The Physical Geography of the Sea, and its Meteorology

Introduction

TO THE FIRST EDITION— 1855. The primary object of "The "Wind and Current Charts," out of which has grown this Treatise on the Physical Geography of the Sea, was to collect the experience of every navigator as to the winds and currents of the ocean, to discuss his observations upon them, and then to present the world with the results on charts for the improvement of commerce and navigation. By putting down on a chart the tracks of many vessels on the same voyage, but at different times, in different years, and during all seasons, and by projecting along each track the winds and currents daily encountered, it was plain that navigators hereafter, by consulting this chart, would have for their guide the results of the combined experience of all whose tracks were thus pointed out. Perhaps it might be the first voyage of a young navigator to the given port, when his own personal experience of the winds to be expected, the currents to be encountered by the way, would itself be blank.

If so, there would be the wind and current chart. It would spread out before him the tracks of a thousand vessels that had preceded him on the same voyage, wherever it might be, and that, too, at the same season of the year. Such a chart, it was held, would shew him not only the tracks of the vessels, but the experience also of each master as to the winds and currents by the way, the temperature of the ocean, and the variation of the needle. All this could be taken in at a glance, and thus the young mariner, instead of groping his way along until the lights VI

INTRODUCTION.

. of experience should come to him by the slow teachings of the dearest of all schools, would here find, at once, that he had already tlie experience of a thousand navigators to guide him on his voyage. He might, therefore, set out upon his first voyage with as much confidence in his knowledge as to the winds and currents he might expect to meet with, as though he himself had already been that way a thousand times before. Such a chart could not fail to commend itself to intelligent shipmasters, and such a chart was constructed for them. They took it to sea, they tried it, aud to their surprise and delight they found that, with the knowledge it afforded, the remote corners of the earth weie brought closer together, in some instances by many days' sail. The passage hence to the equator alone was shortened ten days.

Before the commencement of this undertaking the average passage to California was 183 days ; but with these charts for their guide, navigators have reduced that average, and brought it down to 135 days. Between England and Australia, the average time going, without these charts, is ascertained to be 124 days, and coming, about the same; making the round voyage one of about 250 days on the average. These charts, and the system of research to which they have given rise, bid fair to bring that colony and the mother country nearer by many days, reducing, in no small measure, the average duration of the round voyage.* At the meeting of the British Association of 1853, it was stated by a distinguished member — and the statement w-as again repeated at its meeting in 1854 — that in Bombay, whence he came it was estimated that this system of research, if extended to the Indian Ocean, and embodied in a set of charts for that sea such as I have been describing, would produce au annual saving to British • The outward passage, it has since been ascertained, has been reduced to 97 days ou tho average, and the homeward passage has beou made in IS.

INTRODUCTION.

. VII commerce, in those waters alone, of one or two millions of dollars ;* and in all seas, of ten millions, t A system of philosophical research, which is so rich with fruits and abundant with promise, could not fail to attract the attention and commend itself to the consideration of the seafaring community of the whole civilised world. It was founded on observation ; it was the result of the experience of many observant men, now brought together for the first time and patiently discussed. The results tended to increase human knowledge with regard to the sea and its wonders, and therefore the system of research could not be wanting in attractions to right-minded men. The results of the first chart, however, though meagre and unsatisfactory, were brought to the notice of navigators ; their attention was called to the blank spaces, and the importance of more and better observations than the old sea-logs generally contained was urged upon them.

They were told that if each one would agree to co-operate in a general plan of observations at sea, and would send regularly, at the end of every cruise, an abstract log of their voyage to the National Observatory at Washington, he should, for so doing, be * See Inaugural Address of the Earl of Harrowby, president of the British Association, at its twenty-fourth meeting. Liverpool, 1854. + . . . " Now let us make a calculation of the annual saving toThe commerce of the United States effected by those charts and sailing directions. According to Mr. Maury, the average freight from the United States to Rio Janeiro is 17 '7 cts. per ton per day ; to Australia, 20 cts. ; to California also about 20 cts. The mean of this is a little over 10 cents per ton per day ; but to be within the mark, we will take it at 15, and include all the ports of South America, China, and the East Indies.

"The sailing directions have shortened the passages to California 30 days to Australia 20, to Rio Janerio 10. The mean of this is 20, but we will take it at 15, and also include the above-named ports of South America, China, and the East Indies. "We estimate the tonnage of the United States engaged in trade with these places at 1,000,000 tons per annum. " With these data, we see that there has been effected a saving for each one of these tons of 15 cents per day for a period of 15 days, which will give an aggregate of 2,250,000 dollars saved per annum. This is on the outward voyage alone, and the tonnage trading with all other parts of the world is also left out of the calculation. Take these into con sideration, and also the fact that there is a vast amount of foreign tonnage trading between these places and the United States, and it will be seen that the annual sum saved will swell to an enormous amount." — Extract from Hunt's Mercahnt's Magazine, May, 1S54.

INTRODUCTION.

. furnished, free of cost, with a copy of the charts, and sailing directions that might be founded upon those observations. The quick, practical mind of the American shipmaster took hold of the proposition at once. To him the field was inviting, for he saw in it the promise of a rich harvest and of many useful results. So, in a little while, there were more than a thousand navigators engaged day and night, and in all parts of the ocean, in making and recording observations according to a uniform plan, and in furthering this attempt to increase our knowledge as to the winds and currents of the sea, and other phenomena that relate to its safe navigation and physical geography. To enlist the service of such a large corps of observers, and to have the attention of so many clever and observant men directed to the same subject, was a great point gained : it was a giant stride in the advancement of knowledge, and a great step toward its spread upon the waters.

Important results soon followed, and great discoveries were made. These attracted the attention of the commercial world, and did not escape the notice of philosophers everywhere. The field was immense, the harvest was plenteous, and there was both need and room for more labourers. Whatever the reapers should gather, or the merest gleaner collect, was to inure to the benefit of commerce and navigation — the increase of knowledge — ■ the good of all. Therefore, all who use the sea were equally interested in the undertaking. The government of the United States, so considering the matter, proposed a uniform system of observations at sea, and invited all the maritime states of Christendom to a conference upon the subject. This conference, consisting of representatives from France, England and Russia, from Sweden and Norway, Holland, Denmark, Belgium, Portugal, and the United States, met in Brussels, August 23, 1853, and recommended a plan of observations which should be followed on board the vessels of all friendly nations, and especially of those there present in tlie persons of their representatives.

INTRODUCTION.

. IX Prussia, Spain, Sardinia, the Holy See, the free city of Ham burg, the republics of Bremen and Chili, and the empires of Austria and Brazil, have since offered their co-operation also in the same plan. Thus the sea has been brought regularly within the domains of philosophical research, and crowded with observers. In peace and in war these observations are to be carried on ; and, in case any of the vessels on board of which they are con ducted may be captured, the abstract log — as the journal which contains these observations is called — is to be held sacred. Baron Humboldt is of opinion that the results already obtained from this system of research are sufficient to give rise to a new department of science, which he has called the Physical Geo graphy of the Sea. If so much have already been accomplished by one nation, what may we not expect in the course of a few years from the joint co-operation of so many ?

Rarely before has there been such a sublime spectacle presented to the scientific world : all nations agreeing to unite and co-operate in carrying out one system of philosophical research with regard to the sea. Though they may be enemies in all else, here they are to be friends. Every ship that navigates the high seas with these charts and blank abstract logs on board, may henceforth be regarded as a floating observatory, a temple of science. The instruments used by every co-operating vessel are to be compared with standards that are common to all; so that an observation that is made anywhere and in any ship, may be referred to and compared with all similar observations by all other ships in all parts of the world. But these meteorological observations, which this extensive and admirable system includes, will relate only to the sea.

This is not enough. The plan should include the land also, and be universal. Other great interests of society are to be benefited by such extension no less than commerce and navigation have been. A series of systematic observations, directed over large districts of country, nay, over continents, to the improvement of agricultural and

INTRODUCTION.

. X sanitary meteorology, would, I have no doubt, tend to a development of many interesting, important, and valuable results. The agricultural societies of many States of the Union have addressed memorials to the American Congress, asking for such extension; and it is hoped that that enlightened body will not fail favourably to respond. This plan contemplates the co-operation of all the States of Christendom, at least so far as the form, method, subjects of observations, time of making them, and the interchange of results, are concerned. I hope that my fellow-citizens will not fail to second and co-operate in such a humane, wise, and noble scheme. The Secretary of the Navy, taking the enlarged and enlightened views which do honour to great statesmen, has officially recommended the adoption of such a system, and the President has asked the favourable consideration thereof by Congress.

These researches for the land look not only to the advancement of the great interests of sanitary and agricultural meteorology, but they involve also a study of the laws which regulate the atmosphere, and a careful investigation of all its phenomena. Another beautiful feature in this system is, that it costs nothing additional. The instruments that these observations at sea call for are such as are already in use on board of every well-conditioned ship, and the observations that are required are precisely those which are necessary for her safe and proper navigation. As great as is the value attached to what has been accomplished by these researches in the way of shortening passages and lessening the dangers of the sea, a good of higher value is, in the opinion of many seamen, yet to come out of the moral, the educational influence which they are calculated to exert upon the seafaring community of the world.

A very clever English shipmaster, speaking recently of the advantages of educational influences among those who intend to follow the sea, remarks — " To the cultivated lad there is a new world spread out when he enters on his first voyage. As his education has fitted, so will he perceive, year by year, that his profession makes him acquainted

INTRODUCTION.

. XI with things new and instructive. His intelligence will enable him to appreciate the contrasts of each country in its general aspect, manners, and productions, and in modes of navigation adapted to the character of coast, climate, and rivers. He will dwell with interest on the phases of the ocean, the storm, the calm, and the breeze, and will look for traces of the laws which regulate them. All this will induce a serious earnestness in his work, and teach him to view lightly those irksome and often offensive duties incident to the beginner."* And that these researches do have such an effect many noble hearted mariners have testified. Captain Phinney, of the American ship Gertr-wde, writing from Callao, January, 1855, thus expresses himself — " Having to proceed from this to the Chincha Islands and remain three months, I avail myself of the present opportunity to forward to you abstracts of my two passages over your southern routes, although not required to do so until my own return to the United States next summer; knowing that you are less amply supplied with abstracts of voyages over these regions than of many other parts of the ocean, and such as it is, I am happy to contribute my mite toward furnishing you with material to work out still further toward perfection your great and glorious task, not only of pointing out the most speedy routes for ships to follow over the ocean, but also of teaching us sailors to look about us, and see by what wonderful manifestations of the wisdom and goodness of the great God we are continually surrounded.

" For myself, I am free to confess that for many years I com manded a ship, and although never insensible to the beauties of nature upon the sea or land, I yet feel that, until I took up your work, I had been traversing the ocean blindfolded. I did not think; I did know the amazing and beautiful combination of all * " The Loo of a Merchant Officer ; viewed with reference to the Education of Young Officers and the Youth of the Merchant Service. By Robert Methrek, com mander in the Peninsular and Oriental Company, and author of the ' Narrative of the Blenheim hurricane of 1851.'" London: John Weale, 59, High Holborn; Smith, Elder, k Co., Cornhill; Ackermarm & Co., Strand. 1854.

INTRODUCTION.

. XII the works of Him whom you so beautifully term ' the Great First Thought.' "I feel that, aside from any pecuniary profit to myself from your labours, you have done me good as a man. You have taught me to look above, around, and' beneath me, and recognise God's hand in every element by which I am surrounded. I am grate ful for this personal benefit. Your remarks on this subject, so frequently made in your work, cause me feelings of the greatest admiration, although my capacity to comprehend your beautiful theory is very limited. " The man of such sentiments as you express will not be dis pleased with, or, at least, will know how to excuse, so much of what (in a letter of this kind) might be termed irrelevant matter. I have therefore spoken as I feel, and with sentiments of the greatest respect."

Sentiments like these cannot fail to meet with a hearty response from all good men, whether ashore or afloat. Never before has such a corps of observers been enlisted in the cause of any department of physical science as is that which is now about to be engaged in advancing our knowledge of the Physical Geography of the Sea, and never before have men felt such an interest with regard to this knowledge. Under this term will be included a philosophical account of the winds and currents of the sea ; of the circulation of the atmosphere and ocean ; of the temperature and depth of the sea ; of the -wonders that lie hidden in its depths; and of the phenomena that display themselves at its .surface. In short, I shall treat of the economy of the sea and its adaptations — of its salts, its waters, its climates, and its inhabitants, and of whatever there may be of general interest in its commercial uses or industrial pursuits, for all such things pertain to its Physical Geography.

The object of this little book, moreover, is to shew the present state and, from time to time, the progress of this new and beautiful system of research, as well as of this interesting department of science; and the aim of the author is to present the gleanings

INTRODUCTION.

. XIII from this new field iu a manner that may be interesting aD<i instructive to all, whether old or young, ashore or afloat, who desire a closer look into " the wonders of the great deep," or a better knowledge as to its winds, its adaptations, or its Physical Geography.* * There is an old and very rare book which treats upon some of the subjects to which this httle work relates. It is by Count L. F. Marsisli, an Italian, and is called Natural Description of the Seas. The copy to which I refer was translated into Dutch by Boerhaave, in 1786. The French count made his observations along the coast of Provence and Languedoc. The description only relates to that part of the Mediterranean. The book is divided into four chapters : the first, on the bottom and shape of the sea ; the second, of sea water; the third, on the movements of sea-water ; and the fourth, of sea-plants.

He divides sea-water into surface and deep-sea water ; because, when he makes salt from surface water (not more than half a foot below the upper strata), this salt will give a red colour to blue paper ; whereas the salt from deep-sea water will not alter the colours at all. The blue paper can only change its colour by the action of an acid. Tlie reason why this acid (iodine ?) is found in surface and not in deep-sea water is, it is derived from the air; but he supposes that the saltpetre that is found in sea water, by the action of the sun's rays aud the motion of the waves, is deprived of it& coarse parts, and, by evaporation, embodied in the air, to be conveyed to beasts or plants for their existence, or deposited upon the earth's crust, as it occurs on the plains of Hungary, where the earth absorbs so much of this saltpetre vapour.

Donati, also, was a valuable labourer in this field. His inquiries enabled Mr. Trembley* to conclude that there are, "at the bottom of the water, mountains, plains, valleys, and caverns, just as upon the land." But by far the most interesting and valuable book touching the physical geography of the Mediterranean is Admiral Smyth's last work, entitled "The Mediterranean: A Memoir, Physical, Historical, and Nautical. By Rear-Admiral William. Henry Smyth, K.S.F., D.C.L.," &c. London : John W. Parker and Son. 1854. * Philosophical Transactions.

INTRODUCTION.

TO THE SIXTH EDITION. The department of the Physical Geography of the Sea is a new field of research ; there is great activity in it, and it is the aim of the author of this work to keep its readers posted up with the improvements, the developments, and the contributions that are made in this interesting field from time to time. Tlie present edition contains much that is new; for the fifth edition has been most carefully revised, much of it has been recast, and some parts omitted. The desire is, that this work shall keep pace with the progress of research. As it may be supposed, that facts are sometimes misin terpreted or not understood when first developed. Whenever subsequent research shews such to have been the case, I have not hesitated to tear down whatever of conjecture or theory may have been built on unstable foundations, and to reconstruct according to the best lights.

It is proper to say, that, in accounting for the various phenomena that present themselves, I am wedded to no theories, and do not advocate the doctrines of any particular school. Truth is my object. Therefore, when the explanation which I may have at any time offered touching any facts fails to satisfy further developements, it is given up the moment one is suggested which will account for the new, and equally as well for the old system of facts. In every in stance that theory is preferred which is reconcible with the greatest number of known facts. The chapter of the Gulf Stream has been enriched with the results of recent investigation, and the theory of it further developed. So also that on the Salts of the Sea; the

INTRODUCTION.

. Open Sea in the Arctic Ocean ; the Basin of the Atlantic, and several others, but these specially have been greatly improved. A separate chapter is now devoted to the Land and Sea Breezes, and extensive contributions have been made to that on Monsoons, Trade Winds, and Cyclones. Lieutenant Jansen, of the Dutch Navy, has helped me to enrich these with his fine thoughts. The reader will, I am sure, feel, as I do, deeply indebted to him for so - much instructive matter, set forth in his very delightful and pleasing manner. National Observatory, Washington, April, 1856. Since the above date, explorations have been made in this interesting department of science, and new veins of precious ore have been hit upon. We have not yet gone deep enongh into them to justify a final report; a preliminary one is given in the Addenda.

In 1849 Congress passed an act requiring the Secretary of the Navy to employ three small vessels in assisting me to perfect my discoveries. A few weeks ago, Lieutenant Berryman put to sea in the Arctic on this duty. His attention was specially directed to deep-sea soundings along the great telegraphic plateau stretching from Newfoundland to Ireland. The results, so far, are of the highest interest. Among them is the discovery of a line of volcanic cinders along a line a thousand miles in length, and reaching entirely across the Gulf Stream where the submarine telegraph is to cross it. There is also among the Addenda Lieutenant Jansen's experiments upon Ozone, which cast unexpeted light upon the circulation of the atmosphere. Matter of more general or higher scientific importance than that contained in these Addenda is seldom gathered from any fields of research. December, 1858. CONTENTS.

Chapter I. The Gulf Stream

IU Colour, § 2. — Theories, 5.— Captain Livingston's 6. — Dr. Franklin's, 7.— Admiral Smyth and Mediterranean Currents, 8. — Trade Winds not the cause of the Gulf Stream, 9. — Drift us Bottles, 12. — Sargasso Sea, 13, — Hypothetical System of Currents, 19. — Galvanic Properties of the Gulf Stream, 26.— Saltness of ditto, 29. — Effects produced upon Currents by Evaporation, 32.— Gulf Stream Roof -shaded, 39. — Effects of Diurnal Rotation upon Running Water, 42. — Course of the Gulf Stream not altered by Nantucket Shoals, 52.— The Trough in the Sea through which the Gulf Stream flows has a Vibratory Motion, 54.— Streaks of Warm and Cold Water in the Gulf Stream, 57.— Runs up Hill, 59.— A Cushion of Cold Water, 60, Page 1.

Chapter II. Influencf

OF THE GULF STREAM UPON CLIMATES. How the Climate of England is regulated by it, §> 61.— Isothermal Lines of the Atlantic, 65. — Deep-sea Temperatures under the Gulf Stream, 6S.— Currents indicated by the Fish, 70.— Sea-nettles, 73.— Climates of the. Sea, 75.— Offices of the Sea, 76.— Influence of the Gulf Stream upon the Meteorology of the Ocean, 78.— Furious Storms, 80.— Dampness of the English Climate due the Gulf Stream, 83.— Its Influence upon Storms, 85.— Wreck of the Steamer San Francisco, 88.— Influence of the Gulf Stream upon Commerce and Navigation, 96.— Used for finding Longitude, 103.— Commerce in 1769, 106, Page 24.

Chapter III. The Atmosphere

Its Connexion with the Physical Geography of the Sea, § 113.— Description, 114.— Order in Sea and Air, 119. — The Language and Eloquence of Nature, 120.— The Trade-winds, 122.— Plate I., Circulation of the Atmosphere, 123. — An Illustration, 126.— Theory, 128.— Where and why the Barometer stands highest, 133.— The Pleiades, 142. — Trade-wind Clouds, 146. — Forces concerned, 149. — Heat and Cold, 150.— How the Winds turn about the Poles, 155.— Offices of the Atmosphere, 159. — Mechanical Power of, 167.— Whence come th€ Rains for the Northern Hemisphere? b CONTENTS. 169. -Quantity of Rain in each Hemisphere, 175.— The Saltest Portion of the Sea " 179.— The North-east Trade-winds take up Vapours for the Southern Hemisphere, lSl.-Rainy Seasons, 187.-In Oregon, 189.-Califomia, 191.— Panama, 193.-Rain less Regions, 194.— Rainy Side of Mountains, 199.— The Ghauts, 200.— The greatest Precipitation, where it takes place, 203.— Evaporation, 207.— Rate of, in India, 210. —Adaptations of the Atmosphere, 219, Page 43.

Chapter IV. Land And Sea Breezes

Lieutenant Jansen, § 228.— His contributions, 229.— The Sea-breeze, 230.— An Illustration 231. The Land-breeze, 232. — Jansen's Account of the Land and Sea Breeze in the East Indies, 234.— A Morning Scene, 235.— The Calm, 237.— The Inhabitants of the Sea going to Work, 239.— Noon, 240.— The Sea-breeze dies, 245.— The Land-breeze, 247.— A Discussion, 248.— Why Land and Sea Breezes are not of equal Freshness on the Sea-shore of all Countries, 252. — The Sea-breeze at Valparaiso, 255.-The Night, 258.— A Contrast, 263, Page 75. CHAPTER, V. RED FOGS AND SEA DUST. Where found, § 206.— Tallies on the Wind, 272.— Where taken up, 278.— Humboldt's Description, 2S2.— Questions to be answered, 234. — What Effects the Deserts have upon the General Circulation of the Air, 236. — Information derived from Sea Dust, 288.— Limits of Trade-winds, 289.— Breadth of Calm Belts, 290, . . Page 86.

Chapter VI. On The

PROB\BLE RELATION BETWEEN MAGNETISM AND THE CIRCULATION OF THE ATMOSPHERE. Faraday's Discoveries, § 209.— Is there a crossing of Air at the Calm Belts ? 801.— Whence comes the Vapour for Rains in extra-tropical Regions ? 305.— Significant Facts, 310.— Wet and Dry Winds, 311. -Regions of Precipitation and Evaporation, 812.— What guides the Wind in his Circulations? 313.— Distribution of Rains and Winds not left to Chance, 316.— A Conjecture about Magnetism, 318. Circumstantial Evidence, 323.— More Evaporating Surface in the Southern than in the Northern Hemisphere, 326.— Whence come the Vapours that feed the great Rivers with Rains ? 329.— Rain and Thermal Maps, 330.— The Dry Season in California the Wet in the Mississippi Valley, 332 — Importance of Meteorological Observations in British America, 333. —Importance of extending the System from the Sea to the Land, 334.— Climate of the Interior, 335.— The extra-tropical Regions of the Northern Hemisphere Condenser for the Trade-winds of the Southern, 336.— Plate VII. 839.— Countries most favourable for having Rains, 343 How does the Air of tho North-oast and South-east Trades cross in the Equatorial Calms, 850.— Rain for the Mississippi Valley, 357.- Blood Rains, 372.— Track of the Passat-Staub on Plate VII., 374.— The Theory of Ampere, 378.— Calm Regions about the Poles, 3S0.-The Pole of maximum Cold, 381, Page 94. CONTENTS. XIX

Chapter VII. Currents Of The Sea

Governed by Laws, § SS6.— The capacity of Water to convey Heat, 399.— Tlie Red Sea Current, 404.— 'Ihe per centum of Salt in Sea Water, 418.— The Mediterranean Current, 423.— Under-Current from, 424.- Admiral Smyth's Soundings, 426.— Lyell _ Views, 429.— Admiral Smyth's Views, 436.— Currents of the Indian Ocean, 439.— Gulf Stream of the Pacific, 441.— Its Resemblance to that of the Atlantic, 442.— An Ice-bearing Current between Africa and Australia, 449.— Currents of the Pacific, 451.— A Sargossa Sea in the Pacific, 452. -Drift-wood upon the Aleutian Islands, 453.— Cold Ochotsk, 454.— Humboldt's Current, 455.— Warm Current in the South Pacific, 450. —Equatorial Currents in the South Pacific, 453. — The effect of Rain and Evaporation upon Currents, 459.— Under-Currents of the Atlantic, 461.— Equilibrium of the Sea maintained by Currents, 407.— The Brazil Current, 46-, . . . Page 115.

Chapter VIII. The Open Sea In The Arctic Ocean

The habit of Whalemen, § 473,— Right Whales cannot cross the Equator, 475.— An Under-Current into the Polar Basin, 478. -Indications of a Warm Climate, 481.— De Haven's Water Sky, 482.— The Open Sea of Dr. Kane, 4S4.— Drift of an Abandoned Ship, 487, Page 138.

Chapter IX. The Salts Of The Sea

Why is the Sea Salt? § 491.— An Hypothesis, 494.— The Adaptations of the Sea, 498.— _ Components of Sea Water everywhere alike, 500. — Proportion of Solid Contents, 5->2. — The Influence of Wind upon the Circulation of the Sea, 508. —The Influence of Heat, 511. — The Influence of Evaporation, 517. — The Influence of Irecipitation, 519. —Under-Current from the Mediterranean and Red Sea due to the Salts of, 523. — Space that the Salts of the Sea would occupy in a Solid State, 527. — De Haven's Drift from the Arctic Ocean, 530. — An Under-Current flowing into it, 534. — Tlie Water Sky, 540.— Sea Shells, 545.— Their Agency in the System of Oceanic Circulation, 548. — They assist to regulate Climate, 557.— Compensation in the Sea, 563. — Insects of the Sea, 565. — Geological Records concerning the Salts of the Sea, 5GS. — Light from the Bible, 571.— Whence come the Salts of the Sea? 574.— Professor Chapman's Experiments, 579, Page 144.