Egypt as it is. ... With a map

Preface

. The following pages are tlie outcome of what may claim to be an intimate acquaintance with Egypt, acquired during a long residence in the Levant and several lengthened visits to the country, made specially within the past three years to collect statistical and other information on the spot. Whatever, therefore, may be their merits or defects, few or none of the latter can be laid at the door of previous writers, who have indeed left me almost a virgin corner in the wide field of book-making on Egypt. The antiquities of the country have been exhaustively described by a hundred pens, from Strabo to the last excellent edition of Murray's Handbook; but, in English at least, I know of no systematic attempt to sketch its present material and administrative condition. In German, Messrs. Stephan and Liittke, in their Das Heutige Aegyjiten and Aegypten Neue Zeit, have in part done so, but on very different lines from those of the present volume, and in neither case at all completely up to the date of their publications— respectively five and four years ago — since which, too, the situation has in many respects changed.

I may at once, therefore, say that my obligation to these writers is nil. In French the case is different. Beside Clot Bey's Apercu General sur I'Egypte — which,

PREFACE.

. VI although published forty years ago, contains much that is still instructive — and M. Gallion-Danglar's Lettres sur VEyypte Contemporaine (1865-75) — reprints containing much that was merely ephemeral, and which necessarily omit the whole of the recent administrative and judicial reforms — De Begney Bey's Statistique de VEyypte, and Dor Bey's Instruction Pullique en Eyypte (1872) and Statistique des Ecoles Civiles (1875) — are full of information of which I have freely availed myself, though not always adopting M. de Begney 's figures up to even his date of writing. But barring these publications and such few others as are acknowledged in footnotes, my information has been either personally collected at first hand, or has been communicated direct from the best official or private sources.

In these latter cases I have spared no pains to collate and, as far as possible, to test the accuracy of the statements received. That the result is in every case exact, I cannot venture to say ; but that in all it is approximately so, I have little hesitation in asking the reader to believe. Besides many minor obligations, my acknowledg ments are especially due to Ali Pasha Moubarek, Musteschar of the Ministry of Public Works ; to Biaz Pasha, Minister of Public Instruction, and to Dor Bey and Mr. Bogers, Inspector-General and Director of the same Department, for the materials of the chapter on that subject1; to Mr. Fowler for the admirable map, 1 This and the chapter on "Slavery" appeared in substance in the February and May numbers of Eraser's Magazine.

PREFACE.

. VII which, better than any other yet published, depicts Egypt from the Mediterranean to the Equator, and also for much valuable information as to the Barrage and the Soudan railway ; to General Marriott for details of the new railway administration ; to Mr. Scrivenour and Mr. Caillard for similar information respecting the Customs and Post Office ; to Mr. George and Mr. Douglas Gibbs, for particulars respecting the telegraphs ; to Mr. Bartlett, a practical farmer of long local experience, for much of the chapter on Agriculture; to Mr. B. J. Moss, for many details of Alexandrian trade ; to M'Killop Bash a, for nearly all I have said about the light-houses, and to Mr. Anderson, for much of my information respecting the Daira sugar factories and other works. A word in anticipation of a possible objection by my critics : Of the social life of Egypt I have said hardly anything — for the sufficient reason that this has been photographed once for all by Mr. Lane, whose vivid portraiture of the manners and customs of both Arab and Copt is as true still as it was forty years ago.

The spread of education and the influence of a much larger European society have effected a few changes, but in the main the native private life of 1877 differs but little, if at all, from that of 1835, and in the Modem Egyptians incomparably the best description of it is still to be found. J. C. M. Temple, July 2nd. TAG E 1 CONTENTS.

Chapter I. Tebbitoey

Sir Bartle Frere's Testimony to Recent Egyptian Progress —Territory has Shared in the General Development — Boundaries of Egypt Proper — Extension South of these — Present Divisions —The Delta — The Northern Lakes — Middle Egypt— The Fayoum — The Said— Philæ — The Eastern Desert — The Oases — Red Sea Coast — Geological Divisions — Nile Soil — Nubia to the Soudan — Total Extent of Present Territory .

Chapter II. Population

Diversity of Races — Conflicting Estimates of Total — Census of 1859 — Rate of Increase — Present Estimated Totals — Fellaheen — Bedoween — Copts — Abyssinians — Nubians — Jews — Rayah Greeks — Syrians — Armenians — Foreigners — Industrial Distributions of the Whole . . . .20

Chapter III. Cities And Towns

Cities and " Mohafzas " — Towns and Villages — Alexandria — First View of Egypt — Napoleon's Estimate of Alexandria — The Old Civilisation and the New — Topography of the Modern City — Its Commercial Revival — Ramleh — To Cairo — The Queen of Eastern Cities — Hausmannisation — Tho Esbekieh — Cairene Mosques — The Citadel — Social Attractions — Heliopolis — The Pyramids and Sphinx — " Eothen". " Prophetic Rhap- " B0(jy — The Nile Voyage — Cairene Trade — -Helwan — Rosetta — Damietta Port Said — El-Arish and Ismailia — Suez — Souakim and Massowah —The other Provincial Chief Towns CONTENTS. X

Chapter IV. Egypt And The Poete

PAGE The Problem of their Relation — The Conquest never Established Full Sovereignty of the Porte — Continued Power of the Mamlouk Beys — The French Invasion — Mehemet Ali — Elected Viceroy — War with the Porte — The Treaty of 1840 — His Subsequent Administration and Death — Ibrahim, Abbas, and Said Pashas — Accession of Ismail, a New Epoch — Change of the Succession — "Khedive" — International Recognition of these Changes — Conflict of Juristic Opinion as to their Effect — De facto Establishment of an Arab Kingdom — "Egypt for the Egyptians" — Probable Outcome of the War — Independence or British Protection ............ 77

Chapter V. Administbation

L'Mtat, c'est le Elu'dive — Council and Ministers merely Executants of his Will — His Early Life — After his Accession — Abdeen — Routine of his Highness's Daily Life — His Personal Character— The Ministries — The late Moufettish — His Inordinate Power — The Present Ministry of Finance — Of Foreign Affairs — Of the Interior — Of War and Marine — Of Commerce — Of PubUc Works and Agriculture — Of Public Instruction and the Wakfs — The Custom House and Post Office — Provincial Administration — Mudirs, Mamours, Nazirs, and Sheikhs-el-beled — The Chamber of Delegates — Character of Egyptian Officials ...... 87

Chapter VI. Finances

Revenue and Expenditure Forty Tears ago — Situation at Commencement of the Present Reign — Present Main Elements of Egyptian Finance — What the Revenue now consists of — The Expenditure — Explanation of its Increase — History of the State Debt — The Crisis of Last Tear — Mr. Cave's Mission, and his Report — The French Unification Scheme — Its Failure — The Goshen-Joubert Scheme — Its Merits and Defects — Its Acceptance by the Khedive — The New Financial Administration — Its Guarantees — The Essential Solvency of the Country .... 121 CHAPTER Vn. THE DAIEAS. In all, Seven of these Administrations — Only Two Responsible for the Daira Debt — The Daira-Sanieh — Its Great Estates and Factories — Their Defective Management — Its Income and Expenditure — The Daira- CONTENTS. XI PAGE Khassa — History of the Debt — Inter-relations of both with the State Treasury — Crisis of Last Tear — Exclusive of Daira Debt from the Goschen-Joubert Scheme — Investigation of Assets and Liabilities — Recent Arrangement for Redemption of the Debt ..... 150

Chapter VIII. Commebce

Steady Growth of Egyptian Trade — Great Increase during Present Reign — Review of Ten Tears ending 1875 — Exports — Their Chief Details — Ninety per cent, of the whole shipped from Alexandria — Principal Foreign Markets — Diminution of the Transit Traffic compensated by Growth of General Trade — Imports — Whence chiefly received — Their Increase an Evidence of Augmented National Wealth — Probable Re-adjustment of the Customs Tariff 161

Chapter IX. Ageicultuee

This has always been the Staple Industry of Egypt — Its Present Principal Conditions — Land Tenure — Its Varieties and Chief incidents — Extent of Land held under each — Their respective Rent Charges — Large Taxable Reserve in the Tithe Lands — Labour Supply — Sufficient with certain Reforms — Wages — Water-supply wholly dependent on the Nile — "Good" and "Bad" Niles — How the Inundation is controlled — Sakkias, Shadoofs, and Taboots — Their Antiquity — Great Economy of Labour if they were replaced by Cheap Machinery — Methods of Cultivation still Rude — Cotton Culture — Capability of its Expansion — Cereals — Their Varieties and Yield— Non-Cereal Crops — Average Gross Value of Produce — With Improved Irrigation, Area of Cultivation may be Largely Increased . . . . • ■ • • • .170

Chapter X. Public Insteuction

Foundations of Present System laid by the Caliphs — Decadence under the Mamlouks — Revival under Mehemet Ali — His Military Schools — His Neglect of Education after the Peace —Further Dec Une under Abbas Pasha — Greater Liberality of Said — Revival under the Khedive — Three Systems now at Work — The State Schools — Girls' Schools. CONTENTS. XII PAGB their Great Success— The Blind and Normal Schools— Municipal Civil Schools — Mosque Colleges— The Azhar — Arab Primary Schools— Native Non-Moslem Schools — Foreign Missionary Schools — Aggregate of the whole — Educational Level of Egypt relatively to Europe . . • 207

Chapter XI. Public

"WORKS. The Great Aggregate of these — Railways — Principal Lines of the System — Nearly all Constructed during the Present Reign — Their Average Cost — Low Working Cost — Former Abusive Management— The New Administration — The Soudan Line — Canals — Their Two Classes — How they Control and Distribute the Irrigation — Great Additions made to the System during the Present Reign — The Barrage — Its Proposed Completion — Harbour Works — At Alexandria — At Suez — Lighthouses — Details of the Present Service — Its Efficiency — Telegraphs — Existing Lines — External Communication — Bridges — Kasr-en-Nil — Ghizeh — Others Built during Present Reign ....... 234

Chapter XII. The Suez Canal

This Work a Source of Permanent Loss to Egypt — Its Political Compensations — Ancient History and Variations of the Scheme — Contemplated by Bonaparte — Conflicting Surveys — Opposed by Stephenson — Cairo-Suez Railway Constructed as Substitute — M. de Lesseps — First Concession from Sai'd Pasha — English Opposition — Formation of Company — Commencement of Work — Fresh- Water Canal — Withdrawal of Corvee Labour — Reference to Emperor Napoleon — His Excessive Award — Further Financial Incidents — Description of the Canal — Economy of Distance — Seven Years' Traffic — Proportion of Flags — Dispute as to Dues — Its Settlement — Capital Account — Cost to Egypt — Compensations — Report of Directors for 1876 ..... 263

Chapter XIII. Judicial Eefoems

The Capitulations — Their Abuse in Egypt — Resultant Scandals — First Action of the Government for their Reform — Memorandum of Nubar Pasha — Negotiations with the English and French Governments — Appointment CONTENTS. XIII PAGE 282 296 315 of an International Commission — Its favourable Report — Opposition of the Porte — French Resistance — Assent of the Other Powers — Inauguration of the New Courts — Their Organisation and Jurisdiction — Great Success of the Reform — Its Effect on the Future of JuBtice in Egypt . .

Chapter XIV. Manufactueing And Othee Industbies

Skilled Industries not Improved Proportionately to Agriculture and Commerce — Misdirected Efforts of Mehemet Ali to Promote them — Official List of Trades, Incomplete — Esnofs, or Trade Guilds — Weavers — Metal Workers — Workers in Wood — Masons and Bricklayers — Tanners and Curriers — Potters — Paper-making — The Boulak Mill — Bakers and Millers — Embroiderers — Goldsmiths — Turners — The OMMushrabeeyahs — Modern Skilled Labour chiefly done by Europeans — Artificial Egg-hatching: — Cotton-factory Workers — Poverty of Mineral Resources — Saltpits — Natron Lakes — Petroleum — Fisheries — Nile Boatmen — General Inferiority of Native Skilled Work — No Chance of Competirg with Europe — True Policy of Government to Encourage Agriculture

Chapter XV. Slave Ey

Popular Misconception on this Subject — Difference between Eastern and Western Slavery — Property in the Person almost the only Common Feature — Status of Slave better in Egypt than in Turkey— Universality of the Institution — Different Classes of Slaves — Circassians now Rare — Abyssinians and Soudanis — Egyptian Slaves protected by Religion and Public Sentiment — Additional Safeguards decreed by the Khedive — Their Abuse by the Consuls — Consequent Limitation of Consular Interference— Existing Facilities of Emancipation — The Slave Trade legally Abolished, but still surreptitiously carried on — How it is fed — Prices — The Institution now merely a mild Domestic Servitude— Acknowledged Cruelties of Slave-hunting — The Khedive honestly bent on its Abolition — Colonel Gordon's Commission

Chapter XVI. Fauna And Floea

The Camel— The Ass— The Horse— The Ox— The Buffalo— Sheep and Goats Xhe Pig, "Unclean" to Christian, Moslem, and Jew — Dogs and (_ata Indigenous Wild Animals — Crocodiles and Hippopotami — CONTENTS. XIV PAGE Abundant Ornithology — Tame Fowl — Wild Fowl— Ophidians — Fish — Native Trees less numerous than Animals — Palms— Sycamores — Acacias — Tamarisks — Poplars — Cypresses — Mulberries — Olives — Exotics, very numerous — Their Varieties 331

Chapter XVII. Climate

Generally, Dry and Hot — Considerable Difference between Coast and Interior — No Real Winter in Egypt — The Khamsin — Mean Summer Temperature at Cairo — Scarcity of Rain — Climate of the Isthmus — Mean Annual Rates of Temperature — Regularity of the Wind — Egyptian and European Death-rates — The Nile Valley anciently Famous as a Sanatarium — Testimony of Rev. A. C. Smith — Corroborated by Drs. Dalrymple, Patterson, Walker, Zagiel, and Pruner — Endemic Diseases — Improving Sanitary Administration — Consensus of Medical Opinion in favour of Egypt as a Health-resort ....... 344

Chapter XVIII. The Soudan

Its Geographical Area — Dongola — Berbera — Taka — Shendy and Halse — Sennaar— Khartoum — Kordofan — Darfour— The Shillook Country — Darfertit and Donga — Sir S. Baker's Expedition — Colonel Gordon — Successful Results of his First Expedition — His new Commission as Governor-General — Expressed Determination to Extinguish the Slave Trade — The Opposing Difficulties — Antiquity and Wide-spread Sources of the Traffic — Trade of the Soudan — Its Export Routes — Development that may be Expected with Improved Communications — Results already Achieved - The Khedive's Claim on European Confidence . . . 361