Five Years in Damascus ... With travels and researches in Palmyra, Lebanon, and the Hauran

Preface

. The following work is not a book of travels, penned during a " summer's ramble " or a " winter's residence." It is the result of researches extending over a period of more than five years. Though I have wandered through most of Palestine, I have here confined my attention to a few provinces hitherto but little known ; my object being not so much to amuse as to instruct. My pro fessional duties not only obliged me to study the language and customs of the people of the land, but to traverse their country, and visit their towns and viUages. I have thus had opportunities of minutely examining the topography and antiquities, and of acquiring information regarding ancient sites, such as are enjoyed by few travellers. My tastes also led me to improve every opportunity I possessed, and to study the ancient geo graphy and history of Palestine combined with the best works of modern travel.

The district to which my researches have here been con fined is among the most interesting in Syria. Damascus has been a city from the time when Abraham left his home " between the rivers," to journey westward to the " Land a

PREFACE.

. of Promise." It is thus a connecting link between the patriarchal age and modern days; and its beauty and richness have been proverbial for full four thousand years. A romantic interest will be attached to Palmyra, the desert home of Zenobia, while history exists ; and Lebanon and Hermon will not cease to be remembered with liveliest feelings so long as the Word of God con tinues to bless the world. Bashan, too, has been im mortalized by the song of the Psalmist ; and now it possesses additional interest, as containing the only existing specimens of the ordinary dwellings of remote anti quity, and of the architecture of a race of giants that has been extinct for three thousand years. Though a part of this district has already been traversed by others, yet a large portion of it is new ground ; and none of it has hitherto been examined with that minuteness which its importance demands.

Burckhardt possessed all the qualifications necessary for a successful explorer — a knowledge of the language, powers of accurate observa tion, and an enthusiastic love for discovery; but unfor tunately he did not live to publish his own notes. Many parts of his work are thus meagre and obscure ; and in not a few places there are inaccuracies which he would doubtless have corrected on subsequent revision. Bitter, in the last edition of his ' Palastina und Syrien,' has, with his accustomed research , collected all the information given by travellers and other writers ; but a perusal of that learned work will best show to the reader how much new

PREFACE.

. V light I have been enabled to throw on the historical geography of this portion of Syria. The plan I have followed has been, accurately to describe the features of the country through which I travelled, and the state of the towns and villages I visited, and then to add such historical notices as ancient autho rities furnish. The latter I have, with a very few exceptions, taken from the originals. I have attempted to define, and, I believe, with a near approach to accuracy, the boundaries of the ancient kingdom of Bashan, and the position and extent of the provinces into which it was subsequently divided. I have described the scenery and character of the "Abana and Pharpar, rivers of Damascus," from their sources amid the heights of Antilebanon and Hermon to where they empty their waters into hitherto unknown lakes on the borders of the Great Desert.

While wandering through Bible lands my chief object has been to illustrate Bible truths ; and the result of ex tensive travel, and no little research, has been to impress upon my mind the fact that the more we extend our labours in Palestine, whether as antiquarians, geographers, or politicians, the more strongly are we convinced of the literal fulfilment of prophecy, and of the minute accuracy of the topographical and statistical sketches contained in the Word of God. The map attached to this work has been constructed by myself, almost wholly from my own observations and surveys. My sextant and compass were my constant a VI

PREFACE.

. companions on every excursion, and were used wherever opportunity offered and circumstances required. The great changes effected by my labours on this part of the map of Syria will be obvious to every student of geo graphy ; and their accuracy can be tested by future tra vellers. The Jordan and its lakes were laid down from the map of Lieut. Lynch ; and the western slopes of Lebanon were constructed from the best authorities. All the rest is my own. Its merits — if any it has — are mine ; and for its defects I alone am responsible. The plans and woodcuts are all original, and have, with two exceptions, been engraved from my own drawings. I cannot conclude without recording my obligations to my kind friend and companion during many a day's travel, the Eev. Smylie Eobson, who not only gave me important assistance in my labours, but carefully perused the manuscript when ready for the press.

To the Eev. James Earnett I am also much indebted for the use of his notes, and of the numerous inscriptions he copied during our journey in the Hauran. To another esteemed friend and fellow-traveller, James Graham, Esq., I owe thanks for the photographs of the Great Mosk and East Gate of Damascus, and for many acts of personal kindness. St. Helier, Jersey, September 2\st, 1855. CONTENTS OF VOLUME I.

Introduction

.

BEYROUT TO DAMASCUS. First sight of Syria — Bay of Beyrout — Scenery — Hotel de Belle Vue — Start for Damascus — Mode of travel — Mountain road — Scenery and geology of Lebanon — Syrian horses — Bhamdun — Route to summit of mountain — Watershed — Rock sculpture — -Castle and ancient tombs — The Litany — The Buka'a — Ruined temple — Site and history of Chalcis — Night quarters — Wady Harir — Watershed of Antilibanus — Wady el-Kurn — Banditti — Ridges of Antilibanus — Plain of Sahra — Approach to Damascus Page 1-23

Chapter II. Damascus

— TOPOGRAPHY AND ANTIQUITIES. V Mode of treating these topics — Scarcity of information — Ibn Asaker's histoiy — Antiquity of Damascus — Its situation — Its plain — The Abana and Pharpar — System of irrigation — Splendid view — The streets — Costumes — Mosks — Khans — Private houses — The Harim — The house of 'Aly Aga and his tragic fate p. 24—38 •X ANCIENT Walls : Misrepresentations of travellers — -The East Gate — Bas-reliefs — Spot where Paul was let down in a basket — St. George the Porter — Scene of Paul's conversion — Tomb of Mohammed's Muezzin — , Muslem tombs — Roman gate — Mosk of Sen&n Pasha — The West Gate — The " Street called Straight " — Cemeteries — Greek bazaar — The castle — Gigantic plane-tree — Gates — Khaled's head-quarters — House ■ it Naaman 38-55 Walk through the City : Churches and convents — House of Ananias — Greek church — Russian schools — Bazaars and trades — Great Khan — Nur ed-Din — Slave-market 55-61 .. tiREAT MOSK : Triumphal arch — Head of John the Baptist — Ancient gate and inscription — Age of the building — Its history and splendour — Tombs of Saladin and Melek ed-Dhaher — Mosk of Sultan Selim 61-77 CONTENTS OF VOL. I.

Chapter III. History Op Damascus

1 st Period : First notice in Bible — When founded, and by whom — Tradition of Abraham — David takes city — Ben-Hadad and his royal line — Rezon — Samaria besieged — Kingdom of Damascus — Elijah — Naaman — Elisha — Hazael — City taken by Jeroboam — By Tiglath-pileser. Ind Period: Fulfilment of prophecy — Fall of Assyrian Empire — The city captured by Pharaoh-Necho, and by Nebuchadnezzar — Alexander tlie Great. 3rd Period : Damascus under the Ptolemies — Growing influence of Rome — Fall of Egyptian rule in Syria — Division of empire of the Seleucidæ — Damascus again a royal city — Aretas — Fall of the Seleucidæ — The city taken by the Romans — Pompey. 4th Period : Damascus under the Romans — Cleopatra — Antioch — Strabo's account of the city — Nicolaus the historian — Aretas and Herod — Spread of Christianity — Paul's conversion — Apollodorus the architect — The city taken by Sapor — Odenathus and Zenobia — Damascus a Metropolitan city — Captured by Persians — Besieged and taken by Mohammedans. 5th Period : Under the Arabs — Muslem dynasties — The Crusaders — Saladin — The Mamlukes — Origin and history of the Turks — Conquests of Timiir — Awful massacre — Sultan Selim conquers Syria — Turkish policy — Ibrahim Pasha — Richard Wood, Esq Page 78-148

Chapter IV. Journey To Palmy'ra

Bedawy Slieilih — Dromedaries and their saddles — Gardens — The mirage — Mountain pass — Kuteifeh — Evening entertainment — Frank sorcery — Early rising — Jersid — Sheikh Fares and Arab cavaliers — Bordelwarfare — Salt marsh — The desert — Tlie Bedawy in the desert Encampment of Bedawin — Patriarchal customs — A feast — Evening party in a tent — Night adventure — Excitement of desert travel — A chace Bedawy Harims — Enemies — Preparations for battle — Singular mountain — Encounter with robbers — Arab hospitality — Cold march Robbers — The spoils of a caravan — Illustrations of Scripture Bedawv women — Apprehended dangers — Geological features — First view of Tadmor — A " charge " — Attack and capture of our party — Our prison — Alarming conversation — A comic scene — Ride to Palmyra — Description of the ruins — Historical sketch — Return — Route of Jacob Kuryetein identified with Hazar-enan p. 149-254 CONTENTS OF VOL. I. IX

Chapter V. The Valley And Fountain Of The Barada

— THE ANCIENT ABANA. The Barada — The Salahiyeh hills — Dummar — Fine valley — Ancient aqueduct — Great fountain of Fijeh — Wady Barada — Suk, the ancient Aeila — Roman Road and aqueducts — Inscriptions — Discoveries of M. de Saulcy — History of Abila — Sublime pass — Roman bridges — — Plain of Zebdany — Fountain of the Barada — Physical geography of district — The " Rivers of Damascus" identified . . Page 255-278

Chapter VI. Mount Hermon, And The Sources Of The Pharpar And Jordan

Bludan — Ancient " High Place" — Mountains of Antilibanus — -Inaccuracy of maps — Banditti — Fearful tale — Kasheiya and its prince — Ascent of Hermon — Interesting ruins on summit — The sources of the Pharpar — Descent to Hasbeiya — Source of the Nahr Hasbany — Tell el-Kidy, Dan, and the fountains of the Jordan — Banias, Cæsarea Philippi — Great castle of Banias — The Lake Phialu, and Roman Road — Extent of Jebel esh-Sheikh and Jebel el-Heish — Arab robbers — Beit Jenn and the second source of the Pharpar — M. de Saury's discoveries (?) — Description of the Pliar-par — Approach to Damascus from the west . p. 279-322

Chapter VII. Helbon

Tradition of Abraham — Grand defile of M'araba — Menin and its excavated temples — The vale and vineyards of Helbon — Sublime pass of 'Ain es- Saheb — The site of Helbon identified — Greek inscriptions — Ride over Anti-Lebanon p. 323-336 CONTENTS OF VOL. I. X

Chapter VIII. Eastern Slopes Of Antilibanus, And Plain Of Damascus

Roman road — Beautiful view os the Ghutah — Convent of Saidnaya — Miraculous image of the Virgin — Ancient tombs and ruins — Saidnaya the ancient Danaba — Ravine and sepulchral caves of Jubb 'Adin — M'alula — Wild pass and excavated tombs — Topography of the eastern slopes of Antilibanus — The Syriac language spoken — Yabrud, the ancient Jabnida, and its ruins — Night march to Kuteifeh — Dangers of travel — Fine temple at Maksura — Ruined town discovered — Probably the ancient Telseœ Page 337-372

Chapter IX. The Plain And Lakes Of Damascus

Druze war — Fine scenery of the plain — " Harran of the Columns " — Mouth of the Abana — The character and extent of the South and East lakes — A battle-field — Singular ruins — Adventure in the marshes — Tell es-Salahiyeh, an Assyrian mound — The lake Hijaneh and mouth of the Pharpar — The SafS p. 373-395 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. VOL. I. Mosk of the Omeiyades Frontispiece Northern Side Arch, East Gate, Damascus page 24 View of Damascus from the North-east to face p. 26 Front Elevation of East Gate, Damascus 38 Plan of Great Mosk, Damascus to face p. 61 Remains of Triumphal Arch 62 Hollow-headed Arrow 126 Plan of Palmyra to face p. 220 Aqueduct 223 Interior of Tomb 232 Plan of Site of the ancient Abila to face p. 263 'Ain Saheb — the Entrance to Helbon to face -p. 323 Kurdish Shepherd 337 Tell es-Salahiyeh to faces. 373 Singular Bas-relief 384 Plan of Damascus at the end. FIVE YEARS IN DAMASCUS, etc. etc.

Chapter I. Introduction

.

— BEYROUT TO DAMASCUS. First sight of Syria — Bay of Beyrout — Scenery — Hotel de Belle Vue — Start for Damascus — Mode of travel — Mountain road — Scenery and geology of Lebanon — Syrian horses — Bhamdun — Route to summit of mountain — Watershed — Rock sculpture — Castle and ancient tombs — The Litany — The Buka'a — Ruined temple — Site and history of Chalcis — Night quarters — Wady Harir —Watershed of Antilibanus — Wady el-Kurn — Banditti — Ridges of Antilibanus — Plain of Sahra — Approach to Damascus, In this age of locomotion the romance of travel is gone, and a library of Eesearches, Narratives, and Memorials makes the wanderer familiar with every object of interest, and with all its associations, classic or sacred, ere his eye rests upon it. Still the first sight of the Syrian shores, and of the mountains of Israel, is not soon forgotten.

There is a magic power in the living reality which neither poet's pen nor painter's pencil can ever appropriate. The descriptions of others, however graphic, and even the sketch of the artist, however faithful, only place before the mind's eye an ideal scene, which we can contemplate, it is true, with unmingled pleasure, and even with satis faction ; but when the eye wanders over plain and mountain, or the foot touches " holy ground," the superiority VOL. I. B Chap. 1.

INTRODUCTION.

. 2 of the real over the ideal is at once felt and acknowledged. Such, at least, has been my experience. Often had I pictured the beauty of Syria's landscapes and the grandeur of its ruins, and often had I thought of the holy associations that would crowd upon the mind as the eye rested on spots celebrated in history or sanctified by Holy Writ ; but a single glance at the magnificent panorama of Lebanon gave rise to emotions I never before had expe rienced, and occasioned more real pleasure than the perusal of a host of volumes. I was still asleep, when, on the morning of December 12th, 1849, our little steamer cast anchor in the bay of Beyrout. The stopping of the engines and the hoarse sound of the running cable speedily roused me. I hast ened on deck to gaze on that " goodly mountain," and leisurely to enjoy the first view of these hallowed shores ; but the bustling scene in the midst of which i emerged, and the babel of tongues that fed upon my ear, completely took me by surprise, and engaged my attention for the time.

Numbers of little boats, with fantastically dressed occupants, already danced upon the swelling waves round our vessel ; and scores of eager porters shouted their deep gutturals in the ears of impatient travellers, as if an excess of sound would render their unknown tongue intelligible. Hotel proprietors and servants, in bad French and worse English, set forth the superiority of their respective esta blishments. Experience had taught me how to get rid of the annoyance of a multitude, by committing myself into the custody of one. I therefore expressed my determina tion to take up my abode at the " Hotel de Belle Vue" of Antonio Trcmetsi. No sooner had I pronounced the name than a little man, not unlike a retired sailor, bustled through the crowd, and, taking off his broad straw, said, with a profound bow, " Your humble servant, sir." It was Antonio himself, all smiles and politeness.

We were soon transferred to his boat, and I had now time to con template at leisure the magnificent scenery before me. On the south was the fine headland of Eas Beyrout, whose gardens and mulberry groves touched the black rocks against which the long waves broke into showers of diamond spray. Before us lay the town itself, washed by the waters and embowered in richest verdure. The wooded heights behind were thickly studded with pictur esque villas, beside which, over a mass of underwood, rose here and there a solitary palm or stately cypress. Farther to the left the bay of St. George sweeps round for several miles in a graceful curve, until the white sand of its smooth beach is abruptly shut in by the lofty projecting cliff that forms the southern bank of the Dog river. Northward the eye followed the shore-line, with its spacious bays and bold promontories, until lost in the distance.

Belund all, from north to south, far as the eye could see, stretched the noble ridge of Lebanon, its sides deeply furrowed by many a wdd ravine, and its whole summit now white with snow. Scores of villages could be seen clinging to the terraced slopes, or perched on the rugged ridges ; while convents, still more numerous, crowned every peak and precipice. Often since that time have I gazed on the same scene, and always with increased admiration. The "glory of Lebanon," though faded, is still worthy of its ancient fame. We were soon established in the humble chambers of B

INTRODUCTION.

. Chap. I. the " Hotel de Belle Vue," where we remained for three weeks. The house was then poor, and badly constructed for a winter residence ; but if an occasional shower found its way to us through porous walls and leaky roof, or a sudden squall burst open the frail shutters of our unglazed windows, some amends were made by the balmy air we breathed and the splendid prospect we enjoyed during the long hours of sunshine ; and the uniform kindness and profuse excuses of our good-natured little host made com plaint impossible. During our stay we had ample oppor tunity of examining the few remains still existing of the ancient Beritus. An excursion to the wild ravine and interesting monuments of Nahr el-Kelb,1 and some long rides in the gardens and pine-forest, afforded a pleasing variety. We had landed on the Syrian shores total strangers, alike unknowing and unknown ; but we speedily found friends whose cheerful society and kind hospitality almost made us forget that home and country were far away.

And after two months' wandering amid the bust ling and exciting scenes of the great cities of Europe, we were prepared to enjoy to the full the charms of the quiet family circle. As Bey rout did not form the field of my intended labour, I was anxious to complete my journey, and pass the mountains to Damascus. I engaged as dragoman and instructor in the Arabic language Nikola Ameuny, who was highly recommended to me by my friend Mr. Smith. The opportune arrival of Dr. Paulding, of the Damascus Mission, made us resolve to accompany him on his return 1 The Nahr el-Kelb (Dog River) is the Lycus flumen of the ancients. It will be fully described in the sequel. to that city, that we might enjoy the pleasure of his society and the benefit of his experience on the road. All arrangements having been completed, we agreed to start on Thursday, the 3rd of January, 1850, and at noon we were all in the saddle.

It was a new and interesting sight to us to observe our little caravan winding through the narrow cactus-lined lanes, and then emerging into the broad sandy avenues of the pine-forest. The strange garb of our native attendants and muleteers, the gay trappings of our baggage animals, adorned with innumerable little shells and bits of red, white, and green cloth, and the odd-looking tasseled bridles of our own steeds, formed a fantastic picture. From the pine-forest we descended to a lower part of the plain or promontory, where, amid dense groves of mulberries, rise up a number of tad and graceful palms. Farther to the south is an extensive tract covered with fine olive-trees. The heat here is intense during the summer months, as the sandy clowns to the westward strongly reflect the sun's rays, while they almost completely check the fresh sea breezes.

In an hour we reached the foot of the mountains, and at once commenced the ascent of a bleak and rugged slope. The soft limestone rock projected on every side in rounded masses, and large boulders with smaller fragments almost covered the scanty sod. The scenery gradually becomes more picturesque and grand as a higher elevation is gained. The caravan-road, which, however, is little better than a goat-path, runs up along the summit of a great ridge, having on the south the deep Wady Shahrur, beautifully terraced, and clothed with the mul- Chap. I. 6

INTRODUCTION.

. berry and the vine ; and on the north Wady Hummana, through which descends the river of Beyrout, in a swift and turbid course, to the plain. Some parts of the latter are wdd in the extreme, dark frowning cliffs enclosing the torrent in a ravine so narrow that it seems like a great fissure in the mountain side. In an hour and a quarter from the plain we reached a large khan or caravanserai, with a well-built reservoir in front. Here commences the bed of red sandstone that extends from the Metn in a broad belt away southward along the slope of the moun tains. This sandstone is soft and friable, and the disin tegrated particles in many places cover the compact stone to a depth of several inches. It is strongly impregnated with iron, alum, and lime. It is evidently a formation of a much later period than the cretacious accumulations along the base of Lebanon ; and these again are later than the limestone which constitutes the great mass of the ridge.

This change in the geological features gives variety to the scenery, and greatly enhances its beauty. The regular and graceful hills, which are characteristic of the sandstone strata, are widely diffused over the district of the Metn, and, in almost every spot where the husband man cannot pursue his labours, are covered with forests of pine. These contrast well with the bold cliffs of the white limestone, here and there clothed in the bright green of the ilex. Noble prospects now open up before the eye as every new peak is surmounted. The junction of the wild glens of Hummana and Salima beneath the ruin-crowned heights of Deir-el-Kulah, on the north, forms a glorious picture ; while on every side villao-es appear clinging to the precipitous banks of wooded ravines, or scattered among the gardens of some peak or piece of table-land.2 A short distance above the khan the road ascends an almost perpendicular cliff by an erratic zigzag route.

On first examination one almost despairs of his horse being able to scale the steep, or to find footing along the shelving rocks ; but the Syrian horses are accustomed to such paths, so that it seems but play for them to spring up the rugged and irregular stairs, or clamber along the narrow and slippery path, which the winter torrent has wed-nigh carried away. It is somewhat startling to the inexpe rienced traveller, too, when he clings to the saddle as his steed assumes a vertical attitude, or passes along the precipice brink, where a single false step would hurl him hundreds of feet below. But experience teaches him to place confidence in his careful and wiry Arab, and to ride, without thought of fear, along paths where an English foxhunter would deem it madness to risk his neck. Another hour and a half we clambered up a stony ridge, covered here and there with vineyards and fig-orchards, and then reached Khan Hussein ; and twenty minutes after we arrived at the brow of a deep ravine, high up on the opposite bank of which stood the village of Bhamdun.

Here we had arranged to spend the night in the summer house of Mr. Smith. The direct road leads from this point across the glen, but it is fearfully steep, and for a lady even dangerous. We consequently followed the 2 The best account yet given of the geology of Lebanon is that by Dr. Anderson in Lynch's ' Official Report of the United States Expe dition.' It is much to be regretted that his time did not allow him to notice the whole mountain range. His remarks on the southern section are very valuable. Chap. I. 8

INTRODUCTION.

. Damascus road, on its northern side, half an hour farther, when we turned to the right, and, sweeping round the head of the ravine and along its southern bank, we reached Bhamdun in half an hour.. It was now quite dark, and we had considerable difficulty in finding our habitation. The house, when found, was cheerless enough, untd a fire was kindled, our travelling beds prepared, and dinner served. The villagers soon pressed in to see and welcome us. Many of them have been for years under the instructions of Mr. Smith and his associates, and are now consistent members of the Protestant Church that has been here formed in connexion with the American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions. Schools have also been established, and these, with the other departments of the Mission work, have greatly increased in extent and efficiency since the period of my visit.3 January 4t7i. — We were up long before the dawn, and I had time to glance at the surrounding country ere the servants were ready for departure.

Bhamdun is situated on the southern brow of a wild ravine, which commencing, 7 CS as has been stated, half an hour higher up, runs down in a direction south-west for about three mdes, when it sweeps round to the southward, increasing in depth and grandeur tdl it joins the Wady el-Eady, near the spot where it is crossed by the Deir el-Kamr and Beyrout road. The view from the vdlage is very extensive; but the bare white ridges on the west and north almost cover the noble 3 It is scarcely necessary to inform the reader that the Rev. (now Dr.) Eli Smith was the associate of Dr. Robinson during his researches in Palestine. He is also author of ' Researches in Armenia;' and is well known as a profound Arabic scholar. scenery of the Metn, and render the mountain prospect bleak and uninteresting. Beyrout and its promontory are visible, and beyond lies the vast expanse of the Mediter ranean.

So clear is the atmosphere and so commanding the position, that I have distinctly seen the island of Cyprus with the naked eye, and have observed more than once the noble summit of Olympus towering high above the neighbouring hills. Around Bhamdun are extensive beds of fossil sheds, composed chiefly of the Ostræa, Chenopus, and Nerinea. The latter are found strewn in innumerable quantities over the surface of flat slabs ; and, the shells being very small, they present a singular and beautiful appearance. The elevation of the village, as shown by the aneroid, is 3338 feet. We mounted our horses at seven o'clock, and in half an hour reached the Damascus road near the Khan Buweisat. The northern part of Wady Hummana now opened up to our view. It resembles a vast basin ; the bottom is finely cultivated in terraces, and the sides steep, and, in some places, precipices of naked rock.

On the east, high above the neighbouring mountains, rises the snow-capped sum mit of Jebel Kuneiyiseh. The road now leads over swelling ground, bare and destitute of features ; and after passing a rocky ridge, descends to Khan Modeirej, situated in a rugged dell. This we reached at 8-45. Above the khan the road is among the worst in Lebanon. A steep slope is thickly covered with huge fragments of sharp limestone rocks, amid which the poor animals can scarcely find a level spot to plant their feet, and often sink down helpless beneath their burdens. When this is surmounted, a narrow shelving path is before them, leading along the B side of a fearful precipice overhanging the great valley. In forty minutes we gained the highest point, having an elevation of 5600 feet. The view toward the west is now very grand, the eye following the windings ofthe wild glen of Hummana till it rests on the bright waters of the great sea far below.

Half an hour more over bleak and uninteresting ground brought us to the water-shed where two wadys commence on opposite sides of a narrow ridge. One flows westward, cutting through the mountains con siderably to the south of the road ; while the other runs south-east direct to the Buka'a. The ordinary road leads down the left bank of the latter, by Khan Murad and Mekseh, to the plain ; but we took a path on the right bank, in order to visit a piece of sculpture described as lying on this route. The eastern slopes of Libanus, from the Damascus road southwards, are altogether different in character and aspect from the western. The descent is uniform and abrupt from the summits to the plain. Few spots are capable of cultivation, and the scenery is destitute of that boldness and grandeur everywhere seen amid the ravines and peaks on the west.