The Origin of Civilisation and the Primitive Condition of Man. Mental and social condition of savages

Front matter

MENTAL AND SOCIAL CONDITION OF SAVAGES PRINTED BY SPOTTISWOODE ASP CO., NEW-STREET SQUARE VIEW OF STONEHENGE THE ORIGIN OF CIVILISATION AND THE PRIMITIVE CONDITION OF MAN MENTAL and SOCIAL CONDITION of SAVAGES BY SIE JOHN LUBBOCK, BAET. ' M.P., F.R.S-, D.C.L., LL.D. AUTHOR OF 'PREHISTORIC ITMKS' ETC. _ HONORARY SECRETARY OF THE LONDON BANKFi;* ■l£ FELLOW OF THE SOC. OF ANTIQUARIES; OF THE GEOLOGICAL, ENTOMOLOGICAL, AND OTHER SOCIETIES _ PRESIDENT OF THE LONDON CHAMBER OF COMMERCE ,'• AND VICE-CHAIRMAN OF THE LONDON COUNTY COUNCIL .fifth Orbition, faith numerous glbbitions LONDON LONGMANS, GEEEN, AND CO 1889 .-I II rights reservpd

Preface

. TN my work on ' Prehistoric Times ' I have devoted -*- several chapters to the description of modern savages, because the weapons and implements now used by the lower races of men throw much light on the signification and use of those discovered in ancient tumuli, or in the drift gravels ; and because a knowledge of modern savages and their modes of life enables us more accurately to picture, and more vividly to conceive the manners and customs of our ancestors in bygone ages. In the present volume, which is founded on a course of lectures delivered at the Eoyal Institution in the spring of 1868, I propose more particularly to describe the social and mental condition of savages, their art, their systems of marriage and of relationship, their re ligions, language, moral character, and laws.

Subse quently I shall hope to publish those portions of my lectures which have reference to their houses, dress, boats, arms, implements, &c. From the very nature of the subjects dealt with in the present volume, I shall have to record many actions and ideas very abhorrent to

PREFACE.

us ; so many, in fact, that if I pass them without com ment or condemnation, it is because I am reluctant to fatigue the reader by a wearisome iteration of disap proval. In the chapters on Marriage and Religion more especially, though I have endeavoured to avoid everything that was needlessly offensive, still it was impossible not to mention some facts which are very repugnant to our feelings. Yet were I to express my sentiments in some cases, silence in others might be held to imply indifference, if not approval. Montesquieu 1 commences with an apology that por tion of his oreat work which is devoted to Eeligion. As, he says, 'on pent juger parmi les tenebres celles qui sont les moins epaisses, et parmi les abimes ceux qui sont les moins profonds, ainsi Ton pent chercher entre les religions fausses celles qui sont les plus con formes au bien de la societe ; celles qui, quoiqu'elles n'aient pas l'effet de mener les hommes aux felicites de l'autre vie, peuvent le plus contribuer a leur bonheur dans celle-ci.

Je n'examinerai done les diverses religions du monde que par rapport au bien que l'on en tire dans l'etat civil, soit que je parle de celle qui a sa racine dans le ciel, ou bien de celles qui ont la leur sur la terre.' The difficulty which I have felt has taken a different form, but I deem it necessary to say these few words of explanation, lest I should be supposed' to approve that which I do not expressly condemn. 1 Esprit des Lois, liv. xxiv. ch. 1.

PREFACE.

IX Klemm, in his ' Allgemeine Culturgeschichte der Menschen,' and recently Mr. "Wood, in a more popular manner ('Natural History of Man'), have described the various races of man consecutively ; a system which has its advantages, but which does not well bring out the general stages of progress in civilisation. Various other works, amongst which I must specially mention Midler's ' Geschichte der Americani schen Urreligionen,' M'Lennan's ' Primitive Marriage,' and Bachofen's ' Das Mutterrecht,' deal with particular portions of the subject. Maine's interesting work on ' Ancient Law,' again* considers man in a more ad^ vanced stage than that which is the special subject of my work. The plan pursued by Tylor in his remarkable work on the ' Early History of Mankind ' more nearly resembles that which I have sketched out for myself, but the subject is one which no two mmds would view in the same manner, and is so vast that I am sure my friend will not. regard me as intruding upon a field which he has done so much to make his own.

Nor must I omit to mention Lord Kames' ' His tory of Man,' and Montesquieu's ' Esprit des Lois,' both of them works of great interest, although written at a time when our knowledge of savage races was even more imperfect than it is now. Yet the materials for such a work as the present are immense, and are daily increasing. Those who take

PREFACE.

X an interest in the subject become every year more and more numerous ; and while none of my readers can be more sensible of my deficiencies than I am myself, yet, after ten years of study, I have been anxious to pub lish this portion of my work, in the hojie that it may contribute something towards the progress of a science which is in itself of the deepest hiterest, and which has a peculiar importance to an empire such as ours, com prising races in every stage of civilisation yet attained by man. High Elms, Down, Kent: February, 1870. CONTENTS.

Chapter I. Introductory Chapter

PAGE Importance of the Subject — Difficulty of the Subject — Inactivity of the Savage Intellect — Condition of the Lowest Races of Men — Curious Customs with reference to Mothers-in-Law — La Couvade — Reasons for La Couvade — Savage Ideas on the Influence of Food —Curious Ideas with reference to Portraits — Use of Prayers as Medicine — Savage Ideas of Disease — Medical Treatment among Savages — Fancies about Twins — Life attributed to Inanimate Objects — Salutations 1

Chapter II. Art And Ornaments

Art as an Ethnological Character — Ancient Art — Art in Africa — Esquimaux Drawings — The Quippu — Picture-writing — Indian Census Roll — Indian Tombstones —Picture-writing in North America — Indian Biography — Indian Petition — Rock Sculptures — Savage Ornaments — Cbeek Studs — Labrets — Ornamentation of the Skin — Tribe Marks — Tattooing — Artificial Alteration of Form--Hairdressing — Fiji Head-dresses 38

Chapter III. Marriage And Relationship

The Position of Women among Savages — Absence of Affection in Marriage — Absence of Marriage — Relationship among Savages — Different Kinds of Marriage — Polyandry — Separation of Husband and Wife — Absence of Marriage Ceremony — Marriage Ceremonies CONTENTS XII PAGK — Relationships Independent of Marriage — South Sea System of Relationship— Toda System of Relationship— Prevalence of Adoption — The Milk-tie — Original or Communal Marriage — Origin of Mar riage — Bachofen's Views — Wrestling for Wives — M'Lennan's Views —The True Explanation — Origin of Marriage by Capture — Preva lence of Marriage by Capture — Originally a Reality — Subsequently a Form— Hindustan— Central India— Malay Peninsula— Kalmucks— Tonguses — Kamchadales — Mongols — Koreans — Esquimaux — North and South Americans — Fijians — Polynesians — Philippine Islandei-3 — Negritos— Africa — Circassians — Europe — Rome — Poland — Russia — Britain — Explanation of Marriage Ceremonies — Marriage by Confarreatio — Expiation for Marriage — Babylonia — Armenia — Balearic Islands— Temporary Wives — Exogamy — Origin of Ex ogamy — Prevalence of Exogamy — Australia — Africa — Hindostan — Northern Asia — China — Circassia — North America — South America — The Causes of Polygamy — Polyandry — Polyandry Exceptional— The System of Levirate — Endogamy — The Milk-tie — Relationship through Females — Causes and Wide Distribution of the Custom — Neglect of Paternal Relation — Origin of Relationship in the Male Line — Change from Female to Male Kinship — System of Kinship through Males — The Present System . . . .69

Chapter IV. The Origin Of Marriage

Communal Marriage — Australian Marriage Law — Two Forms of Marriage in Australia — Origin of Individual Marriage — Marriage by Capture — Australia — India — Northern Asia — America — Esquimaux — Indians — South America — Pacific Islands — Africa — Arabia — Europe — Symbol of Capture — Temporary Marriages — Exogamy — Origin of Exogamy — Origin of Marriage — Polyandry — TheLevirate — Endogamy — Relationship through Females — Relationship through Males . . . . . . . . . .104

Chapter V. On The Development Op Relationships

On the Development of Relationships — Different Systems of Relationships — Classification of Systems — Nature of the Evidence — Custom of addressing Persons by their Relationship — Similarities of Svstem among the Lower Races — Malayans — Fijians — Redskins — Nomenclature of Relationships — Effect of Female Kinship on Systems of Relationship — The Hawaiian System — American Systems — Import- CONTENTS XIII ance of the Mother's Brother in the Family System— The Micmac System — Burmese and Japanese Systems — The Wyandot System — The Tamil and Fijian Systems — Remarkable Terms in Use — Explanation of the Terms — System of the Oneidas— Otawas — The Kaffir System — Mohegans — Crees — Chippewas — Summary of Red skin Systems — Hindoo Systems — Karens — Esquimaux — Remarkable Similarities — Indications of Progress — Incompleteness of Systems — Existing Systems Incompatible with the Theory of Degradation — Evidence of Progress — No Evidence of Degradation — Conclusion . 162

Chapter VI. Religion

Mental Inactivity of Savages — Religious Characteristics of Savages — Religious Characteristics of the Lower Races of Man — Classification of the Lower Religions — Religions according to Sanchoniatho — Religious Condition of the Lowest Races — Absence of Religion — Rudimentary Religions — Religious Ideas as suggested by Sleep — Religious Ideas as suggested by Dreams — Nightmare — Shadows — Thunder — Spirits regarded as Evil — Spirits regarded as causing Disease — Madness reverenced — Belief in Witchcraft — Disbelief among Savages in the Existence of Natural Death — Low Ideas of Spirits entertained by Savages — Greek and Roman Conceptions — Savage Ideas as to Eclipses — Various Notions as to Eclipses — Belief in Ghosts — Future Life dependent on Mode of Death — Belief in the Plurality of Souls — Divination — Sorcery — Confusion of Name and Thing — Confusion of Part and Whole — Similarity of Witchcraft — Wizards — Belief in Witchcraft shared by European Travellers — Sorcerers not necessarily Impostors — Fasting — Religious Dances — Smoking as a Religious Ceremony — Intoxication as a Religious Rite 205

Chapter VII

religion (continued). Animal-Worship — Origin of Animal- Worship — The Kobong — The Totem — Totemism in America — Totems in India and Polynesia — Serpent-Worship — Serpent- Worship in Asia — Africa — Guinea — Whydah — Agoye the Fetich of Whydah— Kaffraria— Madagascar — Polynesia — America — The Worship of other Animals— Polynesia — Sandwich Islands — Fiji Islands — Siberia— China— India— Ceylon —The Philippines — Africa— Madagascar— Europe — The Custom of Apologising to Animals for killing them— The Worship of the Celestial Bodies— Savage Tendency to Deification— Deities not sup CONTENTS XIV PAGE posed to be Supernatural — Life attributed to Inanimate Objects — Souls attributed to Inanimate Objects — Tree- Worship in Europe — Egypt — Arabia — Congo — India — Ceylon — Hill Tribes of India — Siberia — Sumatra — Philippines — Fijians— North America — Mexico — Peru — Patagonia — Water- Worship — Europe — Siberia — India — Africa — North America — Central America — The Worship of Stones — Attributes of the God Mercury — Siberia — Hindostan — New Zea land — The Arabians — Phœnicians in Europe — Africa — Polynesia — Fiji Islands — Micronesia — America — Fire- Worship — Vestals — Asia — America — Africa — Sun and Moon Worship — America — India — Asia — Africa — Sundry Worships ...... 261

Chapter VIII

religion (concluded). Religion of Australians — Teddahs — Californians — Bachapins — Kaffirs — Fetichisui — Hindostan — Negroes — Fetichisni in other Races — North America — China — Siberia — Africa — Totemism — Developmental and Adaptational Modifications of Religion — Myths — Shamanism in Siberia — Greenland — Pacific Islands — Africa — India — Idolatry — Origin of Idolatry — Connection with the Worship of Ancestors — India — Africa — Polynesia — Siberia — Solomon's Explanation — Idols not mere Emblems — Worship of Men — Worship of Chiefs — Worship of Travellers — The Worship of Principles — Sacrifices — Confusion of the Victim with the Deity — Worship of the Sacrifice — Eating the Sacrifice — Human Sacrifices — Europe — America — The Jews — Temples — Priests — My steryMen — The Soul Ideas of Heaven — The Future State — Creation — Prayer — Morality — The Progress of Religion — Science and Religion .... 325

Chapter IX. Character And Morals

Difficulty of ascertaining the Character of Savage Races — Insecurity of Life and Property among Savages — Progress in Morals Moral Condition of Savages — Confusion of Family Affection and Moral Feeling— Absence of Moral Feeling— Religion not necessarily connected with Morality — Future Life not necessarily one of Punishment or Reward — Rank in Heaven — Law and Right Growth of Moral Feeling — Origin of Moral Feeling CONTENTS XV TAGE 448

Chapter X. Language

Gesture Language — The Origin of Language — All Language reducible to a Few Root-words — Origin of Root-words — Onomatopœia — Wear and Tear of Words — Nicknames and Slang Terms — Origin of the Terms Father and Mother — Words for Father and Mother in various Languages — The Choice of Root-words — Poverty of Savage Languages — Deficiency in Terms of Affection — Absence of Abstract Terms — Deficiency in Numerals — Savage Difficulties in Arithmetic — Use of the Fingers in Arithmetic, as shown in the Names of Numerals — The Origin of the Decimal System ...... 416

Chapter XI. Laws

Importance of the Subject — Savage Laws not founded on the Family — Tyranny of Fashion among Savages — Tyranny of Custom among Savages — Superstitious Customs — Rules relating to Legal Ceremonies and Contracts — Court Language — Gradations of Rank — Salutations and Ceremonies — Conduct of Public Business — Property in Land — Communal Property — Laws of Inheritance — Absence of Wills — Roman Wills — Rights of Children — The Vasu — Custom of naming Parents after Children — Laws of Inheritance — The Punishment of Crime — Regulated Revenge — The Laws of Property — Manifest and Non-Manifest Thieves — The Wergeld — General Conclusion

Appendix

.

Part I

Difficulty of obtaining Conclusive Evidence — The Stationary Condition of Savages — No Evidence of Earlier Civilisation — Evidence derivable from Domestic Animals and Pottery — Indications of Progress among Savages — Savages not Incapable of Civilisation — Indigenous Origin of Mexican Civilisatipn — Progress as indicated by Language — Traces of Barbarism in Civilised Countries — Arbitrary Customs — Unity of the Human Race — Mental Differences in the Different Races CONTENTS PAGE

Part II

The Weapons of Monkeys — True Nature of Barbarism — Sequence of Customs — The Diffusion of Mankind — The Influence of External Conditions — The Esquimaux — Original and Universal Barbarism — Supposed Inevitability of Degradation — Supposed Evidence of Degradation — The Survival of Customs — Progress of Religious Ideas — Fetichism — Totemism — Idolatry — The True Theory of the Four Ages — Evidence from Crossed Races — Similarity existing between Savages and Children — Language of Savages — Tendency to Reduplications — Ancient Ceremonies and Modern Games — Development of the Individual, and that of the Species ..... 502 NOTES 531 INDEX ILLUSTRATIONS. DESCRIPTION OF THE PLATES. PLATE PAGE Frontispiece — View of Stonehenge. From an original drawing by M. Griset To face Title I. Sketch of Mammoth, on a piece of ivory, found in the Rockshelter at La Madeleine, in the Dordogne . .

To face 38 II. Fijian Modes op Dressing the Haik. After Williams. ' Fiji and the Fijians,' p. 158 To face 66 III. Indian Sacred Stones. After Forbes Leslie. ' Early Races of Scotland,' vol. ii. p. 161 To face 308 IV. A Human Sacrifice in Tahiti. After Cook To face 371 V. Group of Sacred Stones in the Dekhan. After Forbes • Leslie. ' Early Races of Scotland,' vol. ii. p. 460 . To face 375 DESCRIPTION OF THE FIGURRS. FIB. 1. Group of Reindeer. From a photograph presented to me by M. le Marquis de Vibraye 39 2-1. Drawings on Esquimaux Bone Drillbows. Presented to the Ashmolean Museum at Oxford by Captain Beechey . 41 5. North American Indian Census Roll. After Schoolcraft. ' History of the Indian Tribes,' vol. ii. p. 222 . . . . 47 6. Indian Gravepost. After Schoolcraft. ' History of the Indian Tribes,' vol. i. p. 356 48 7.

Indian Gravepost. After Schoolcraft. 'History of the Indian Tribes,' vol. i. p. 356 48 a LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS XVIII PIG. PAGE 8. Indian Bark Letter. After Schoolcraft. 'History of the Indian Tribes,' vol. i. p. 338 49 9. Indian Bark Letter. After Schoolcraft. ' History of the Indian Tribes,' vol. i. p. 336 51 10. Indian Biography. After Schoolcraft. ' History of the Indian Tribes,' vol. i. p. 336 ........ 52 11. Indian Petition. After Schoolcraft. 'History of the Indian Tribes,' vol. i. p. 416 53 12. Caroline Islander. After Freycinet. 'Voyage autour du Monde,' pi. 57 64 13. New Zealand Head. After Freycinet. ' Voyage autour du Monde,' pi. 107 65 14. New Zealand Head. After Freycinet. ' Voyage autour du Monde,' pi. 1C7 65 15-17. Shoulder-blades prepared for Divination. After Klemm. ' All.

Cultur. d. Mens.' vol. iii. p. 200 243 18. A Sacred Dance of the Virginians. Lafitau, vol. ii. p. 135. 259 19. Agoye. An Idol of Whiddah. Astley's 'Col. of Voyages,' vol. iii. p. 50 272 20. Sacred Stones. Fiji Islands. Williams; loc. cit. vol. i. p. 220 LIST OF THE PRINCIPAL WORKS QUOTED IN THIS VOLUME. Adelung, Mithridates. Burton, City of the Saints. Allen and Thomson, Exped. to the River Niger. Mission to the King of Dahome. Arago, Narrative of a Voyage round the World. Caillie, Travels to Timbuctoo. Arbousset and Daumas. Tour at the Cape of Good Hope. Callaway, Religious System of the Amazulu. Asiatic Researches. Campbell, Tales of the West High- Astley, Collection of Voyages. lands. Atkinson, Oriental and Western Wild Tribes of Khoudistan Siberia. Carver, Travels in North America. Casalis, The Basutos.

Upper and Lower Amoor. Azara, Voyages dans l'Amerique Meridionale. Catlin, North American Indians. Chapman, Travels in S. Africa. Charlevoix, History of Paraguay. Clarke, Travels. Bachofen, Das Mutterrecht. Baikie, Exploring Voyage up the Rivers Kwora and Binue. Collins, English Colony in New South Wales. Bain, Mental and Moral Science. Baker, Albert Nyanza. Cook, Voyage round the World. (In Hawkesworth's Voyages.) Nile Tributaries of Abyssinia. „ Second Voyage towards the Bancroft, Native Races of Pacific States. South Pole. Third Voyage to the Pacific Barth, Travels in Central Africa. Battel, The Strange Adventures of Ocean. Cox, Manual of Mythology. Crantz, History of Greenland, (Pinkerton's Voyages and Travels). Beechey, Narrative of a Voyage to the Pacific. Daiton, Descriptive Ethnology of Bengal.

Bosman, Description of Guinea (Pinkerton's Voyages and Travels). Dalzel. Hist, of Dahomy. Brett, Indian Tribes of Guiana. Brooke, Lapland. Darwin, Animals and Plants under Domestication. Origin of Species. Bruce, Travels in Abyssinia. „ Researches in Geology and Burchill, Travels in Southern Africa. Burton, Lake Regions of Africa. Natural History. Davis (Dr. J. B.), Thesaurus Cranio- „ First Footsteps in Africa. „ Abbeokuta and the Cameron rum. Davis, The Chinese. Mountains. XX Davy, Account of Ceylon. Galton, Tropical South Africa. Deane, Worship of the Serpent traced throughout the World. Gama, Descripcion historica y cronologica de las Pedras de Mexico. De Brosses, Du Culte des Dieux fetiches. Garcilasso de la Vega, Commentaries of the Tneas. De Hell, Steppes of the Caspian Sea. Denham, Travels in Africa.

Gardner, Faiths of the World. Gibbs (H. H.), Romance of the Chevelere Assigne. Depons, Travels in South America. Dias, Diccionario da Lingua Tupy. Dieffenbacb, New Zealand. Girard de Rielle, La Mythologie C'omparee. Girard- Teulon, La Mere chez certains Peuples de l'Antiquite. Dobrizhoffer, History of the Abipones. Drury, Adventures in Madagascar. Dubois, Description of the People of Gladstone, Juventus Mundi. Goguet, De l'Origine des Lois, des Arts et des Sciences. India. Dulaure, Histoire abregee des differents Cultes. Graah, Voyage to Greenland. Gray, Travels in Western Africa. Grey (Sir G.), Polynesian Mythology. Dunn, The Oregon Territory. Dupuis, Journal of a Residence in Ashantee. Journal of Two Expedi- D'Urville, Voyage au Pole sud. tions of Discovery in North-wes,t and Western Australia.

Earle, Residence in New Zealand. Egede, Greenland. Hale, Ethnology of the United States Ellis, Three Visits to Madagascar. Exploring Expedition. Ethnology and Philology. ,, Polynesian Researches. Erman, Travels in Siberia. Erskine, Western Pacific. Hallam, History of England. Hamilton, Account of the Kingdom of Nepaul. Eyre, Discoveries in Central Australia. Hanway, Travels in Persia. Hayes, Open Polar Sea. Farrar. Origin of Language Primitive "Manners and Cus- Hawkesworth, Voyages of Discovery in the Southern Hemisphere. toms. Fergusson, Tree and Serpent Worship. Fison and Hewitt, The Kamilaroi and Hearne, Voyage to the Northern Ocean. Kurnai. Herodotus. Fitzroy, Voyage of the ' Adventure ' and ' Beagle.' Hooper, Tents of the Tuski. Humboldt, Personal Researches. Hunter, Comparative Dictionarv of Forbes Leslie, Early Races of Scotland.

Forster, Observations made during a tbe Non- Aryan Languages of India and High Asia. Voyage round the World. Forsyth, Highlands of Central India. Franklin, Journey to the Shores of the „ The Annals of Rural Bengal. Hume, Essays. Polar Sea. „ History of England. Fraser, Travels in Koordistan and Mesopotamia. Inman, Ancient Faiths in Ancient Names. „ Tour to the Himalaya Mountains. Freycinet, Voyage autour du Monde. Fustel de Coulangen, La Cit<_ Antique. James, Expedition to the Rocky Mountains. Jones, Antiquities of the Southern Indians. Gaius, Commentaries on Roman Law. Journal of the Royal Institution. Jukes, Voyage of the ' Fly.' Marco Polo, Travels of. Mariner, Tonga Islands. Marsden, History of Sumatra. Kames, History of Man. Kenrick, Phœnicia. Martius, Von dem Rechtszustande unterdenUreinwohnern Brasiliens.

Keppel, Visit to the Indian Archi- Merolla, Voyage to Congo (Pinkerton's Voyages and Travels). pelago. „ Expedition to Borneo. Metlahkatlab, published by the Church Missionary Society. Klemm, Allgemeine Culturgeschichte der Menschheit. Metz, Tribes of the Neilgherries. Middendorf, Sibirische Reise. Mollhausen, Journey to the Pacific. Monboddo, Origin and Progress of „ Werkzeuge und Waffen. Koelle, Polyglotta Africana. Kolben, History of the Cape of Good Hope. Language. Montesquieu, Esprit des Lois. KolfE, Voyage of the ' Dourga.' Kotzebue, Voyage Round the World. Moor, Notices of the Indian Archipelago. Labat, Voyage aux lies de l'Amerique. Labillardiere, Aroyage in Search of La Morgan, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia. Perouse. Moser, The Caucasus and its People. Mouhot, Travels in the Central Parts Lafitau, Mœurs des Sauvages americains. of Indo-China.

Laird, Expedition into the Interior of Africa. Muller (C. 0.), Scientific Mythology. ,, (C. S.), Description de toutes Lander (R. and J.), Niger Expedition. Lang, Aborigines of Australia. Latham, Descriptive Ethnology. Lecky, History of Rationalism. Lewin, Hill Tracts of Chittagong. les Nations de l'Empire de Russie. (F. G.), Geschichte der Amerikanischen Urreligionen. (Max), Chips from a German Wild Races of South-Eastern Workshop. „ „ Lectures on Language, India. Lichtenstein, Travels in South Africa. Livingstone, Missionary Travels and First Series. „ „ Lectures on Language, Researches in South Africa. Expedition to the Zambesi. Second Series. Locke, On the Human Understanding. Lubbock, Prehistoric Times. Nilsson, On the Stone Age. Lyall, Asiatic Studies. Ofaus Magnus. Lyon, Journal during the Voyage of Captain Parry.

Ortolan, Justinian. Pallas, Voyages en differentes Pro- McGillivray, Voyage of the ' Rattlesnake.' vinces de l'Empire de Russie. Voyages entrepris dans les Gouvernements meridionaux MacLean, Compendium of Kaffir Laws and Customs. de l'Empire de Russie. Park, Travels. M'Lennan, Primitive Marriage. Parkyns, Life in Abyssinia. Studies in Ancient History. Perouse, La, Voyage autour du Monde. Petherick, Egypt, the Soudan, and McMahon, The Karens of the Golden Chersonese. Central Africa. Maine, Ancient Law. „ Early Law and Customs. Phear, The Aryan Village. Pliny, Natural History. Smith (W.), Voyage to Guinea. Smithsonian Reports. Post, Die Anfiinge des Staatsund Snowden and Prall, Grammar o£ the Mpongwe Language. New York. Rechtslebens. ,, Der Ursprung des Rechts. „ Die Geschlechtsgenossen- Speke, Discovery of the Source of the Nile. schaft.

Spencer (H.), Principles of Sociology. Bausteine fiir eine allgemeine and Duncan, Descriptive Rechtswissenschaft. Einleit _mg in eine Naturwissen- Sociology. Spencer's Principles of Biology. Spiers, Life in Ancient India. Spix and Martius, Travels in Brazil. Sproat, Scenes and Studies of Savage schaft des Rechts. Pregevalsky, From Kulga to Lob Nor. Prescott, History of Mexico. History of Peru. Prichard, Natural History of Man. Proceedings of the American Academy Life. Squiers, Serpent Symbol in America. Stephens, South Australia. of Arts and Sciences. Proceedings of the Boston Society of Natural History. Stevenson, Tiavels in South America. Strahlenberg, Description of Russia, Proyart, History of Loango (Pinkerton's Voyages and Travels). Siberia, and Great Tartary. Systems of Land Tenure. Published by the Cobden Club.

Raffles, History of Java. Reade, Savage Africa. Renan, Origine du Langage. Tacitus. Tanner, Narrative of a Captivity among the North American Indians. Report of Committee of Legislative Council of Victoria on the Aborigines. Taylor, New Zealand and its Inhabitants. Reville, Les Religions des Peuples noncivilises. Tertre, History of the Caribby Islands. Tindall, Grammar and Dictionary of Richardson, Journal of a Boat Journey. the Namaqua (Hottentot) Lan guage. Rink, Greenland. Robertson, History of America. Ross, Voyage to Baffin's Bay. Transactions of the American Antiquarian Society Rutimeyer, Beitr. zur Kenntniss der fossilen Pferde. Transactions of the Ethnological Soc. Transactions of the R. S. of Victoria. Tuckey, Expedition to explore River Scherzer, Voyage of the 'Novara.' Schoolcraft, Indian Tribes.

Zaire. Tupper, Punjab Customary Law. Turner, Nineteen Years in Polynesia. Tylor, Anahuac. Seebohm, The English Village Community. Seenian, A Mission to Viti. Shooter, Kafirs of Natal. „ Early History of Man. Shortland, Traditions and Superstitions of the New Zealanders. Upham, History and Doctrine of Buddhism in Ceylon. Smith (A.), Theory of Moral Sentiments and Dissertation on Vancouver, Voyage of Discovery. Vogt, Lectures on Man. the Origin of Languages. (G.), (Bishop of Victoria), Ten Weeks in Japan. Waitz, Anthropologie der Naturvolker Wake, Chapters on Man. „ (I), History of Virginia. Wallace, Travels in the Amazons and Whitney, Language, and the Science of Language. Rio Negro. „ Malay Archipelago. AVatson and Kaye, The People of Wilkes, United States Exploring Expedition. India. Williams, Fiji and the Fijians.

Wood, Natural History of Man, Wrangel, Siberia and the Polar Sea. Wright, Superstitions of England. Wuttke, Die ersten Stufen der Gesch Wedgwood, Introduction to the Dictionary of the English Language. Origin of Language. Whately (Archbishop of Dublin), Political Economy. der Menschheit. Whipple, Report on the Indian Tribes. Yate, New Zealand. THE ORIGIN OE CIVILISATION Sfc.

Introduction

.

THE study of the lower races of men, apart from the direct importance which it possesses in an empire like ours, is of great interest from three points of view. In the first place, the condition and habits of existing savages resemble in many ways, though not in all, those of our own ancestors in a period now long gone by : 1 in the second, tbey illustrate much of what is passing among ourselves — many customs which have evidently no relation to present circumstances ; and some ideas which are rooted in our minds, as fossils are imbedded in the soil : while, thirdly, we can even, by means of them, penetrate some of that mist which separates the present from the future. In fact, the lower races of men in various parts ofthe world present us with illustrations of a social condition 1 I am very glad to find that so able and cautious a critic as Mr. Bagehot has expressed his assent to the line of argument here used, and the general conclusions at which I have arrived.

See his Physics and Politics, 1872, especially the excellent chapter on ' Nation-making.' B IMPORTANCE OF THE SUBJECT 2 ruder, and more archaic, than any which history records as having ever existed amono* tlie more advanced races. Even among civilised peoples, however, we find traces of former barbarism. Not only is language in this re spect extremely instructive ; but laws and customs are often of very ancient origin, and contain symbols which are the relics of former realities. Thus the use of stone knives in certain Egyptian ceremonies points to a time when that people habitually used stone implements. Again, the form of marriage by purchase (coemptio) among the Romans indicates a period in their history when they habitually bought wives, as so many savage tribes do now. So also the form of capture in weddings can only be explained by the hypothesis that the capture of wives was once a stern reality.

In such cases as these the sequence is obvious. The use of stone knives 'in certain ceremonies is evidently a case of sur vival, not of invention ; and in the same way the form of capture in weddings would naturally survive the actual reality, while we cannot suppose that the reality would rise out of the symbol. It must not be assumed, however, that the con dition of primitive man is correctly represented by even the lowest of existing races. The very fact that the latter have remained stationary, that their manners, habits, and mode of life have continued almost unaltered for generations, has created a strict, and often complicated, system of customs, from which the former was necessarily free, but which has in some cases gradually acquired even more than the force of law. In order then, to arrive at a clear idea of this primitive con dition of the human race, we must eliminate these NATURE OF THE EVIDENCE 3 *s« customs from our conception of that condition ; and this we are best enabled to do by a comparison of savage tribes belonging to different families of the human race.