History of Civilisation

Front matter

HISTORY OF CIVILISATION. VOL. I. HISTORY or CIVILISATION LJY WILLIAM ALEX* MACKINNON, F.R.S. M.P. " Liberty hath a sharp and double edge, fit only to be handled by just and virtuous men ; neither is it completely obtained, but by them who have the happy skill to know what laws are wanting, and how to frame them substantially, that good men may have the freedom which they merit, and the bad the curb which they need." — Milton : History of England, Book III. IN TWO VOLUMES. VOL. I. LONDON: PRINTED FOR LONGMAN, BROWN, GREEN, AND LONGMANS, PATERNOSTER- ROW. 1846. Lonuon : Printed by A. Spottiswoode, New-Street- Square.

Preface

. The favourable manner in which two edi tions of the work on Public Opinion were received by the public, induced me to direct my attention to a more extensive view of the progress of Civilisation, and of the senti ment already mentioned. After a consideration of the subject for some years, I could arrive at no other conclusions than those laid down in the following pages. To establish my theory, it was necessary to refer to former times, and to compare them with the present. For this purpose an investigation into the customs and social relations of past ages was necessary. Historic narratives, it has been observed, may be divided into three kinds or stages.* First, that of the annalist or chronicler, who deals merely in facts and events arranged in order of time, having no principle of selec tion and no plan of arrangement. * See Coleridge. a

PREFACE.

. IV Next, that of the 'writer who takes his stand on some moral point, and selects a series of events for the purpose of illustrating, if not proving, his position ; such as Thucy dides, who recounts the evils of democratic or aristocratic partisanship, or Polybius, when he describes the tactics and military dis cipline of the Romans. The last stage, the highest and most grand, founded on philosophy, is not composed for any particular cause, but attempts to describe human nature itself on a great scale ; to hold a mirror up to mankind, such as the Hero dotean history. In my humble attempt to trace out the progress of civilisation from the earliest time to the present day, I have endeavoured to follow the second of these kinds of historic narrations, and to delineate, from the most authentic sources, and the best records of foregone days, the gradual progress of civilisation, and its results on the social relations of mankind.

In examining the state of information in Egypt, Greece, and Rome, I fear that I may militate against some generally received opinions. If I have done so, all I can plead in

PREFACE.

. V justification is, that, from ancient writers of history no other conclusions could be arrived at, than those which I have made, even after consulting the volumes of several modern authorities, and conversing with two intelligent travellers who have lately written, one on Egypt*, and the other on Greece, with much ability, t After considering those nations of the ancients, whence information is supposed to have spread over the Western world, I take a survey of the prominent events of our history from the Conquest (inclusive) to the present time. I then proceed briefly to examine the situation and state of civilisation of other countries in Europe, and the several quarters of the globe. In this research I have deemed it advisable to allude, at the close of the second volume, to the frequency of wars that have desolated the human race ; to the condition of women in barbarous or semi barbarous times ; and also to the prevalence, even till the eighteenth century, of a fearful sacrifice of human life, on the charge of sorcery and witchcraft. * Sir Gardner Wilkinson. 1 Mr. .St. John. a VI

PREFACE.

. When a hope is expressed that warfare between nations may not in these days be so prevalent as formerly, it is not intended to convey the impression that such events will not occur, but only that they may be of more rare occurrence than in bygone days. In the Introduction to this work, I have deemed it advisable to give a definition ofthe elements necessary to form civilisation, with out which my meaning could not be clearly understood. I have endeavoured not only to avoid, but to divest myself, as far as the weakness of our nature will admit, of all party bias or political feeling in the following pages. It has also been my anxious desire to manifest that respect which I sincerely entertain for all sects and denominations of Christians. After making these necessary statements, I will only beg for that indulgence which is required in a work on a subject which may be termed novel, and which as yet, to the best of my belief, has scarcely been noticed by any writer in our nation. January 1st, 1846. CONTENTS.

Introduction

. Civilisation and Public Opinion depend on each other. — Definition of the several Classes of Society. — Upper, Middle, and Lower Class. — Popular Clamour. — Public Opinion. — Middle Class the most important in a Civilised State. — Increased by the Use of Machinery. — Machinery increases Civilisation. — Enumeration ofthe several Stages of Society as they advance towards Civilisation. — Savage Tribes. — Pastoral Tribes. — Agricultural Population. — Feudal System Arbitrary Power. — Increase of Happiness in the People caused by Civilisation. — Ancient States have decayed from a deficiency in Moral Principle - - - Page 1 STATE OF CIVILISATION AMONG THE ANCIENTS.

Chapter I. Civilisation In Ancient Egypt

Obscurity of Egyptian Records. — Inaccuracy of Herodotus and Diodorus. — Early Arts and Sciences. — Population divided into Castes. — Priestly Surveyors of Land. — Privilege of the Priesthood, as demonstrated in Genesis. - — Stupendous Designs of Egyptian Monarchs, executed by a slavish Population. — The Pyramids. — Ignorance and Idolatry of the Egyptians. CONTENTS. VIII — Prophetic Denunciation against Egypt. — Its Fall. — Co lossal Statue of Ozymandias. — Civilisation, as defined, not known in ancient Egypt . - - - Rage 33

Chapter II. Ancient Greece

Remote Connexion of the Inhabitants of Egypt, India, Greece, and Italy. — The Ancient Greeks deficient in the Requisites for Public Opinion. — Greek Barbarism and Absence of Moral Principle. — Licentiousness of Greek Females and Prevalence of Infanticide. — Commerce in the Grecian Republics extremely limited. — Extent of Slavery in these States. — Middle Class. — Slaves, or Helots. — Reasons for the Absence of Commerce and Manufactures. — Fabulous Narrations of Greek Historians and Philosophers. — Passion for War and Violence. — Downfall of the Grecian States - 49 CHAPTER LTJL ANCIENT ROME. Our Ignorance of the early History of the Roman Commonwealth. — Senators, Equites, and Mass of the People. — Decline of Virtue, Patriotism, and Discipline under the Empire. — Government of conquered Provinces harsh and oppressive. — Prevalence of absolute Power. — Consolidation of the Roman Conquests destructive of the early moral and poetical Interest of her History. — Influence of the upper and middle Classes destroyed by the Admission of the Rabble to vote in Elections. — The excessively luxurious Habits of the Romans, and their Desire for the Possession of vast Numbers of Slaves, gradually rooted out the middle Classes. — Shocking Depravity and Licentiousness prevalent among all Classes during the Decadence of the Empire. — Easy Conquest by Barbarians of the degenerate Romans. — The Emperor Constantine's Adoption of Christianity. — Christianity the surest Means of civilising Nations. — Consequence of the Degeneracy and Immorality of the Romans - CONTENTS. IX ENGLAND.

CHAPTER I. THE CONQDEST.

The Heptarchy a confused State. — Conquest of England by the Duke of Normandy the last territorial Conquest in Western Europe. — A Step gained towards Civilisation by the Results of the Conquest. — Social State of England after that Event. — Slavery under which the English People were held by William .... page 81 CHAPTER H. THE CHARTER. Magna Charta of little Service at the Time it was granted. — Useful in Theory but not in Practice. — Immorality of the Feudal Barons. — Degraded and ignorant Lower Class. — No Constitutional Form of Government in existence 101 CHAPTER LU. WARS OF THE ROSES. The Factions of York and Lancaster. — Great Part ofthe English Barons perished in these Wars. — Policy of Henry VH. — Legal Sanction given to the Feudal Chiefs to alienate their Lands. — Great Advantage to the Cause of Civilisation. — Absolute Power ofthe Monarchs of England - 114

Chapter IV. The Reformation

Its Origin. — Selfish Motives of Henry Vin. — His Persecution of Protestants. — The Bloody Statute. — National System of Belief dictated by the King. — Luther and Leo the Tenth. — Cruelty and Folly of Henry VHI. — Slow Progress of Civilisation. — Wicklifle's Failure and Luther's Success. — The X CONTENTS. Reformation forwarded by the Art of Printing. — Commercial State of England under Henry VIII. — Augmentation of the Middle Class - - - Page 123

Chapter V. The Rebellion

State of the Nation. — Undefined Power of the Crown incompatible with the Growth and Increase of the Middle Class. — Absolute Power of James I. — Policy of placing Persons of Property in possession of political Influence. — Mistakes committed by Charles I. — Great Property of the third Parliament .... - 137

Chapter VI. Civil War

The Nation adverse from proceeding to Extremities against their Sovereign. — A Change required by Public Opinion. — Cromwell's Government more despotic even than that of Charles. — Puritan Sentiments prevalent. — Middle Class not trusted by the Government of Charles - - - 154 CHAPTER VH. RESTORATION OF CHARLES H. AND ABDICATION OF JAMES U. Reaction in favour of Charles II. — Oversight of the two Branches of the Legislature in not making Conditions on the Monarch's Return. — Moral Character of Charles not in his favour. — Ballads of the Day. — Increase of Public Opinion. — James II. — His Conduct not in accordance with Public Sentiment. — James's Unpopularity much increased by his conduct towards the Church of England. — James's private Character not unamiable - - - 182

Chapter VIII. Accession Of The Prince Of Orange

Little Liherty in England previously to the Revolution in 1688. — The greatest Instance of the Influence of Public Opinion CONTENTS. XI that had hitherto been manifested in the civilised Part of the World William not popular in his Manners, and a Jealousy of Foreigners entertained. — The Prince of Orange supported by nearly all Classes, even the Officials of James. — William's Desire to become absolute. — He is frustrated by Public Opinion. — Jealousy of the French King entertained by the Nation in consequence of his Acknowledgment of the Pretender as King of England ... Page 206

Chapter IX. Queen Anne

Constitutional Speech of Queen Anne. — Jacobite Party. — Public Spirit of the English People. — Peace of Utrecht. — Letter from the States General to Queen Anne. — Bishop Burnet's Interview with the Queen. — State of Affairs previously to the Peace. — Political Animosities. — Jacobite Conspiracy in Anne's Court. — Lord Bolingbroke. — Public Opinion in favour of the House of Hanover. — The Queen herself desirous of her Brother's Succession. — Jacobite Documents. — Hope entertained by the Pretender's Party on the Death of Anne ----- 216

Chapter X. George

I. AND GEORGE II. House of Brunswick support the free Constitution of Great Britain. — Apprehension of the People of England from the Power and Ambition of the Monarch of France. — George I. not popular in his Manners. — Dread of the Return of the Stuarts. — All the populous and manufacturing Towns in Great Britain declare for the Hanoverian Succession. — The ignorant Part of the remote Districts the only Population in favour of the Pretender - 229

Chapter XI. George Hi

Length and Importance of this Reign. — General Warrants declared to be illegal. — Letters of Junius. — Fate of the CONTENTS. XII Toleration Bill. — Riots of 1780. — Bill to reform Parliament. — Peace-ministers and War-ministers. — The American Re volution. — Public Opinion on this Subject. — Its Vacillations. — Unpopularity of the War with America. — Its Impolicy. — Declaration of the Commons.— The India Bill. — The Trou bles in Holland. — Attempts to abolish the Slave Trade. — Mr. Pitt's Speech in favour of the Abolition. — Measure for Relief of Roman Catholic Disabilities - - Page 242 CHAPTER Xn. GEORGE III. Effect on Public Opinion of the Revolution in France. — Excesses of the French Demagogues denounced in England. — Public Opinion supports the Government in commencing Hostilities with France. — Popular Clamour enlisted in the same Cause. — Mr. Pitt's Policy. — Suspension by the Bank of England of Cash Payments. — Effect of this. — Republican Societies in Great Britain and Ireland. — Voluntary Contributions of the English Community. — Failure of Negotiations for Peace. — Policy of the ruling Powers in France 264 CHAPTER XLH.

GEORGE IH. Serious State of Affairs in England. — Threats of Invasion. — England's Attitude of Defence and Defiance. — Enrolment, as Volunteers, of almost the entire Male Population. — Mr. Pitt's Speech on this subject. — Unparallelled Exertions of Britain. — Paramount Influence of Public Opinion. — Peace of Amiens. — Renewal of War. — Absurd Demands of the French Government. — Austerlitz Trafalgar. — Downfal of Napoleon. — Change in the Prospects of England 275 CHAPTER XTV. PRESENT STATE OF CIVILISATION IN BRITAIN. Present State of Society contrasted with that ofthe last Century. — Former Indecorum of Manners. — Street Outrages. — CONTENTS. XIII Deficient Police. — Horrible Frequency of Capital Punish ments. — Gibbets in the Highways. — Feeble Attempts in 1763 to organise a Constabulary Force. — Destitute Class. — Alteration in the Proportion of the several Classes of Society. — Tendency of the last War, and the Increase of the Public Debt, to augment the Middle Class and to diminish the Upper. — Effects of Steam Power. — Condition of the Working Class. — Personal Property - Page 290

CHAPTER XV. THE MONARCHICAL POWER.

Strength of Constitutional Authority. — Genuine Loyalty. — Opinion of Frederick the Great on the Sovereigns of his Day. — Uncertain Tenure of Despotism. — Succession of Females to the English Crown. — Necessity of upholding the Monarchical Power. — Effects of the Reform Bill. — Increase of Influence in the House of Commons. — Proper Functions of a Sovereign .... - 320

CHAPTER XVI. THE HOUSE OF LORDS.

The House of Lords sanctioned by the Voice of the Country. — Admission to it a high and distinguished Reward for Services to the State. — Its Importance as one of the Branches of the Legislature. — Influence of Personal Property. — Antiquity of the Separation of the People into Classes. — Advantages and Faults of Aristocratical Government 333 CHAPTER XVH. THE HOUSE OF COMMONS. Powerless State of the Commons in former Times. — Conduct of the Tudors and Stuarts towards the Commons' House. — Peter and Paul Wentworth. — Subserviency of the Commons. — Advance of the House in Power.— Early Desire for representative Government. — Influence of Property. — Curtailment of the Privileges of the House.— The Commons act in 339 accordance with Public Opinion CONTENTS. XIV CHAPTER XVni. INFLUENCE OF CIVILISATION ON THE LOWER CLASS.

Civilisation not without Disadvantages. — Effects of Machinery. — Increase of Population beyond Subsistence. — Fallacy of Condorcet's Theory. — Soundness of that of Mr. Malthus. — Observation of Dr. Paley. — Emigration no Remedy for redundant Population. — Difficulties and Dangers of Colonisation. — Instances of these. — Causes of Failures. — Division of Landed Property, and Diffusion of Mercantile Capital. — Benefit, to the Lower Classes, of Education - Page HISTORY OF CIVILISATION, &c.

INTRODUCTION.

. Civilisation and Public Opinion depend on each other. — Definition of the several Classes of Society. — Upper, Middle, and Lower Class. — Popular Clamour. — Public Opinion. — Middle Class the most important in a Civilised State. — Increased by the Use of Machinery. — Machinery increases Civilisation. — Enumeration of the several Stages of Society as they advance towards Civilisation. — Savage Tribes. — Pastoral Tribes. — Agricultural Population. — Feudal System. — Arbitrary Power. — Increase of Happiness in the People caused by Civilisation. — Ancient States have decayed from a deficiency in Moral Principle. Civilisation and public opinion do not co exist exactly in an equal proportion. The latter, nevertheless, depends so much on the former, that the history of one includes, in some degree, that ofthe other.

Civilisation, uninfluenced by public opinion, has been recognised, to a certain extent, at various eras in different parts of the world. It is said, to have been found in the Grecian Republics, in the Augustan Age at Rome, and during the reign of Louis XIV. in France. But at VOL. I. B

INTRODUCTION.

. neither of these periods do we discover that diffused and all-reaching civilisation which can alone exalt the destiny of nations, give comfort to nearly every class, and make each man feel that, in his degree, he has a stake in the country to which he belongs. To be clearly understood in the following pages, let us define the meaning we attach to the words " Civilisation " and " Public Opi nion." From an attentive perusal of British history and the annals of other parts of the world, we find that civilisation is formed and gains strength according to the information, moral principle (based on religious faith), facility of communication, and amount of wealth possessed by individuals composing a given community. These elements we shall style the requisites for civilisation, and we shall attempt to show that the form of any government, and its measures, becomes adapt ed to the interests and wants of a people as public opinion grows and is disseminated, and the efficacy of this national sentiment depends, in great measure, on the relative proportion of those persons not forced to labour with the number who are com pelled to gain their daily bread by daily

INTRODUCTION.

. 3 work ; and no other means appear of defining the component parts of any society, than by estimating the property, real or personal, possessed by individuals. The most correct manner, therefore, of determining the income of persons who can be placed in the several classes of society, will be (as the value of precious metals is liable to fluctuation) to ascer tain the number of dependents qualified for labour that the means of an individual will allow him to support. A separation of the community into three classes of society, the upper, the middle, and the lower, is that which is most generally recognised. In the upper class may be included all those who can command the work or time of one hundred labourers or more. Admitting the average wages of a day-labourer, through out the year, to be about £30, this would place in the upper class all those who have a permanent income of ,§£3000 a year or up wards, an income zvhich may be transmitted to their descendants.

In the middle class we include such in dividuals as can command the labour of from five to one hundred men. The lower class may consist of all those B

INTRODUCTION.

. persons not comprehended in the other classes — who could command only their own labour, or the work of not more than five others. The upper class, therefore, will consist of those who have an independent income of a year and more. The middle class, of those who have from £150 to The lower class of those who have their own labour, or from .=£30 to a year. The most important of these three classes for the influence of public opinion is the middle; the upper not being sufficiently nu merous, and the lower not sufficiently in formed, nor possessed of the leisure necessary to give strength to that sentiment. Before we proceed, it will be necessary to distinguish between popular clamour and public opinion, words often confounded with, and mistaken for, each other, yet essentially different, and emanating from totally opposite causes.

Public opinion is powerful in a com munity where the requisites for its formation are spread among the people; that is, where moral principle, information, wealth, and faci lity of communication exist, and where the

INTRODUCTION.

. 5 middle class is extensive. On the contrary, popular clamour is influential in proportion as the lower class is numerous, ignorant, poor, and fanatical. Popular clamour is an excitement created by, and exercising influence on, the passions of the multitude, who usually form rash resolves, and act without reflection, judgment, or regard for consequences. In proportion as reason exercises its influence on a people, sudden bursts of feeling will be' less common, but public opinion will be more powerful. Popular clamour has probably less influence in this country than in any other, owing to the strength of public opinion. If the former occasionally appears, it arises from freedom of speech and action possessed by the people, and the mildness of our authorities ; not from any strength in itself.

In some nations of the Continent popular clamour may be held under restraint ; but should the pressure be taken off its effect would be more influential than in this island, because here it is thoroughly subdued by public opinion. Wher ever civilisation and a middle class are spread over a community, public opinion will be all-powerful, and popular clamour impotent. It may happen that on some particular ques- B

INTRODUCTION.

. tion these may be united ; but generally the influence of the one is in an inverse ratio to that of the other. Many years have passed since the follow ing observation on popular clamour was made by an eminent judge*: — " I defy any one to point out a single in stance in my life in which the popular clamour of the times had the least influence on my determination. I thank God I have a more permanent and steady rule for my conduct — the dictates of my own breast. Those who have foregone that pleasing ad viser, and given up their minds to be the slave of every popular impulse, I sincerely pity. I pity them still more if their vanity leads them to mistake the shouts of a mob for the trumpet of fame. Experience might inform them that many who had been saluted with the huzzas of a crowd one day, have re ceived their execrations the next ; and many who, by the popularity of their lives, have been held up as spotless patriots, have never theless appeared on the historian's page, when truth has triumphed over delusion, the assas sins of liberty." * Chief Justice Mansfield's speech, 1770.

INTRODUCTION.

. 7 A very able writer, discussing this subject, says, " When the balance of power is duly fixed in a state, nothing is more dangerous and unwise than to give way to the first steps of popular encroachment, which is usually done in hope of procuring ease and quiet from some vexatious clamour. This is breaking into a constitution to serve a present exigency, — the remedy of an empiric to stifle the present pain, but with certain prospect of sudden and terrible returns. When a child crows easy and content by being humoured, and when a lover becomes satisfied by small compliances, without further pursuit, then expect to find popular passions content with small concessions. If one single example could be brought, from the whole compass of history, of any one popular passion that ever knew or proposed or declared what share of power was its due, then might there be some hope that it were a matter to be adjusted by conferences or debates ; but since all that is manifestly otherwise, I see no other course to be taken in a settled state than a steady, constant resolution in those to whom the rest of the balance is entrusted, never to give way so far to popular clamour as to make the least breach in B

INTRODUCTION.

. the constitution, through which a million of abuses will certainly in time force their way."* The difference between public opinion and popular clamour was exemplified in 1844 by the sentiments for peace or war that influenced the two nations, England and France. Public opinion in both countries was strongly and decidedly in favour of peace, and of a cordial and lasting understanding between the two people. Popular clamour was equally decided for the alternative. Public opinion is the idea entertained on any subject by the best informed, most in telligent, and moral persons; which idea is gradually understood and spread among the people, and adopted as their sentiment. Whenever a community is sufficiently civi lised to be governed by public opinion, then indeed has it raised itself in the scale of moral existence.

There is nothing in the whole fabric of civil institutions so interesting and imposing as an exposition of the everlasting principles of moral legislation. The administration of justice in this country, where the judge, without * Swift's Works, 8vo edit. vol. iii. p. 51.

INTRODUCTION.

. 9 a guard, and without pomp, decides on the dearest interests of the citizen, trusting chiefly to the moral sentiment of the community for the execution of his decrees, is the most beauti ful and encouraging aspect under which civil polity can be viewed. Nothing is so vener able as the voice of truth and justice, under the power of public opinion, reaching and subduing the high as well as the low, placing a rampart equally around the splendid man sions of wealth, and the lowly huts of poverty ; repressing wrong, vindicating innocence, hum bling the oppressor, and publishing to the world theright of every human being to the privileges of human nature. Where public opinion is prevalent, it throws power into the hands of intelligent individuals, and spreads itself throughout all orders of the community.

It opens new channels, by which the gifted mind, in whatever rank or condition, may communicate itself far and wide. Through the diffusion of education and printing, an individual may now speak to multitudes in comparably more numerous than ancient or modern eloquence ever electrified in the popular assembly or the hall of legislation. By these instruments, truth is asserting her sove-

INTRODUCTION.

. reignty over nations, without the help of rank, office, or sword ; and her faithful minis ters will become more and more the law givers of the world.* The opinion, says Bacon, of all men of in formation divested of prejudice, on a given subject, is nearly the samef : but let us imagine a sound, moral, and judicious opinion on any subject, uttered to a people destitute of in formation and moral principle. Such a sentiment might possibly be adopted through caprice, but not from conviction ; and it would therefore have no hold on the public mind. Take Turkey, for example, where we may assume the population to be as ignorant and fanatical as in any part of Europe. Let us suppose that some intelligent and moral per sons were desirous to spread doctrines which in England, or in any truly civilised state, would become public opinion.

In Turkey such doctrines would be a nullity, because the ignorance or prejudice of the people would not permit their dissemination. The converse, also, as a matter of course, seems to follow, that as civilisation advances towards maturity, public opinion becomes dominant. * Chalmers. t Bacon's Essays.

INTRODUCTION.

. 11 In our island there is, no doubt, even now, great room for improvement in the education of the lower classes ; yet probably the requi sites for civilisation are more generally spread through the land, from the extension of the middle class, than in any other community; and public opinion, therefore, has more power. Moral instruction, information through the press, and facility of intercourse, are more extensive here than elsewhere. This facility of intercourse, so wonderfully increased of late, is a very important agent in civilisation ; by which the dwellers in one part of a land may have easy and rapid communication with other portions ofthe same country. Through this agency also, separate nations may inter change commodities, or hold communion with each other, by railroads, canals, steam-boats, or any other inventions that may yet arise from the ingenuity of man.

Marvellous, in deed, are the achievements of modern me chanism ! Not only does machinery enrich the whole human family, by supplying, as with the stroke of a magician's wand, the wants or luxuries of one population by the produce or superabundance of another, but it spreads information, and destroys prejudice. It is that mighty power which levels invidious

INTRODUCTION.

. differences between nations, and causes men of separate climes to regard each other as brothers, and to co-operate for mutual good. Wherever it penetrates, it is found, moreover, to be a potent auxiliary in shaping and nursing public opinion. This beneficial agency may possibly be fol lowed by some concomitant disadvantages ; but the aggregate good received by the peo ple will more than counterbalance any evil that may accrue. It might be imagined that in estimating the civilisation of Europe and of the world, now in such rapid progress, more importance is here attached to facility of communication than, at first sight, would seem warranted. Let us, however, suppose the existence of a population destitute of the means of intercourse, except in some imme diate vicinity, or of imparting or receiving information by any other method.

How, in such a case, could public opinion be entertained ? How could the discoveries or sentiments of men be conveyed to their fellow creatures ? Intellect, however vigorous, would waste itself in useless luxuriance, and be a burden to its possessor. By facility of inter course, it now bears glorious fruit for the sustenance and improvement of society.