An Account of the origin and present condition of the Tribe of Ramoossies, including the life of the Chief Oomiah Naik

Front matter

A AN ACCOUNT OP THE ORIGIN AND PRESENT CONDITION O F THE TRIBE OF RAMOOS S IES Including the Life of Œije Œfjief ©omiafj Kaift. BY CAPTAIN ALEXANDER MACKINTOSH, OF THE TWENTY-SEVENTH REGIMENT, MADRAS ARMY. BOMBAY: AMERICAN MISSION PRESS. Mdcccxxxiii. W. C Sampson, Printer. To THE RIGHT HONOURABLE JOHN EARL OF CLARE, fye. fye. fye. ©obernot of ISomiag My Lord, I was induced to solicit permission to dedicate the following Account of the Ramoossies to your Lordship, from a conviction that any attempt, however humble, which might contribute to throw light on the character of a portion of the people of the country under your liberal Government, would readily meet ivith your Lordship's support. With grateful acknowledgments for the consideration evinced towards me by your Lordship, whilst employed in conducting a part of the proceedings narrated in these pages, I have the honour to remain, with great respect, My Lord, Your most obedient and most humble servant, A. MACKINTOSH. Bombay, 25th October, 1833.

Preface

Various accounts have been written of the Bheels, &c. by different persons, but no description has yet been given of the Ramoossies. Whilst I was lately employed in the Poona district, I determined on putting to paper what I knew respecting these people. When it is recollected that the Ramoossies attracted such general attention by the resistance they offered to the Government authority in the Dekhan for some years past, it may appear rather singular that their numerical strength should be so small ; but partly to account for this circumstance, it is only necessary to remark, that since Oomiah's successful proceedings in the years 1826 — 27, and his conduct during his stay at Sakoordy, the name of Ramoossy became not only more generally known, but more dreaded, and in a manner more respected ; so much so, that many of the lower classes ot Hindoos and Moossulmans sought employment in the service of the Ramoossy Naiks.

The consequence has been, that the term Jaglah, or Rukwalldar (the village watchman or guardian), has been partly superseded by that of Ramoossy ; and we frequently find Koonbies, Mallies, Mhars, Mangs, &c. performing the duties of night guardians, who style themselves Ramoossies. This has become the practice in various parts of the Dekhan, and it prevails to some extent at Bombay. To insure as much as possible accuracy of informa tion on this and other points, it becomes necessary to *f +state here, that the Officers in charge of districts within the British boundary, afforded me every facility of com municating with the Mamlutdars of the different per gunnahs, and these rendered every required assistance. His Highness the Rajah of Satara behaved in a most kind and handsome manner, authorizing me to commu nicate freely with himself and the different authorities within his territory.

In drawing up the account of the life of Oomiah, a number of his most intimate acquaintances were consulted, and he subsequently corrected a few mis takes made by them, besides giving a full account of bis own adventures. It is therefore hoped that this concise account of the origin, progress, and present con dition of the tribe of Ramoossies, notwithstanding its many imperfections of style and arrangement, will be found to contain almost all that is interesting connected with their history, manners, and customs.

Chapter I

Introductory observations. — The origin and migration of tribes.— That of the Ramoossies involved in obscurity. — The limits of Ihe country orer which they are dispersed. — The origin of the tribe and that of their name variously ex* plained — J*he tribe divided into two main branches or clans. — Two minor families have sprung up since they crossed the Neera. — The number of the tribe. — The remnants of their language. — Their employment as Rukwalldars or village guardians. — The nature of the duties they have to perform. — The lands and emoluments they enjoy. We are frequently induced, either by motives of interest or curiosity, to inquire into the character and language, the manners and customs of the inhabitants of a new, or foreign country, whose history is imperfectly known to us, although the result of our researches may prove neither entertaining nor satisfactory The nature of the appointment I have held for many years past, having necessarily brought me frequently in contact, I might say, in hostile collision, with that portion of the population ofthe Dekhan commonly distinguished as the predatory tribes, viz. the Bheels, Kolies, and the Ramoossies, and having been recently occupied in suppressing a disturbance in the country around Pooiia, caused by the latter tribe, I am induced to attempt to give an account of them, in the hope that it may not be unacceptable to those who take an interest in such matters It is generally remarked, that the history of the origin and migrations of aim >st every tribe and nation, is more or less involved in obscurity and contradiction, and this is the case with that of the Ramoossies.

The race of people known by the name of Ramoossies, reside chiefly in the outskirts of the towns and villages, in the B vallies of the Maun, Neera, Bheema, and Pera rivers, and in the ad oining plains and highlands— within the dominions 01 Hi* Highness the Rajah of Satara, aid the Poona and Ahmediiug-ur collectorates. The tract of country over which they are dispersed, ia nrarly two hundred rriles in length; aid ihruiglioui the Satara territory, arid the 'southern portion of the Poona district, it vanes from e'ghy to a8out one hundred and twenty miles in breadth — becoming much narrower as we approach the northern limits in the vicinity of Nassik, on the banks of the Godavery — so that the part i f the country in which they reside, lies with in the 17° aiid 20° of N. Latitude, and 73° 40" and 75 40" E. Longitude.

It may be observed, that although in several of the Poo rans, (tht Pudma, Bhruma Wywurt, Skund, &c.) and the Bhruhud and Lughoo Jatveeweks, a slight genealogical notice is taken of the mixed tribes of Hindoos, the term Ramoossy; is not mentioned in either of them. Biiaroor is the Sanscrit word applied to the Ramoossies in the Jatveewek, a work principal ly compiled Irom es tracts from the Poorans A short extract from each of the before mentioned Poo rans, which are supposed to alh-de to the origin of these peo ple, might be given here, but as different learned Brahmins, well versed in the shastres. agreed that the account in the Jatveewek is the true one, I shall only insert it. " The children of a Shoodur (4th class) father, and a Brah muny mother, are designated chandall, (the lowest of the low,) and those of a chandall lather and a Eckshuttry (2d class) mother, are termed Dombh: again, the offspring of a Shoodur fether and Vyse (3d class) mother, is termed Meeshaad — then the child) en of a Necshaad father and a Shoodur mother are known by the name of Poolkussy; and lastly, the children of a Eombh lather and a Poolkussy mother are called Bharroor, whose profession it is to guard villages, and to warn the inhabitants of any approaching danger."

It is conjectured lhat the Ramoossies, from havin<* originally lived at a distance from villages, must have been termed Raan-vussy, the resident of waste, or desol ite lands, from raan, awaste, a desert, a wood, and vussy, re.idu^; -t id the harsh appellative of Raan-vussy, wan eonvert^l, in tiie jouiwo of time, into the more euphonical one of Ra no *ssy Again Some of them a aintain, that the name of Ramoossy is derived from Ramvounssy the descendants of Rama; that i-.: creat ed them when he was passing throjgh the Dekhaa to Luaka, (Ceylon) in search of Seetah. The Ramoossy ranks very low among the Wurunu Shun kur, or mixed classes, and far beneath the Poolkush, or D>n gry Koley, but before the Holar, Mhar, Man* Dnou;-, &.c. These last the Ramoossy scrupulously keeps at a respectful distance.

There appears to be no record in existence, from which any information respecting the habits andcustoms of this t.ibe is to be obtained: — such information as is attempted to he given here concerning them, wa3 gained entirely by long direct personal intercourse with the tribe, and especially with the most intelligent of the aged men. They have considerable reluctance, in communicating an account of ihstr habits arid customs to persons they are unacquainted with, although they appear to have nothing very peculiar to them, that is not common to the other predatory tribes. Their backwardness in this res pect, may possibly be partly owing to prejudice, and either selfpride or self-interest, originating in th<-ir being generally more civilized, and therefore unwilling they should be supposed ca pable of committing the atrocities for which they are notorious, and partly from the pprehen3ion that thty themselves might feecome too generally known, and consequently attract the at tention of the ruling authorities, which might lead to their be ing placed more closely under the suiveillance of the Police, and that, ultimately; the principal although unlawful source from which the majority of them had heen in the habit of drawing a subsistence from lime immemorial, would be shut up against them.

By some of the inhabitants, the Ramoossies and Bsrrurs, »v Berdurs, are looked upon as one and the same tribe; but it may be presumed, that their considering the two terms synoni mous, arises from the great similarity of pursuits and habits that exists between these two classes. Admitting even that they were originally one and the same tribe, they are at present, and have been for ages, a distinct people. The Berdurs who inhabit the district of Soorapoor, and are spread over the country east and south of Bejapoor, and the banks of the Toomboodra river, hold no intercourse what ever with the Ramoossies who reside in Maundesh, the district east of Satara, ntr do the oldest men among the Ramoossies recollect having ever heard, that their fathers considered the Berdurs, and the Ramoossies, as being of the same descent or stock, or that they ever formed matrimonial connections with each other; and as far as my information goes, the opinion of the Berdurs themselves corresponds with that ofthe Ramoossies on this point.

The tribe of Ramoossies appears to be divided into two main branches, or families, the one being denominated the Cho wan, and the other the Jadoo. From these two intermarrying, numerous families have sprung up, but all of them are reckoned to belong to, and to be the offspring of, the two main branches respectively, although they have adopted various other sur names. They are equally scrupulous and tenacious, in adher ing to the piescriptive rules of their tribe in this respect, as the higher and more pure orders, never to marry a person of the same kool, or gottur, (family,) as themselves, consequently, the different families of the Chowan stock, considering them selves the descendants of the same parents according to Hindoo usage, never form matrimonial connections with each other; and the same rule stands good with regard to the Jadoo, and the families constituting that branch.

Enumerating their different surnames, I find there are now about one hundred and twenty-five; but as these surnames were adooted, evidently from assuming the name of the vil lage they werejaorn in after they had quitted it, to reside in some other, the original surname was abandoned, and the new cognomen became familiar, and the only one used — or some other name was applied, suggested by some peculiarity in the appearance of a man, such as Assgury, the large man* Neekary, the man without a beard; and again Shellky, from a man having turned a goatherd. The following are the surnames of a few of the families of both branches. First: Tiie Chowan; from whom ha3 sprung the Bhandollkur, Goregul, Shellky, the Keers igur, Assgurry Koolooch, Kurrally, Goorkool, Waghmary and Sukury, &c &c. Secondly: The Jadoo, with its descendants the Khomney, Mundly, Goury alias Makur Yellmur, Jhuppurdy, Langgu, Sheretore, Bhorrdah, Tuttlay, &c, &.c. Since the Ramoossies, however, have crossed to the north bank of the Neera river, two minor and distinct families have sprung up among them.

The first is the Rorray Ramoossies of Sonouray, near the Devy Ghaut; and the other, the Goor gool. The Rorray is said to be an adopted son of the Bhan dollkurs, and he, consequently, forms no marriage connection with tho Bhandollkur, the Shellky and Koolooch of the Chow an family stock; but he intermarries with the Chowan and the remaining families of this stock; as well as with the Jadoo, and all the families of that branch. The Goorgool is an adopted son ofthe Chowans. He there fore does not intermarry into the Chowan family, but he does into all the other families of this branch — and into the Jadoo, and all the families of that stock. The Goorgool might have been an infant of some one of she four principal classes of Hindoos, and reared in the Chowans' house, and subsequently admitted into the Ramoossy caste; and, very probably, the Rorray family originated in the Same manner — or he might have been the offspring* of a Bhan dollkur, and a Shellky oy illicite intercourse, but admitted into she caste aster the parents had performed the required pe jaance.

The Chowan is considered the most eminent and pure of the Ramoossies; therefore, on all occasions of ceremony and the adjustment of affairs of importance, connected with theu caste, the Chowan Naik obtains the precedence, and the presence of one of them is always deemed necessary on such occasions. From register rolls prepared for me by the native local authorities of all the districts in Ihe Satari territory, and in the Poona and Ahmednuggur collectorates — and, from information communicated by members of the tribe, tables hnve been dr uvn up to show the number of Ramoossies, both hereditary and tem porary residents (Oopries) of villages, above the age of sixteen years, with an account of the lands they enjoy in enam, (or freehold,) as well as the anjount of their pay and the other per quisites they receive; from this return, it appears there are 3,011 men in the Satara territory, 1,949 in the Poona, and 573 in the Ahmednuggur collectorates, exclusive of 203 Holgah Ramoossies along the banks of the Seena river.

Two cr three enam, or foreign villages, may have escaped enumera tion, and there arc a few Ramoossies settled in His HighnesB the Nizam's villages, on the Western boundary of the Ahmed nuggar and Poona districts. According to tradition, the districts around Kuttow, Mus. swur, Malloura, Nullgoond, the hill fort of Mymungur, ia Maundesh, and East of Satara, also the town of Phultun, arc the tracts in which the first traces of the tribe are found, and there can be little doubt, that their permanent location there must have occured many hundred years ago. They are at present in greater numbers in the Kuttow district, than in any other over which they have spread them selves. There are one hundred and fisty-six villages, and lite number of Ramoossies above the age of sixteen years, is one thousand and sixty-three From Kuttow they sub sequently extended westerly into Waidesh, and along the Phultun desh, (the district on the south bank of the Neera,) and, latterly, they crossed the Neera into the Poona district. — Hereafter notice will be taken of their occupying the Poorun der hills, — of their moving across the Bhcema, and of their advance towards the Godavery, as far as Sinnure and Nassik, in the collectorship of Ahmednuggur.

In the small district of Pabull, north of Poona, there are fifty-one Government villages, and the population of them amounts to about 33,950 souls; there being* males grown up, 10/47, boy* 7,47 4, women 11,547. and girls 4,182. Now, the R&.-r.oossies in the district residing in these fifty-one villages, in"h.d>ng men, women, and children, only amount to 340, of these 108 are males above sixteen ypars of age, and 69 boys, and the remainder 163 are women and giils. By ihe aggregate of these returns we find that there are 5,636 L'amoossy males above sixteen years of age — we might add about two hundred moro grown up men to this number, as residing in the Nizam's or other foreign villages within our own boundary . that may have escaped enumeration — Now, by the return from Pabull, we find, that the proportion of women and children of both sexes to the grown up males, is very little more than three to one, and, calculating on this principle, we might reckon that the whole population of the Ramoossies did not much exceed 13,000 souls.

It is very probable that this tribe originally migrated from some part of the ancient kingdom of Trlingana, probably East or South East of the present town of Hydrabad; because, in the scanty remains they have of a distinct language, many of the words evidently belong to the Teloogoo, and it might have been a dialect of that tongue. While their funeral rites and ceremonies of purification bear a great analogy to those of the Linggaiuts, of whom the Ju^gums are priests, and in the part »f the country in which the Ramoossies at present reside, few «f the Linggaiut persuasion are to be found. These are more to the East and South East. A considerable diversity of customs and languages would, in the course of ages, be naturally introduced among them; and, in fact, the amalgamation of the Ramoossies with the inhabitants of the Mharata country has been such, that there original language has been nearly lost, — few of them being able to express themselves in it, and then only in short sentences.

It is seldom used by them, except when busily employed in plundering, or when they wish to communicate something secretly in the presence of other persons They will then endeavour to express themselves as well as they can in their own language, — otherwise they merely introduce a few necessary words in their conversation in Mharata, so as to prevent those piesent from discovering what they are talking about. They appear to have been very cautious in preventing their language from becoming known to any other persons than those of their tribe; for, all that ihe inhabitants know, is, that the Ramoossies have a language peculiar to themselves, and with which the other members of the community are unacquainted. They have often addressed themselves to me in :this lan guage — when they were anxious that I should interrogate any person present on any particular subject; but more especially when they wished to obtain a favour for themselves; or when they were interested about any of their friends that were in volved in difficulties.

The following is a specimen of it. The words to which a cross is affixed are evidently Teloogoo. They frequently use the plural number instead of the singular. A man, Machull A village, Oorrhf An old man, Moodorf A woman, Ardub.

Artoolf A town, Pudhuhf Oorrh A road, Terroof Peteet Water, Neerlhf Rain, Wannuf Milk, Palls A EuropcaD, Arnall A Brahmun, Parggiah Moosullman, Malour Horse, Goorrnm-)- Bullocks, Edoollt Cow, Avullf A Dhere, or Mhar, Shydoll A Mang, Ambooj A merchant, Bumgger Buffaloe, Ennum Sheep, Gourell A dog, Kookollf Goat, Mekurf A Ramoossy, Boyill, Boiggiah A thief, Mootcht A robbery, (Durrorrah) Tutch A house, Gooroos, Fowl Korlaf Bread, Koormullf A meal, Taglah Tobacco, Poggukf A hare, Koodullf A deer, Seekull A hill, Gooduckf Stonos, Rattalf Good, Jhatore Bad, Yerrwar Glad, Jhatore, Matool Language, Matoolf Great Jhatore, Puddahf Small, Sunnud, Sunwar Run, Ookullf Goor, (Sugar) Bellumf Gold, Nenne Day, Phukkut Silver, Durakut Night, Rynef Run off secretly, Hoorkullf Hide, Kogurf Seen, Kunnlahf Dead, Susslahf Afraid, Erpoof Seize, Puttoof Wound, Nurkiahf j Blood, Nehtooroo Pyse, (Copper coin) Moorull Hot, Ley Seeth Cold, Bujoty Fire, Seeth A gun, Doobukf A low and Arrow, Poor ull A sword, Kuttoollf A corpse, Machull Sussla Quick, Esskur A stick, Burggellf Slow, Geroola There can be little doubt but that the Ramoossies in their primitive state, led a roving unsettled life, like many of the nomadic tribes, keeping at some distance from the habita tions of the more civilized orders of society, and occasionally, when opportunities offered, plundering travellers; they also at tacked at night the houses ofthe inhabitants of towns and villa ges near which they halted; as a measure of precaution, with the view of protecting their property from such troublesome and dexterous robbers, the inhabitants of various places deemed it most advisable, to employ some of these people in the capacity of a preventive police; and it may be observed, that it has become frequently necessary in many parts of the country, to continue a system perfectly analogous in modern times.

This led to the institution of the village Ruckwalldar and Jaglahs, (the guardian or watchman,) which, in the course of time, became hereditary. With regard lo the pay, fees and emoluments to which a Ramoossy RuGkwalldar, or village watchman, is entitled from long established usage, it is neces- C sary to remark, that one uniform system does not prevail in the mode of enumerating them. In some towns and villages, also in hill forts, the Rukwalldars, and a few of their followers,' enjoyed merely a certain quantity of land rent free, for discharging the duties that were assigned to them. In other villages, they only receive an annual allowance in cash, partly levied by an extra cess, and partly paid from the Government revenue, under the head of village expenses; and again, in a few villages they only receive the Balottah allowance. — In the Satara territory, the Ramoossy watchmen receive this huk, or allowance, on the same footing as the four members of the first class, or division, of the twelve Balottahdars; while those to the north of the Neera, in the Poona and Ahmednuggur collectorates, only receive shares of the Balottah allowance, corresponding with what the four members of the second division are entitled to.

The watchmen in a great many villages hold portions of rent-free land, and have stipulated allowance in cash, besides the Balottah perquisites; while in other places they receive only the cash payment and Balottah. The Ramoossy, in his character of Rukwalldar, or watch man, is not included among the twelve members of the vil lage Balottah, — this name is in the list of Alottahdars, or those who receive the charitable allowance. The inhabitants of some villages grant the Balottah dues of their own free will and accord, but do not aknowledge it as a perquisite, or right of office, due to the watchman, or which he can claim in ad dition to the money allowances and the rent-free land which he enjoys. Besides these emoluments, the Ramoossy receives a per quisite which is termed the Tull cha pysa, or fees for occu pying the halting or resting place.

Merchants and travellers passing through the country with cattle loaded with goods, and occupying the tull, or berarr, (resting place) in or near a village, with fifty or several hundred bullocks, conveying crrain, salt; cloth, &c. it matters not what description of merchandise the Ramoossy watchman undertakes to protect their property and persons during their stay. In some few towns, the Patells and Mhars get a trifling allowance from these travellers — but the Ramoossy always receives his fee, averaging two, three or four annas for every hundred bullocks — or should the tra vellers, or, more properly, the merchants be in separate par ties, putting up at the same tull, they will pay him two or three annas each. If there are only ten or twenty bullocks they give five or six pyse, (from one to two annas:) an anna may be about three halfpence.

Should the merchants' cattle have come unloaded, the owners give the Ramoossy a small quantity of flour, or a few cakes of bread, for his trouble. In case a bullock, or part of the pro perty is lost or stolen, the Rukwalldar becomes bound to recover the same, or to make the loss good ; a traveller, with a horse, halting at a village, gives a pyse or cake of bread to the Ramoossy, for the protection afforded during the night.* The Ramoossy watchmen almost invariably receive, or did receive from the villagers, a sheep, or, in lieu thereof, eight annas, at the annual festival of the Dussra; also a kumbly (blanket) and a pair of shoes. The Rukwalldars hold grants of freehold lands in various places, as a reward of services performed by some of their ancestors, besides, holding at times Mookassy rights in different villages; | and again we find instances of their having had lands conferred on them in freehold gifts, as the price of blood — -when a Rukwalldar might have died accidentally from a * The servants of European gentlemen and those connected with them, most commonly resist paying these does. ■f The Mookassy was an allowance granted on account of military services in general, and varing from eight to ten, and from sixteen to twenty-five per cent. on the revenue of a village.

The Ramoossy Naiks of Poorunder enjoy the Moo kassy ofthe small village of Sakoordy since the first grant made to their ances tors by the Rajah of Satara for their services in a military capacity. Again we find the Bhetara Mookassdar of the small village of Bhewndy, near Poorundur, receives twenty-four (24) per cenl.of the revenue of that village. It was originally granted as a reward to one of the family who took charge of Parwutty Baie, the widow of the Bhow, after the dismal defeat of Paniput, and conveyed her in safety from the battle field and cruel pursuit of the victors, to her brother-in (aw the Peshwah. blow, or ill treatment inflicted by the retainers of a Jageerdar, or Government agent,— he petitioned the Peshwah for a par don for himself, and entreated that a certain extent of land might be bestowed on the family of the deceased for their sup port.

The Sassoor Ramoossies enjoy sixty begahs of land granted in this manner, in consequence of one Cheembajee having died of ill treatment received at the hands ofthe Jageer dar Mendly of Sassoor, about eighty years ago. In the table annexed may be seen an account of the lands, &c. &c granted by Government and the villagers to the Ramoossies. Since this statement has been prepared, Governmeat has sanctioned, with a view of rendering the police of villages more efficient, lands to the value of about nine thousand rupees yearly rent, to be granted to the Rukwalldars of villages in the Poona collectorate. In such villages as the Ramoossies hold freehold lands, we find the ground occasionally cultivated by themselves; how ever, this is seldom the case ; they at times get a koonby to assist them in the labours of the field, and make a division of the produce according to the number of bullocks employed, and other aid contributed by each; but the general, and al most invariable custom is, for the Ramoossy to engage with some of the koonbies to cultivate the land, and the koonby to hand over half the produce of the field to him, after deducting the expense of seed, reaping, thrashing, and other incidental charges.

However, the land held by the Ramoosies is fre quently of a very unproductive quality, and consequently for years, is entirely neglected. In some few villages in each pergunnah there are one or two Ramoossies to be found, of peaceable and industrious habits, and who pursue an agricultural life, cultivating the village lands, and paying rent as the other cultivators do, the females of their families labouring in the fields along with them; yet it happens occasionally that this is found a difficult, and, in present times, a most unproductive line of life, so that some one of the family is driven to his shifts, to add his mite to the general purse from which the Government dues are to be paid, i and to the Ramoossy, one of the most natural and most ready modes of obtaining this, is by helping himself by stealth to some part of his neighbour's property.

The offspring of a Ramoossy by a koonbin (a woman of the Koonby caste) conforms more readily to the settled life of a cultivator — even a few of the most unsettled of the others, who have accumulated a considerable stock of money by suc cessful depredations, take to cultivating a few begahs of ground for several years successively. However, the above observations apply more especially to the Ramoossies in the southern districts of tho Ahmednug gur collectorate, and to all of those in that of Poona, as well as in the northern district of the Satara territory; and it may be added that they seem a people that would much rather prefer living by their wits, scheming plans of dispoiling others, than by labour which they heartily and radically hate, at least, labour such as the hard-working and industrious koonby (farmer) is obliged to submit to.

In every three, five, fifteen, and sometimes twenty villages, there is a head Rukwalldar, or Naik, in general denomiaated the Sir Naik, (or chief;) he resides in the principal town or vil lage of which he enjoys the watchman's allowances and per quisites. He keeps as many of his relations and retainers with him, as ha may consider necessary for the discharge of the duties of his office, while he employs one or more relations or followers to reside, either temporarily or permanently, in the other villages of which he has the guardianship. These receive the Ballottah allowance, &c; "and the Chief Naik," beyond receiving yearly at the Dussra festival, a pair of shoes. a sheep, and a small quantity of grain, or living at the expense of the village, when he proceeded on a tour of duty, derived no allowance from the distant villages.