Course of Ancient Geography

Front matter

MATHEMATICAL WORKS, BY GEO. R. PERKINS, LL.DM Perkins' Arithmetical Series Embraces four text-books, which cover the whole ground, from the first lesson of the beginner in counting, to the most abstruse and intricate operations embraced in the science. Their distinguishing features, as a whole, and the points on which their claim to supe riority rests, are as follows : 1. They are complete. Nothing connected with the sub ject is omitted. 2. Each number follows that which precedes it naturally and easily. 3. They are consistent with each other. 4. They are philosophically arranged. Tho casier parts take precedence of the more difficult ; and nothing is antici pated to the bewilderment of the pupil. 5. They are inductive. General laws are deduced from in dividual cases. 6. They are practical, constructed with direct reforonco to the wants of the pupil when he shall enter on the actual business of Use. 7.

Rules and explanations are given tersely. Their point ia not lost in a mass of words. 8. Tho examples, particularly those given first under the rules, do not involve tedious operations. 9. Each rule is illustrated by every variety of example that can fall under it. 10. The examples are so constructed as to require thought on the part of the pupil. 11. A principle once taught is not allowed to be forgotten. In one form or other it is made the subject of constant re view. 12. Finally, these Arithmetics teach the shortest, simplest, and most easy to be remembered modes of performing tho different operations of which they treat. I. PRIMARY ARITHMETIC. 18mo. 160 pages. Price 21 cents. — This work presupposes no knowledge of Arithmetic. It commences with Elementary principles, and lays a sure founda tion for what is to follow.

II. ELEMENTARY ARITHMETIC. 16mo. 347 pages. Price 42 cents. — From the Primary the pupil proceeds to the Elementary, in which it is aimed to discipline the mind, to develop the reason ing powers, and to prepare the pupil for the advanced departments of Mathematics. In the author's treatment of Vulgar Fractions, Percentage, and Interest, his new method of finding the cash balance in Equation of Payments, and his improved method of Extracting the Cube Root, he has certainly made a great advance on the other Elementary Arithmetics now before the public. III. PRACTICAL ARITHMETIC. 12mo. 356 pages. Price, Cloth, 62 cents. — This work covers nearly the same ground as the Elementary, differing from it principally in presenting a greater number of examples. It may, therefore, either follow the Ele mentary, or be substituted for it.

Preface

. A few words will suffice to account for the appearance of the present work. The writer has not by any means imagined that he had any thing new to offer to the consideration of classical scholars, or that he was more competent than those who had preceded him, to do justice to the important subject here presented: he has been induced solely by his own wants to prepare the volume for publication. Required to teach Ancient Geography in the institution with which he is connected, he has been unable to obtain any text-book that seemed to be well adapted to facilitate recitation. The large and elaborate work of his learned colleague, Dr. Anthon, the only complete system of Ancient Geography, and the best work in this department of study ever published in this country, is too extensive, and goes so much into details, both geographical and historical, as to make selection imperatively necessary, and to require the matter contained in its pages to be broken up into questions to be dictated to the classes, in order to enable them to learn the prescribed lessons.

This process involves some inconvenience, and much waste of time. The much smaller work of Dr. Schmitz, entitled: "A Manual of An- PKEFACE. cient Geography," excellent as it is in other respects, seems to be entirely unsuited to the purposes of the recitation room. It is hence solely with tho design of furnish ing a text-book arranged with special reference to con venience of recitation, that the present work has been prepared : it has cost the writer a great deal of time and labor, and he would fain hope that he has measurably suc ceeded in supplying a want, of the existence of which his own conviction has been confirmed by repeated assur ances from eminent teachers. In order to attain the object thus had in view, the matter presented in this volume has been broken up into short paragraphs, which are all numbered ; and questions referring to these, and marked by corresponding numbers, are given in the lower margin.

This arrangement will greatly facilitate the acquisition of the lessons by the pupils, as well as contribute to the convenience of recitation. Another object kept constantly in view has been, to in troduce nothing in this book, which, where sufficient time is devoted to classical studies, should not be required to be learned and recited by every student. As regards this point, there will, doubtless, be difference of opinion ; but as the writer has, in respect of the selection and quantity of matter introduced, enjoyed the advice of a distinguished professor of classical learning, he indulges the hope that he has, on the whole, accomplished his object. The profound interest which attaches to the geography of the ancient world arises not only from the historical, but perhaps still more from the mythological, legendary, and literary asso ciations connected with different regions and localities.

These, therefore, fill up a large space in this volume. In a few instances, where the prescribed limits have been ex ceeded, interesting information has been thrown into mar ginal notes. The general arrangement of the work, which is un-

PREFACE.

. V deniably peculiar, will require a word of explanation. The volume opens with a short chapter presenting a succinct account of the knowledge of geography possessed by the ancients at different periods, and of the gradual extension of their acquaintance with the inhabited world. Then, taking up Europe, it first describes Greece in pretty ample detail, and afterwards Italy in the same manner. Pro ceeding next to Asia, it gives a full account of Asia Minor. This constitutes what may be properly termed Classical Geography — that portion of ancient geography which the student most and most constantly needs in his classical reading. And to present all that is essential and" im portant in this, is the main design of the present work. This part of his task accomplished, the writer retraces his steps, returns to Europe, then to Asia, and lastly proceeds to Africa, and gives a far less copious account of what the ancients knew of the remaining parts of the former two continents, and of the northern portion of Africa : an ac count, however, which contains, as he believes, details amply sufficient for the recitation room, and for the student of ancient history.

In adopting this arrangement, which really seems the most natural in a work of this kind, and is based upon the relative importance of the countries de scribed, the advice of a number of distinguished instruc tors has been taken : all who were consulted agreed unan imously in its appropriateness, not only in a general point of view, but especially as respects the wants and con venience ofthe recitation room. In preparing this work, no inconveniently large number of authorities, but the very best that were accessible, have been consulted, carefully compared, and freely used throughout. Where authorities differed as regards the sites of places noted in ancient times, the valuable maps of Kiepert have, in several doubtful instances, been regarded as decisive. No pains have been spared to render the work as correct as our knowledge of the ancient world VI

PREFACE.

. will permit, and particular care has been taken accurately to indicate the quantity of all names requiring to be thus marked. The works most relied and most largely drawn upon, are the following : Cramer's Ancient Greece : Cra mer's Ancient Italy : Cramer's Asia Minor : Dr. Smith's " New Classical Dictionary of Biography, Mythology, and Geography," (London, 1850.) Sickler's " Handbuch der alten Geographie : " " Travels in Northern Greece," by Wm. Martin Leake, F. R. S., &c, in 4 vols., London, 1835: "Travels in the Morea. With a Map and Plans," by the same, in 3 vols., London, 1830. Besides these, the following have furnished sundry items of important in formation : " Peloponnesos : Eine Historisch Geographische Beschreibung der Halbinsel," Von Ernst Curtius. Gotha, 1851 : TJkert's " Geographie der Griechen und Romer : " Liddell's Rome : Murray's " Hand-Book for Travellers in the Ionian Islands, Greece, Turkey, Asia Minor, and Con stantinople : " Willson's " Outlines of History : " " Travels and Researches in Chaldaea and Susiana," by Wm. Ken nett Loftus, F. G. S. : Pauly's " Real-Encyclopaedie der classischen Alterthumswisenschaft," Stuttgart, 1839-1852: the Conversations-Lexicon of Brockhaus; and Home's " Introduction to the Critical Study and Knowledge of the Scriptures."

For the more brief description of the countries not properly classical, the matter has, with constant and careful reference to other authorities, been chiefly taken from the Rev. W. L. Bevan's " Manual of Ancient Geography," London, 1852. It is proper to state, that whenever to distances in stadia the measure in miles is subjoined, and these miles can again be reduced to stadia by multiplying by eight, the measure is given in Roman miles. This will, upon the whole, be found sufficiently exact. But, as the Roman mile was 142 yards less than the English statute mile, it is obvious that the precise distance will be obtained in all

PREFACE.

. VII such cases, by adding that number of yards for each mile. The English statute mile measures 1760 yards. A good ancient atlas was long a desideratum in this country. This want has been satisfactorily supplied by the publication of Findlay's " Classical Atlas," and of Long's " Atlas of Classical Geography," either of which will be found sufficient for the most thorough course of ancient Geography ever pursued in colleges or academies. RULES FOR THE PRONUNCIATION OF AN- CIENT NAMES. The penults of the most common terminations of an cient names have the following quantities : — acus, as Corinthiacus. iina, Sogdiana. ea, as Apamea, Caesarea. C-ne, as Adiabene, Cyrene. icus, a, um, as Baetica, Adriatfcum. inus, a, um, as Lucrinus, Clusinus. Fucinus tion. is an excep itis, as Trachonitis. otis, as" Phthiotis. polis, as Amphipolis, DecapSlis. CONTENTS.

Chapter II. Europa

*. 256 Section I. — Graecia 7 Mountains of Greece 8 Promontories 9 Seas 9 Gulfs 10 Strait 12 Lakes 12 Rivers 12 1. Epirus 17 2. Thessalia 19 3. Acarnania 26 4. Aetolia 31 5. Doris 33 C. Locris 33 7. Phocis 35 8. Boeotia 40 9. Megaris *>1 10. Attica 52 11. Euboea 60 12. Peloponnesus 64 A. Achaia "' b. Sicyonia "9 c. Elis 70 d. Messenia "* X CONTENTS. n« E. Laconia M. 75 f. Argolis 79 g. Arcadia °3 13. Tho Grecian Islands 85 Section II. — Italia 90 Mountains Promontories 93 Kivers 94 Lakes 98 1. Upper Italy 102 a. Liguria 102 B. Gallia Cisalpina 103 c. Vcuetia and Histria 108 I. Venetia 108 H. Istria or Histria 109 2. Central Italy Ill A. Etruria Ill B. Umbria 117 c. Picenum 120 d. Territory of the Sabini 122 e. Marsi 124 F. Peligni 124 o. Vestini 125 n. Marrucini 125 I. Roma 12G _ Latium 128 L. Hernici 133 M. Volsci 134 .-.. Campania 138 Samnium 148 8. Lower Italy 151 A. Apulia 151 b. Lucania 158 c. Bruttium 102 4. The Islands of Italy 109

Chapter III. Asia

189 Asia Minor 191 1. Mysia 192 2. Lydia CONTENTS. XI PAGE 3. Ionia !?. 202 4. Caria 210 5. Bithynia 214 6. Paphlagonia 217 7. Poutns 220 8. Lycia 224 9. Pisidia 227 10. Pamphylia 229 11. Cilicia 231 12. Phrygia 237 13. Galatia 242 14. Lycaonia 244 15. Cappadocia 246 16. Isauria 248 17. Rhodus 249 18. Cyprus 251

Chapter IV. Europa

(continued) 256 1. Thracia 256 2. Mysia 257 3. Dacia 258 4. Dlyricum or Illyria 259 5. Macedonia 2G0 6. Hispania 262 7. Gallia 265 8. Britannia vel Britannicae Insulae 269 9. Germania 273 10. Rhaetia, Noricum, and Pannonia 276 11. Sarmatia Europaea 277

Chapter V. Asia Major

279 1. Colchis, Iberia, and Albania 279 2. Armenia 280 3. Mesopotamia 282 4. Babylonia 283 5. Assyria 284 6. Persis 285 7. India, Sinae, Serica 292 8. Scythia and Sarmatia Asiatica CONTENTS. r-AGF 9. Syria 296 10. Phoenicia 297 11. Palaestina 290 12. Arabia 304

Chapter VI. Africa

307 1. Africa as known to thj Ancients 307 2. Aegyptus and Aethiopia 309 3. Marmarica, Cyrenaica, and Syrtica 312 4. Africa Propria 314 5. Numidia 315 6. Mauretania

Chapter I. Orbis Terrarum Veteribus Nottjs

1. Our knowledge of the ancient world is derived almost wholly from the works of Greek and Latin writers, and is, therefore, limited to the countries and places which are mentioned in their writings, or of which their geographers have left us descriptions. Hence it will be ad vantageous quite briefly to state, in the first place, what portion of the earth's surface was known to them, before we proceed to a description of the different countries into which it was divided. 2. The geographical knowledge of the ancients, limited, at first, among different peoples, to a more or less perfect acquaintance with their own territories and their immedi ate surroundings, gradually advanced, as conquest or com merce brought them into contact with fresh nations. To the mind of Homer (about 900 b. a), the earth appeared to be a circular plane, in the middle of which lay Hellas, with its surrounding islands, having for its central point the lofty, cloud-capped Olympus, which was hence also the centre of the whole terrestrial circle, of the entire Orbis terrarum.

Besides Hellas, Homer's world inclosed Asia Minor, Syria, the Eastern half of the African coast, Sicily, Macedonia, and the Euxine sea. But even of these parts of our world, the knowledge of the great poet was evident ly very imperfect and inaccurate : his accounts, rather 1. Whence is our knowledge of Ancient Geography, or of the ancient world, derived? 2. What waa Homer's notion of the world? 3. How far did the knowlchorographical than geographical, are obscure and fabulous, and embrace, as appears from the specifications above, chiefly the countries lying around the Aegaean or Archi pelago, and the S. coast of the Euxine. — Homer regarded his circular plane as bounded by an all-surroundings stream or Ocean, 'slKeavds, from Hhok, the boundary tear ifeoxW' and within these limits he knew of only two principal regions, the side of day, wpos -r)6V tjLXiov re, morning and noon, i. e., the East and under the meridian, and the side of night or dankness, irpos £doW, evening and the darkness of night, i. e., the West. 3.

In the next five centuries this circle was consider ably extended. Herodotus (about 450 b. c.) was acquaint ed with all the shores of the Mediterranean, tho interior of Northern Africa, Asia as far as the Indus and the Caspian, and Europe northwards to the Danube, with the districts adjoining the Euxine. 4. The conquests of Alexander (about 330 b. c) extending northwards to the Iaxartes and beyond the Indus east wards, added much to the knowledge of Persia and West ern India ; and his successors followed up the same fine of discovery, by establishing commercial relations with the states of Central India, and even beyond tho Ganges. 5. The countries of Western Africa (Numidia and Mauretania), and also of Western Europe (Spain, Gaul, Germany and the British Isles), of which only the coasts and general position had been known to the Greeks, were fully opened by tho arms of the Romans, in the centuries preceding and following the Christian era : their system of government by military occupation, involving the formation of roads and the establishment of numerous towns, con tributed to an intimate acquaintance with the interior of those countries. 6.

Taking ancient geography at its greatest extent, it deals with but a small portion of the habitable world. America was of course utterly unknown. We may say the same of Central and Southern Africa, and of the Northern districts of Europe and Asia : in short, the ancients knew very little of the latter beyond the Ganges and the Himalaya range, and of the former beyond the Vistula and the Danube, edge of Herodotua extend? 4. What contributed greatly to tho extension of geographical knowledge ? 5. What led, subsequently, to a still more extended and more intimate knowledge of geography ? 6. How may the knowledge of go- ORBIS TERRARUM VETERIBUS N0TUS. 3 7. The world within these limits was usually divided into three continents, Europe, Asia, and Africa. The boundaries of the two more important continents will be given more particularly hereafter ; we give them here, of all three, in the most general terms.

Europe was bounded by the Oceanus Atlanticus in the W., the Mare Internum in the S., and the Tanais in the E. — Asia by the Oceanus Eous in the E., the Oceanus Indicus in the S., and the Arabicus Sinus, Mare Internum, and Tanais in the W. : both these continents were supposed to be bounded in the N. also by an ocean which was called Septentrionalis, or Glacialis, but of which there was no actual knowledge. Lastly, Africa was bounded by the Mare Internum on the N., the Ocean us Atlanticus on the W., the Arabicus Sinus on the E., and an unknown sea called Oceanus Aethiopicus in the S. 8. The most conspicuous feature in the map of the ancient world is the great internal sea, which belongs equally to the three continents. 9. Later geographers named this sea Mare Medi terraneum, which has been adopted by moderns; but in classical writers this name does not occur.

We find it called by the Greeks rj leno SaXarra, or rj eV-rc-s 3d.Xarra, or, more fully, r) en-ds 'HpaxAeian/ o-ttjAoji' &d\o.TTa, and by Herod otus r/Se r) SdkaTTo. ; and from its washing the coasts both of Greece and Italy, it was also called, both by Greeks and Romans, Our Sea, rj rjfj.erepa SaXarra, rj xa-J' r/pas 3dXarra, Mare Nostrum; and by Roman geographers Mare Internum; a name corresponding to the Greek terms given above, and denoting the inward as opposed to the outward ocean. 10. The northern coast of the Mediterranean is varied by numerous peninsulas, and lined with groups of islands. It was on this account highly favorable to the coasting navigation of early days ; and by thus encouraging the growth of commercial enterprise, it became the central abode of the most flourishing nations of antiquity, and the high-road of commerce and civilization.

We shall now consider the three continents separately, in the order suggested by their relative importance. ography possessed by the ancients be briefly summed up ? 7. Within these limita how was the world usually divided, and what were the general boundaries of each division? 8. What is the most conspicuous feature in the map of the ancient world ? 9. By what names was this sea designated ? 10. What is the character of the northern coast of tho Mediterranean, affording what advantages?

Chapter II

E TJR O P A. 1. Although the name Europe (Evpdnnj) first occurs in the so-called Homeric hymn to Apollo, it is there used in a very limited application, denoting only Greece exclusive of the Peloponnesus, and perhaps also embracing Mace donia, Illyricum, and Italy. At a later period we find this name employed by Herodotus (IV, 45, 36, 41, 42) to desig nate the northern portion of the then known and inhab ited earth, extending from the pillars of Hercules to the farthest E. of Asia. 2. The derivation ofthe name is merely conjectural. In Grecian mythology it is derived from Europa, the daughter of Agenor. As respects the etymological derivation, it is the opinion of Hermann that, because Europe appeared to the Greeks of Asia Minor as the far-extended coast-land, they gave it the name Elpdnrr}, from Eupu>7rds, i), 6v, as opposed to o-Twom-ds, " narrow,'''' " strait," " confined."

Its most probable derivation, however, is from the Phoenician Aereb, still preserved in the Hebrew, V», "evening," " darkening," " sun-set," so that in its Helienized form, 'Eupdrtrr] denoted " the evening land," "the land of sim-set," in opposition to Asia, " the land of light, of splendor, of sunrise," the land whence the Asen (Asi), "the men of light" or " of the East " proceeded. This derivation is preferable to that proposed by Bochart,^ viz., from the Phoenician Urappa, " quasi terram XevKcrn-pocronrov, quia Europaei Africa nos candore faciei longe superant." "Europe" would then denote " the land of the West." 3. As early as the time of Herodotus either the Phasis, or the Tanais, was regarded as the eastern boundary of HrJi does the name Europe first occur? what was its earliest application ?

How does Herodotus use it? 2. What is the derivation of the name ? 3. Iu tho time of Herodotus, of Plato, and of Eratosthenes, what was regarded al EUROPA. Europe. Plato says it was the Phasis, Eratosthenes the Tanais. With the latter, Pomponius Mela, and Ptolemy agree. 4. Ptolemy (about a. d. 160) gives the following as the boundaries of Europe : from the Mare Atlanticum in the W., to the Tanais (Eon), the Palus Maeotis (Sea of Azof), the Pontus Euxinus (Black Sea), the Propontis (Sea of Marmara), the Hellespont (Dardanelles) and the Aegaean in the E. : from the Mare Internum in the S. to the North ern Ocean in the N. 5. A striking feature in the European Continent is found in its many large inland seas, and in the great num ber of large gulfs which, running far inland, wash its broken coasts and open highways to commercial enterprise.

Beginning at the N. we have first the Arctic Ocean or Icy Sea, 6 Kpdnos 'OKeavds, the Mare Cronium orPigrum of the Romans : below this is the Mare Germanicum, the North Sea or German Ocean : from this several small straits lead into the Sinus Codanus, or Eattegat, and. the Mare Suevicum, or Baltic Sea; returning thence into the German Ocean, a S. W. course leads us through the Fretum Gallicum, or Straits of Dover, into the Oceanus Britanicus, ox British Channel, and then into the Mare Atlanticum, or Atlantic Ocean. Crossing now the Oceanus Cantabricus, or Bay of Biscay, and passing through the Fretum Herculeum or Straits of Gibraltar, we enter that great inland sea, which the Romans, as we have seen above, called Mare Nostrum, but geogra phers Mare Internum. That part of the Mare Internum which lies between Hispania and Italia is divided into two very unequal portions by the islands of Sardo, Sardinia, and Cyrnos, Corsica.

E. of Sicily a large inlet, the Sinus Hadriaticus, the Adriatic Sea, runs in a N. W. direction far into the mainland ; and farther E. another, called the Mare Aegaeum, Archipelago, divides Greece from Asia Minor. From this the Hellespontus, Dardanelles, the Propontis, Sea of Marmara, and the Bosporus Thracius, Strait of Constantinople, lead into the Pontus Euxinus, the Black Sea; and from this, lastly, the Bos porus Cimmerius, Strait of Caffa, or Feodosia or Jen icale, leads into the Palus Maeotis, Sea of Azof ov Assow. the E. boundary of Europe? 4. What were the boundaries of Europe according to Ptolemy? 5. What striking feature does the European continent present? Name and point out the seas and gulfs, beginning at the North. 6. What is said 6. It is said that the Greeks first called the Euxine "A£cvos (inhospitable), from the savage character ofthe peoples on its coast, and from the supposed terrors of its navigation, and that afterwards, when colonies brought civilization to its shores, they changed its name, on their favorite prin ciple of euphemism (i. e. abstaining from words of evil omen) to Eu^evos, Ion.

Ev£eivos, hospitable. 7. Bosporus, BdoTropos, corrupted by modern ortho graphy to Bosphorus, composed of BoOs and -n-opo's, signifies a ford for oxen, or a strait so narrow that it may be crossed by an ox swimming. The legend connects the name with lo, the daughter of Iasus, or Inachus. We have mentioned above the two straits to which geographers have applied the term. The more important of these, the Bosporus Thracius, or Strait of Constantinople, is a channel about 17 miles in length, with a width varying from half a mile to two miles. 8. The two largest rivers of Europe, as regards the length of their course, are the Volga, called by the an cients Rha, and the Don, Tanais. Of the other more important rivers, the Ebro, Iberus, the Bhone, Rhoda nus, and the Eo, Padus, empty into the Mediterranean : the Danube, Daniibius or Ister, and the Dnieper, Dii napris or Borysthenes, into the Black Sea: the Dtcina, Carambacis, into the White or Icy Sea; the Vistula and the Oder, Viadus, or Viadrus, into the Baltic : the Elbe, Albis, the Weser, Visurgis, and the Bhine, Rhe nus, into the German Ocean: the Seine, Sequana, into the British Channel ; the Loire, Liger, the Garonne, Garum na, the Tagus, and the Guadalquivir, Baetis, into the Atlantic.

The first two named empty, the Don into the Sea of Azof, the Volga into the Caspian. 9. The principal mountain chains in Europe are, the Alps, Alpes, in Switzerland and Italy; the Pyrenees, Pyrenaei Montes, between France and Spain ; the Apen ni?ies, Apenninus Mons, in Italy ; the Ural Mountains, Rhipaei or Hyperborei Montes, on the N. E. boundary: the Carpathian Mountains, Carpates, between Dacia and Sarmatia, and the Haemus range, Balkan, between Thrace and Moesia. to have been the earlier name of the Euxine, and how came it to be changed? 7. What is meant by Bosporus, and what does it denote in Geography ? 8. Name and point out the largest and most important rivers of Europe. 9. What are tho principal mountain chains of Europe ? GRAECIA.

Section I. Graecia

1. By the name Graecia, Greece, we mean the penin sula which separates the Aegaean and Ionian Seas. It lies between the 36th and 41st degrees of N. latitude, and be tween the 21st and 26th degrees of E. longitude. 2. The Greeks called their country Hellas. Among them, however, this name did not signify any particular country, bounded by certain geographical limits, but was used in general to signify the abode of the Hellenes, as they called themselves, wherever they might happen to be settled. Thus, according to this ethnographic designation, the Greek colonies of Cyrene in Africa, of Syracuse in Sicily, of Tarentum in Italy, and of Smyrna in Asia, are said to be in Hellas. 3. The Romans called the land ofthe Hellenes Graecia, whence we have derived the name of Greece. They probably gave this name to the country from their first becoming acquainted with the tribe of the TpaiKoi, Graeci, who appear at an early period to have dwelt on the W. coast of Epirus, and hence were not Greeks in the Grecian sense ofthe term. 4.

The greatest length of Greece proper (including Pelo ponnesus), from Mt. Olympus to CapeTaenarus is about 250 English miles : its greatest breadth from the W. coast of Acarnania to Marathon in Attica is about 180 miles. 5. Graecia was bounded on the N. by Macedonia and Illyria, from which it was separated by the Cambunian and Ceraunian mountains, on the W. by the Ionian sea, and on the E. and S. by the Aegaean sea. 6. It is one of the most mountainous countries of Europe, and possesses few extensive plains and few continuous valleys. The inhabitants were thus separated from one an other by barriers which it was not easy to surmount, and were naturally led to form separate political communities. 1. What do you mean by Graecia or Greece ? Where is it situated ? 2. How did the Greeks call their country, and what sort of designation is it ? 3.

What was the origin of the name of Graecia? 4. What are the dimensions of Greece proper ? 5. How was Greece bounded ? 6. What sort of country is Greece, and 7. The two great divisions of Greece were, I. Graecia Propria, Greece Proper, comprising all that lies E. ofthe Isthmus of Corinth, and N. and N. W. of the Corinthiacus Sinus, and is bounded N. and W. by Epirus and Mace donia : this part is also called Middle Greece, because Macedonia and Epirus are sometimes reckoned as compo nent parts of Graecia : excluding these two countries, we may distinguish between Thessaly as Northern, and the remainder of Graecia Propria as Central Greece; II. Pelo ponnesus, or the peninsula connected with Hellas proper by the isthmus of Corinth, and lying S. of the Corinthiacus Smus. MOUNTAINS OF GREECE. 8.

The N. boundary of Greece is a chain of mountains commencing with the lofty Olympus, now Elymbo, the reputed abode of the gods, on the E. near the shore of the Aegaean, and terminating in the high promontory of Acro ceraunium, Cape Linguetta, which projects into the Ionian sea: the Cambunii Montes, Lacmon, and the Ceraunii Montes, Ehimara, form the intervening links. From the centre of this chain proceeds the southerly ridge of Pindus, which may be called the back-bone of the peninsula : the name indeed applies only to the mountain between Thessaly and Epirus ; but we may trace the line of elevation uninterruptedly through Tymphrestus, Ve lulchi, and Oeta, Eatavothron, to Parnassus in Phocis, and thence to Helicon in Boeotia. Immediately S. of Olympus, and separated from it only by the narrow pass of Tempe, is Mt. O s s a , Eissovo : proceeding S. E. from here along the shore of the Aegaean, we come to Mt. Pelion, Ples sidhi; and near the S. border is the lofty range of Othrys, Jerako. 9.