Turkey and the Turks; being the present state of the Ottoman Empire

Preface

. In laying this volume before the public, I have no apology to make. I did not go to Turkey to write a book, but wrote one because I was there; and if I have been severe on the in habitants, it is not because I had a precon ceived bad opinion of them, but because I found them as I have described them. I am aware that some of the statements and opinions contained in the following pages are different from those hazarded by other writers, but they are not on that account to be considered less true. I had opportunities of observation which mere travellers never can have, and I had more time for inquiry and remark, than residents usually can afford for that purpose. If the critic says that I have been uniformly a VI

PREFACE.

. severe with all and sundry, except with the Armenians, and a few classes of the Franks, my answer must be, that the Armenians are the only portion of the subjects of the Sublime Porte that deserve to be well spoken of en masse; and that, unfortunately, but few of the Franks, except the Britons and French residing there, are entitled to praise. Let not the Turks say I have abused them unfairly, for, if there is any fault at all, it is that I have not gone far enough, as, if I had committed to paper all the crimes and enormities which may be justly charged against them at the present day, my book would have been unfit for the perusal of the general reader — many of their crimes and practices being of too depraved a nature to hazard in a work intended for ordinary perusal. The Greeks need not complain: it is true I have given them a bad character, but I have qualified it with the assurance that they are forced to be bad from the position in which they stand, and that, if once free, they have that in them which would yet redeem their character.

PREFACE.

. VII My object in publishing the present volume is, if possible, to inform the people of this country of the actual condition of the Turks, their subjects, and slaves ; in the hope that it is not yet too late to do something for the de scendants of those whom our forefathers, through jealousy, allowed to be overcome by the masses of ruthless barbarians that turned the sweetest spot in Europe into a vast and howling wilder ness. For the historical parts of this volume I have been indebted to many sources ; for the descrip tive, entirely to my own observation ; and for the political, to opinions formed during a residence in the country, as well as to a systematic examination of the various conflicting interests, during a very long voyage, when I had no means of seeing a newspaper of any kind, or of imbibing views from the conversation of others.

During the time this volume has been in the press, several changes have taken place in the Turkish government, all of them tending to confirm me in the opinion that Russia is the only one that is playing her game in the East

PREFACE.

. without having her plans and calculations upset. Turkey is tottering, Austria is trembling, Egypt is between two fires ; France is insincere, and England is humbugged. If my book is abused, I shall have the con solation of knowing that it is abused for its pure unvarnished truth; and if my style is con demned for being Scotch, I reply, the critic has no more right to call Scotticisms vulgarisms, when compared with Anglicisms, than he has to place the broad-shouldered and well-proportioned Highlander beside the effeminate and padded metropolitan exquisite, and then call the hardy child of the mountain vulgarly made. London, 30. h June, 1840. ILLUSTRATIONS. I. — Portrait of the late Sultan, Mahmoud IL, AS HE APPEARED ON HORSEBACK FOR THE LAST TIME, SUPPORTED BY THE LATE CAPITAN P.ASHA and the late Seraskier Pasha . .

To face Title page IT. — Plan of Constantinople and Suburbs. . . To face 92 III. — Turkish Women, Boy, and Grape Seller . To/ace 118 IV. —Armenian and Turk in their Asiatic Costume. To face 121 V. — A Fanaariote Girl at Home and Abroad . To/ace 129 VI. — The favourite Sultana in her State Wagon, with her Attendants, Eunuch, Surrejee, and Tchousbashii, as she entered the Pit of the Theatre at Pera To/ace 220 VII. — Map of Constantinople and the Bosphorus. To face 279 VIII. — The Sultan in his State Caique .... To face CONTENTS. page. Chapter I. — Turkey 1 II. — The Onward Course of the Turks . . 5 III. — The Backward Course of the Turks . . 20 IV. — Reform in Turkey 33 V. — Turkey and Egypt 46 VI. — Turkey and her Subjects .... 55 VII. — Turkey and her Allies . . . . .66 VIII. — History of Constantinople ... 81 IX. —Description of Constantinople ... 92 X.— -The Turks 100 XL — The Rayahs 120 XII. — The Yesirs 127 XIII. — The Musaphirs 135 XIV. — The Franks 137 XV. — Fetes, Fasts, and Festivals . . . .14* XVI. — Burials 165 XVII.— Burial Grounds 181 XVIII. — Hotels, Cafes, and Wine Shops . . 192 XIX — A Cosmopolitan Crowd 203 XX. — The Baths .... 209 XXI. — Theatricals 217 XXII.— The Mosques 226 XXIII.— The Bazaars . 242 XXIV. —The Antiquities 250 XXV. — Education 26° XXVI. — The Arts and Sciences .... 270 XXVII. — The Bosphorus TURKEY AND THE TURKS.

Chapter I. Turkey

The Turkish Empire: its Extent. — Turkey in Europe: its Capahilities, Mountains, Rivers, Seas, Channels. — Turkey in Asia— in Africa. The term Turkey, as applied to any particular part of the world, is not strictly correct, but is generally used to denote those countries under the dominion of the Grand Turk or Sultan. The Turkish empire em braces countries in Europe, Asia, and Africa, extending more or less from the 20th to the 45th degree of north latitude, and from the 10th to the 47th of east longitude; and is founded upon the ruins of some of the most splendid kingdoms and republics that ever existed ; and, in Europe alone, the Turkish sceptre is swayed over more than 150,000 square miles. In an empire of such vast extent, there must of necessity be many variations of temperature and pro duction; but Turkey in Europe may safely be called the garden of the world, for such it was formed to B TURKEY be by nature, although man has transformed it into a vast and howling wilderness.

The climate is for the most part temperate, and the slightest cultiva tion suffices to bring forth the most delicious fruits. Yet agriculture and pasturage are so much neglected that, if Turkey was not supplied with grain from Rus sia, or some other quarter, three fourths of the people must die of famine. The general appearance of Turkey in Europe is mountainous, but yet it is not wanting in beautiful plains and valleys, lakes and rivers, caverns and springs; whilst a great portion of it is bounded by seas and straits, and is, therefore, possessed of every natural advantage for improving the fertility of the soil, and every facility for an extensive commerce. The principal mountains are the grand range of the Haemus or Balkan, on the south of the Danube, running from the south-west to the north-east.

From the western extremity of this range two other extensive chains of mountains break off: one running north and west, between Dalmatia, on the west, and Bosnia and Servia, on the east ; the other, passing towards the south, forms the mountains of Albania and western Greece. The most important rivers in, or bordering upon, Turkey, are — the Danube, which is now navigated by steamers; the Maritz, or ancient Hebrus, which falls into the Ægean Sea, after a course of nearly two hun dred and fifty miles ; the Vardari, or ancient Auxius, which, rising in Mount Scardus, discharges itself into the Gulf of Salonica, after fertilizing nearly two hun dred miles of its course ; the Esker, or ancient Oeskus, IN ASIA AFRICA. the Morava, or ancient Margus, which discharge them selves into the Danube; as well as more than a hun dred rivers of lesser note, but which furnish sufficient irrigation for the rich but neglected soil through which they pass.

Turkey in Europe is bounded, by water, on the east by the Black Sea, the Bosphorus, aud the Sea of Mar mora ; on the south by the Dardanelles and Archipelago, the latter studded with some of the richest islands in the world ; rich in native productions, but blasted, blackened, and devastated, by the tyranny and op pression of man. Turkey in Asia is bounded, by water, on the north by the Black Sea, on the west and south by the Medi terranean; and includes Anatolia, Armenia, Syria, and Egypt ; at least the sultan claims them as his, al though his de facto possession is at present of rather a questionable nature. Turkey in Africa is bounded, by water, on the north by the Mediterranean, and consists of Tunis, Tripoli, and some places of smaller note. But it is not my de sign, in this work, to enter into a minute geographical account of the country, such having been formerly done by more able hands ; my intention being merely to give a brief outline, in order that the present state of Turkey may be more easily understood; and I have been more particular with that part of the empire which is in Europe, on account of the greater impor tance attached to it in the after pages of this volume.

Previous to entering upon the condition of Turkey and the Turks at the present day, it may not be deemed out of place to give a rapid glance at their TURKEY. early history : those of my readers who are well versed in Turkish affairs will of course find no new facts developed; but those who have not studied it so deeply as may be necessary to the understanding of the state into which that empire has fallen will find it as in teresting and useful as the limits I have occupied will admit of.

Chapter II. The Onward Course Of The Turks

Original Tradition of the Turks — Oghus Khan. — Waled. — Migration ofthe Turks. — Genghis Khan. — Soliman. — Ertogrul. — Sultan of Ico nium. — Osman. — The Crusaders. — Fall of the Cross before the Cres cent. — Appearance ofthe Turks in Europe. — Thrace. — Macedonia. — Amurath. — Mahomet II. — Fall of Constantinople. — John Hunniades. — Corinth. — Athens. — The Morea. — The Crimea. — Scandeberg. — Ma thias, King of Hungary. — Bajazet II. — Selim. — Soliman. — The Fall of Rhodes. — Selim II. — Battle ofthe Lepanto. — Amurath III. — Mahomet III. — Achmet. — Mustafa. — Osman II. — Amurath IV. — Ibrahim. — Mahomet IV. It is now nearly five centuries and a half since Osman, or Othman, founded the Ottoman empire, and assumed the title of sultan ; but, previous to that time, the Turks had existed as a warlike nation for at least two thousand years, and they appear to have had kings or chiefs of their own fifteen hundred years before the Christian era.

Their original tradition and belief is, that they are descended from Turk, the son of Japhet, and that they have been a consolidated people, under a hereditary chief, ever since the days of the flood; that Japhet, at his death, gave the care of the family to Turk, who became their chief, and was succeeded by his lineal descendants in the male line. The first mention we have in history of their warlike deeds is in the time of Oghus Khan, about one hundred and forty years before Christ ; when we read of their driving the Cimmerians from the borders of the Palus Mæotis into Upper Asia. At this period the countries they inhabited on the borders of the Palus Mæotis, Euxine, and Caspian, were but thinly b3 populated ; and it is more than probable that the Turks, as a separate race, were then comparatively small ; al though, by intermarriage with the Parthians, Scythi ans, Tatars, etc., they had in some places become mixed, and were known under other names.

Previous to the time of Mahomet the Turks were pagans, and were divided into tribes like the Circassians of the present day. But in the reign of Waled, eighty years after Mahomet, about the 764th year of the Chris tian era, the Arabs invaded their territories, compelled them to embrace the faith of the prophet, and pay tribute to the caliph. The Turks were not however, at that day, disposed to sit quietly down under the yoke of another power; and, accordingly, the invaders themselves were shortly afterwards attacked and driven out ; tribute was refused, but the religion of Mahomet, so suitable to their habits, manners, and ideas, was retained, and has since flourished more amongst them than even where it was originally promulgated. After this time the Turks continued to migrate from the mountains of Bogdo, and, by a slow, gradual, yet steady progress, they united themselves by marriage or conquest with the different Sclavonian and Gothic tribes on the north and east of the Caspian, until, in the Ilth century, they had extended as far as Persia.

About the beginning of the 13th century Genghis Khan gathered all the Turks and tribes of Upper Tatary, against the princes of Balk and Samarcand. But the Turks, without waiting for the rest, set out under their chief, Soliman, and, driving their flocks and herds before them, encamped, in 1214, in Aderbeijan, to the number of about fifty thousand horsemen. FOUNDATION OF THE SELJUKIAN DYNASTY. 7 The other Tatar tribes followed and drove them far ther west into Armenia. Soliman was drowned while attempting to ford the Euphrates, in 1220, and was succeeded by Ertogrul, who appears to have combined the talents of a distinguished warrior, an able legislator, and skilful diplomatist. His alliance was eagerly sought by many other chiefs ; amongst whom was the sultan of Iconium, whose kingdom was harassed by the Tatars under Genghis Khan.

Shortly after the alliance with the sultan, Ertogrul accepted the command of the army, beat off the Tatars, acquired great honours, and left them to his son Osman. Osman or Othman, as before observed, was the founder of the Ottoman empire. The materials of his kingdom were the descendants of that tribe or tribes of the Tatars calling themselves Turks, who had emerged from Upper Tatary in advance of Genghis Khan; and who, after being driven by that Mogul chief as far as the Euphrates, succeeded in driving him back; thus winning by their own swords territory for themselves and their allies, all of whom in the end became sub ject to the Osmanlees. Osman founded the Seljukian dynasty, and ascended the throne in 1300 under the title of sultan. He soon subdued such portions of Asia Minor as had not formerly been included in his sway, and extended his conquests into Georgia, and over the whole of Armenia.

But the progress of his arms suffered a temporary check from the efforts of the Crusaders, and the sultan was obliged by the capture of Nice to remove the seat of government to Iconium. The check was only temporary; and, as European armies, the choice chivalry of the west, appeared on the battle-field one after the other, they were met by hordes of these eastern barbarians, terrible for their fury and numbers. The knights and followers of the cross fought bravely; some of the best of England's blood was left on these eastern battle-fields. But the Greek emperors were more jealous of the progress of the Crusaders than the Turks themselves, and sacrificed the cause of Christianity by the dissensions they sowed amongst the armies; by the neglect to furnish promised assistance, and, above all, by disgraceful treachery.

The crescent prevailed over the cross, the Crusaders were finally driven from Asia, and the Christian inhabitants reduced to slavery. About the middle of the 14th century the Turks made their first appearance in Europe, already formidable by the report of their conquests : they poured down in quantities, of which no man could reckon the number, covering the fairest portion of the world with the blighting of locusts ; destroying or appropriating whatever fell in their way, and massacring the inhabitants without mercy. At first they penetrated into Thrace, the greater part of which they subdued, and then turned their arms with like success against Macedonia, and conquered the whole east of Europe as far as the Danube. Gallipoli soon fell, Adrianople was taken in 1360, where Amurath settled the seat of his empire in Europe, and established the corps of soldiers so long and so fearfully known under the title of Janisaries.

After the fall of Adrianople the tide of Ottoman conquest flowed on, and their arms did not suffer any important check until the battle of Ancyra, in 1402. Here they were defeated, and this defeat, with the efforts of the Venetians, Albanians, and DESTRUCTION OF THE GREEK EMPIRE. 9 Hungarians, stayed the course of their conquest for a while. But on the 29th of May, 1453, Constantinople fell into their hands, and the Roman empire in the east was extinguished. Constantinople now became, under the victorious sceptre of Mahomet II., the seat of empire ; and in the following year he marched an army of twenty thousand men into Servia, and compelled the Servians to guarantee an annual tribute of twenty thousand pounds. In 1455 a fleet was sent against the islands of Rhodes and Chios ; but it failed in its purpose, and returned to the.Dar danelles, after reducing Cos, and some other trifling places.

The sultan then turned his arms against Bel grade, beat down part of the wall, and blockaded the river with sixty vessels ; but the renowned John Hun niades, arriving with a small army, made a furious attack, burnt the navy, routed the army, wounded the sultan in the thigh, and liberated the city. After this defeat Mahomet commenced his plan of entirely subjugating the Morea; and the Greek princes, alarmed at the progress of his arms, began to prepare to retire into Italy. The Albanians, on this, seized upon Greece, and offered the cities and fortresses to the sultan, if he would let them keep the open country. But the sultan marched an army upon the Albanians, de feated them, and exacted tribute from the Greeks. Soon after this the Greeks revolted ; Mahomet entered the country at the head of a powerful army, and, after subjugating it, carried away upwards of two thousand of the first Greek families to Constantinople, where they were sold into slavery.

Corinth, Athens, and the principal cities, were now in the hands of the conqueror. Still the Greeks struggled, but it was in vain ; for by 1459 the whole country was subdued, excepting a few maritime stations held by the Venetians. The Crimea soon shared the fate of the Morea. The emperor of Trebizond was defeated, and put to death, while his country was brought under the Turkish yoke. ' The victorious career of Mahomet was, however, checked at this time by Scandeberg the Epirote, who dispersed an army of 12,000 Turkish cavalry, and slew 7,000 of them, and defeated another, with the loss of their general and 4,000 men. Scandeberg now laid siege to Belgrade, but was defeated, through the treachery of one of his own generals. Nothing dispirited, he however prose cuted the war with energy and talent, routing no less than two armies of 20,000, one of 40,000, another of 30,000, and a fifth of 18,000 men; whereupon, Maho met thought it advisable to conclude a treaty with him in 1461.

The sultan, being now at peace with his most formid able opponent, completed the conquest of the Greek islands, Wallachia, Bosnia, and Illyria. The Venetians, then justly alarmed, entered into an alliance with the Hungarians, for the purpose of preventing the farther stride of conquest ; an alliance which, notwithstanding his treaty, Scandeberg willingly joined. The Hungarians invaded the Turkish dominions on the west, and carried off twenty thousand slaves. The Venetians attacked them on the south, but, after making some conquests, were obliged to abandon their enterprise; and, being defeated in two battles by the land, solicited assistance of France, Germany, and Spain. This assistance arriving, they again entered the Morea ; but, being again repuls- SCANDEBERG. — RHODES. BAJAZET. 11 ed, applied for assistance to Mathias, king of Hungary, who soon ravaged Servia, carrying off prisoners and spoil to an immense amount.

Mahomet first tried to grain over Scandeberg as an ally ; but, not succeeding, sent army after army against him. These, however, were uniformly defeated and dispersed. In 1466 death carried off Scandeberg from the scene of his heroism, and the sultan, being once more freed from his most formidable foe, completed the subjugation of Epirus and Albania. In 1469 the Venetians defeated him in a pitched battle, and entered into an alliance, to oppose him, with the kings of Naples and Cyprus, and the Grand Master of Rhodes ; while they also en couraged the king of Persia to attack him from the east. Mahomet, however, was undaunted, and, having de feated the Persians, reduced the Venetians to conclude a treaty of peace in 1479. In 1480 the war was again renewed, Rhodes be sieged, the city of Cephalonia taken from the Vene tians, Italy invaded, and Otranto reduced.

After which, Mahomet II., dying, was succeeded by his son Bajazet II., who soon began a war with the Mamelukes, which ended, under Selim I., in their entire subjugation. To wards the end of the 15th century Circassia was ren dered tributary; Caramania and Croatia entirely re duced; Lepanto, Modon, and Duraz taken; Syria and Moldavia invaded and laid waste; until, in 1503, ano ther treaty of peace was concluded. In 1512 Bajazet was murdered by his second son, Selim, who ascended the throne, and, raising an army, marched against his brother, defeated his forces, and put him to an ignominious death. He then attacked the Persians, defeated them in a great battle, took the city of Taurus, and turned his arms against Egypt, which he reduced in 1517, and died in 1519, while maturing a plan for the capture of Rhodes.

Soliman succeeded his father, Selim, and was scarcely seated on the throne, when, the governor of Damascus re belling, he sent an army against him, defeated and slew him. In 1520 he invaded Hungary, and took possession of Belgrade. In 1522 after a most gallant resistance, Rhodes fell before the almost invincible might of his army; and Christmas morning of that year saw the Mussulman conqueror enter the city, and openly profane the temples of the Christians, who had fought so long and so unweariedly in their defence. In 1526 the war with Hungary was continued with more vigour, the Turkish army there was increased to two hundred thousand men, and the king of Hungary, rashly engaging in it with an army of only twenty-five thousand, was utterly defeated. In the flight, the king was drowned in a ditch, and shortly afterwards Buda fell into the hands of the Turks.

It was, however, retaken by the Hungarians in 1528, and again by the Turks in 1529. Moldavia now sub mitted to the yoke, and Austria was invaded ; but, the weather proving unfavourable, Soliman was obliged to retire from Vienna, and was soon after entirely expelled from all parts of Germany; whereupon he turned his arms toward the east, subdued Georgia, and took the city of Bagdad. In 1540 Hungary was reduced to be a Turkish province. In 1552 the bannat of Temeswar was subjugated. Malta, however, baffled his arms in 1565; and in 1566 death put an end to his career. Selim II. succeeded his father, Soliman, and in BATTLE OF UEPANTO. 13 the Venetians were obliged to surrender the island of Cyprus to his arms ; but the Turks having lost the naval battle of Lepanto, their maritime power was for ever crippled.

This engagement, one of the most remarkable ever fought, deserves particular attention. The Christian fleet was commanded by Doria, th celebrated Venetian admiral, and consisted of seventy eight Spanish and three Maltese galleys, under John of Austria, natural son to Charles V. ; one hundred and eight Venetian galleys, six galleasses, two tall ships, and eighteen galliots, under Venieri, a well-known commander of the Republic ; and twelve Papal galleys, under Colonna, a relative of the Pope. On board this fleet were upwards of twenty thousand soldiers, many of them veterans and knights of renown. The Turkish fleet consisted of three hundred and thirty-five sail, under Ali Pasha, who was at that time the capitan pasha. The most experienced of the Turkish leaders were op posed to an engagement, but Ali Pasha was determined to risk it ; and Parteu Pasha, the capudan bey, having taken on board sixteen thousand Janisaries and other soldiers, the fleet started down the gulf for the island of Corzalates, between Lepanto and Patras.

The fleets came in sight of each other in the afternoon of the 7th of October. John of Austria immediately ordered the signal for engaging to be hoisted, and rowed through the centre division of the fleet in his long boat, in order to encourage them, while Doria did the same in the right division, and Barbadico, a Venetian, in the left. The signal for action was no sooner made than the Turks, with a furious cry that "rent the very sea," as an old historian relates, fell upon six galleasses, which lay at anchor c about a mile a-head of the combined fleets; but those vessels poured in such a destructive fire on their assailants that several of the Turkish ships were sunk, and the remainder sheered off. At this juncture the wind shifted round to the west, and, covering the Turkish fleet with smoke, seriously incommoded them in their movements.

The Turkish commanders, however, soon rallied, and came on to the battle with the most determined bravery ; but the fury of the Osmanlees was not a match for the cool science of the Christians, and, after an action of several hours, victory declared itself for the followers of the cross. The number slain or drowned in this engagement has never been accurately ascertained, but it is computed that thirty-two thousand Turks and four thousand Christian prisoners lost their lives in the Turkish fleet : two hundred and twenty-one Turkish vessels were captured, forty sunk, and seventy-four escaped. Notwithstanding this awful loss, the new capitan pasha, Kili Ali Pasha, fitted out next year a fleet of two hundred and fifty sail, with which he ravaged the coast of the Christians, and managed his manœuvres so well that he escaped with impunity.

On land, the Turks were all but invincible, and they again invaded Hungary with various successes and defeats. In 1574 Amurath III. succeeded his father, Selim II.: during his reign the Mussulman arms received several severe checks from the German confederation. He was a man of a morbid and melancholy disposition ; and, the discharge of a cannon having broken one of his palace windows as he reclined on his divan, he imagined that it portended his death, and died from encouraging the belief. MAHOMET III. — ACHMET. 15 In 1594 Mahomet III. succeeded his father, Amurath III., or, as he is sometimes called, Amurat III., and, sometimes, Morad III., and began his reign by destroy ing nineteen of his brothers; and causing ten of his father's wives and concubines to be thrown into the Bosphorus, under a suspicion that they might prove with child.

At first he carried on his wars in Germany by his pashas; but, not being so successful as he wished, he afterwards went himself to Buda, with two hundred thousand men; and, having taken Agri, returned to Con stantinople. He was a man of a most savage and blood thirsty disposition ; and, when the Turks took Alba-regalis by capitulation, and guaranteed the Christians their lives, they were all afterwards put to death. He also destroyed his own son and his son's mother, on suspicion of attempting to dethrone him. During his reign the Emperor Rodolph II. entered into an alliance against him with the princes of Transylvania, Wallachia, and Moldavia, defeating his armies in many engagements, which ended in the Turks being entirely driven out of these countries ; and, whilst treating with the emperor of Germany for a peace, in January, 1604, he suddenly died, from the consequences of his debauched and dissi pated habits.

In 1604 Achmet, second son of Mahomet III., succeeded to the throne, at the age of fifteen. The reign of Achmet was more distinguished by domestic than national wars. His life was attempted by a dervish, who rolled down upon him from the roof of a house a heavy stone, but w*hich only hurt his shoulder. In his twenty-third year he soundly beat his favourite sultana, because she had strangled one of his sister's slaves, of whom he had become enamoured ; and died on the 15th of November, 1617. Mustafa succeeded his brother Achmet, but made himself so odious by his cruelties that in 1621 he was deposed by the Janisaries. Osman or Othman IL, son of Achmet, was dragged from prison to occupy the throne from which his uncle had just been deposed. He had not been long on the throne when he began a war against Poland, and marched there at the head of an army of three hundred thousand men.