Manual of Modern Geography ... Eleventh thousand, ... revised

Front matter

MANUAL OF MODE-UN GEOGRAPHY MATHEMATICAL, PHYSICAL, AND POLITICAL OX A .NEW t'LAN EMBHACING A COMPLETE BliVELOMsENT OF THE BTVER SYSTEMS OF THE GLOBE BV TLIE REV. ALEX. MACKAY, LL.D. F.R.G.S. AUTHOR Off FA) T- APD D » rE3 ; ' ' ELEMENTS OF MODERN OEDOHiPHY ', ' ' OUTLINES OF MOULRM GEOGRAPHY , ' ' FXJBEX STEr*S IN OH WiPAI H V 1 ' ' FHVStO GI'.APITY AMI PHYSICAl. GEOGRAPHY.' ETT. £i,i;yf.nth TnOUSANH, THOROUGH!/? revised WILLIAM BLACKWOOD AND SONS EDINBUIM1H AND LONDON MDCCCLXXXV PEEFACE TO ELEVENTH THOUSAND. In preparing this edition for press, the entire work has been subjected to a more searching and thorough revision than any preceding one since 1870. Short as is the interval since the publication of the tenth thousand, numerous political changes have occurred in almost every great division of the globe.

New enumerations of the people have been made in nearly every civilised country in both hemispheres, and a vast body of interesting statistics has been acquired. All such political changes and all such geographical statistics have been given effect to in this edition. In illustration of this the Author needs only to refer lo the sections describing Greece and Turkey, in our own continent; to China, Anam, and Afghanistan, in Asia; to Egypt, the Soudan, and the new Congo Free State, in Africa ; to the extraordinary development of Canada and the United States ; and to the altered boundaries of Chile, Peru, Bolivia, and the Argentine Confederation, in the New "World. It need hardly be said that very special attention has been bestowed on everything relating to our own country, and on every section of the British Empire. Ventnor, I. W., 10th May 1885.

Preface

. IV PEEFACE TO SECOND EDITION. This edition of the Manual of Modern Geography has been thoroughly revised throughout, and in numerous sections entirely rewritten. The Manual was the Author's literary firstborn, and on it were fondly lavished all the privileges and affections inseparable from primogeniture. Many long years were cheerfully devoted to its first production, when the Author had to labour single-handed, in a remote corner of the land, with few books and still fewer friends to con sult. He had his reward, however, in the emphatic verdict of the public press, and the unqualified approbation of emi nent educationists from all parts of the British Empire. As the First Edition, however, consisted of a very large impression, wellnigh a decade of years has elapsed since its preparation, and in that decade numerous changes have taken place in all departments of Geography, as also in all the sciences with which it stands most closely connected.

In order, therefore, to place the work a second time wholly abreast of the progress of events, no less than an entire year of uninterrupted labour has been devoted to this Edition. A large portion of the Political Geography had to be recast, especially the sections relating to the British Isles, North Germany, France, Italy, Eussia, India, the United States, and the British Colonies ; while those bearing on Astronomy, Geology, Meteorology, Commerce, Manufac tures, and Inland Communication, had to be rewritten. In this Edition, a brief Historical Sketch has been added to the Political Geography of all European countries, as also several new Diagrams illustrative of the .Seasons, the Tides, and the Succession of Life in the pre- Adamite ages of our Planet's history. It is hoped that the work will be found increasingly useful to Teachers, Advanced Classes, anl Candidates for the C.vil Service (Homo and Foreign).

PEEFACE TO FIRST EDITION. Considering the improved methods now generally adopted in teaching Geography, the ever-expanding dimensions of our own gigantic empire, the numerous additions recently made to our knowledge of foreign countries, and, as a consequence of these, the increasing interest felt by educated persons. in every department of the science, the Author deems it superfluous to offer any apology for issuing the present Manual. As it differs, however, somewhat widely, both in matter and arrangement, from all its predecessors, it may be necessary here to describe its more prominent characteristics. The work commences with a brief account of the relation of the Earth to the Solar system, and of the latter to the other worlds which people space. The form and materials of the globe, the configuration of its surface, its climate, mineralogy, geology, botany, zoology, and ethnography, are next discussed ; and thus a foundation is laid for the subsequent details in Physical and Political Geography.

The individual continents and minor divisions of the earth's surface then pass successively under review. Each of these is viewed from many sides, and the results presented to the learner in a corresponding series of brief but pointed sections. The precise order in which the different sections should stand was a subject of much careful reflection. While in most other works on geography the physical and political stand widely apart, they are here intentionally combined, and so made, not only to reflect mutual light on each other, but also to correspond more closely with the manner in which the realities to which they refer interpenetrate one another in nature. Without adverting to the contents of each of the sections individually, the Author can here only notice those of them in which he has departed most widely from the usual routine.

The first departure occurs under the heading Position and Boundaries. It is singular what confused notions prevail, even among other wise accurate geographers, regarding the relative position of the best-known places. For example, how few ordinary students of geography could say, without considting globe or map, what other important places have the same latitude and longitude as London, Edinburgh, or Madrid ! To remedy this, a single sentence is uniformly added to this paragraph, mentioning all the most important places on the globe lying on the same parallel and meridian with the capital of the country under review, or with the central point of the latter, should the capital happen to be situated at some distance from its centre. In addition to the greater familiarity with the relative position of places which is VI preface to first edition. thus communicated, these brief notices, it is hoped, will be found serviceahl e to the student when comparing the climates, botany and zoology of different countries.

Under the Area of each country, in addition to the information usually given, its magnitude is invariably compared with that of the British Isles collectively, or with one or other of the kingdoms composing them ; and a similar comparison is drawn regarding its Population, which in every instance embodies the results of the most recent census or estimate. The articles entitled " Political Divisions " have been thoroughly elaborated, in accordance with the best maps, and a new principle of arrangement adopted. Instead of adhering to the prevailing custom of giving under each province or county a dry list of cities and towns wholly unconnected by any system of arrangement, the writer had no hesitation in availing himself of a principle equally simple and beautiful with which nature supplied him.

He refers to that great axiom in geography, that all tlie cities and towns on the earth's surface, whether ancient or modern, stand on the banks of rivers, or on the sea-coast. This principle is universally valid, notwithstanding a few ap parent instances to the contrary. Till very recently, when the canal and the railroad have to some extent supplied their place, rivers have in all ages formed the great highways of commerce. In every land the banks of rivers present the most fertile portions of the country, as the valleys of the Tigris, the Euphrates, the Nile, and the Jordan ; and have formed the earliest seats of civilisation — as, for example, Nineveh, Babylon, Heliopolis, Damascus — the origin of which dates back to the dawn of history. So close, in short, is the connection between the rivers of a country and its towns, that there is no exaggeration in saying that the rivers have created the towns ; or that, without the rivers, the towns would have had no existence.

In no system of geography founded on natural principles can this connection be overlooked. The political boundaries of a country will vary from time to time with the varying fortunes of its rulers, but its rivers will con tinue to flow in their wonted channels, and the cities that grace their banks will continue to pay them their wonted homage. Rivers are majestic trees that have their roots fixed in the ocean, and their tops reaching the clouds ; the great cities of the world hang around their stems ; while the towns and villages cluster like fruit on their branches. Hence, though the Manual embraces some other original features, it was the intimate connection subsisting between rivers and towns that led to its production, and that forms the principal basis on which it rests. While the influence of this preface to first edition.

VII connection can be traced in almost every page, three of the twenty-four sections usually devoted to each country are en tirely occupied with its elucidation — viz., those entitled " Prin cipal River-Basins," " Political Divisions," and " Table of Rivers and Towns." The first of these shows the dimensions of all the larger river-basins, and indicates at a glance how many provinces or counties they embrace either wholly or in part. In the second it necessarily occupies a somewhat subordinate place ; for not only must the towns with their population be placed in the foreground — the name of the river being placed after them within parentheses — but the boundaries of the provinces con tinually interrupt the continuity of the rivers. The capital of a province is, moreover, placed first, even though itshould not stand nearest to the river's mouth ; and, finally, only the larger towns in each province have the rivers on which they stand indicated lest the learner should be overburdened with their multiplicity, All the towns, however, whose population ranges between 5000. and 10,000 are immediately subjoined, but in a smaller type, to indicate that they may be omitted in a first perusal.

The only departure from this is in the case of the United Kingdom, in treating of which it was considered necessary to embrace towns of a much smaller population. But the third of these paragraphs, or those denominated " Tables of Rivers and Towns," are those to which the Author woidd direct most special attention, as presenting at once the most original portion of his Manual, and the fullest exhibition of his pecubar method. An immense amount of time and labour has been expended on these tables ; but, judging from experience, the Author is convinced that their importance to the student, and the labour and time they will save to the teacher, fully justified the sacrifice ; for he is aware that many of the most successful teachers of geography are in the daily habit of drilling their classes more or less in accordance with the method here so fully developed, but having no reliable guide to direct them, each of them is obliged to draw out a scheme for himself, from such materials as he may have at command.

Having said so much on the " River System," properly so called, space will not allow an equally minute description of the other paragraphs. Suffice it to say, that similar care and patience have been bestowed on all of them. The Mountain-Ranges and the Lakes are more systematically arranged, and their connection with the river-basins more closely exhibited, than in any other existing Geography. The sections describing the Climate, Geology, Minerals, Botany, and Zoology of the different countries, have been drawn up with the greatest care, and from the most recent aud preface to first edition. accurate authorities ; while those that discuss their Ethno graphy are the result of much earnest research. Under the last-named head have been sketched, not only the race, rebgion, national character, form of government, and education of the different nations, but their language and literature have also received the attention to which they are entitled.

The former of these is briefly described, and its relation to other languages carefully stated ; while the latter embraces elaborate lists of all the more Eminent Names that adorn the literature of their country. The ethnographical sections are followed by brief descriptions of the Army and Navy, Public Debt, Revenue and Expenditure, Commerce, Manufactures, Exports and Imports, Inland Communication, and Foreign Possessions (if any) of the various states, in the preparation of which the most recent statistics have been consulted. The Descriptive Notes, which are appended to the Political Divisions, are considerably more numerous than is customary in geographical manuals, especially the notes on the counties and towns of the British Isles, and all other parts of the British Empire. The Pronunciation of geographical names is invariably a matter of deep interest, alike to teachers and pupils.

Instead of following the prevalent custom of giving the pronunciation of difficult words, all arranged in one general catalogue, the Author considered it much more conducive to the student's improvement to insert, under each individual country, short but explicit Rules founded on the peculiar genius of its own language, and followed by appropriate examples, as pronounced by the natives. The Author cannot conclude these observations without ex pressing his deep obligations to those valued friends who so generously assisted him in his self-imposed task. His best thanks are due to the Rev. M. Mackay, Eordyce, for his aid in connection with the topographical sections, the minuteness and accu racy of which are in a great measure the result of his unwearied labours : and to A. Keith Johnston, Esq., LL.D., Her Majesty's Geographer for Scotland, for the many valuable items of recent information with which he favoured the Author during the com position of his Manual, and for his great kindness in volunteer ing the final revision of the proof-sheets.

Above all, I have the most unfeigned pleasure in expressing my deepest obligations to another (who for the present must be nameless), without whose constant companionship and unwearied assistance this Manual could never have attained that degree of minute accuracy which, I believe, every page will be found to exhibit. CONTENTS. PAGE Definitions, . . . . . . • 1 Mathematical Geography, ..... 2 Physical Geography, ...... 16 Materials, Density, and Attractive Power of the Earth, ....... 1° Configuration of the Surface, .... 17 The Ocean, ....■•• 21 The Atmosphere, .....•■ 26 Climate, .....•• 32 Mineralogy, ....••• 36 Geology, . . . . • • 28 Botany, ....••• 52 Zoology, . . . . • • 55 Ethnography, ...•••" Political Geography, . . . . . ..63 EUROPE, 63 The British Empire, ..... 93 General View of the British Isles, ... 95 England and Wales, ..... 113 Scotland, ...... 14-1 Ireland, .....•• X CONTENTS.

Spain and Portugal, . . . . .174 France, ....... 193 Belgium, ....... 214 Holland, or the Netherlands, .... 220 Denmark, ....... 229 German Empire, ...... 234 Prussia, ...... 236 Minor German States, .... 242 South Germaity, . . # . . . 249 Austria, or Austro-Hungarian Empire, . . 255 Switzerland, ...... 271 Italy, . 280 Greece, ....... 298 Turkish or Ottoman Empire, .... 305 Turkey in Europe, . . ... . 306 Russian Empire, ...... 317 Russia in Europe, ..... 318 Sweden and Norway, ..... 336 ASIA 345 Asiatic Turkey, ...... 358 Arabia, ....... 367 Persia, ....... 371 Afghanistan, ...... 375 Biluchistan, ........ 378 India, or Hindustan, ..... 381 Further India, . . .... 399 Chinese Empire, ...... 405 China Proper, ...... 406 Mongolia, ....... 415 TlBET> 418 Turkestan, ..... , 421 Kashgaria, or Eastern Turkestan, . . 422- Western Turkestan, ......,, CONTENTS.

XI Siberia and Central Asia, .... 428 Japan, ....... 433 AFRICA, 437 The Egyptian Empire, ..... 450 Abyssinia, ....... 458 Barbary States, ...... 462 Sahara, or Great Desert, .... 467 Senegambia, ....... 469 Soudan, or Nigritia, : 472 Guinea, ....... 476 Country of the Hottentots, .... 482 South Africa, ...... 484 South Central Africa, ..... 490 East Africa, ...... 495 Region of the Great Lakes, .... 498 NORTH AMERICA, 502 British North America, ..... 516 Dominion of Canada, ..... 518 Eastern Provinces, ..... 518 British Columbia and Vancouver Island, . 526 North-West Territory, .... 529 Manitoba and Labrador, .... 530 Greenland, or Danish America, . . . 531 The United States, ..... 532 Mexico, ....... 550 Central America, . . . . ... 557 West Indies and Bermudas, . 561 SOUTH AMERICA, 567 Colombia (U.S. of Colombia, Ecuador, and Veneiojela), 575 Guiana, ....... 579 Brazil, ....... 580 Peru, . . . . . • .585 CONTENTS.

XII Bolivia, . . . . . . .588 Chile, 591 Patagonia and Tierra del Fuego, . . .595 Argentine Confederation, or La Plata, . . 595 Paraguay and Uruguay, ..... 598 OCEANIA, 602 Australasia, ...... 602 Australia, ...... 603 Tasmania, ...... 614 New Zealand, ...... 615 Papua, or New Guinea, etc., . . . 620 Malaysia, ....... 622 Micronesia, ....... 627 Polynesia, or South Sea Islands, . . . 629 ANTARCTICA, 631 Index, 633 ILLUSTEATIOXS. The Circle and Sphere, ..... 10 Parallels and Meridians, ..... 12 Zones and Circles, ...... 14 The Tides, ....... 15 Attractive Energy of the Earth, . . . . 17 Geological Succession op Life, .... MANUAL OF GEOGKAPHY. Geography is that science which has for its object the descrip tion of the surface of the Earth, or of that member of the Solar System which forms the abode of Man.

Though in regard to practical importance it occupies the fore most place among the physical sciences, it has been the last to receive the attention which is due to it. It consists of two principal branches — viz., Ancient Geography, which embraces the lengthened period intervening between the earliest dawn of history and the fall of the Roman Empire ; and Modern Geo graphy, which extends from that event to the present time. The latter is subdivided into four departments — viz., Mathe matical, Physical, Political, and Historical. Mathematical Geography treats of the Earth in its relations to other celestial bodies ; of its motions, form, and magnitude ; and of the true position of places on its surface. Physical Geography treats of the configuration of the Earth's crust; the materials of which it is composed ; the soil and climate that pre vail at different parts of the surface ; and the effect of the latter on its living inhabitants — plants, animals, and man.

Political Geography — the only branch of the science which re ceived adequate attention in the schools of this country till of late years — treats of the artificial or political divisions of the surface into empires and states ; their extent, population, and material resources; their government, people, religion, language, and civilisation. Historical Geography endeavours to establish when and by whom the different countries were first peopled ; the political changes which they have subsequently undergone ; and especially the progress of geographical discovery in modern times. The first and second of these branches require separate considera tion ; the third and fourth will he treated of in connection with the individual countries. A

Part I Mathematical Geography

1. Position op the Earth and its Relation to other "Worlds. — The earth on which we live is not to be regarded as an isolated, independent body, having no relations to other worlds ; but as one of the members of a large family of similar bodies collectively called the Solar System, all the parts of which are united in one beautiful and harmonious whole by the mysterious power of gravitation. The Solar System.- — This system is so named from the fact that the sun (Lat. sol) is by far the largest body belonging to it — that he is placed in the centre, all the other members of the system revolving around him, either directly or indirectly — and especially to distin guish it from the numberless other systems that are located around it in universal space, each of which has probably its own sun or star as the immediate centre of its light, heat, and gravitating power.

So far as presently known, the solar system consists of 273 bodies (Nov. 1, 1884) — viz., the sun; 9 large planets revolving around him in nearly circular orbits ; 244 planetoids, or smaller planets, between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter, supposed by some to be the fragments of a large disrupted planet ; 20 satellites, one of which belongs to the earth, two to Mars, and all the others to the four exterior planets ; besides a host of comets, which move in extremely elliptical orbits, and myriads of meteorites. Only a very few of this large number were known to the ancients— viz., the Sun, Earth, Moon, Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, and a few of the more remarkable comets. All the remainder have been discovered since the invention of the telescope by Galileo in the beginning of the seventeenth centmy.

The centre of this wonderful piece of mechan ism is occupied by the sun, a huge mass of opaque matter, 1,245,000 times the size of the earth, but surrounded by aluminous atmosphere. Though stationary in relation to the other members of the system, he is in reality advancing through space— carrying in his train his numerous retinue of planets, satellites, comets — -with a velocity of 17,580 miles per hour. This velocity, however inconceivable, is exceeded nearly fourfold by that of the earth in her annual circuit round the sun. The planets move around the sun in elliptical, but nearly circular, orbits, and in the same general direction, though at various distances, velocities, and periods of revolution, as shown in the following tables (p. 6, 7). The satellites perform similar elliptimathematical GEOGRAniY. cal orbits round their primaries ; while the paths of the comets are highly eccentric, consisting for the most part of extremely elongated ellipses.

Cause of Elliptical Motion. — This elliptical motion is the result of the composition of two forces acting on the planet simultaneously, but in different directions. The first of these is called the centrifugal or tangential force, and is that which the planet received from the hand of the Creator when originally launched into space. This force, if unrestrained by any opposing one, would carry the planet wholly away from the sun, and project it into the depths of infinite space. But it is opposed or counteracted by the centripetal force, a force always acting at right angles to it, and directed towards the sun, or rather towards the centre of gravity of the entire system — a point situated within that body, though at a great distance from its centre. The latter force, again, if acting alone, would cause the planet to move towards the sun in a straight line, and with continually accelerated speed.

But as both forces are incessantly operating, the planet must, in giving obedience to each of them, describe a curvilinear path. The curve so described will, in every case, be one of the conic sections — that is to say, it will be one or other of the various curves obtained by cutting a cone in all the possible direc tions. It will depend, however, on the particular circumstances of the case — viz. , direction, distance, and velocity — which of the curves shall be described — i.e., whether a circle, an ellipse, a parabola, or an hyperbola. Thus, the orbit will be a circle, when the square of the tangential velocity is equal to the diameter of the circle multiplied by the centripetal velocity ; it will be an ellipse when the former product is greater than the latter; a parabola, when the former pro duct is exactly twice as great as the latter ; an hyperbola, when more than twice as great ; and, in every case, the angular velocity of the radius-vector must be inversely proportional to the square of the mutual distance of the two bodies.

The "Cause of Elliptical Motion," as above described, cannot be easily comprehended without some inquiry into the cause of all motion, or, in other words, without an inquiry into the relation subsisting between the Creator and the material universe. That relation, though no doubt pro foundly mysterious, is not one regarding which we are left wholly in the dark ; for what human philosophy, left to its own unaided resources, might never succeed in discovering, the Creator has been pleased to re veal. Since the announcement of the law of universal gravitation, physical science has made unparalleled progress in all directions, yet to this day the most incoherent theories regarding the cause of motion, and the ultimate source of the mighty energies everywhere observable in the material world, have been propounded.

Many philosophers appear to regard the attractive power of gravitation as a mere property of mat ter. It is either, they maintain, a property essential to the very existence of matter, or which, though not originally belonging to matter, has been communicated to it by the Creator, and which is now so indelibly stamped thereon that it may be said to be inherent in it, so as to form part and parcel of its being. And not only, it is argued, does this hold good of gravitation itself (as existing between the orbs of space), but also of all its varieties and modifications, as magnetic attraction, chemical affinity, electric attraction, cohesion, and adhesion— all are mere properties of matter, a conclusion beyond which it would be in vain to push our re searches. Now, if this result is to be accepted, all the so-called laws of nature are merely the necessary and inevitable consequences of these un changing and unchangeable properties of matter.

According to this view it follows, that the physical universe, though abandoned by its Maker— whose sustaining hand, indeed, is no longer required — will not only continue in existence, but will for ever carry on, without interruption or diminution, its present multiform activities. In our opinion, no view could possibly be more perverse, however eminent in science some of its propounders. It wholly fails in satisfying the cravings of every earnest inquirer who searches for truth as for hidden treasure. We cannot suppose it possible that the Creator should abandon the universe to the play of its own activities. He cannot take up the position of a mere spectator, and contemplate from a distance the mighty machine He has set in motion. To do this would be to insure its instant destruction. For He not only created the worlds by His flat, but " in Him all thiugs consist," and He " upholdeth all things by the word of His power."

According to these divine utter ances, the forces that are at work in nature are not inherent in matter, but in that Almighty Being who not only summoned matter into existence, but who continues to sustain it in being and in the possession of all its properties. In short, we arrive at tbe grand and fundamental principle, that material objects can never become the ultimate fountains of any species of power, and that mind is the true source of all power and of all motion. It will greatly aid us in forming a right conception of the relation subsisting between the Divine Mind and the universe, if we carefully consider the relation that subsists between the human mind and body. This relation is easily discovered, and is profoundly instructive. It differs greatly from the relation in which the mind stands to objects external to the body.

Over these the mind has no immediate control : they cannot hear any voice nor obey any command. Even the members of our own bodies give no obedience to commands audibly expressed, unless such commands are accompanied by acts of volition; but no sooner does the mind will that the hand or the foot shall perform any motion, •than it is responded to by an act of instant obedience. So brief, indeed, is the interval between the mental volition and the resulting motion, that human science cannot measure it. The will, however, has no such con trol over objects foreign to the body— acts of volition have no effect upon these. The direct power of the mind is limited, in every case, to the or ganised body which it animates. Now, there must be a close analogy between this relation of the mind and body of man and the relation sub sisting between the Divine Mind and the physical universe, for " God created man in His own image, after His likeness."

This inspired utter ance, like a pure and perfect crystal, has many sides ; and the side nearest our present point of view undoubtedly teaches, that the Almighty exercises over the material universe a control closely analogous to that which the human mind exercises over its own corporeal organism. Anal ogy, however, is not identity, and the material universe is not an organised body which the Divine Mind animates. He is not " the soul of the universe," and still less is He that impersonal abstraction about which the Pantheist dreams, but a gracious and loving Father, who ever feels the deepest interest in the wellbeing of His children. Analogy is not identity, hut even analogy is of importance where the aids are so few, and where the lights burn so dimly. And that there is an analogy is beyond all doubt; for, on the one hand, the mind of man exercises a supreme control over the members of his own body; while on the other, the Divine Being has ever continued from the morning of creation to maintain, by the silent forthputtings of His will, the most absolute con trol over all His creatures.

Sun and moon and stars, the winds and waves and raging storms — all are His servants, and all are obedient to His will. The laws of nature — generally regarded as so mysterious, and to which some would assign a position due to the Lawgiver alone — find here their true explanation : they are simply a convenient name for the incessant volitions of an unchangeable God. He can suspend these laws at pleasure, and He has, in fact, suspended them once and again. But from the point of view from which we are contemplating the Creator and His works, there is no more of mystery in the so-called miracle than in the regular course of nature. Progress of Discovery. — The true system of the universe was not understood till near the middle of the sixteenth century, when the illustrious Copernicus (horn at Thorn, in Prussia, 1473) began the solution of the vast problem, by showing that the sun is the centre of our system ; that the planets move around him in circular orbits ; and that the daily motion of the heavenly bodies is only apparent, and caused by the rotation of the earth on its axis.