The Rivers, Mountains and Sea-Coast of Yorkshire. With essays on the climate, scenery, and ancient inhabitants of the county

Front matter

ELEVATION OF GROUND IN YOHKSH1R1-', THE RIVERS, MOUNTAINS, AND SEA-COAST OF YORKSHIRE. WITH ESSAYS ON THE CLIMATE, SCENERY, AND ANCIENT INHABITANTS OF THE COUNTY. BY JOHN PHILLIPS, P.P.S., AUTHOR OF ILLUSTRATIONS OF THE GFOLOGT OF YORKSHIRE, AND OF A GEOLOGICAL MAP OF THE COUNTY. WITH THIRTY-SIX PLATES. LONDON: JOHN MURRAY, ALBEMARLE STREET. 1853. PRINTED BY TAYLOR AND FRANCIS, RED LION COURT, FLEET STREET. TO THE FRIENDS WHO HAVE SHARED AND PROMOTED MY INVESTIGATIONS INTO THE NATURAL HISTORY AND ANTIQUITIES OF YORKSHIRE, THIS WORK IS MOST RESPECTFULLY AND GRATEFULLY DEDICATED.

Preface

. From childhood my attention has been fixed on the great County in which most of the labours and enjoy ments of my life have been experienced. Long before my eyes rested on the mountains of the north of England, the mighty form of Ingleborough was engraved in my imagination by many a vivid description ; and when I crossed the old Gothic bridge, and beheld the glorious Church, which is the pride and veneration of Yorkshire, it was but the realization of a long-indulged dream of boyhood. Few, I hope, wdl censure the grateful feehng which accompanies this record of some of the thoughts which have filled my mind, while renewing health and strength ening hope, on the mountains and in the dales, by the rivers and ruins of Yorkshire, and while seconding or prompting the efforts of many dear friends to unfold the Natural History and Antiquities, so richly spread round the great Towers of the Minster.

There exists, I believe, nothing in print, which pro fesses to do what is here attempted ; — to win from the hasty traveller an hour's delay at the station, a day's

PREFACE.

. VIII wandering by the waterfalls, a week's ramble over rocky hills. Valuable works, indeed, there are of Local Topo graphy and Antiquities, but not much of a general cha racter, to plead with the Residents of the County for a better knowledge of its natural beauties, and the memorials of its old inhabitants. There is, indeed, a large harvest to reap, and much inducement to gather it. The Physical Geography and Scenery of the County have been too little considered ; the various elements of Climate which reign on its long line of romantic coast, its broad fertile valleys, and ranges of barren mountains, but little inferior to their neigh bours in Cumberland, have not been recorded ; the vast spaces of new land which Art and Nature have conquered from the sea, have yielded more rents than reflections ; the roads and camps of the Romans, and the earlier sites of Brigantian tribes, are travelled over with little thought of the ages to which they belong.

With the hope of supplying some of these desiderata, of inciting Residents to study, and visitors to explore, this magnificent County, I venture to add this volume of general description to those larger works on the Geology of Yorkshhe, for the indulgent reception of which the Author is profoundly grateful. St. Man's Lodge, York, 1 November 1852. CONTENTS

Chapter I. Principal Features Of Physical Geography

Page Natural boundaries and divisions of Y'orkshire 1 Natural districts classed 2 Dependence of natural features on geological structure 5 Main slopes ofthe surface 6 Physical origin of these 7 Valleys originally shaped by the sea 9 Features of individual hills, valleys and cliffs 10 Waterfalls, their origin ., 12 Fissures, Swallow holes, caves 13 Geology explains Physical Geography 15

Chapter II. Mountains Of Yorkshire

Mickle Fell group — peculiar plants 16 Stainmoor — transport of erratics — the ancient Camp of Rey Cross .... 18 Hougill Fells— Codley Spout 20 Water Crag— Swaledale Head 20 Shunnor Fell— the Buttertubs— Wild Boar Fell 21 Widdale Fell— Dod Fell 22 Fells between Yroredale and Wharfedale 23 Fells between Wharfedale and Nidderdale 24 Whernside — Great Colm — Yordas Cave 24 Ingleborough — Yarlsber — ancient camp on the summit 26 Ingleborough Caverns 29-35 Geology of Ingleborough 35 Penyghent — Fountain's Fell 36 Ryeloaf— Brown Hill— Barden Fell— Greenhow Hill— Almes Cliff, Sec. CONTENTS. X Page Bolland— Rombald's Moor— Otley Chevin, &c 38 Boulsworth Hill— Holme Moss, &c 39 Rosebury Topping — Danby Beacon — Eston Nab — Burton Head — Ralph Cross— Peak, &c— Hambleton End — Whitstone Cliff, &c... 39 The Wold Hills — Wilton Beacon, &e. — their ancient condition 41

Chapter III. Rivers Of Yorkshire

Area drained by the Humber, &c 42 Rain — Springs — Rivers 43 The Tees — its source, waterfalls, scenery 45 Roman Stations and Inscriptions — Camps at Bowes, Greta Bridge, Eston Nab, &c 47-50 The Swale — wild scenery round its source 51 Course from Muker by Reeth to Richmond 52 Cataractonium — inscriptions — antiquities 54 Course to Topcliffe and the junction of the Wisk. — Course of the Wisk, — junction with the Ure 56 The Ure — character of Wensleydale — Hawes 57 Numerous Waterfalls — Simmer Water 58 Inscriptions at Bainbridge — Addleborough 59 Waterfalls at Askrigg and Aysgarth — Bolton Castle 60 Middleham Castle — Jervaux Abbey 62 Tanfield Hall — circular earthworks 63 Ripon — Aldborough (Isurium) — Devil's Arrows described by Leland, Camden, &c 65 Antiquities and inscriptions at Aldborough 68 The Ouse, formed by the junction of the Swale and the Ure 69 The Nidd — scenes round its origin 69 Harrogate — inscribed Pig of Lead 71 York — the war-centre of the North — its vicissitudes — camp of Eburacum — antiquities, inscriptions, &c 73 The Wharfe — four regions of Wharfedale characterized 78 Bolton Abbey — Ilkley camp — altar — inscriptions — crosses 80 St. Helen's Ford — Tadcaster — Cawood §3 The Ouse — Ancient mounds on Skipwith Common — Selby 83 The Derwent — its singular course — Hackness — antiquities 86 The Rye — Rievaulx Abbey — Kirkdale Cave — Saxon sun-dial Rosedale — Byland Abbey — Gilling Castle— Hovingham— inscription ... 87 Malton, a Roman station — antiquities — roads — inscriptions 89 Ancient state of the Vale of Pickering go Stamford Brig — Wresill Castle — Leland ijj CONTENTS.

XI Page The Aire — its source in Malham Cove — Skipton — Kirkstall Abbey — Loidis in Elmete — Roman remains at Adel 92 Castleford, a Roman station — Pontefract 95 The Calder — to its junction with tbe Aire 96 The Aire and Calder, — curious petrifactions 99 The Dun — its woodland scenery — Camp and earthworks at Templeborough and Wincobank — Conisbrough Castle 100 Doncaster, a Roman station — Hatfield Chase — Thorne Waste 102 The Hull— Driffield— Beverley 104 The Gypseys — Rudstone — great meteorite 105 The Esk — its varied and beautiful dales — British antiquities — waterfalls 107-109 The Ribble — mountains round its source — Silurian strata on its course — numerous caverns— remarkable erratic blocks — ebbing and flowing well — Hellifield — Gisburn — Bolton — Sawley Abbey — Clitheroe 110 , The Lune — its beautiful course from Hougill Fells by Kirkby Lonsdale — EasgillKirk — Kingsdale — Grassingham Camp — Lancaster... 113-117 The Eden 117

Chapter IV. The Sea-coast

The Humber — its drainage — Brough Ferry— Hessle 118 Kingston-upon-Hull 118 The port of Ravenspurn — its antiquity — history — destruction 119 Spurn Head — Kilnsea, now ruined by the sea— Waste of Hoiderness coast (see also Appendix) 121 Dimlington — Outhorne, now ruined by the sea 122 Sandley Meer — Aldborough — Hornsea — Skeleton of the Irish Elk in a freshwater deposit 123 The 'escars' of Hoiderness — stranding of whales 124 Bridlington Quay — the spring — freshwater deposits — fall of the cliff — discovery of Crag fossils — Priory 125 Flamborough chffs and islands of chalk — Dane's Dike — Landing of Ida's sons — the insulated peaks — north landing — cavern — the highest part ofthe chalk cliff — the birds 126 Speeton — fossils 12.9 Filey Bay — ancient course ofthe Derwent — the Brig — sands — caves.. 130 tJristhorp — section of the strata — the fossil plants — tumulus 131 Cayton Bay — Carnelian Bay — White Nab — Wheatcroft Farm — Spaw 132 Scarborough — assault of Hardrada — Castle — Museum — Scalby — Cloughton Wyke — Haiburn Wyke — Staintondale Cliff— undercliff — section of strata — Blue Wick fossils CONTENTS.

XII Puge Robin Hood's Bay— Ravenshill — inscription — fault — section of the Lias strata— Equiseta in cliff at High Whitby 13/ Whitby— Dunum Sinus— Streoneshalh— Abbey — beauty of the vicinity — Museum — Pier — dislocation of strata — Sandsend — Plesiosaurus — Kettleness — Runswick Bay — Staithes — fossils — Boulby or Rockcliff — Plesiosaurus — Huntcliff — Saltburn — Redcar — Tees mouth 139-143

Chapter V. Climate

Relation to the physical aspect of the county. — Temperature of air at York, — of springs, — of each month. — Ranges of temperature, — of four critical months in various places. — Postponement of temperature in York Minster, — below the surface of ground, — in dales, — by the sea-side. — Highest and lowest temperatures. — Temperature of night and day. — Occurrence of frost. — Comparison ofthe climate of Y'ork with that of other places within and beyond the boundary of the county 143-152 Humidity of the air. — Fall of rain at Y'ork, in each month, compared with that of London. — Fall of rain at several other places in Yorkshire. — Number of days on which rain, hail or snow falls at York.— Wet-bulb experiments. — Experiments on the quantity of rain at different heights above the ground 152-161 Winds. — Prevalent directions of wind at York. — Effect on the air, — on the local temperature. — Coldest wind, — warmest wind. — Comparative dampness of different winds. — Character of rain with different winds. — Barometric pressure influenced by the direction of wind. — ■ The daily oscillation ofthe barometer 161-166

Chapter VI. Magnetism

Magnetic elements at York — the declination toward the west — the dip from the horizon — the magnetic force 166-167

Chapter VII

, GEOLOGICAL HISTORY. The Natural Histoiy of the land — traceable in order of succession of events, but not to be expressed in chronology CONTENTS. xiii Page Successive Life Periods — scale of such periods in Yorkshire 169 Their history sketched : — Proichthyan and Palichthyan Periods 171 Pterichthyan Period 172 Megalicbthyan Period 174 Palæoniseian Period 177 Palæosaui'ian and Teleosaurian Periods 178 Megalosaurian Period 180 Mosasaurian Period 181 Palæotherian Period 182 Preglacial Period 183 Glacial Period 184 Postglacial Period 185 Fauna of Yorkshire. — Animals of Kirkdale Cave — of Bielbecks — ofthe alluvial deposits and subterranean forests 1 85-1 87 Origin of the Fauna and Flora of Yorkshire. — Migration, how possible — with reference to submersion and elevation of land. — Traces of a Scandinavian Flora. — Germanic Flora and Fauna. — Conjecture regarding the first advent of Man 188-192

Chapter VIII. The Brigantes

Preparation of the earth for the residence of Man. — The Britons — application of the term — contrasted by Strabo with the Celts — the of KtXroi Herodotus 192 Three races of men in Britain. Cassiterides — Electrides. The Brigantes. — Voyage of Pytheas 194 The Roman conquest — Ostorius Scapida — Caractacus — Cartismandua — Venutius — Petilius Cerealis — Agricola — the Genunii ... 194-197 The Brigantian territory and people 198 The Language — names of rivers, mountains, persons and tribes... 199-201 The Houses — compared with those of Gaul — pit foundations — Villages nearWapley and Skipwith — Cyttiau on Ingleborough 202 The Tumuh' — burial of the body — cremation and enclosure of ashes in urns — Opening of tumuh on Acklam Wold, — near Driffield, — near Arras and Weighton — Graves of the Charioteers— the Cairn of Obtrush Roque 204-211 The Raths of Lofthouse — Kildale — Kippax— Aldrow— Cropton— Duggleby — Bishop Burton— Barwick 212 The Camps — Hutton Ambo — Langton — Thornthorpe 213 The Dikes and Oppida CONTENTS.

XIV Page The Stone Monuments— Rudstone— Devil's Arrows— Long Stone- Wade's Graves— St. Austin's Stone— Rocking-stones— Circles of stones 216-218 Circular earth-works — Nosterfield — near Penistone — Eston Nab — Arbelow 21 J The Pottery— its perishable character — its peculiar style— imitative ofthe Bascauda 220 Distribution of the people. — Cities in the territory. — Posts in the dales. — The dikes of Catterick and Stanwick — other earth-works. — Remains near Ilkley — Cambodunum — Conisbrough — Barwick in Elmet — Isurium. — Populous districts near Cawthorn and Malton, Acklam and Londesborough — their connection with the harbours of Flamborough and Whitby, the Camp at York, and the South of England 221-227

Chapter IX. The Romans

The Sixth Legion at York soon after a.d. 117, and remained nearly three centuries. — Roman geography 227 Ptolemy's Geography of Britain analysed : — the western coast — the eastern coast — the towns of the interior. — Brigantian map according to Ptolemy — its singular errors 228 The Itinera of Antoninus w hich relate to the Brigantian province 233 The Notitia — stations of troops according to this document. — The Chorography of Ravennas 235 Roman Roads,traced in connexion with Eburacum — to Lindum — Mancunium — Derby — Ribchester — the Wall — Olicana — Bracchium. — Roads east of York. — General remarks on the ancient Ways.. 239-244 Roman Camps and Stations. — Greek camp. — Roman camp and British camp compared. — Variations in Roman encampments. — Temporary camps — military stations — towns 244-247 Roman Burials — various kinds of — stone, lead, wood — ornaments buried — urns — tiles 247

Chapter X. Anglo-saxons And Danes

History incomplete between the retirement of the Legions and the arrival ofthe Saxons 248 Early separation of Deira. — Ida's conquest. — Retirement ofthe Kymri to North Wales CONTENTS. XV Page The battle of Cattraeth. — Rivalry between Danish Northumbria and Saxon Wessex 252 Lost sites of famous battles : — as Maserfeld, Winwidfield, Brunanburgh. — Stamford Brig. — The Norman conquest 254 Monuments ofthe Anglo-Saxons 255 Tumuli— as at Driffield 256 Pottery, distinguished from British and Roman. — Combs 257 Language — characteristic terminations of words — ' ton ' — ' ham ' — 'ley'— 'ing'— 'field'— 'by'— the prefix or suffix ' Kirk' 257 Races of Men in Yorkshire. — immigrants, Saxons, Anglians, Danes, and Northmen. — The remains of Roman soldiery and colonists. — Original varieties of British race 260 Actual aspect of Man in Yorkshire 261 Vocabulary of East Yorkshire 262

Appendix

. Heights of Mountains in Yorkshire 265-274 Formation of Stalagmite 275 Quality of Water 275 Eburacum 276 Waste ofthe Coast 276 Temperature 280 Rain 281 Site of Delgovitia 281 The Battle of Cattraeth 281 Explanation of Plates 283 Topographical Index 293 Index of Personal Names THE RIVERS, MOUNTAINS, AND SEA COAST (IF YORKSHIRE.

Chapter I. Principal Features Of Physical Geography

1 ORKSHIRE, once the home of the most powerful British Tribe, and now the largest of English Counties, is marked by Natui'e with boundaries befitting such distinction : the sea on the east, rivers on the north and south, mountains on the west. In this latter quarter, the area of the County does indeed stretch beyond the summit of drainage, to embrace portions of the Dale of Ribble, and the short glens of Garsdale and Dentdale, whose waters flow to the Irish Channel ; but, with these ex ceptions, all the streams which gather in the valleys of Yorkshire find their way to the eastern sea at points which do not pass beyond the limits of its territory. The rivers of Yorkshire are emphatically its own : born among its mountains, they give life and beauty to its numerous dales, and transport the fruits of its busy population to estuaries worthy of such tributaries.

The greatest of these, the Humber, admits a vast body of sea-water to meet the abundant contributions of the rivers Dun, Calder, Aire, Wharfe, Nid, Ure, Swale, Derwent, and Hull. Tees and Esk have their own outfalls to the sea*. * In Yorkshire we commonly speak of our rivers and mountains, as Tees, Swale, Ingleborough, Penyghent, &c. B One well acquainted with Yorkshire finds it easy to picture to his mind the main features of its physical geography by reference to the lines of the rivers, for most of these, in their earlier courses, sweep through deep valleys, between ranges of elevated or mountainous land, and gather into fewer channels in one great central vale, which was in primæval times a channel of the sea. We may with equal facility arrange our ideas of the physical geography of Yorkshire by reference to the ranges of its hills, which group themselves naturally into four assemblages, occupy ing the north-western and south-western, the north-eastern and south-eastern parts of the County.

The two groups of western hills are separated from the two groups of eastern hills by the great central Vale of York, from which ramifications sweep round and run between the hilly districts of the east, constituting the low tracts of Cleveland, Vale of Pickering, and Holderness ; and a less marked depression which proceeds westward to the pas ture lands of Craven, and separates the north-western from the south-western hills. Thus we have the following natural di stricts marked out by their relative elevation and geographical position : — Cleveland. -a NORTH-WESTERN u NORTH-EASTERN o HILLS. s., HILLS. Ribblesdale*. **-• Vale of Pickering. SOUTH-WESTERN <U SOUTH-EASTERN HILLS. "^ HILLS. ee Holderness. The tracts thus distinguished have geological characters as strongly marked as their inequalities of elevation : great differ ences of climate, scenery and natural productions correspond to these varied physical conditions ; and there are important facts in the history of Man in this part of the island which acquire a * The comparatively low region between the hilly grounds above Settle, Skipton, Colne and Chtheroe, — of which Gisburn may be regarded as the centre, — is here meant. just meaning only by connecting them with these inalienable features of Nature.

It may be convenient to arrange in a small compass some of the characteristic differences of the several districts which have been named. NORTH-WESTERN DISTRICT. 1. Greatest elevation.— 2580 feet in Mickle Fell. 2. Principal Rivers which rise in the District. — Tees, Swale, Ure, Nid, Wharfe, Aire, Ribble, Lune, Hodder, Eden. 3 4 Average depth of Rain in a year at Settle, 43 inches. Geological constitution. — Millstone grit, Yoredale rocks, Scar limestone, Slate rocks, and Greenstone. Valuable Minerals, &c. — Lead ore, Zinc ore, Ironstone, Coal, Slate, Limestone, Flagstone, Building stone, Peat. 5, 6 Dialect. — The high lands are called ' Fells '; the hmestone cliffs 'Scars'; the gritstone cliffs 'Crags'; the valleys 'Dales'; the rivulets 'Gills' or 'Becks'; the waterfalls 'Forces'; tumuli ' Hows ' ; a heap of stones on an elevated point, ' Man.' SOUTH-WESTERN DISTRICT. 1 Greatest elevation. — 1859 feet in Holme Moss. 2, 3. 4.

Principal Rivers which rise in the District. — Calder, Dun, Dearne. Average depth of Rain in a year at Halifax, 33 inches. Geological constitution. — Coal formation, Millstone grit, Yoredale rocks. Valuable Minerals, &c. -Coal, Ironstone, Fire clay, Flagstone, Building stone, Peat. 5. Dialect. — The peaty mountains are often called 'Mosses'; ranges of gritstone ' Edges '; rugged glens ' Cleughs.' The term ' dale ' is not frequently used. 6, NORTH-EASTERN DISTRICT. Greatest elevation. — 1485 feet in Burton Head. 1 2, Principal Rivers which rise in the District.— Esk, Wisk, Derwent. Average depth of Rain in a year at Brandsby, 28£ inches. Geological constitution. — Oolitic and Lias formations. Valuable Minerals, &c. — Coal, Ironstone, Alum shale, Jet, Building 3. 4 5 stone, Cement stone, Peat. 6, Dialect. — The high grouud is called 'Moorland'; the valleys receive the name of ' Dales '; the rivulets are called ' Becks '; the waterfalls ' Forces ' ; tumuli ' Hows '; a stone or heap of stones is sometimes called ' Man '; abrupt hill-edges are ' Nabs.' B South-eastern District. 1.

Greatest elevation— 805 feet in Wilton Beacon. 2. Principal Rivers.— Branches of Derwent and Hull. 3. Average depth of Rain in a year at Huggate, 30 inches. 4. Geological constitution.— Chalk with a red base, resting on Speeton clay, and various members of the Oolitic and Lias series. 5. Valuable Minerals, &c. — Flints, traces of Phosphate of Lime. 6. Dialect.— The hills are 'Wolds'; the valleys are 'Dales'; rivulets (very rare) are sometimes called ' Gypseys ' (the G hard) Ribblesdale District. 1. Greatest elevation— generally below 600 feet : Ryeloaf on the northern border (a detached hill of the north-western district) is 1796 feet high. 2. Principal Rivers. — Branches of Ribble and the Lancashire Calder. 3. Average depth of Rain in a year at Bolton by Bolland, 47 inches. 4. Geological constitution. — Yoredale rocks, with Scar limestone rising through them, and detached caps of Millstone grit on the borders. 5.

Valuable Minerals, &c. — Limestone. Cleveland. 1 . Greatest elevation— generally below 300 feet : Rosebury Topping, a detached hill of the north-eastern district, is 1022 feet or more. 2. The principal streams are branches of the Leven. 3. Average depth of Rain in a year at Upleatham, 22 inches . 4. Geological constitution. — Lias and New Red formations much overspread by ' northern drift.' 5. Valuable Minerals, &c. — Alum shale, Ironstone, Gravel. Vale of York. 1. Greatest elevation — generally below 200 feet: Craike Hill, detached from the north-eastern district, is 400 feet. 2. The Vale of York is traversed by most of the great rivers of Yorkshire. 3. Average depth of rain in a year at Yrork — 24 inches. 4. Geological constitution.— Lias, New Red, Magnesian Limestone, much covered by ' northern drift,' marsh, and ' warp ' land. 5.

Valuable Minerals, &c. — Limestone, Gypsum, Gravel, Peat. 6. Dialect. — One detached hill is called 'Barf,' another ' Haugh.' Low marshy grounds are called ' cars ' and ' moors ' ; river sediment is called ' warp.' Holderness. 1. Greatest elevation generally below 100 feet. Dimlington Height is 159 feet. 2. The river Hull is the principal stream. 3. Average depth of Rain in a year at Keyingham, 18 inches. 4. Geological constitution. — Tertiary sands at Bridlington; detrital gravel, clay, sand ; lacustrine and river sediments : buried forests. 5. Valuable Minerals, &c. — Gravel and Peat abound. 6. Dialect. — Some detached hills are called ' Barfs.' Lakes are called ' Meers.' Vale of Pickering. 1. Greatest elevation generally below 100 feet. 2. The Derwent is the great drain of the Vale. 3. Average depth of Rain in a year at Scarborough, 23 inches. 4.

Geological constitution.— Kimmeridge Clay, covered by lacustrine and river sediments. 5. Dialect. — The low grounds are called ' Marshes,' oi ' Marishes.' The great features of the earth's surface, the ranges of moun tains, the extended plains, the long promontories and retiring bays, depend mainly on the position of the subjacent mineral masses ; while the minuter physiognomy of hills and valleys, the sinuosity of rivers, the character of waterfalls, and the in equality of caverns, have a further and very important dependence on the internal structure and degree of consolidation of rocks. These are fundamental propositions in physical geogra phy, and demand our earliest attention. The lands of Yorkshire rise in masses toward the west. This is true whether we regard the area as a whole, or consider the features of its several districts.

Thus, from Burton Head in the north-east to Mickle Fell in the north-west, the rise is 1115 feet; and from Wilton Beacon in the south-east to Holme Moss in the south-west, 1054 feet. As a whole, the country rises also from the south to the north ; from the hills which border the valley of the Dun, to the ' fells ' which give birth to the Tees ; from the chalk wolds over Humber to the oolitic moors above the Esk. From Holme Moss, in the southwestern district, we have a rise northward of 641 feet, to the summit of Mickle Fell; and from Wilton Beacon, the culminating point of the Wolds, there is a rise of 680 feet northward to Burton Head. The explanation of these prevalent eastward and southward slopes of the surface is simple ; they correspond to the internal structure of the country. In Yorkshire the constituent mineral masses are for the most part stratified*; the strata are not horizontal, but inclined to the eastward, or south-eastward, from an ' axis of elevation ' (Pl.

II. fig. 2, x) as it is called, or what is in effect equivalent to it, a great line of dislocation (Pl. II. fig. 1, a?) nearly coincident with the western boundary. The most prevalent slope of the surface then is to the east or south east, because the rocks upon which it is formed are inclined in that direction (Pl. II. fig. 1). As the several strata rise toward the west, the surfaces formed on these strata also rise in that direction ; and the surface attains the greatest elevation near the axis of uplifting of the strata. This explanation is fully con firmed by examining the districts separately. In each of the hilly districts, it is toward the northern and western parts that the greatest average elevation is attained ; in each the country grows lower toward the east and the south; and upon a view of the whole country, the most prevalent direc tion of the streams is from the north and west toward the south and east.

The separate slopes of all the hilly districts to the east follow the inclination of the strata in that direction, and are much more rapid than the average slope of the whole surface : in three of these districts, the north-eastern, south-eastern and south western, a southward dip of the strata appears along the northern edge, and combines with the eastward dip to give them somewhat of the concave or basin-shaped character. The sur face corresponds to this peculiarity of structure : Holderness * Only the ' Whinstone Dike ' and ' Whin Sill,' and other small dikes and mineral veins, are exceptions. resting in the ' trough ' of the Chalk ; Pickering Vale in the hollow of the Oolites ; and a great part of the West Riding in the depression of the Coal tract. If we suppose some of the strata which compose the lands of Yorkshire to appear in their original position in the sea bed, they would lie nearly horizontal, and present, in section, the appearance of the lower part of fig. 2, Pl.

II. If next we suppose an upheaving force to be exerted in the direction marked by the arrow j on the same figure, we shall have one of two appearances ; either the strata will be uplifted on both sides and bent, as fig. 2, or uplifted on one side and broken, as fig. 1. Each of these cases occurs in Yorkshire, the axis of uplifting being on or near to the western boundary of the county ; and hence the eastward or south-eastward slopes of the strata so up lifted. But the surface is not marked with the uniformity of the slope which belongs to the strata. It is undulated by hills and valleys which cannot be explained by the act of elevation of the strata. These undulations are due to the violent action of the sea upon the rocks as they were raised out of the water ; and to the subsequent effect of the atmosphere, rains, and streams in the thousands of years during which the elements have been warring against them.

The successive steps by which the originally even and con tinuous surfaces of the strata have been cut and worn into the irregular forms of hills and valleys, may be understood by de scriptions on paper, but more completely represented on models, and may be actually and experimentally witnessed on the sands of the sea-shore, or verified by artificial arrangements. Let us attempt an illustration of the process on paper. In the section (Pl. II. fig. 2) W W is the level of the sea, under which are the strata marked G, a hard rock, as sandstone, — S, a softer rock, as shale,— and L, a firm limestone. All these rocks are divided by fissures, which have characteristic features in each : — in the sandstone they are somewhat irregular cracks — in the shale oblique cuts — in the limestone nearly vertical joints.

We shall now suppose these strata to be upheaved, by a force acting at t so as to come within the power of the waves and currents of the sea, and finally to appear above it. By this elevating force the parts over the will be first brought under the corroding agency of the waves ; the cracks being partially opened by the pressure upon the strata, the continuity of these masses of matter is broken, and their power of uniform resist ance to the water is destroyed ; the weakest parts yield most, and thus before the strata reach the level of the water, their sur face is channelled, and the land as it emerges above the sea ex hibits, not a parallel band as A, but a broken ridge as b, w, i, between the points of which the strongest currents flow as represented by arrows. The rise of the sea bed and the action of the water continuing, the channels for the currents are deepened, the three points of land here indicated are undezrmined by the wasting of the shale below them, tbe crown of gritstone falls on all sides, and the appearance, after further continuance of the process, is repre sented in Pl.

II. fig. 4, in which (i) is Ingleborough, (w) Whern side, (b) Barfell ; and the upper ends of Yoredale, Wharfdale, Ribblesdale, Dentdale, Garsdale, and Edendale, begin to appear out of the sea. It is needless to follow further the stages by which, under the same conditions of gradual rise of the land and continual battery of the sea on the parts as they successively come near to and reach the surface, the original islands, i, w, b, become united to slopes and ridges, until they constitute merely the culminating points of the country, the conspicuous ornaments of a great and varied physical region. On a surface thus constituted, the atmosphere produces further waste — carbonic acid eats away the limestone, moisture softens and crumbles the shale, rains wash away the loosened grains of every kind, rills collect, and rivers carry away the accumulated detritus, and the rough old sea channels, in some places filled up by these deposits, and in others worn still deeper, are changed into those smooth dales or picturesque glens, which are the boast and charm of the North.