Ancient Society; or, Researches in the lines of human progress from savagery ... to civilization

Front matter

ANCIENT SOCIETY OR RESEARCHES IN THE LINES OF HUMAN PROGRESS FROM SAVAGERY, THROUGH BARBARISM TO CIVILIZATION BY LEWIS H. MORGAN, LL.D Member of the National Academy of Sciences. A utkor of " The League of the Iroquois" "The American Beaver and his Works" "Systems of Consanguinity and Affinity of the Human Fainily" Etc. Nescit vox tnissa reverti. HORACE. NEW YORK HENRY HOLT AND COMPANY Copyright, 1877, By HENRY HOLT. TO THE REVEREND J. H. McILVAINE, D. D., LATE PROFESSOR OF BELLES-LETTRES IN PRINCETON COLLEGE, THIS VOLUME IS DEDICATED, IN RECOGNITION OF HIS GENIUS AND LEARNING, AND IN APPRECIATION OF HIS FRIENDSHIP. Cum prorepserunt primis animalia terris, Mutum et turpe pecus, glandem atque cubilia propter Unguibus et pugnis, dein fustibus, atque ita porro Pugnabant armis, quæ post fabricaverat usus : Donee verba, quibus voces sensusque notarent, Nominaque invenere : dehinc absistere bello.

Oppida coeperunt munire, et ponere leges, Ne quis fur esset, neu latro, neu quis adulter. — Horace, Sat., I, iii, 99. "Modern science claims to be proving, by the most careful and exhaustive study of man and his works, that our race began its existence on earth at the bottom ofthe scale, instead of at the top, and h.as been gradually working upward ; that human powers have had a history of development ; that all the elements of culture — as the arts of life, art, science, language, religion, philosophy — have been wrought out by slow and painful efforts, in the conflict between the soul and the mind of man on the one hand, and external nature on the o.ther." — Whi-tney's Oriental and Linguistic Studies, p. 341. "These communities reflect the spiritual conduct of our ancestors thousands of times removed.

"We have passed through the same stages of development, physical and moral, and are what we are to-day because they lived, toiled, and endeavored. Our wondrous civilization is the result of the silent efforts of millions of unknown men, as the chalk cliffs of England are formed by contributions of myriads of foraminifera." — Dr. J. Kaines, Anthrqpologia, vol. i, No. 2, p. 233.

Preface

. THE great antiquity of mankind upon the earth has been conclusively established. It seems singular that the proofs should have been discovered as recently as within the last thirty years, and that the present generation should be the first called upon to recognize so important a fact. Mankind are now known to have existed in Europe in the glacial period, and even back of its commencement, with every probability of their origination in a prior geological age. They have survived many races of animals with whom they were contemporaneous, and passed through a process of development, in the several branches of the human fam ily, as remarkable in its courses as in its progress. Since the probable length of their career is connected with geological periods, a limited measure of time is excluded.

One hundred or two hundred thousand years would be an unextravagant estimate of the period from the disappearance of the glaciers in the northern hemisphere to the pres ent time. Whatever doubts may attend any estimate of a period, the actual duration of which is unknown, the exist ence of mankind extends backward immeasurably, and loses itself in a vast and profound antiquity. 'This knowledge changes materially the views which have prevailed respecting the relations of savages to barbarians, and of barbarians to civilized men. It can now be asserted upon convincing evidence that savagery preceded barbarism in all the tribes of mankind, as barbarism is known to PRE FA CE. VI have preceded civilization. The history of the human race is one in source, one in experience, and one in progress. It is both a natural and a proper desire to learn, if possi ble, how all these ages upon ages of past time have been expended by mankind ; how savages, advancing by slow, almost imperceptible steps, attained the higher condition of barbarians ; how barbarians, by similar progressive advance ment, finally attained to civilization ; and why other tribes and nations have been left behind in the race of progress — some in civilization, some in barbarism, and others in sav agery.

It is not too much to expect that ultimately these several questions will be answered. Inventions and discoveries stand in serial relations along the lines of human progress, and register its successive stages ; while social and civil institutions, in virtue of their connection with perpetual human wants, have been developed from a few primary germs of thought. They exhibit a similar register of progress. These institutions, inventions and discoveries have embodied and preserved the principal facts now remaining illustrative of this experience. When collated and compared they tend to show the unity of origin of mankind, the similarity of human wants in the same stage of advancement, and the uniformity of the operations of the human mind in similar conditions of society. Throughout the latter part of the period of savagery, and the entire period of barbarism, mankind in general were organized in gentes, phratries and tribes.

These organizations prevailed throughout the entire ancient world upon all the continents, and were the instrumentalities by means of which ancient society was organized and held together. Their structure, and relations as members of an organic series, and the rights, privileges and obligations of the mem bers of the gens, and of the members of the phratry and tribe, illustrate the growth ofthe idea of government in the human mind. The principal institutions of mankind originated in savagery, were developed in barbarism, and are maturing in civilization.

PREFACE.

. VII In like manner, the family has passed through succes sive forms, and created great systems of consanguinity and affinity which have remained to the present time. These systems, which record the relationships existing in the family of the period, when each system respectively was formed, contain an instructive record of the experience of mankind while the family was advancing from the consanguine, through intermediate forms, to the monogamian. The idea of property has undergone a similar growth and development. Commencing at zero in savagery, the pas sion for the possession of property, as the representative of accumulated subsistence, has now become dominant over the human mind in civilized races. The four classes of facts above indicated, and which ex tend themselves in parallel lines along the pathways of human progress from savagery to civilization, form the principal subjects of discussion in this volume.

There is one field of labor in which, as Americans, we have a special interest as well as a special duty. Rich as the American continent is known to be in material wealth, it is also the richest of all the continents in ethnological, philological and archæological materials, illustrative of the great period of barbarism. Since mankind were one in origin, their career has been essentially one, running in different but uniform channels upon all continents, and very similarly in all the tribes and nations of mankind down to the same status of advancement. It follows that the his tory and experience of the American Indian tribes repre sent, more or less nearly, the history and experience of our own remote ancestors when in corresponding conditions. Forming a part of the human record, their institutions, arts, inventions and practical experience possess a high and special value reaching far beyond the Indian race itself.

When discovered, the American Indian tribes represented three distinct ethnical periods, and more completely than they were elsewhere then represented upon the earth. Materials for ethnology, philology and archæology were offered in unparalleled abundance; but as these sciences

PREFACE.

. scarcely existed until the present century, and are but fee bly prosecuted among us at the present time, the workmen have been unequal to the work. Moreover, while fossil remains buried in the earth will keep for the future student, the remains of Indian arts, languages and institutions will not. They are perishing daily, and have been perishing for upwards of three centuries. The ethnic life of the Indian tribes is declining under the influence of American civilization, their arts and languages are disappearing, and their institutions are dissolving. After a few more years, facts that may now be gathered with ease will become impossible of discovery. These circumstances appeal strongly to Americans to enter this great field and gather its abundant harvest. Rochester, New York, March, 1877. TABLE OF CONTENTS.

Chapter I. Ethnical Periods

Progress of Mankind from the Bottom of the Scale. — Illustrated by Inventions, Discoveries and Institutions. — Two Plans of Government — one Gentile and Social, giving a Society (Societas) ; the other Political, giving a State (Civitas). — The former sounded upon Persons and Gentilism ; the Latter upon Territory and Property. — The First, the Plan of Government of Ancient Society. — The Second, that of Modern or Civilized Society. — Uniformity of Human Experience. — Proposed Ethnical Periods — I. Lower Status of Savagery ; II. Middle Status of Savagery ; III. Upper Status of Savagery ; IV. Lower Status of Barbarism ; V. Middle Status of Barbarism ; VI. Upper Status of Barbarism ; VII. Status of Civilization 3

Chapter II. Arts Of Subsistence

Supremacy of Mankind over the Earth. — Control over Subsistence the Condition. — Mankind alone gained that Control. — Successive Arts of Subsistence— I. Natural Subsistence ; II. Fish Subsistence ; III. Farinaceous Subsistence ; IV. Meat and Milk Subsistence ; V. Unlimited Subsistence through Field Agriculture. — Long Intervals of Time between them I9 CONTENTS. X

Chapter III. Ratio Of Human Progress

Retrospect on the Lines of Human Progress. — Principal Contributions of Modern Civilization. — Of Ancient Civilization. — Of Later Period of Barbarism.— Of Middle Period.— Of Older Period.— Of Period of Savagery. — Humble Condition of Primitive Man. — Human Progress in a Geometrical Ratio. — Relative Length of Ethnical Periods. — Appearance of Semitic and Aryan Families 29

Chapter I. Organization Of Society Upon The Basis Of Sex

Australian Classes. — Organized upon Sex. — Archaic Character of the Organization. — Australian Gentes. — The Eight Classes. — Rule of Marriage. — Descent in the Female Line. — Stupendous Conjugal System. — Two Male and Two Female Classes in each Gens. — Innovations upon the Classes. — Gens still Rudimentary 49

Chapter II. The Iroquois Gens

The Gentile Organization.— Its Wide Prevalence. — Definition of a Gens. — Descent in the Female Line the Archaic Rule. — Rights, Privileges and Obligations of Members of a Gens. — Right of Electing and Deposing its Sachem and Chiefs. — Obligation not to marry in the Gens. — Mutual Rights of Inheritance ofthe Property of deceased Members. — Reciprocal Obligations of Help, Defense and Redress of Injuries. — Right of Naming its Members. — Right of Adopting Strangers into the Gens. — Common Religious Rites, Query. — A Common Burial Place. — Council of the Gens. — Gentes named after Animals. — Number of Persons in a Gens CONTENTS. XI

Chapter III. The Iroquois Phratry

Definition of a Phratry. — Kindred Gentes Reunited in a Higher Organization. — Phratry of the Iroquois Tribes. — Its Composition. — Its Uses and Functions. — Social and Religious. — Illustrations. — The Analogue of the Grecian Phratry ; but in its Archaic Form. — Phratries of the Choctas.— Of the Chickasas.— Of the Mohegans.— Of the Thlinkeets. — Their Probable Universality in the Tribes of the American Aborigines 88

Chapter IV. The Iroquois Tribe

The Tribe as an Organization. — Composed of Gentes Speaking the same Dialect. — Separation in Area led to Divergence of Speech, and Segmentation. — The Tribe a Natural Growth.— Illustrations. — Attributes of a Tribe. — A Territory and Name. — An Exclusive Dialect. — The Right to Invest and Depose its Sachems and Chiefs. — A Religious Faith and Worship. — A Council of Chiefs. — A Head-Chief of Tribe in some Instances. — Three successive Forms of Gentile Government : First, a Government of One Power ; Second, of Two Powers ; Third, of Three Powers 102

Chapter V. The Iroquois Confederacy

Confederacies Natural Growths. — Fouuded upon Common Gentes, and a Common Language. — The Iroquois Tribes. — Their Settlement in New York. — Formation of the Confederacy. — Its Structure and Principles. — Fifty Sachemships Created. — Made Hereditary in certain Gentes. — Number assigned to each Tribe. — These Sachems formed the Council of the Confederacy. — The Civil Council. — Its Mode of Transacting Business. — Unanimity Necessary to its Action. — The Mourning Council. — Mode of Raising up Sachems. — General Military Commanders. — This Office the Germ of that of a Chief Executive Magistrate. — ■ Intellectual Capacity of the Iroquois 122

Chapter VI. Gentes In Other Tribes Of The Ganowanian Family

Divisions of American Aborigines. — Gentes in Indian Tribes ; with their Rules of Descent and Inheritance. — I. Hodenosaunian Tribes. — II. Dakotian. — III. Gulf. — IV. Pawnee. — V. Algonkin. — VI. Athapasco- CONTENTS. Apache.*— VII. Tribes of North-west Coast. — Eskimos, a Distinct Family.— VIII. Salish, Sahaptin, and Kootenay Tribes. — IX. Sho shonee. — X. Village Indians of New Mexico, Mexico and Central America. — XI. South American Indian Tribes.— Probable Universality of the Organization in Gentes in the Ganowanian Family 151

Chapter VII. The Aztec Confederacy

Misconception of Aztec Society. — Condition of Advancement. — Nahuatlac Tribes. — Their Settlement in Mexico. — Pueblo of Mexico founded, A.D. 1325. — Aztec Confederacy established, A.D. 1426. — Extent of Territorial Domination.— Probable Number of the People. — Whether or not the Aztecs were organized in Gentes and Phratries. — The Council of Chiefs. — Its probable Functions. — Office held by Montezuma. — Elective in Tenure. — Deposition of Montezuma. — Probable Functions of the Office. — Aztec Institutions essentially Democratical. •The Government a Military Democracy 186

Chapter VIII. The Grecian Gens

Early Condition of Grecian Tribes. — Organized into Gentes. — Changes in the Character of the Gens. — Necessity for a Political System. — Problem to be Solved.— The Formation of a State. — Grote's Description ofthe Grecian Gentes. — Of their Phratries and Tribes. — Rights, Privileges and Obligations of the Members of the Gens. — Similar to those of the Iroquois Gens. — The Office of Chief of the Gens. — Whether Elective or Hereditary. — The Gens the Basis of the Social System. — Antiquity ofthe Gentile Lineage. — Inheritance of Property. — Archaic and Final Rule. — Relationships between the Members of a Gens. — The Gens the Center of Social and Religious Influence 215

Chapter IX. The Grecian Phratry, Tribe And Nation

The Athenian Phratry. — How Formed. — Definition of Dikæarchus. — Objects chiefly Religious. — The Phratriarch. — The Tribe. — Composed oi Three Phratries. — The Phylo Basileus. — The Nation. — Composed of Four Tribes.— Boule, or Council of Chiefs. — Agora, or Assembly of the People. — The Basileus. — Tenure of the Office. — Military and Priestly Functions. — Civil Functions not shown. — Governments of the Heroic Age, Military Democracies. — Aristotle's Definition of a Basileus. — Later Athenian Democracy. — Inherited from the Gentes. — Its Powerful Influence upon Athenian Development 235, CONTENTS. XIII

Chapter X. The Institution Of Grecian Political Society

Failure of the Gentes as a Basis of Government. — Legislation of Theseus. — Attempted Substitution of Classes. — Its Failure. — Abolition of the Office of Basileus. — The Archonship. — Naucraries and Trittyes. — Legislation of Solon. — The Property Classes. — Partial Transfer of Civil Power from the Gentes to the Classes. — Persons unattached to any Gens. — Made Citizens. — The Senate. — The Ecclesia. — Political Society partially attained.— Legislation of Cleisthenes. — Institution of Political Society. — The Attic Deme or Township. — Its Organization and Powers. — Its Local Self-government. — The Local Tribe or District. — The Attic Commonwealth. — Athenian Democracy 256

Chapter XI. The Roman Gens

Italian Tribes Organized in Gentes. — Founding of Rome. — Tribes Organized into a Military Democracy. — The Roman Gens. — Definition of a Gentilis by Cicero. — By Festus. — By Varro. — Descent in Male Line. — Marrying out of the Gens. — Rights, Privileges and Obligations of the Members of a Gens. — Democratic Constitution of Ancient Latin Society. — Number of Persons in a Gens 277

Chapter XII. The Roman Curia, Tribe And Populus

Roman Gentile Society.— Four Stages of Organization. — I. The Gens ; 2. The Curia, consisting of TenGentes ; 3. The Tribe, composed of Ten Curiæ ; 4. The Populus Romanus, composed of Three Tribes. — Numerical Proportions. — -How Produced. — Concentration of Gentes at Rome. — The Romaii Senate. — Its Functions. — The Assembly of the People. — Its Powers. — The People Sovereign. — Office of Military Commander (Rex). — Its Powers and Functions. — Roman Gentile Institutions essentially Democratical 300

Chapter XIII. The Institution Of Roman Political Society

The Populus. — The Plebeians. — The Clients. — The Patricians. — Limits of the Order. — Legislation of Servius Tullius. — Institution of Property Classes. — Of the Centuries. — Unequal Suffrage. — Comitia Centuriata. CONTENTS. XIV — Supersedes Comitia Curiata. — Classes supersede the Gentes. — The Census. — Plebeians made Citizens. — Institution of City Wards. — Of Country Townships. — Tribes increased to Four. — Made Local instead of Consanguine. — Character of New Political System. — De cline and Disappearance of Gentile Organization. — The Work it Accomplished 323

Chapter XIV. Change Of Descent From The Female To The Male Line

How the Change might have been made. — Inheritance of Property the Motive. — Descent in the Female Line among the Lycians. — The Cretans. — The Etruscans. — Probably among the Athenians in the time of Cecrops. — The Hundred Families of the Locrians. — Evidence from Marriages. — Turanian System of Consanguinity among Grecian Tribes. — Legend of the Danaidæ 343

Chapter XV. Gentes In Other Tribes Of The Human Family

The Scottish Clan. — The Irish Sept. — Germanic Tribes. — Traces of a prior Gentile System. — Gentes in Southern Asiatic Tribes. — In Northern. — In Uralian Tribes. — Hundred Families of Chinese. — Hebrew Tribes. — Composed of Gentes and Phratries Apparently. — Gentes in African Tribes. — In Australian Tribes. — Subdivisions of Fejees and Rewas. — Wide Distribution of Gentile Organization 357

Chapter I. The Ancient Family

Five successive Forms of the Family. — First, the Consanguine Family. — It created the Malayan System of Consanguinity and Affinity.— Second, the Punaluan.— It created the Turanian and Ganowanian System. — Third, the Monogamian.— It created the Aryan, Semitic, and Uralian System.— The Syndyasmian and Patriarchal Families Intermediate.— CONTENTS. XV Both sailed to create a System of Consanguinity. — These Systems Natural Growths. — Two Ultimate Forms. — One Classificatory, the other Descriptive. — General Principles of these Systems. — Their Persistent Maintenance 383

Chapter II. The Consanguine Family

Former Existence of this Family. — Proved by Malayan System of Consanguinity. — Hawaiian System used as Typical. — Five Grades of Relations. — Details of System. — Explained in its origin by the Intermarriage of Brothers and Sisters in a Group. — Early State of Society in the Sandwich Islands. — Nine Grades of Relations of the Chinese. — Identical in Principle with the Hawaiian. — Five Grades of Relations in Ideal Republic of Plato. — Table of Malayan System of Consanguinity and Affinity 401

Chapter III. The Punaluan Family

The Punaluan Family supervened upon the Consanguine. — Transition, how Produced. — Hawaiian Custom of Punalua. — Its probable ancient Prevalence over wide Areas. — The Gentes originated probably in Punaluan Groups. — The Turanian System of Consanguinity. — Created by the Punaluan Family. — It proves the Existence of this Family when the System was formed. — Details of System. — Explanation of its Relationships in their Origin. — Table of Turanian and Ganowanian Systems of Consanguinity and Affinity 424

Chapter IV. The Syndyasmian And The Patriarchal Families

The Syndyasmian Family. — How Constituted. — Its Characteristics. — Influence upon it of the Gentile Organization. — Propensity to Pair a late Development. — Ancient Society should be Studied where the highest Exemplifications are found. — The Patriarchal Family. — Paternal Power its Essential Characteristic. — Polygamy subordinate. — The Roman Family similar. — Paternal Power unknown in previous Families 453

Chapter V. The Monogamian Family

This Family comparatively Modern. — The Term Familia. — Family of Ancient Germans. — Of Homeric Greeks. — Of Civilized Greeks. — Seclusion of Wives. — Obligations of Monogamy not respected by the Males. CONTENTS. — The Roman Family. — Wives under Power. — Aryan System of Con sanguinity. — It came in under Monogamy. — Previous System probably Turanian. — Transition from Turanian into Aryan. — Roman and Ara bic Systems of Consanguinity. — Details of the Former. — Present Monogamian Family. — Table of Roman and Arabic Systems 4°8

Chapter VI. Sequence Of Institutions Connected With The Family

Sequence in part Hypothetical. — Relation of these Institutions in the Order of their Origination. — Evidence of their Origination in the Order named. — Hypothesis of Degradation Considered. — The Antiquity of Mankind 498

Chapter I. The Three Rules Of Inheritance

Property in the Status of Savagery. — Slow Rate of Progress. — First Rule of Inheritance. — Property Distributed among the Gentiles. — Property in the Lower Status of Barbarism. — Germ of Second Rule of Inheritance. — Distributed among Agnatic Kindred. — Improved Character of Man. — Property in Middle Status. — Rule of Inheritance imperfectly Known. — Agnatic Inheritance Probable 523

Chapter II. The Three Rules Of

INHERITANCE— CONTINUED. Property in the Upper Status of Barbarism. — Slavery. — Tenure of Lands in Grecian Tribes. — Culture of the Period. — Its Brilliancy. — Third Rule of Inheritance. — Exclusively in Children. — Hebrew Tribes. — Rule of Inheritance. — Daughters of Zelophehad. — Property remained in the Phratry, and probably in the Gens. — The Reversion. — Athenian Inheritance. — Exclusively in Children. — The Reversion. — Inheritance remained in the Gens. — Heiresses. — Wills. — Roman Inheritance. — The Reversion. — Property remained in the Gens. —Appearance of Aristocracy. — Property Career of the Human Race. — Unity of Origin of Mankind

Part I. Growth Of Intelligence Through Inven- Tions And Discoveries

CHAPTER I. ETHNICAL PERIODS.

Progress of Mankind from the Bottom of the Scale. — Illustrated by Inventions Discoveries and Institutions. — Two Plans of Govern ment — one Gentile and Social, giving a Society, (Soeietas); the other Political, giving a State, (Civitas). — The former founded upon Persons AND GeNTH.ISM ; THE LATTER UPON TERRITORY AND PROPERTY. — THE FIRST, the Plan of Government of Ancient Society. — The Second, that of Modern or Civilized Society. — Uniformity of Human Experience. — Proposed Ethnical Periods — I. Lower Status of Savagery ; II. Middle Status of Savagery ; III. Upper Status of Savagery; IV. Lower Status of Barbarism; V. Middle Status of Barbarism; VI. Upper Status of Barbarism ; VII. Status of Civilization. The latest investigations respecting the early condition of the human race, are tending to the conclusion that mankind commenced their career at the bottom of the scale and worked their way up from savagery to civilization through the slow accumulations of experimental knowledge.

As it is undeniable that portions of the human family have existed in a state of savagery, other portions in a state of barbarism, and still other portions in a state of civilization, it seems equally so that these three distinct conditions are connected with each other in a natural as well as necessary sequence of progress. Moreover, that this sequence has been historically true of the entire human family, up to the status attained by each branch respectively, is rendered probable by the conditions under which all progress occurs, and by the known advancement of several branches of the family through two or more of these conditions. An attempt will be made in the following pages to bring forward additional evidence of the rudeness of the early condition of mankind, of the gradual evolution of their men tal and moral powers through experience, and of their pro tracted struggle with opposing obstacles while winning their way to civilization.

It will be drawn, in part, from the great sequence of inventions and discoveries which stretches along the entire pathway of human progress; but chiefly from domestic institutions, which express the growth of certain ideas and passions. As we re-ascend along the several lines of progress toward the primitive ages of mankind, and eliminate one after the other, in the order in which they appeared, inventions and discoveries on the one hand, and institutions on the other, we are enabled to perceive that the former stand to each other in progressive, and the latter in unfolding relations. While the former class have had a connection, more or less direct, the latter have been developed from a few primary germs of thought. Modern institutions plant their roots in the period of barbarism, into which their germs were trans mitted from the previous period of savagery.

They have had a lineal descent through the ages, with the streams of the blood, as well as a logical development. Two independent lines of investigation thus invite our attention. The one leads through inventions and discov eries, and the other through primary institutions. With the knowledge gained therefrom, we may hope to indicate the principal stages of human development." The proofs to be adduced will be drawn chiefly from domestic institutions; the references to achievements more strictly intellectual being general as well as subordinate. The facts indicate the gradual formation and subsequent development of certain ideas, passions, and aspirations. Those which hold the most prominent positions may be generalized V as growths of the particular ideas with which they severally stand connected.

Apart from inventions and discoveries they are the following: I. Subsistence, V. Religion, II. Government, VI. House Life and Archi- III. Language, lecture, IV. The Family, VII. Property. First. Subsistence has been increased and perfected by a series of successive arts, introduced at long intervals of time, and connected more or less directly with inventions and discoveries. Second. The germ of government must be sought in the organization into gentes in the Status of savagery; and fol lowed down, through the advancing forms of this institution, to the establishment of political society. Third. Human speech seems to have been developed from the rudest and simplest forms of expression. Gesture or sign language, as intimated by Lucretius,1 must have preceded articulate language, as thought preceded speech.

The monosyllabical preceded the syllabical, as the latter did that of concrete words. Human intelligence, unconscious of design, evolved articulate language by utilizing the vocal sounds. This great subject, a department of knowledge by itself, does not fall within the scope of the present investigation. Fourth. With respect to the family, the stages of its growth are embodied in systems of consanguinity and affinity, and in usages relating to marriage, by means of which, collectively, the family can be definitely traced through several successive forms. Fifth. The growth of religious ideas is environed with such intrinsic difficulties that it may never receive a perfectly satis factory exposition. Religion deals so largely with the imagina tive and emotional nature, and consequently with such uncer tain elements of knowledge, that all primitive religions are 1 Et pueros commendarunt mulierbreque saeclum Vocibus, et gestu, cum balbe significarent, Imbecillorum esse aequm miserier omnium. — De Rerum Natura, lib. v, 1020. grotesque and to some extent unintelligible.

This subject also falls without the plan of this work excepting as it may prompt incidental suggestions. Sixth. House architecture, which connects itself with the form of the family and the plan of domestic life, affords a tolerably complete illustration of progress from savagery to civili zation. Its growth can be traced from the hut of the savage, through the communal houses of the barbarians, to the house of the single family of civilized nations, with all the successive links by which one extreme is connected with the other. This subject will be noticed incidentally. Lastly. The idea of property was slowly formed in the human mind, remaining nascent and feeble through immense periods of time. Springing into life in savagery, it required all the experience of this period and of the subsequent period of barbarism to develop the germ, and to prepare the human brain for the acceptance of its controlling influence.

Its domi nance as a passion over all other passions marks the commence ment of civilization. It not only led mankind to overcome the obstacles which delayed civilization, but to establish political society on the basis of territory and of property. A critical knowledge ofthe evolution of the idea of property would em body, in some respects, the most remarkable portion of the mental history of mankind. It will be my object to present some evidence of human progress along these several lines, and through successive ethnical periods, as it is revealed by inventions and discoveries, and by the growth of the ideas of government, of the family, and of property. It may be here premised that all forms of government are reducible to two general plans, using the word plan in its scientific sense. In their bases the two are fundamentally distinct.

The first, in the order of time, is founded upon persons, and upon relations purely personal, and may be distinguished as a society (socictas). The gens is the unit of this organization ; giving as the successive stages of integration, in the archaic period, the gens, the phratry, the tribe, and the confederacy of tribes, which constituted a people or nation (populus). At a later period a coalescence of tribes in the same area into a nation took the place of a confederacy of tribes occupying independent areas. Such, through prolonged ages, after the gens appeared, was the substantially universal organization of an cient society; and it remained among the Greeks and Romans after civilization supervened. The second is founded upon ter ritory and upon property, and may be distinguished as a state (civitas).

The township or ward, circumscribed by metes and bounds, with the property it contains, is the basis or unit of the latter, and political society is the result. Political society is organized upon territorial areas, and deals with property as well as with persons through territorial relations. The successive stages of integration are the township or ward, which is the unit of organization; the county or province, which is an aggregation of townships or wards ; and the national domain or territory, which is an aggregation of counties or provinces ; the people of each of which are organized into a body politic. It taxed the Greeks and Romans to the extent of their capaci ties, after they had gained civilization, to invent the deme or township and the city ward ; and thus inaugurate the second great plan of government, which remains among civilized nations to the present hour.