A History of the political and military events of the late war between the United States and Great Britain

Front matter

J HISTORY ,.r THE POLITICAL AND MILITARY EVENTS OI THE LATE WAR BETWEEN THE UNITED STATES AND GREAT BRITAIN. BY SAMUEL PERKINS, ESQ NEW-HAVEN : PRINTED AND PUBLISHED BY S. CONVERSE. 1825. District of Connecticut, ss. BE IT REMEMBERED, That on the twenty-ninth day of June, in the /§Pa, /Sin , \ ninth y-ear of the Independence of the United States of America, MM IT JO'ESs I .iUEL I'ERKINS, of the said District, hatti deposited in this Office 'tle sjl * ,lnnk' -ne ri?ht whereof nfe claims as Author, in the words '■ A History of the Political and Military events of the late War be tween the United States and Great Britain By Samuel Perkins Esq." In conformity to the act of the Congress of the United States, entiUed " An act for the encouragement of learning, by securing the copiesofMaps, Charts, and Books, to the authors and proprietors of such copies, during the times therein mentioned " CHARLES A INGBRSOLL. Clerk of the District of Connecticut. A true copy of Record, examined by me, CHARLES A. IHGBRSOLL, Clerk of the District of Connecticut. I s

Preface

. Custom has in some measure rendered a preface a necessary part of a book ; it usually contains the author's apology for writing, his exertions, and the difficulties and embarrassments he has encoun tered in the progress of his work. Waiving these topics, the reader is here presented with a concise view of the subjects of the following pages, that if he feels no interest in them, he may save his time for more valuable purposes. The design of the present volume is, to state in a clear and concise manner — The points of controversy between the United States and Great Britain, which induced the late war, and the arguments by which each supported their respective claims ; The great constitutional and national questions to which the war gave rise, and which were discussed and settled during its continuance ; The debates and proceedings of Congress, on all the important measures connected with the war ; The circumstances which led to the negotiation for peace, and its progress and result : And to give a faithful detail of all the important military and naval operations during the war That a well executed work,embracing these objects, would be interesting to the public, cannot be doubted. The claims set up by the two great European belligerent powers, to control neutral commerce. %*

PREFACE.

were unprecedented in their nature, alarming in their extent, and destructive in their operation. The grounds on which these claims were made and enforced, and the manner in which they were resisted, are matters of deep interest to the citizens of the United States. In the progress of the war, several great constitutional questions arose, on a correct decision of which the most important inter ests of the union depended ; these were discussed with much ingenuity and force of argument, and the points adhered to, on both sides, with great tenacity. The naval, and most of the military operations, do high honour to American skill and bravery ; and a faithful detail of them ought to be recorded. The writer presents this volume to the public, with great diffidence, and respectfully solicits the patronage of his fellow-citizens : should it prove undeserving their favour, he hopes at least, it will induce some abler hand to do justice to the subject.

It is a delicate task to relate facts while the principal actors are living ; misrepresentations or partial statements may sometimes intervene to the prejudice of individuals. If there are any such, they are unintentional ; many times they may be apprehended when they do not exist ; in those cases it is the fault of the agent and not of the writer. CONTENTS. Chap. I. — Causes of the war. Aggressions on neutral commerce. Colonial trade. Rule of 1756. Armed neutrality. Treaty of 1794 Impressment. Blockade of 1806. Orders in council of January 1807, and November 1807. Berlin and Milan decrees. Embargo. Non-intercourse, and non-importation laws. Attack on the Chesapeake. Erskine's arrangement; Disavowed. Monroe's and Pinckney's treaty rejected. Decision! of British prize courts. Disputes with Jacfcon.

Champagny's letter lo Armstrong. President's proclamation restoring French intercourse. Communications to the British government. - 9 Chap. II. — First meeting of twelfth congress. Message. Correspondence between Monroe and Foster. Decisious of the admiralty courts in the case of the Foj, and others. Report of the committee of foreign relations. Arguments of the minority against the report. John Henry's papers. His instructions. His correspondence. Inquiry respecting him in the house of representatives. Message of the 1st of June. Report of committee on foreign relations, recommending war. Declaration of war. Address of the minority to their constituents. Army and navy bills. Treasury estimates. Plan of finance for the war. Loan for 1812. Page 33 Chap. 111. — Situation of the United States at the declaration of the war.

Population. Military and naval power. State of Great Britain. Indian population ; Character. Tecumseh. British and Indian alliance. Proceedings of the several stales, in relation to the war. Louisiana. Mew- York. Ohio. New-Jersey. Connecticut. Report of the committee to th legislature of Connecticut. Massachusetts. overnor Strong's reasons for not calling out the militia. Opiuion of the Judges of the Supreme Court on the subject. Resolutions of Maryland on the subject of the war Of Pennsylvania. Report of the secretary at war on the powers of Congress relatve to the militia. Proceedings in Canada on the war. Orders fur Governor Prevost. Governor Brock's address to the legislature of Upper Canada. Address of the legislature of Upper anada to their constituents. Prince Regent's Manifesto. ....

Page 5r> VI CONTENTS. ChAp.'SV. — Plan of military operations for the campaign of 1*12. General Hull appointed to the command of the northern army. Rendezvous at Urbanna. Their march to the rapids of the Miami. A sloop, with Gen. Hul}'? baggage and papers, and the hospital stores, taken at Maiden. Arrival of the army at Detroit. Invasion of Canada. General Hull's proclamation. Headquarters at Sandwich. Col. M'Arthur's expedition to the Thames. Col. Cass proceeds to the river Auxlanards. Main body return to Detroit. Capt Brush 'arrives at the river Raisin with supplies. Major Vanhorn detached to escort him. Surprised by an ambuscade and defeated. Col. Millar detached to the same place. Battle of Maguago. Col. Miller returns. Cols. M'Arthur and Cass detached to the same place ; ordered to return.

General Brock's address to the Canadians. Arrives with reinforcements at Maiden. Bombards the fort from the opposite bank. Crosses the river and advances to assault the fort. General Hull capitulates. American forces and property taken. British forces. Court martial ordered. Charges and specifications against Gen. Hull. His defence. Sentence of the Court. Page 77 Chap. V. — Proceedings of the western states in consequence of Hull's deteat. Army under General Harrison. Defence of fort Harrison General Hopkins's expedition against the Kickapoo town; against the Prophet's town. Progress of the army under Gen. Harrison towards the Miami rapids. Fort Wayne. Fort Defiance. General Tupper's expedition to the rapids. Colonel Campbell's expedition against the Messessiwena towns. Battle at the river Raisin Defeat and capture of General Winchester's army.

Cruelties of the British and Indians. Description of the Niagara frontier. Proceedings of General Van Rensselaer. Battle of Queenston. Militia refuse to cross the river. The American army captured. General Smyth's proclamations ; attempts to pass into Canada, and fails Duel between Generals Smyth and Porter. Proceedings of the army of the north. Causes of the failure of the campaign of 1812. - - Page 93 Chap. VI. — Plan of defence on the sea-board. American frigates sail. Cruise of Commodore Rodgers's squadron. Cruise of the Constitution. Capture of the Guerriere. Cruise of the Essex Capture of the Alert Capture of the Frolic : and of the Wasp and Frolic by the Poictiers. Capture of the Macedonian. Arrival ofthe United States and Macedonian. The flag of the Macedonian sent to Washington. Second cruise of the Constitution.

Capture of the Java. Rule for distributing prize money. Success of Privateers. Number and value of British vessels captured in 1812. East-Florida Frontier. Colonel Newman's expedition. Repeal of the orders in council. First proposition of Mr. Russell for an armistice. Loid Castlereagh's reply. Second proposition and reply. Admiral Warren's proposition for an armistice. Mr. Monroe's reply. - Page CONTENTS VII Chap. VII. — Second session of the twelfth Congress. Report of the com mittee of foreign relations. Law prohibiting the employment of foreign seamen. Report of the committee on military affairs. Debates on the expediency of continuing, and manner of conducting the war. Army bills passed. Report of committee on naval affairs. Comparison between seventy-fours and frigates. Dry dock recommended.

Navy bills passed. Treasury estimates. Report of committee ol ways and means. Revenue bills passed, Remission of penalties on goods imported after the revocation of the orders in council. Law authorizing retaliation passed. Page 143 Chap. VIII. — British plan of the campaign for 1813. American plan. Division ol the United States into military districts. Arrival of the British reinforcements at Bermuda. Proclamations of blockade. Arrival and proceedings of the squadron in the Delaware. Arrival of the British squadron at Lynnhaven bay. Plundering ou the shores of the Chesapeake, Burning of Havre de Grace. Plundering and burning of Fredericktown, and Georgetown. Arrival of Admiral Warren, and Sir Sidney Beckwith, with reinforcements. Norfolk threatened. Attack on Craney Island. Capture of Hampton.

Plunder and outrages at Hampton. Correspondence between the American and British generals on the aubject of the outrages. Attempt to destroy the Plantagenet with a torpedo. An attempt on the Ramilies with a torpedo and a fire-ship. Squadron proceed up the Potomac and threaten Alexandria and Washington. Proceed up the bay and threaten Annapolis and Baltimore. Admiral Cockburn proceeds to the south. Blockade of Commodore Decatur's squadron at New-London. Naval challenge. Decline. ...... Pa»e 157 Chap. IX. — Naval affairs. Cruise of Ihe President. Of the Congress. Of the Hornet. Capture of the Peacock. Captain Lawrence appointed to the command of the Chesapeake. Challenge of the Shannon; accepted. Capture of the Chesapeake. Funeral of Lawrence and Ludlow, at Halilax. Their bodies removed to New York, Funeral honours at ,-alem and New- York.

Cruise and capture of the Argus. Death of Captain Allen. Battle between the Enterprise and Boxer, and capture of the latter Death and uneral honours of both commanders. Cruise of the Essex in the Atlantic, Her arrival in the Pacific. Capture of a Peruvian corsair. Capture of whale ships. Establishment at Madison Island. Essex junior, Arrival of British squadron. Blockade of the Essex. Battle between htrand the British squadron. Capture of the Essex. Return of Captain Porter and crew to the United States. Number and value ol* British prizes in 1813. - Page 173 Chap. X. — Mobile occupied; annexed to the Mississippi Territory. Spanish authorities removed to Pensacola. Southern Indians. Methods taken by the United States to civilize them. Visited by Tecumseh. Instigated CONTENTS. VIII to war. Masacre al Fort Mimms.

Proceedings in Tennessee and Georgia relating to the Creek war. Tennessee forces under General Jackson. Battle at Tallushatches. Tallageda. Destruction of the Hillabee towns by General White. Proceedings of the Georgia forces under General Floyd. Battle at the Autosse Towns. Battle at Camp Defiance. Gen eral Claiborne' s expedition against Eccanachaca. Battle. Term of service of General Jackson's volunteers expires. Most of them leave him. His army recruited. His first expedition to the Great Bend of the Talla poosa. Battle. Returns to fort Strotber. Battle at Enotachopeo Creek. Second expedition to the Great Bend. Battle. End of the Creek war. Treaty. Rapid settlement of the country by the whites. - Page 193 Page 193 Chap. XL— Siege of Fort Meigs. Arrival of General Clay to its relief. Defeat and capture of Colonel Dudley's detachment.

Siege raised. General Harrison's measures for the defence of the Lake Erie frontier. Gallant Defence of Fort Stephenson. Address of the ladies ofChillicothe to Major Crogan. The reply. Preparations for building a navy on Lake Erie. Naval Depot at the town of Erie. Commodore Perry appointed to the command; superintends the building a fleet ; anchors at Put-in-Bay. Naval Battle. Complete victory of the Americans. Proctor determines to abandon Maiden. Remonstrance of the Indians. Speech of Tecumseh. Harrison prepares to invade Canada ; re-occupies Detroit ; pursues Proctor up the Thames. Battle of the Moravian towns. Defeat and capture of Proctoi 's army. Capture of his baggage and papers. Death of Tecumseh. Dissolution of the Indian confederacy. Effects of the victory. Page 217 Chap. XII. — Montreal.

Back passage from Montreal to the upper lakes. British naval force on Lake Ontario. American, under Commodore Chauncey. Military force destined for a descent on Montreal. Expeditions against York. Death of General Pike. Attack on Sackett's Harbour. Capture of Fort George. British retire to Burlington Heights. Battle at Stoney Creek. Capture of Generals Chandler and Winder. Battle at the Beaver Dams. Capture of Colonel Boerstler's detachment. Colonel Scott's expedition to Burlington Heights and York. General Wilkinson appointed to the command of the northern army. Arrives at Sackett's Harbour. Makes arrangements for a descent on Montreal. War department removed to Sackett's Harbour. Troops embark from Fort George for Grenadier Island. Sailing of the flotilla from French Creek. Descent ou the St. Lawrence.

Pursuit of the British. Battle at Williamsburgh. General Covington killed. Flotilla arrives at the foot of the Long Sault. General Hampton refuses to join the expedition. Correspondence between him and General Wilkinson. Expedition abandoned. Army go into winter-quarters at French Mills. General Hampton advances to Chatauguay. Returns to Plattsburgh. Vermont militia CONTENTS. IX ,;alled out by the war department to guard Plattsburgh. Ordered to return by Governor Chittendcu. Causes of the failure of the expedition. Defence of the Niagara frontier intrusted to General M'CIure and the New-York militia. Evacuation of Fort George and burning of Newark. Fort Niagara taken. Massacre. Burning of the Niagara frontier. Militia retire to Batavia. Governor Prevost's proclamation. - - Page 243 Chap. XIII. — Presidential election.

Inaugural address. Meeting of the 13th Congress. Message. Treasury report. Report of committee of ways aud means. Direct taxes and internal duties. Mr. Webster's resolutions on the suppression of the French decree of 28th of April, 1811. Report of the secretary of slate thereon. Report of the committee of foreign relations, Massachusetts' remonstrance against the war. British licenses prohibited. Report of the committee on British outrages. Retaliation. British claim of natural allegiance. American claim. Proceedings wilh prisoners. Report of the secretary of s.ate on allegiance. Second session of the 13th Congress. Message. Confidential communication, recommending an embargo. Report of committee of foreign relations. Embargo laid. Message, and report thereon, recommending the repeal of the embargo.

Treasury report. Expenditures for 1813. Estimates for 1814. Bounty increased. Steamfrigatebuilt. Loan bill passed. Close of the session. Page 273 £hap. XIV. — State of Europe at the commencement of the year 1814. Its effects on the American war. British plan of the campaign of 1814. American system of defence. Arrival of the Bordeaux aud Mediterranean squadron and troops in the Chesapeake. Landing at Benedict. March to Washington. Battle of Bladensburgh, Capture and burning of Washington. Retreat of the British forces. Capitulation and plunder of Alexandria. Causes of the disasters in the District of Columbia. - Page 301 (C H Ap. XV. — Admiral Cochrane's letter, threatening to lay waste the coa3t The secretary's reply. The President's proclamation. Baltimore threatened. Plan of defence. Landing of the British on the Patapsco.

General Ross slain. Battle of the 12th September. British reconnoitre the American lines and retreat. Re-embark. Attaok on Fort M'Henry. Brave defence. British repulsed. Proceed down the Bay. Leave the Chesapeake. Burning the shipping at Pettipaug. Attack on Stonington. Gallant defence. Capture of Eastport. Castine, and the eastern coast. Destruction of the frigate Adams. Plunder of the towns on the coast oi Massachusetts. -------- Page 333 Chap. XVI.— Naval operations in 1814. Cruise of the Peacock. Adams. Wasp. Privateer General Armstrong. Capture of the President. Cruise of the Hornet; of the Constitution. Number and value of captures from the British in 1814. Number and value of ships taken during the war. General result of the naval war. ----- Page 35?! ) X CONTENTS. Chap. XVII.— General Wilkinson retires from the French Mills.

Affair ol La Cole Mill. State of the British and American navy on Lake Ontario, Attack on Oswego. Burning of Long Point. General Brown takes the command on the Niagara fronlier. Fort Erie surrenders. Battle of Chippewa. Death of General Swift. Burning of St. Davids. Battle of Niagara. Capture of General Riall. Exchange of General Drummond's Aid for the corpse of General Brown's. General Gaines takes the command. Assault on Fort Erie. Explosion. Sortie on the But: sh works. The seige raised. General Izard arrives with reinforcements and takes the command. Retires from Fort Erie. General result of the campaign on the Niagara. Page 363. Chap. XVIH.— Colonel Crogan's expedition to Lake Huron. Unsuccessful attempt on Michillimackinae. Destroys the British post at Nautawesago jiver. Return? to Detroit.

Capture of two American schooners on Lake Huron. Arrival of reinforcements at Quebec. General Izard's army leaves Plattsburgh for Niagara. General Prevost advances in force from Montreal towards Plattsburgh. Enters Plattsburgh, and encamps on the left of the Saranac. Waits the approach of his fleet. Naval battle on the 11th of September, on the bay of Plattsburgh. M'Donough's victory. Simultaneous attack on the American lines. British attempt to cross the Saranac ; are repulsed. Retrrat of the British army from Plattsburgh. Amount of the British and American land and naval forces. Losses in each armjand navy. .--.... Page 387 Chap. XIX. — New-Orleans. Proceedings at Pensacola. Arrival of a British naval force at that place. N'choll's address to the LoUisianians Negotiations with the Pirates of Barrataria.

Commodore Patterson's expedition against them. Unsuccessful expedition against Mobile. General Jackson enters Pensacola with a military force ; expels the British. Armament sails from the West Indies against New-Orleans. Nicholl's embassy to the Choctaws. General Jackson's arrival ; proclaims martial law. Measures of defence. Fort St. Philips garrisoned. Arrival of the British armament at ship Island. Capture of the American flotilla on Lake Ber^ne, Landing of the British at Bayou Bienvenu. Battle of the 23d of December. Of the 1st of January. Deciuve victory of the 8th. Bombardment effort St. Philips. Retreat oi the British. Capture of Fort Boyer. Page 398 Chap. XX — Treatment of American seamen in Eri'ish service at the commencement of the war. Colonel Beasley's correspondence with the Br.itish government on the subject.

Those who refuse to serve, treated as prisoue»s of war, and confined in Dartmoor prison. Description of that place. "Number of American prisoners confined there. Escape of Lieutenant R. **-•> Attack upon, and slaughter of the Prisoners on the fith of April, 1815. CONTENTS XI Report osjoint commissioners appointed to examine the subject. Meeting ol the legislature of Massachusetts, October 1814. View of the siluation of that state. Governor's message and documents. Report of committee recommending a convention of delegates from the New England States. Protest of the minority against the repor . Proceedings of those states on the subject. Meeting of the delegates at Hartford. Their powers ex amined. Their journal, proceedings, and report. Proceedings of Massa chusetts and Connecticut on the report of the convention.

Amendments to the constitution recommended. Transmitted to the other states, and rejected. .-.-..... Page 422 Chap. XXI. — Third session of the 13th Congress. Message. Proposition to remove the seat of government ; negatived. Mr. Dallas appointed to the treasury department. His expose. His propositions for the improvement of the finances. His scheme for a nalioial bank. The bill lor the establishment of a bank passed both houses. Disapproved by the President. Returned and negatived. State of the circulating medium, and of public and private credit. Duties of the secretary at war assigned to Mr. Monroe. His expose' of the state of the army, and the recruiting service. His plan for raising an army for the year 1815. Mr. Giles's bill adopted. Report of the secretary of the navy. - - - s Page 458 Chap. XXII — Russian mediation proposed to Mr. Adams.

Communicated to the American government. Accepted Appointment of envoys. Their instructions. Mediation rejected by the Prince Regent. British proposition for a direct negotiation. Accepted by the United Stat"s. Appointment of additional envoys. Their instructions. Meeting of the British and American envoys at Ghent. British propositions, and ultimatum. American propositions. British envoys communicate with their governmenl, and receive different instructions. Their ultimatum waived The negotiations proceed, and tenninte in a treaty of peace. Treaty ratified by both governments. Proceedings at New-Orleans immediately after the peace. 'Rejoicings throughout the United States. President's message, communicating the subject to Congress. Peace establishment. Effects of the war . on the national character. ..--..

Page ERRATA -Page 91, line 16th of note, for proceed read preside. " 116, " 34, (from top) for carrying read urging. " 121, " 28, " for four read fair. " 170, " 14, " for Asease read Neuse. " 201, " 21, " for advance read absence. " 215, " 22, " for companies read commissioners " 218, " 29, " for gallant read galling. " 241, " 23, " for Ball read BuM. " 242, " 15, " for conducted read induced. " 276, " 22, " for 9,320 read 9,320,000. " 283,- " 26, " for or read as. " 311, " 22, " for across read access. " 338. " 33, " for blank re-Ad flank. " 356, " 31, " for Dobney read Dnbney. " 365, " 1, " for Lanohue read Lai abee. '' 373, " 29, " for Hendman read Hmdman " 381, " 32, " for returning read retiring. ." 399, " 23, " for sail read soil. .'.' 405, " 30, " for town read turn,

Chapter I

Causes of the War. — Aggressions on Neutral Commerce. — Colonial Trade. — Rule of 1756 — Armed Neutrality. — Treaty of 1794. — Impressment. — Blockade of 1806.— Orders in Council of January 1807, of November 1807. — Berlin and Milan decrees. — Embargo — Non- Intercourse,and Non-importation Laws. — Attack on the Chesapeake. — Erskine'a Arrangement ; Disavowed Monroe's andPinckney'sTreaty rejected. — Decisions of British Prize Courts. — Disputes with Jackson. — Champagny's letter to Armstrong. — President's Proclamation restoring French Intercourse. — Communications to the British Government Neutral Rights. For a century past, Great Britain has been the predominant naval power, and during a great por tion of the time engaged in contests with other nations. Her wars have partaken much of the maritime character.

As a belligerent possessing superior naval force, her interest has always led her, and her efforts have uniformly been exerted, to restrict neutral maritime rights. These, as recognised in the code of National Law, are simple and defi nite ; authorizing the neutral to maintain its accustomed friendly relations with each belligerent ; and to enjoy art unrestr3*"ed commerce with both, except :n articles contra band c war, enemy's property, and with ports actually invested with a competent stationary force. Chat*, t. 10 Rule of 1756. In the year 1756, a war commenced between Great Britain and France, relating to their colonial possessions in America. France being the weaker naval power, was unable to maintain her accustomed trade with her West India Islands, and opened it to neutrals. To interrupt and destroy this intercourse, so beneficial to France and her colonies, and so lucrative to neutrals, Great Britain of her own authority introduced this new principle of national law : " That no other trade should be allowed to neutrals, with the colonies of a belligerent in time of war, than what is allowed by the parent state in time of peace."

European nations possessing colonies abroad, unless on extraordinary occasions, and for very limited periods, restrict theiF trade entirely to themselves, furnishing the colonies with their manufactures and surplus productions, and in return taking the produce of the colonies to market : and in this way rendering them subservient to the interests of their parent state. This new British principle operated as a prohibition of all neutral trade with the colonies of the belligerent. Vessels •"engaged in the French eolonial trade, were declared to be French by adoption, and subject to capture and condemnation. Unfortunately for the interests of commerce, there was no nation at this period able and willing to resist this first encroachment upon neutral rights, at the expense of war ; and Great Britain continued the practice until the peace of 1763 ; and in all her subsequent wars has claimed the same principle under the title of the rule of the war of 1 756 as being part of the code of nations.

Armed Neutrality of 1780. In the year 1780 the war of the American revolution had extended to France and Spain, and assumed a maritime character. Infringements on neutral commerce, to an alarming extent, were the immediate consequence. The rule of the war of 1756 was revived, blockades by proclamation were introduced, and the list of contraband "arbitrarily enlarged. To resist these encroachments, and 1812. HISTORY OF THE LATE WAR. 11 protect neutral maritime rights, Russia, Sweden, Denmark, and Holland, formed a treaty of alliance, denominated the armed neutrality of 1780, by which they pledged themselves to support, at the hazard of war'if necessary with either of the belligerents, these principles — " That it should be lawful for any ships to sail freely from one port to another, or along the coast of the powers at war.

"That all merchandise and effects belonging to the subjects of the belligerent powers, and shipped in neutral bottoms, should be entirely free. " That no place should be considered as blockaded, ex cept the assailing power had taken a station so as to expose to imminent danger any ship attempting to sail in or out of such ports. " That no neutral ships should be stopped, without a material and well-grounded cause : and in such cases justice should be done them without delay."* A powerful naval armament was raised by the parties ta this treaty, to enforce its principles, by which belligerent en croachments were checked for a time ; but it resulted in Great Britain's persevering in her claims, and making Holland a party to the war. Proclamation of Neutrality 1793. At the commence ment of the European war in 1792, the American government determined upon a strict and impartial neutrality, as their only safe and honourable course : and in April 1793, the President issued a proclamation, declaring that to be the relation in which the United States stood towards the European belligerents; and enjoining it on all the citizens to refrain from any acts of hostility towards either of the powers of war.t * Treaty of neutrality, 1780. f Proclamation of neutrality, 1793.

Chap. 1. 12 During the first periods of the French revolution, the feelings of the American people were altogether engaged on the side of what was then considered the cause of liberty. A sentiment of gratitude towards France for the aid she afforded the United States in the war of the revolution, as well as a recol lection of the recent sufferings from the English, created and cherished strong predilections in favour of the French. The proclamation of neutrality was well adapted to prevent any ill effects which might arise from the excess of these feelings. In the progress of that war, however, there grew up in France a military despotism, alarming in its appearance, terrible in its progress, and threatening universal dominion : the contest at length became a struggle on the part of France for univer sal empire ; on the part of the other continental powers, for national existence ; and on the part of England, for the dominion of the ocean.

Neutral rights, at first partially respected* were in the progress of the contest altogether disregarded. At an early period of this war, the course which Great Britain had determined to pursue in relation to neutrals began to de velope itself. British Aggressions. On the 8th of June, 1793, an order in council issued from the British cabinet, by virtue of which all vessels laden wholly or in part with bread-stuffs, bound to any port in France, or places occupied by French armies, were required to be carried into England, and their cargoes either there disposed of, or security given that they should be sold only in the ports of a country in amity with Great Britain.* On the 6th of the following November, claiming to revive the rule of the war of 1756, another order in council was issued and silently circulated among the British cruizers, withoufr notice to American merchants, directing " all vessels laden * British provision order of Jnne 179& 1812. with goods, the produce of any colony of France, or carry ing provisions or supplies for such colony, to be seized and brought in for adjudication."* Some relaxation in the rigour, without any alteration in the principle of this order was introduced by a subsequent one of January 8th, 1794, which con fined its operation to such vessels as were proceeding from, or bound directly to, Europe.

At the time of issuing the order, France had opened the ports of her West India colonies to neutral trade. American merchants were engaged in it to a great extent ; and their property to the amount of many millions was swept from the ocean, carried into British ports, and condemned. This conduct was attempted to be justified on the part of Great Britain, on the grounrl of expediency ; her arguments were, that if the neutral colonial trade were permitted, she would be deprived of all substantial good derivable from her naval superiority, and the neutral be the only power bene fited : that she was maintaining immense fleets and armies to no valuable purpose to herself, if her enemy might enjoy his colonial commerce through the medium of neutrals : that the neutral could have no right to claim the enjoyment of this commerce, which was interdicted to him, by the belligerent herself in time of peace.