Geology of Tennessee

Front matter

GEOLOGY OF TENNESSEE, BY JAMES M. SAFFORD, A. M., Ph. D., STATE GEOLOGIST, Professor of Natural Science in Cumberland University, Lebanon, Tennessee. BY AUTHORITY OF THE GENERAL ASSEMBLY. NASHVILLE: .PRINTER TO THE STATE. S. C. MERCER,. 1869. PEEFACE. This Keport, ancl the Map which accompanies it, embody the principal results of the geological surveys and researches made by myself in Tennessee, at intervals during the last twenty years. For six years of this period I acted under the author ity of the State. For the remainder of the time, the surveys made, were on my personal account, and their results, in so far as they are here embraced, are a gratuitous contribution to the Geology of Tennessee. What is presented in this volume is, with its merits and de fects, essentially my own. The main part has been worked out laboriously in the field ; and this without assistants, and with inadequate means.

These circumstances constitute the only apology I offer for deficiences. The whole work has involved little, if any, less than 10,000 miles of travel. The results of the labors of others, and especially, of my venerable predecessor, Dr. Troost, when available, have been freely used, and the proper credit given. To a number of my scientific cotemporaries, I am much indebted ; their names are given in the course of the Eeport, and my obligations ac knowledged. To many friends in the State, I am also indebted for encour agement and assistance. To Col. S. D. Morgan, Dr. John B. Lindsley, of Nashville, Hon. Sam. Milligan, formerly of Greene ville, now of Washington, and Col. Wm. Bosson, of Murfrees boro', I am under especial obligations. These gentlemen, ever ready to advance any scientific investigation which, in their opinion, might redound to the interests of the State, deserve prominent niches as patrons of science in Tennessee.

The Beport does not claim to be a complete presentation of the Geology of the State; it is rather an introduction to such a presentation, and, so far as it goes, will, I trust, be acceptable. In 1831, the General Assembly took the first step towards

Preface

. a geological survey of the State, by appointing Dr. Gerard Troost, then Professor of Chemistry, Mineralogy and Geology in the University of "Nashville, to the position of State Geolo gist, on a meagre salary of five hundred dollars. Dr. Troost was continued in office until 1850. During this time, ho made nine Beporte, the first two of which, do not appear to have been published, or, if they were, I have never seen them. The most important Beports are the Third, Fourth, Fifth, Sixth and Seventh. These, though short, contain much valuable matter, and have been of essential service to tho State The Fifth is tho largest, and is an octavo pamphlet of seventy five pages. The Legislature, in February, 1854, passed an Act, creating again, the office of "Geologist and Mineralogist of the State," and a few days after, I was elected to fill the place.

At the expiration of the first term, (two years,) I was re-elected to to the position, and again in 1858. In 1856, I presented a preliminary Beport, which was published under the title of -*A Geological Beeonnoissance of the State of Tennessee." This was a small volume of 104 p^gos. In February, 1860, it was thought desirable to publish a full Beport on the Geology of the State, so far as it was practica ble to do so, and the Beport now presented, was commenced then. The work, however, had not proceeded far, when the war, with its ills, came upon us, and soon put a stop to it. In March, 186*8, the Legislature again authorized the prepa ration of the Beport, and ordered it, when ready, to be printed. After an eventful history, it is now presented to the General Assembly, and citizens of the State.

J. M. Safford. Lebanon, Tenn., April 15, 1869. NOTES ON THE MAP. A great amount of labor has been bestowed upon the Map. Many topographical features are original, having been worked out by the author during the progress of the survey. It has been a point to have the State and county boundaries as nearly V

PREFACE.

. correct, as possible. With a few exceptions, the railroads are from the actual surveys* Aside from its Geology, the Map, so far as it goes, is the best geographical map of Tennessee yet published. The section in the right-hand lower corner, is intended to illustrate the topography and the geology of the East Tennes see Valley, along the line M — N. It will correct the distorted dip of strata in the right-hand end of the principal section. With reference to the Map as an Agricultural one, see page 525. The engraver has, as a general thing, done his work well. A few omissions were observed, after it was too late to supply them. The names Anderson and Clinton, are wanting in An derson County, though the boundaries of the county are given. Maryville, in Blount County, is also missing. These names, if desirable, can be supplied by those into whose hands copies of the Map may fall.

BOCKWOOD FUBNACE IN EOANE COUNTY. Since the last pages of this book were printed, I have received reliable information as to the furnace above mentioned. It aj> pears that Eoane County is but little behind Greene, (§ 1198.) Within fourteen months, the Bockwood Furnace, with all of its appurtenances, including a village of 500 inhabitants, has sprung up like magic, and is now in successful operation. The site of the furnace is near the base of Walden's Eidge, and about four miles from Kimbrough's Landing, on the Tennessee Kiver. The ore used is the dyestone, which is obtained from beds in the Mountain Dyestone Kange, mentioned on page 306. It is an interesting fact, that this is the first furnace which has made use of raw coal in the manus cture of iron. The coal is obtained from the crest of Walden's Kidge, and is conveyed directly to the furnace, by a small railroad.

Hot-blast is used, with steam as motive power. The production of the fur nace, latterly, has been 84 tons of pig metal per week. This * One of these exceptions, is the West Tennessee portion of the Northwestern Road. The line representing this road should pass through Huntingdon, lt may be added, also, that an arm is now in course of construction from Huntingdon to Jackson. VI

PREFACE.

. extensive establishment has been constructed and put in operation at a cost of §150,000, by the "Koane Iron Company," under the efficient superintendence and management of Gen. John T. Wilder. Before closing this preface, I must acknowledge my obliga tions to Leven S. Goodrich, formerly of Ætna Furnace, but now of Hurricane Mills, (P. O., Waverly,) Humphreys County. Mr. Goodrich is one of our best informed practical iron-mas ters, and a gentleman of scientific attainments. I am much indebted to him for assistance in researches made in Hickman County. TABLE OF CONTENTS.

Chapter I

— The State in General, 1 Boundaries, Form, General Surface, 1 General Geographical Relations 3 The Tennessee and New River Slope, 4 The Appalachian Region, 8 Variety and Classification of Natural Features 10 Great Natural Divisions, 11 Climate, 12

Chapter II

— Natural Divisions of the State, 21 I. Unaka Chain, 21 II. Valley of East Tennessee, 40 III. Cumberland Table-land, 66 CHAPTEE III.— Natural Divisions,— Continued, 80 IV. The Highlands, or Highland Rim, 81 V. Central Basin, 97 VI. Western Valley, 104 VII. Plateau of West Tennessee, 110 VIII. Mississippi Bottom, 119 PART LT. — Geological Structure and Formations. CHAPTER IY. — General Character of Formations; their Origin ; the Changes they have been made to Undergo as Elements in the Structure of the State. .128 Rocks stratified, 128 Formations and their Characteristics, 129 Use of Fossils, 129 Extent of Formations, 130 Origin of the Older Formations, 131 Origin ofthe Sands and Clays of West Tennessee.. 133 Denudation in Middle and West Tennessee, 134 Folding, Dislocation and Denudation in East Tenn., 136 Ihe Sequatchee Fold, CONTENTS.

Elk Fork Dislocation, 141 Eastern Crested Slope of the Table-land, 143 Consideration of the Folding, etc., in Eust Tennessee resumed, 143 Folds. Uplifts, and Faults in Middle Tennessee, 146

CHAPTER V.

— Enumeration and Sequence of Formations, 150 Formations Numbered and Tabulated, 150 Comparative Topographical and Structural Importance, 151 Thinning out of Formations in Tennessee, 152 Complete General Series of Formations, 152 Unabridged Table of Tennessee Formations 157

CHAPTER VI.

— Metamorphic Group; Formation 1 170 Crystalline Rocks in eastern part of State— The Metamorphic Condition, 170 Geographical Position; Extent and Range, 171 Varieties and General Distribution, 176 Dip and Relations to other strata, 177 Useful Products, Mines and Minerals, 178 Agricultural Features, 180

CHAPTER VIL

— The Postdam Group; Series II ...182 Section I. — Ocoee Conglomerate and Slates; Form. 2, a.. 183 Section on Oooee River 183 Extent and Topography 186 Cross Sections; Lithological and other characters, 183 Useful Rocks and Minerals, 196 Agricultural Features 198 Section II. — Chilhowee Sandstone; Form.2,& 198 Lithological character, Fossils; thickness, 198 Topographical Relations, 199 Sections 200 Minerals and Useful Rocks, 203 Agricultural Features, 203 Section III. — Knox or Knoxville Group; Form. 2,c 203 Knoxville and Webb's Ridge Section, 204 Sub-di visions, 200 Geographical Distribution, Belts, and Faults 206 Synclinals, Anticlinals, 208 2,-c' Knox Sandstone, 209 Lithological character 203 Topography, 209 Minerals, 210 2-c" Knox Shale. 210 Lithological Character; Volume, 211 Paleontology, 211 Valleys; Agricultural Features, 212 2,c'" Knox Dolomite 214 Lithological Character; Volume 215 Paleontology 210 Topography, 216 Useful Rocks and Minerals, 220 Agricultural Features, contents.

IX CHAPTEE VIII— Trenton and Nashville Groups; Formations III. and IV 227 Section I. — Trenton and Nashville Series in the Valley of East Tennessee, 228 A The Blue or Maclurea Limestone, 232 1. The Red and Gray Marble 236 2. The Iron Limestone, 230 3. Other Beds above the Iron Limestone, 244 B. Upper Member of the Trenton and Nashville Series, 246 (a) The Shale, (eastern,) 246 (b) Limestone and Shale, (western,) 250 Useful rocks and Minerals, 253 Agricultural Features, 255 Section II. — Trenton and Nashville Series in Middle Tennessee 256 A. The Trenton, or Lebanon; Form. III., Ill 1. The Central Limestone, 259 2. Pierce Limestone, 261 3. Ridley Limestone, 261 4. Glade Limestone 262 5. Carter's Creek Limestone, 263 Agricultural Features, Useful Rocks, and Minerals, 266 B. The Nashville Formation IV., 268 1.

Orthis Bed, - 269 2. & 3. Middle and Upper Members of the Nashville, 273 Rocks of Special Use, and Minerals, 281 CHAPTEE IX. — The Niagara and Lower Helderberg Groups, , 291 Section I. — The Niaqara Group; Formation V., 292 5, a. The Clinch Mountain Sandstone, 292 5,6. White Oak Mountain Sandstone, 299 b,c. The Dyestone Group, 302 5,d. The Meniscus Limestone, 311 Rocks of special use, Minerals and Lands, 318 Section II.— Lower Heldhrbkrq; Formation VI., 322 CHAPTEE X.— The Black Shale; Formation VII 329 CHAPTEE XI. — Lower Carboniferous; Formation VIII.338 Section I.— The Siliceous Group, 338 (a.) Lower, or Protean Member, , 339 (4.) Upper, or Lithostrotion Bed, 343 Rocks of Special use, Minerals and Lands, 349 Section II. — The Mountain Limestone, 351 Minerals, useful Rocks, and Lands, 362 CHAPTEE XII.— The Coal Measures; Formation IX...366 A. Sewannee Division, X CONTENTS.

B. Raccoon and Walden's Ridge Division 381 C. Northern Division, 389 D. Northeastern Divison, 400 Rocks of special use, Minerals and Lands, 406 CHAPTEE XIII.— Cretaceous Formations; Series X.... 410 Section I. — The Coffee Sand 411 Section II. — The Green Sand, or Shell Bed, 414 Section III. — The Ripley Group, 417 Minerals, Rocks of Special use, and Lands of the Cretaceous Formations 420 CHAPTEE XIV.— The Tertiary Groups; Series XI 432 Section I. — The Porter's Creek Group 432 Section II. — Orange Sand, or LaGrange Group, 424 Appendix: Fossil Plants, 426 Section III. — The Bluff Lignite, 428 Minerals, Useful Material and Lands of the Tertiary Group, 431 CHAPTEE XV. — The Bluff Groups and Alluvium ; Series XII. and XIII 432 Section I. — The Bluff Gravel 432 Secrion II. — The Bluff Loam, 433 Section III. — Ore-Region Gravel, 434 Sections IV. and V. — The Eastern Gravel, River Bottoms and Alluvial Beds, 438 Supplement to Siliceous Group 439 PART EX— The Minerals and Rocks of Special Use.

CHAPTER XVI.

— The Ores and Metals, 448 Section I. — Iron, 448 A. The Eastern Iron-Region, 449 B. The Dyestone Region, 45G Appendix, 458 C. The Western Iron Reyion, 460 Section II. — Copper, 408 Section III. — Lead and Zinc, 482 Section IV.— Gold, 489

CHAPTER XVII.

— Minerals not Considered Ores, and Rocks of Special Use, 492 Section I. — Stone Coal, CONTENTS. XI Section II. — Lignite 498 Section III. — Petroleum and Allied Substances, 499 Section IV. — Salt, Nitre, Alum, Epsomite, Gypsum, Barite, Copperas, Chalcanthite, Py-rite, and Black Manganese, 501 Section V. — Marble, 506 Section VI. — Millstones, Roofing Slates, Flagstones and Building Materials, 511 Section VII. — Hydraulic Limestones, Clay-s; Green Sand and Mineral Waters 513 Section VIII. — Meteorites, 520

PART IV.

— Soils and Agricultnral Features; Climatic Tables.

CHAPTER XVIII

— Soils and Agricultural Features..524 1. Calcareous Soils 525 2. Lands of West Tennessee, 526 3. Lands of the Cumberland Table-land, 526 4. Lands ofthe Unaka Mountains 527 5. Soils of the Barrens of Middle Tennessee, 528

CHAPTER XIX.

— Climatic Tables; Supplementary.. ..529

Appendix

A.— Paleontology PART FIRST. PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OF TENNESSEE: INTRODUCTORY. 1. Before considering the geological structure and formations of Tennes see, it becomes necessary to present a preliminary view of its physical geo graphy. The configuration of the surface of the State is intimately con nected with its rocky, or internal structure; it is, indeed, but the expression of this rocky structure, as found sculptured in valleys, plateaus, and ridges, by running water and by atmospheric agencies. The one becomes an im portant guide to the other. This will be made apparent many times in the course of the Report. Attention is therefore directed, at the first, to the form, relief, general relations, natural divisions, and climatic features of the surface.

CHAPTER I. THE STATE IN GENERAL.

boundaries, form, general surface: — general geographical relations: THE TENNESSEE AND NEW RIVER SLOPE — THE APPALACHIAN REGION — VARIETY AND CLASSIFICATION OF NATURAL FEATURES — THE GREAT NATURAL DIVISIONS OF THE STATE — CLIMATE. 2. Boundaries, Form, and General Surface.— The State of Tennessee includes an area, that extends, in a belt-like form, from the Mississippi River directly eastward to one of tbe great ranges of the Alleghany, or Appalachian Mountains. Tho high crest of this range* is, for the most part, its eastern boundary. Tho Southern boundary of the State coincides mainly with the parallel of latitude 35° north ; its northern limit is a broken line lying between the parallels 36° 29' and 36° 41'. While the mean breadth ofthe State is but little over 109 miles, its mean length is about 385.

In general outline, it has approximately the figure of a long rhomboid, and comprises an area of about 42000 square miles. 3. The general surface ofthe State, throwing out of view, for the time, some of the local geographical features, — tho moun tain ranges of the eastern portion, and the basins and valleys of the western, — coincides nearly with a great horizontal plane, having an elevation of about 900 feet above the sea. The sur face, however, is to some extent a warped ono, coinciding, at numerous points, with this plane, but at others, either rising above or sinking below it. The upper or northeastern part of the great Valley of East Tennessee, for example, is, in general, a few hundred ieet above, while its central and southern part at first coincides, and then very gradually falls below this plane.

The highlands of Middle Tennessee, in some counties, as in Lawrence and Wayne, present a flat surface 100 feet higher, while in Montgomery and adjoining counties, the corresponding highlands are considerably lower. The ridge in West Tennessee, dividing the waters of the Tennessee and Mississippi Rivers, must, at some points, be nearly, if not quite, as high. West of this ridge, however, the general surface sloping off towards the Mississippi, falls considerably below the assumed plane, and may be regarded as terminating, at an average elevation not far from 400 feet, along the edge ofthe bluff -escarpment which faces the alluvial "bottom" of the great river. f TJpon the surface, as described, rest the mountains of the State, the most important of which are the Cumberland Moun tain, or Table-land, and the great Unaka Chain ; cut out of it, * This gTeat range or chain of mountains, will be described hereafter.

It may be de nominated the Unaka Chain. ■f Tables presenting the elevations of numerous characteristic points will be given the second and third chapters. and below it, are the great Basin in Middle Tennessee and the river valleys of this and the Western Division. 4. The entire State, with the exception of a very small area in the southeastern part adjacent to the Georgia line,* is drain ed by tributaries of the Ohio and Mississippi rivers, the most important of which are the Tennessee, the Cumberland, the Hatchee, and the Forked Deer. Referred to the beds of the principal rivers, the surface ofthe State is a long slope, which, (as characterized by the elevation of low water at the following points, namely : the State line on the French Broad, Knoxville, Nashville, and the Mississippi, at Fulton,) commences with an elevation of 1264 feet, and terminates with an elevation of about 200.

Its fall is, therefore, in some degree, more than 1000 feet. About two-fifths of this is made on reaching Knoxville; four fifths at Nashville, leaving but one-fifth for the remaining distance. The slope, therefore, descends less and less rapidly as we go westward. Along the northern boundary of the State the fall of this slope is greater than 1000 feet; along the southern boundary considerably less. The view, however, before taken, of the general surface, in which it was referred to a horizontal plane 900 feet above the sea, is to be preferred, as it will best assist in making clear the physical features and geological structure of the State. In this, the high characteristic flat lands of Middle and West Tennessee are not lost sight of. The river -valleys of these divisions, moreover, are not, in general, characteristic of the face of the country; in the Valley of East Tennessee they are highly so, but there they conform sufficiently well to the plane. 5.

General Geographical Relations. — Extending our view beyond the limits of the State, the general surface of Ten nessee is but a part, although a large part, of a longer belt of surface generally sloping, which commencing along the crest of the Blue Ridge in North Carolina, terminates with the immediate Valley, or " Bottoms," of the Mississippi. 6. This is made apparent by regarding the valleys of the smaller rivers namely, the Watauga, NolichucKy, French Broad, Big Pigeon, Little * This area is an irregular segment of the State, drained by a portion of the Connasauga River, and by some of its tributaries. The Connasauga is a small stream, and lies mostly Georgia; it makes; however, a bend to the north, which reaches a few miles above the Tennessee line. Tennessee, Hiwassee, and Ocoee, which, flowing from the southeast, empty into the Holston and the Tennessee.

These rivers rise upon the northwestern side of the Blue Ridge, and flow, in a northwesterly direction, into the State of Tennessee, passing, without material deflection, the Unaka Chain, ( \ 2, note, ) in deep and grand mountain-cuts. The two great ranges just mentioned are, in general, nearly parallel, the space between them being occupied by deep valleys and moro or less isolated clusters or groups of mountains. It is a remarkable fact, that the Unaka Chain, although more massive than the other — the Blue Ridge — is intersected, and so directly, by all the streams enumerated above. It thus loses its importance as the summit of a great water shed. 7. With these facts before us, it is plain that the general surface of the entire region, extending from the crest of the Blue Eidge through the western part of North Carolina and through Tennessee, a distance of about 430 miles, may be viewed as one.

Starting with this crest, at a mean elevation pf about 4500 feet above the sea, the general surface, or slope, falls rapidly to the foot of tho Blue Ridge, reaching the valleys of the rivers in North Carolina at a level of from 2000 to 2500 feet; then, coincident with these mountain hemmed valleys, it extends westward, falls with the rapids of the Unaka passes, and finally becomes the floor of the Valley of East Tennessee, where it has a mean elevation of 900 feet. From this valley on, it is the general surface of Tennessee, as already described ; or it may be regarded as coinciding with the slope of the river-beds. (§§ 3 & 4.) To low water of the Mississippi, the entire fall is about 4300 feet. Upon this general surface rests, not only the Cumberland Table-land, but the whole of the Unaka Chain, and the groups of, mountains between the latter and the Blue Eidge, of which the most prominent is the pre-eminently high-peaked group of the Black Mountain. 8.

The view just taken exhibits important relations sus tained by the surface of Tennessee to that of the western part of North Carolina. But a still more extended and instructive view of the geographical relations of the State may be presented. The Tennessee and New River Slope. — The great and long slope, which reaches from the southwestern part of New York through the western parts of Pennsylvania and Virginia, the whole of Kentucky and Tennessee, and parts of other States, to the Gulf, and which, facing the northwest, pours its waters into the Ohio and Mississippi Eivers, is divided transversely into three natural sections, or minor slopes. To the central and largest one of these our attention is here directed. This is a well defined area. Its southeastern limit is the high crest of that portion of the Blue Ridge which lies in North Carolina and in the southern part of Virginia.

From this crest it descends, in a northwesterly direction, to the connected parts ofthe Ohio and Mississippi Rivers between Cincinnati and Memphis. The line between these cities, as traced by the rivers, is the northwestern boundary and foot of the slope. It includes within its limits, on the northeast, the valleys ofthe Great Kanawha and of New River, (which rivers, by the way, may be regarded as one,) and, on the southwest, those of the Hiwassee, the Tennes see, the Hatchee, and the Wolf. To the entire section I have given the name at the head of this paragraph. 9. The general direction in which the rivers flow, in other words, the general direction of drainage within this section, un like that of those which adjoin it on the northeast and southwest, respectively, is to the northwest .* This is seen in the connected courses of New River, of the Great Kanawha, and even of the Ohio, from the mouth of the Kanawha to Cincin nati ; it is seen, too, in the rivers of Kentucky, of Middle aud West Tennessee, as well as in those which flow out of North Carolina into Tennessee.

To this northwesterly drainage, the upper part of New River, the portion of the Tennessee east of the Cumberland Table land, and its Virginia tributaries, as well as a portion of the Cumberland River above Nashville, constitute apparent exceptions ; these, however, as will be seen further on, may be con sistently explained. 10. It is to be noted that the mountains in the western part of North Carolina present the culminating points, and the greatest masses of all the Appalachian Ridges. It is from this high belt — the Blue Ridge presenting the dividing line — that the Ohio and Atlantic waters flow away, the former to the northwest and the latter to the southeast ; in these respective directions the rivers find their shortest and most rapid descent. * It is, in fact, in this respect, unlike any other large section east of the Mississippi River.

The fall from the summit of the Blue Eidge, in a westerly direc tion, to the Mississippi — a distance of about 430 miles, — is as we have seen, (§ 7) approximately 4300 feet. To the Ohio, in the normal northwesterly direction of the slope, nearly the same fall is made in a distance less by, at least, 100 miles. These facts account for the unusual northwesterly tendency of drainage within the area under consideration. 11. This slope must not, however, except in a general sense, be regarded as continuous and unbroken — as having a uniformly descending surface. It is furrowed by valleys and ridges, or other elevated ranges, which run mostly from the northeast to the southwest, transversely to the direction of gen eral drainage, but parallel to the Blue Ridge, to each other, and to the foot of the slope on the northwest.

This is especially true of the southeastern, or upper part of the slope ; here the valleys and ridges are very prominent, and well marked in direction ; such are the Unaka Chain, the great Valley of Vir ginia and East Tennessee, with all its subordinate valleys and ridges, and the Cumberland Table-land. In the northwestern or lower part, they are far less prominent, yet even here they, or rather the general surface-features, show a tendency to run in parallel belts to the northeast or southwest. 12. These local features, it is plain, must interfere more or less, with direct drainage. The long, straight ridges, running horizontally along the face of the slope, intercept the stream; which, therefore, must either break through in deep gaps, or else, turned aside at right angles to their normal courses, must run in the valleys, to the northeast or southwest, until they find a passage through which they can escape.

The one they do, perhaps, as frequently as the other. This will serve to explain the apparent exception before referred to. ( § 9. ) 13. Of all the elevated ranges, the Cumberland Table-land is the most effectual barrier in the way of general drainage. / By it the Tennessee Eiver is deflected to the southwest, and is made to run many miles before being permitted to pass and flow on in its northwesterly course. The range permits the pas sage of New River, in Virginia, but at no other point, between its intersections with this and the Tennessee, does it present a complete water-gap. 14. The Valley of Virginia and East Tennessee, as we shall see hereafter, is part of a great and complex trough, which ex tends each way beyond the limits of the slope. It is compara tively deep, and almost causes New Eiver, on the one hand, to flow into the streams, which empty into the Atlantic, and the Tennessee, on the other, to flow into those which empty into the Gulf.

The portion of the Valley between these rivers is divided into two very unequal subordinate slopes. The region dividing the waters of the two rivers is an elevated water-shed, the crest of which, on the Virginia and East Tennessee Eailroad, is 2594 feet above the level of the sea. The New Eiver, or northeast ern side, is short, while the Tennessee, or southwestern side, is very long. On both sides, the ridges of the Valley deflect the tributaries to the northeast and southwest respectively. This is seen, on a great scale, in the long Virginia tributaries of the Tennessee. 15. The great Unaka Chain is remarkable, as before stated, (§'6, ) for not deflecting the North Carolina tributaries of the Tennessee. It does, however, throw the upper part of New Eiver many miles to the northeast. It may be added here, finally, that the Cumberland Eiver above Nashville, is deflected to the southwest by a range of highlands, which, in general is parallel, and bears certain rela tions, to the better marked ranges just mentioned. 16.

Such is the slope of which Tennessee is a part, and which, with its ridges and valleys trending to the northeast and southwest, and differing much in their geological charac ter, as well as in their surface features, the State traverses. The belt or surface already mentioned, (§ 5,) extending from the Blue Eidge through Tennessee to the Mississippi, is a complete cross-section of this slope. Of this belt Tennessee is, by far, the larger part, and, owing to the direct easterly and westerly course of the State, the slope is traversed obliquely, making the cross-section an oblique one. Hence results the general obliquity of the State, with reference to natural features, which is so conspicuous upon maps of its surface. 17. The reference of the State to the area just considered enables us to understand much better than before its drainage and many of its surface-features.

The question, however, arises, Whence come these belts, the long straight valleys, the s PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. direct ridges and mountain ranges which stretch so independ ently across and beyond the moro easterly parts of the State and of the slope ? They must sustain important relations to some other natural geographical area or system. This leads me to notice briefly the following remarkable region or belt : IS. The Appalachian Region. — Upon examining any good map of the country between the Gulf of Mexico and the Hud son River, we will see a long continuous area or bolt, from 50 to 100 miles in width, traversing, the eastern part of Pennsyl vania, Maryland, Middle Virginia, East Tennessee, and the western part of North Carolina, remarkable for its long, parallel, straight, or gracefully curving mountains, ridges, and val leys.