests ;* it is still so ; nothing is more rare than to find forest trees in the plains. Some timber is brought to the port of Algiers from Boujaiah, but it is, as I am informed, of inferior quality, and is seldom employed in naval construction. The olive is here in its native soil and climate, and flourishes spontaneously wherever permitted. The walnut and the chesnut are found throughout the kingdom, and produce fruit of good quality, though inferior to that of Spain, France, and Italy. The palm tree abounds in Algiers, and the dates from the borders of the desert are delicious. All the fruits of the temperate climates are produced here in abundance, but except figs, pomegranates, and grapes, they are of inferior quality ; though, from the peculiar physical character of this country, which abounds in plains of various elevations, it must surpass most others in the variety and excel lence of its vegetable productions, if it were inhab ited by a civilized and industrious people.

The only metals known to exist in Algiers at present, are iron and lead, of which large quanti- * Sallust says of it, Arbori insœcundus. ties are extracted and wrought by the Kabyles. Several sorts of pipe clay are found, from which a large quantity of coarse pottery is manufactured by the natives. Inexhaustible mines of the finest fos sil salt also abound in the mountains. Though the Kingdom of Algiers is a well water ed country, abounding in springs and small streams, it has no rivers of much importance. The Shelliff is the most considerable river in the country ; its sources are in the Sahara, south of the province of Titterie ; it approaches within about fifty miles of the city of Algiers, when by the contributions of several other streams, it has become a river of some consequence, turns westward, and running nearly parallel with the coast about one hundred miles, disembogues into the Mediterranean, in 1° 20' east longitude, about thirty miles west of Cape Tennis.

It is probable that this river is navigable for small craft at a considerable distance from its mouth. In the rainy season j the swelling of the Shelliff-, which then overflows its banks, and inundates a large por tion of the countries adjacent, opposes a formidable obstacle to the communication between Algiers and Oran. There is no other remarkable river in this kingdom, though there are numerous streams which reach the sea. There is also found in this country a great number of salt and mineral springs. The following is the description by Doctor Shaw of the Ha mm am, or baths, of Merega, the Aquœ Calidœ Colonia of the ancients, situated between the Shelliff" and the sea, about sixty miles west of Algiers. "The largest and the most frequented of them is a basin of twelve foot square, and four in depth, and the water, which bubbles up in a de gree of heat just supportable, after it hath silled this cistern, passeth to a much smaller one, made use of by the Jews, who are not permitted to bathe in company with the Mahometans.

Both these baths were formerly covered with a handsome building, having corridores of stone running round their basins ; but, at present, they lie exposed to the weather, and, when 1 saw them, were half full of stones and rubbish. A great concourse of people are usually here in the spring, the season of these waters : which are supposed to remove rheumatic pains, to cure the jaundice, and to alle viate most other ineterate ill habits and distem pers. Higher up the hill there is another bath, of too intense a heat to bathe in : which is therefore conducted through a long pipe into another room, where it is made use of in an operation of the same nature and effect with our pumping." The seacoast is every where bold, and free from hidden dangers, at any considerable distance from the shore. Its only good harbours are Boujaiah, and the gulph of Stora, which are very spacious, and afford perfect shelter at all times.

I received this information from a very intelligent English captain, who had occasion to seek refuge in these two places, during a voyage, in the winter season, from this port to Bona, and back again. Perhaps by a perfect survey of this coast, which is as yet hardly known, other good ports might be discover ed. Bona, Algiers, and Oran, are the onl}' places that are frequented by foreign vessels, where there is safe anchorage in ordinary times, but which afford no shelter from the northerly gales, which blow sometimes in winter with excessive fury. The sea of Algiers abounds in the fish common to the Mediterranean, and on the eastern coast the finest coral, which might be made a source of national industry and wealth : at present the exclu sive privilege of taking this valuable article of trade is farmed to France, and is an inconsiderable source of revenue to the Algerine government.

As the inhabitants of the interior of this country are a pastoral people, whose principal wealth con sists in their flocks ; and the physical character of the country, which abounds in pasturage, being peculiarly favorable to the breeding of cattle, all the domestic animals are very abundant, such as horses, neat cattle, camels, dromedaries, asses, mules, sheep, and goats. The Barbe horses have had much reputation, but I do not recollect having seen a fine horse in Algiers ; in every respect they appear to me far inferior to the horses of the Unit ed States. Their neat cattle are small, and their cows give very little milk. The wool of Algiers is of a good quality, and in its unassorted, unwash ed state, usually commands about fifty franks per English quintal, in the markets of France and Italy.

This country abounds in game, such as wild hogs, hares, partridges, and in their season, quails, wood cocks, snipes, teal, and wild ducks ; and in the in terior, and borders of the desert, deer, antelopes, and wild goats. The ferocious animals of Algiers are the lion, the panther, the leopard, the hyena, the wild cat, and the mischievous jackal. The Numidian lion has not degenerated from his an cient character; he is still the most formidable, and, according to the reports of the natives, the most magnanimous of his species. The territory of Algiers is politically divided in to three provinces, viz. Oran, or the western ; Tit terie, or the southern ; and Constantine, or the eastern. The province of Titterie is bounded on the yvest by the river Masafran, in 3° 12' east lon gitude, which separates it from Oran ; and by the river Boobrak, in 4° 15' east longitude, which separates it from Constantine on the east.

The three provinces are supposed to extend south from the Mediterranean to the Sahara. The capital of this kingdom is situated on the coast of Titterie, in latitude 36° 48' north, and longitude 3° 30' east, and according to Shayv stands upon the site of the ancient Icosium. It exercises an indefinite juris diction, several governments in the three provinces depending directly upon it, as will be subsequently mentioned : it may therefore be termed a fourth province. The cities of this kingdom, except the capital, which will be described in a subsequent chapter, are of very little note. Tlemsen, or Tremecen, situated near the western frontier, and about equi distant between the sea and the Sahara, was once the capital of a kingdom of the same name, and a place of much importance. Shaw describes its ancient extent as of four miles circuit.

Since the establishment of the Turkish domination in this country, Tlemsen, notwithstanding the advantages of its position, has fallen into entire decay. It is now supposed to contain a population of about three thousand souls. Oran is situated fifty-four miles northeast of Tlemsen, on a very good harbour in ordinary seasons, and five miles, across am isthmus, southwest of the fine Bay of Arzew ; in latitude 35° 48' and longitude 0° 40' east. It contains about eight thousand inhabitants ; and con sidering its position, in a fine fertile country, with tyvo commodious bays, and its proximity to Gib raltar and Spain, it is undoubtedly the second place in the kingdom. A feyv miles east of Oran is situated Mustigan im, which, during the possession of the former by the Spaniards, was a Moorish city of much im portance ; but since its restoration to the Regency, it has fallen into entire decay.

Oran was regularly fortified by the Spaniards, who, after a possession of about a century, gave up this important j)lace, at their last peace with Algiers, in the expectation of advantages which were never realized. Belidah is a toyvn containing eight or ten thousand inhabitants,* situated south of the capital, on the southern verge of the plain of Mitijah, twenty-four miles distant ; and in the same direction, one day's journey further, is Mediah, capital of the province of Titterie, a town of about the same size and impor tance with the former. These two towns, from being situated in the most fertile districts of Numidia, and from their proximity to the capital, enjoy a very considerable degree of agricultural prosperity. Con stantine, the capital of the eastern province, is the ancient Cirta, situated on the river Rummel, about forty miles from the sea, in latitude 36° 20' north, and longitude 6° 30' east.

It is described to n|e * On the 2nd of March, 1825, at half past nine in the morning, a very severe shock of earthquake was felt in the city of Algiers, and was followed by others in the space of about forty-eight hours, more or less severe, which totally destroyed the town of Belidah, not leaving a single dwelling standing. The total ruin of this un lortunate town was so sudden, that few of its inhabitants escaped. Ac cording to the most moderate reports, ten thousand souls perished by this dreadful visitation. To my inquiries respecting the discrepancy which appears between the reported population of Belidah and the numbers said to have perished there by earthquake, I received the following reply *. that the amenity of the position of Belidah, the abundance of water there, aDd the fertility of its soil; its immediate dependence upon the general government, which protects it from the tyranny of the Beys; its proximity to Algiers and being the thor oughfare of all intercourse between Algiers and the provinces, have caused there, of late years, a very great increase of prosperity, and consequently of population.

In Doctor Shaw's time, Belidah was not even rated as a village. by the natives as conta'uing about twenty-five thousand inhabitants. The position of this city is certainly one of the most happy that can be ima gined, and under a reasonable government, would entitle it to every sort of prosperity. Bona, the ancient Hippo Regius, is a toyvn con taining about three or four thousand inhabitants, with a commodious harbour, in latitude 36° 43' north, and longitude 8° east. Before the French revolution, Bonawas a place of greater commercial importance than even Algiers, from its being the focus of all the trade of the French African com pany, which was established upon concessions of the monopoly of the coral fishery on the coast, and other commercial advantages, which have been re newed since the restoration, but without as yet having produced any apparent melioration of the trade of Bona ; which, from the superior advantages of its position, is susceptible of much improvement, if the least encouragement yvere given to agricul ture and trade in this country.

Boujaiah, in north latitude 36° 45', and east longitude 5° 24', possesses the best harbour on this coast, which was formerly the great naval depot of the Regency. The neighboring country is moun tainous, and exuberantly fruitful in olives. With due encouragement, Boujaiah might become a place of much commercial importance ; at present it is in a state of total decay, and contains about two thousand inhabitants. Doctor Shaw has described many other toyvns, both on the coast and in the interior of the kingdom, yvhich have probably sunk to entire insig nificance since his time. As I can obtain no defi nite information respecting them, it is probable that they have ceased to be of any political or com mercial importance. Mention however ought to be made of Shcrshell, the ancient Iol Cæsarea, and the most important maritime city of ancient Mau ritania, situated west of Algiers, in 2° 39' east longitude.

In Doctor Shaw's time, Shershell was a place of some consequence, but has since dwin dled into total insignificance ; it being now known only as a place where coarse pottery is manufac tured, and brought by sandals for sale to Algiers. There are various opinions, respecting the population of this kingdom : as any actual enumeration is entirely out of the question, it can only be me diately estimated by comparison with other coun tries, whose statistics are accurately known. Thus, upon a surface of about thirty thousand square miles, considering the small number of commercial or manufacturing toyvns, the barbarous despotism of the government, and that far the greater num ber of its inhabitants have scarcely emerged from the shepherd state ; notwithstanding their fine cli mate, fertile soil, and temperate habits of living, I am of opinion, that the population of this kingdom must be rather under than over a million of souls.

Chapter II. Religion And Languages

; FORM OF GOVERNMENT, DE- PENDENCE UPON THE OTTOMAN PORTE ; GOVERNMENT OF THE PROVINCES ; POLITICAL AND CIVIL INSTITUTIONS, JURISPRUDENCE ; PRIVILEGES AND LICENSE OF THE TURKS ; FINANCES, ARMY, NAVY ; PIRACY, THEIR AVOWED POLICY ; TREATIES AND POLITICAL RELATIONS WITH FOREIGN POWERS ; SALUTES ; PUBLIC FORMS AND CERE- MONIES ; RAMADAN, BYRAM. Islamism is the only religion professed by the Algerines with the absolute exclusion of all others, except the Hebrew, which is tolerated to the chil dren of Jacob. The languages spoken in Algiers are the Turkish, the Arabic, the Hebrew, and what Doctor Shayv terms the Showiah, or that which is spoken by the independent mountaineers, which there is strong reason for believing an ancient and original language. The Turkish is the language of the government, though the Arabic is the predominant tongue ; French is in general use in the society of the foreign agents residing here, and the Lingua Franca, which is a barbarous compound of Span ish, French, Italian, and Arabic, is the ordinary medium of communication between foreigners and natives.

In order to form a competent notion of the meth od of government established in this country, it is necessary to state some of the leading facts relative to its conquest by the Turks.* In the year 1516, a petty king of Algiers by the name of Eutemi yvas so imprudent as to solicit the aid of the brothers Horuc and Hayradin against the Spaniards who were then in possession of Oran, and had established garrisons in Boujaiah, and in the little island opposite to the city of Algiers. These brothers were natives of the Island of Mity lene, who had raised themselves to a very high de gree of power and renown by their enterprising valour and success as pirates ,* and had rendered themselves celebrated throughout Christendom by the name of Barbarossa. The offer was accepted with avidity by these daring chieftains, who had long been desirous of obtaining a port where to establish their power upon a more solid basis.

Horuc yvas received into the city of Algiers as a friend, at the head of five thousand men, yvhen he secretly murdered the Prince yvhom he had come to assist, and caused himself to be proclaimed king of Algiers in his stead. In 1518, Horuc was de feated and killed in a battle with the Spaniards on his retreat from Tlemsen, and his brother Hayradin succeeded him as king of Algiers. This chieftain who had been still more celebrated than his brother under the same name of Bar barossa, placed his newly acquired dominions un der the protection of the Grand Seignior, and * Sec, also, Robertson's Charles V. received from him a garrison of Turks sufficient to overawe any attempt of his Moorish subjects to regain their liberty. Barbarossa subsequently at tained the eminent post of Capoudan Pashaw, and Algiers became a Pachalik of the Porte.