Algiers, with notices of the neighbouring states of Barbary

Front matter

ALGIERS, WITH NOTICES OF THE NEIGHBOURING STATES OF BARBARY. LONDON: GILBERT & RIVINGTON. TRINTERS, ST. JOHN'S SQUARE. ALGIERS, WITH NOTICES OF THE NEIGHBOURING STATES <u BARBARY. By PERCEVAL BARTON LORD. Nor holy bell, nor pastoral bleat. In former days within the vale ; Flapped in the bay the pirate's sheet; Curses were on the gale ; Rich goods lay on the sand, and murdered men . Pirate and wrecker kept their revels there. Dana. The Buccaneer IN TWO VOLUMES. VOL. I. LONDON: PRINTED FOR WHITTAKER & Co. AVE MARIA LANE. MDCCCXXXV.

Preface

. Not many years since the French occupation of Algiers would have excited in this country un mingled feelings of jealousy and hostility. In those days legislators could be found to talk gravely about " natural enemies," and philosophers to doubt seriously " whether all foreigners were fools." But the absurdities of nations may be corrected as those of individuals, and we may safely point to it as a sign of the progressing spirit of the age, that the narrow-minded views above alluded to are now no longer entertained, but are superseded by a liberal and enlightened desire to watch the working of that great problem in legislative science, which is to convert a barbarian race into a civilized people, a3

PREFACE.

. VI transform a nest of pirates into a seat of commerce, confine nomad hordes to fixed habitations, substitute agriculture for pasture, and, probably, the religion of the Bible for that of the Koran. Such are the interesting questions involved in the attempt which the French are at present making to retain by the arts of peace what they have gained by force of arms on the north coast of Africa; and the two most important elements in the solution will necessarily be the character of the conquerors, and the character of the conquered. Fully to develope the latter of these is the principal object of the present work, and with a view to this, the different races that inhabit the coasts of Barbary have been treated of in separate chapters, and every thing that could throw a light on their peculiar manners, customs, religion, trade, occupations, and mode of living, carefully collected.

In this part of the work the greatest assistance has been derived from the accounts published by M. Rozet, a scientific officer attached to the late French expedition ; but much additional matter has been gleaned from Lempriere, Windus, Ali Bey, De

PREFACE.

. VII Brisson, Shaw, Riley, Jardine, Curtis, Keatinge, Addison, Tully, and other authorities, — all of them original observers. A Preliminary Sketch of the History of Algiers has been given, in preparing which, Chenier's Recherches Historiques sur les Maures, Laugier de Tassy's Hist.oire c? Alger, Morgan's History of Algiers, the Expedition of the Mathurin Fathers to ransom Christian Captives, Father Dan's Histoire de Barbarie et de ses Corsaires, MarmoPs Afrique, Mitchell's Translation of the Maritime Wars of the Turks, Lyman's American Diplomacy, the Annual Register, and the London Gazette, have been chiefly relied on. The geographical description is brief. Leo Africanus, Marmol, Shaw, and Rozet, have sup plied materials. Much pains have been expended on the chapter relating to the Natural History of the Region under consideration, and it is hoped that it will be found to convey correct and comprehensive views, in easy and familiar language. The principal authorities referred to on the subject are Poizet's Voyage en

PREFACE.

. Barbarie, Desfontaine's Flora Atlantica, Shaw's Travels in Barbary and the Levant, Jauffret's Zoographie de Barbarie, and the magnificent Sym bolœ Physicœ, still, we believe, in course of publica tion at Berlin, under the joint names of Ehrenberg and Hemprich. The Appendices also to the works of Denham, Lyon, and other recent travellers in Northern Africa have afforded some useful information, principally as regards Botany and Geo !ogy- The chapter which describes the French sway in Algiers, derives all its leading facts from their own authors, who will be found named in the proper place. On this subject two articles in the Foreign Quarterly and Westminster Reviews have been consulted with advantage. CONTENTS OF VOL. I.

Introduction

.

Page Aboriginal inhabitants — Medes, Persians, and Armenians — Romans — Vandals — Belisarius — Saracens — Irruption into Spain, and final expulsion— Barbarossa I. — Barbarossa II. — Oppression of the Christians— Expedition under Charles V. — Hassan — Second Expedition of Charles — Great disasters, and final defeat — Government changed at Algiers — Deys appointed — Town attacked by Sir Robert Mansel — Blake — French assault under Duquesne — Second assault by Duquesne — Treaty with England — Third French expedition under D'Estrees— New Treaty with England— War with Spain — Expedition of Matherine fathers to ransom captives — Spanish expedition under Castigon and O'Reilly — American negociation with Algiers — Singular compliment paid them — Fresh disputes — American expedition — Treaty — Last British expedition under Exmouth — Causes — Terms proposed — Bombardment— Terms granted — Fresh atrocities of the Pirates — Hussein Pacha's anti- X CONTENTS.

Page pathy to the French — Insults their Consul, and fires on their flag — War in consequence — Army assembled at Tou lon — Voyage and landing — Engagements with the Turks, and advance on Algiers — Investment and capture of the Emperor's fort — The town capitulates, and the Dey sails for Naples -• -• • 1

Chapter II. Geography

General view of Barbary States — Detailed description of Algiers — Face of country — Mountainous ridges and plains — Sea-shore — Rivers — Use in dividing kingdom into provinces — Lakes — Sea — Climate and meteorology — Soil — Mode of cultivation, and products 124

Chapter III. Inhabitants

Several varieties — Berbers — Moors — Arabs — Negroes — Jews — Turks and Colonglies 158

Chapter IV. Berbers

Origin — Appearance — Language — Habitations — Underground Granaries — Furniture — Dress — Of Women — Possessions — Food — Industry — Commerce — Mode of seeking CONTENTS. XI Page employment — Warlike spirit— Mode of fighting — Manners and dispositions — Religion — Marabouts — Superstitions — Anecdotes — Funerals — Marriages — General character . . 164

Chapter V. The Moors

Who were the Moors— Their residence — Their general appearance — Dress — Women — Painting the eye-lids — Children — Coffee-houses — Meals — Cookery — Agriculture — Magistracy — Domestic habits — Perfidy — Singular anecdote — Theft — Unsocial disposition — Want of natural affection — Patience — Military exercise — Forms of salutation — Moorish letter — Priests and saints — Moorish calendar — Mode of taking a second, third, or fourth wife — Treatment of wives — Divorce — Anecdotes — Jealousy — Punishment of adultery — Melancholy incident— Affection of Moorish women for their children — Forms observed at child-birth — Curious superstition — Naming child — Circumcision — Education — Final destination 189

Chapter VI. Arabs

Original settlement — Of two kinds — Appearance — Dress — Mode of ornament — Arms — Habitations — Mode of making and pitching tent — Furniture — A douwar — A daskrah — Under-ground village — Arab character — Cruelty — Instances — Hospitality to strangers — Mode of claiming it — CONTENTS. Page Conversation — Hospitality seldom violated — Anecdote — Mode of life— Temperance — Nature of food — Preparation of flour — Of meat — Fasting in desert — Arabs live to old age — Respect for age — Salutations ALGIERS, $c.

Chapter I. Historical Introduction

.

Aboriginal inhabitants — Medes, Persians, and Armenians — Romans — Vandals — Belisarius — Saracens — Irruption into Spain, and final expulsion — Barbarossa I — Barbarossa II — Oppression of the Christians- Expedition under Charles V— Hassan — Second expedition of Charles — Great disasters, and final defeat — Government changed at Algiers Deys appointed — Town attacked by Sir Robert Mansel — Blake French assault under Duquesne — Second assault by Duquesne Treaty with England — Third French expedition under D'Estrees — New treaty with England — War with Spain — Expedition of Matherrine fathers to ransom captives — Spanish expedition under Castigon and O'Reilly — American negociation with Algiers — Singular compliment paid them — Fresh disputes — American expedition — Treaty — Last British expedition under Exmouth — Causes — Terms proposed — Bombardment — Terms granted — Fresh atrocities of the Pirates — Hussein Pacha's antipathy to the French — Insults their Consul, and fires on their flag — War in consequence — Army assembled at Toulon — Voyage and landing — Engagements with the Turks, and advance on Algiers — Investment and capture of the Emperor's fort — The town capitulates, and the Dey sails for Naples.

The country now called Algiers, embracing ancient Numidia and part of Mauritania, was in former days wandered over rather than inhabited by a few rude shepherd tribes. They needed no fixed habi- VOL. I. b tation to shelter them from a climate always de lightful ; they required not to labour at agriculture, where fertile valleys and delicious plains yielded in richest abundance fruits for themselves and herbage for their flocks ; they lived therefore an easy, tranquil life, free from the cares, and desiring not the luxuries of more civilized nations. But man, in this state, is little superior to the beasts that perish. His bodily wants, few and simple, are readily satisfied. To tend his herds, to drink of their milk, to drive them to fresh pastures or the cooling stream, to behold them grazing around him as he reclines beneath the shady branches of an ancient tree, or listen to the ravishing concerts of sweetest music poured forth by the little songsters of the grove, — such are the employments, and such the gratifi cations of the untutored savage.

His noblest part, however, is neglected and uncultivated ; the feelings may be touched, but the reason is not informed; the body may be fed and clothed, but the mind is left to hunger and thirst after knowledge ; a blind admiration of the lovely scenes of nature may be excited, but it is not directed towards its truest end — adoration of that beneficent Being who created them all in their beauty and gladness, and, when He looked on the works of his hands, pronounced them all to be very good: yet the advance of a nation from ignorance to knowledge, from a state of nature to a state of civilization, is not always made through paths of pleasantness. Difficulties are to be contended with, prejudices overcome; evil de sires and the passions of guilty men, which before slumbered in obscurity, may be elicited and called into fierce and destructive action ; the interested views of individuals may oppose the general good ; the prevalence of a fanatical superstition may im pede for a time all further progress; but if the nation can struggle through all these, how gloriously is it rewarded, by becoming enlightened, refined, intellectual, and christian.

Towards so desirable a consummation, the country of which we write has as yet made but few steps, and these have been constantly interfered with by a combination of almost all the causes above men tioned. Their effects will be best learned from a slight sketch of its history, or rather of the tradi tions received by its inhabitants as history, which, though probably incorrect in names and dates, may be relied upon as to the main facts. The aboriginal inhabitants, whom we have de scribed, were first broken in upon by the Medes, Persians, and Armenians, part of the immense army which had attended Hercules in his con quests as far as Spain, and had there been disbanded in consequence of his death. A short and easy sail brought those adventurers to the shore of Africa, b where they soon contracted marriages, and settled themselves amongst the possessors of the soil.

The Persians, who had gone farther east, where the increased breadth of the Mediterranean rendered navigation difficult in their ill-made barks, turned their attention more to strengthening themselves by land ; they occupied the hill-country of Numidia, built themselves forts and cities, and soon became a warlike, powerful, and flourishing people. The Medes and Armenians, on the contrary, spread themselves out in the champaign land, along the sea shore, reaching as far as the Straits of Gibraltar, or over the territories known by the general name of Mauritania, and being thus possessed of several sea ports, almost within sight of the opposite coast, availed themselves of these advantages, and laid the foundation of a pretty extensive commerce. For a long series of years both nations continued to grow in wealth and power, until at length they became so considerable as to attract the notice and excite the cupidity of the Romans, who, by their conquest of Carthage, had already gained a footing in their vicinity.

In this conquest they had de rived no slight assistance from Masinissa, one of the princes of the country ; and a dispute between his grandchildren, Jugurtha, Adherbal, and Hiemp sal, which they were called on to arbitrate, afforded them a pretext for advancing a large army, throwing Jugurtha into prison, where he was starved to death, and repaying themselves for their trouble by seizing on part of his kingdom. Its final subjuga tion was reserved for Julius Cæsar, who attacked Juba for having sided with the party of Pompey, overthrew him in a decisive battle at Thapsas, and reduced all Numidia to the form of a Roman pro vince, appointing as its first governor the celebrated historian Sallust, to whom we are indebted for the preceding particulars l. When the empire sunk beneath its own greatness, and the remote provinces were one by one with drawing themselves from its sway, Africa also attempted to revolt, but too feeble to succeed with out assistance, supplicated aid from the Vandals, who had already made themselves masters of Spain.

This was readily promised, and (a. d. 428) Gen tharic, one of their chiefs, passed over at the head of a formidable army, which soon overcame all opposition, and destroyed the feeble remains of Roman authority. But the unfortunate natives found that they had only changed their masters. In vain they expressed their gratitude to the bar barian hordes, assured them that they had derived the expected deliverance from their assistance, and begged of them in turn to withdraw ; the country held out too many inducements to be lightly rei See Note 1. b3 signed by those who had once tasted of its plea sures, and felt themselves masters of its resources. With equal cruelty and barbarity these robber bands, having suppressed a slight insurrection made to expel them, proceeded to tyrannize over the inhabitants, ruin the cities, tear up the vines, and raze houses, so that, says the historian, " As much as this part of Africa had gladdened the eye by its riches and its prosperity, so much did it now sadden the heart by its desolate appearance."

From this dreadful thraldom they were delivered by Belisarius, the general of Justinian, under whom the Roman glory for a short time revived ; but in the following century (about a. d. 697) they were finally reduced under the domination of the Arab warriors, who, under the name of Saracens, had already spread their victories and their faith through Egypt, and thence along the whole northern coast of Africa. From henceforth Algiers became Ma hommedan, and has so continued to the present day. The extension of the Saracenic power into Spain, whither they were invited by Count Juban, who was willing to avenge his private injuries at the expense of his country's safety, has afforded matter for many a tale and many a romance, (none per haps more beautiful than Southey's Roderick), but would lead us too far from our subject.

Suffice it to say, that towards the close of the eleventh century this power began to decay. The native Spanish princes invited their forces to make head against the invaders, who had long held the richest and most beautiful parts of the country in subjection : Sancho the Great of Navarre particularly distinguished himself in the struggle, but it was not until 1492, under the reign of Ferdinand and Isabella, that Spain found itself finally freed from all Mahommedan jurisdiction. The departure of the Mudajels, the last of those people who remained in Spain, took place, according to the Turkish historian, Hagi Khalifeh, during the reign of Charles V., in consequence of his issuing a pro clamation, forbidding the public exercise of their religious rites. " The Moslems," says Khalifeh, " being able to endure this no longer, began to form themselves into societies, and at length con vened a general meeting, and took up their position behind a mountain, whence they sent to beg assist ance from Khair-ad-din, (Barbarossa II.), who immediately sent over thirty-six golettas.

On their arrival they bravely withstood the troops that came out to prevent the embarkation of the Moslems. A thousand men were stationed on the field, whilst seven voyages were performed, and all the Moslems were then conveyed to the opposite shore, and de livered from the power of the infidels. On this occasion about twenty thousand Mudajels were b4 brought over, who settled in Algiers and other places. This is the reason why most of the Alge rines are Andalusians." But the Spaniards had too long groaned beneath the yoke to be satisfied merely by its removal. Reprizals were thought of, and revenge, so opposed to the true spirit and feelings of the religion they professed, was yet inculcated by its ministers as a sacred duty, when the object of it was the destruc tion of those who held a different faith.

Ferdinand, excited by the counsels of Cardinal Ximenes, sent successive expeditions into Africa, one of which, headed by this aspiring and talented churchman in person, succeeded in taking the city of Oran, which a reference to our map will shew to be about one hundred and eighty miles west of Algiers, and gave his countrymen a firm footing in Africa. After many fruitless efforts to dislodge his unwelcome visitants, Selim, king of Algiers, at last entreated the assistance of the famous corsair, Oruj Reis, better known by his European name, Barbarossa, composed of two Italian words signifying red beard. Nothing could be more agreeable than such an in vitation to this ambitious robber, who, elated by the number and hardihood of his naval exploits, had been for some time considering how he might best establish his power by land.

Accordingly, attended by five thousand picked men, he entered Algiers, made himself master of the town, assassinated Selim, and had himself proclaimed king in his stead ; and thus was established that nest of pirates, fresh swarms from which never ceased to annoy Christian commerce and enslave Christian mariners, until its late final destruction, by the French expedition in the year 1830. Barbarossa, however, did not want courage, talents, or audacity, to support himself in his ill gotten sovereignty. He reduced Tunis beneath his sway, overthrew the king of Tremecen, and took possession of his dominions. Nor did he cease in his career, until Charles V. ordered Gomarez, go vernor of the Spanish settlement at Oran, to march with a large force against him, by whom he was defeated, and fell bravely fighting in the 44th year of his age, a. d. 1518.

His brother Khair-ad-din, whom he had left governor of Algiers during his absence, was ap pointed his successor by the general consent of the corsair captains, and, adopting the name of Bar barossa, vowed to revenge his death. Unable to make head against the whole of the Spanish empire, he concentrated his forces in Algiers, while he sent a special embassy to Selim, then Sultan at Con stantinople, offering to become his tributary, on condition of receiving support. Selim accepted the offer, and sent him a guard of two thousand Janis- B saries, by means of whom he was enabled to repress the discontents of his Moorish subjects, and turn his attention to a renewal of his piratical expeditions; in which, in a short time, he became so famous, far exceeding bis brother, and all that went before him, in daring and cruelty, that the Sultan, delighted with such a subject, loaded him with the highest honours, and made him Capitan Pasha of the whole Turkish fleet, considering him the only person capable of resisting the celebrated Genoese admiral, Andrea Doria, from whom the Sultan's armaments had received much injury.

Proud of the distinction thus obtained, Barbarossa set out for Constantinople, where, mingling the pbant arts ofa courtier with the hardy roughness of a corsair, he gained the entire confidence both of the Sultan and his vizir. To them he disclosed a plan he had formed for getting possession of Tunis, which, on the death of his brother, had been restored by the Spaniards to its native princes; and, meeting with their approba tion, succeeded on his return in carrying it into execution, and making this important addition to his dominions. Meantime, his corsairs continued to sweep the seas in all directions, so that no ship was safe, and commerce was almost at a stand. They had even become so bold as to make frequent descents on the coasts of Naples, Sicily, Genoa, and other places along the Mediterranean.

Their prisons were filled with Christian captives, of whom Barbarossa employed no less than thirty thousand in building the magnificent mole by which Algiers is connected with the little island opposite, and which makes it such a safe and admirable port. All Europe re-echoed to their groans; the Pope made liberal offers of indulgences, and plenary pardons to all who would undertake their deliver ance, and promised immediate entrance into para dise to any who might fall in so praiseworthy an attempt. Muley-Hassan, too, the exiled king of Tunis, having in vain endeavoured to stir up the Moorish princes in his behalf, at last carried his solicitations and complaints to the throne of Charles V., who was at that time in the plenitude of his power, and felt himself called on, as the acknowledged head of Christendom, to make some attempt to relieve the woes under which she suf fered.

His late successes in Hungary had inspired him with a love for military glory, and he determined to head in person an expedition which was to crush this audacious pirate. The preparations were on a scale commensurate with the difficulty of the undertaking, and the greatness of the stake. From the Low Country came the German infantry, famous for their steadiness and perfect discipline ; the galleys of Naples and Sicily brought the veteran bands of Italians and Spaniards who had distinb guished themselves by so many victories over the French ; the emperor himself embarked with the flower of his nobility and the pride of his chivalry, anxious to share the dangers and the fortunes of their sovereign ; Andrea Doria led his own galleys, manned by the bravest, and conducted by the most skilful seamen of the age ; the Portuguese, the Pope's dominions, and the knights of Malta, each furnished their quota, animated either by a remem brance of injuries, a love of conquest, or a desire to overthrow the enemies of their faith.

Never had a more gallant band assembled, and each felt as though the success of the expedition, the welfare of his country, and the existence of his religion, de pended on his individual exertions. Barbarossa, on his side, was not idle. • Aware of the impending storm, and foreseeing that it would first break on his new possession, Tunis, he pre pared for its defence with equal vigour and prudence. He fortified and provisioned with grea care the goletta, or castle, by which the town was commanded, and threw into it a garrison of six thousand of his bravest men, under the command of Seiran, a renegade Jew. He called in all his corsairs from their several cruises, drew from Al giers what troops could be spared, sent round to the Moorish princes, demanding aid against Charles, the enemy of their faith, and Muley- Hassan, whom he denominated an apostate, and having thus raised a large body of troops, he himself took possession of Tunis, and awaited the approach of his formidable opponents.

He was not long kept in suspense. On the 16th of July, 1535, Charles embarked at Cagliari, in Sardinia, with more than thirty thousand regular troops, and after a prosperous navigation effected his landing, unopposed, within sight of Tunis. He immediately invested the goletta, which was bat tered at the same time by his artillery from the land and his ships of war from the sea. The garrison made many sallies, and behaved with the greatest fortitude ; Seiran showed courage and abi lity, equal to the important situation with which he had been entrusted; but it was all in vain. The for tifications crumbled beneath the constant and heavy fire directed against them, and a general assault being ordered, the Germans, Spaniards, and Italians intentionally divided into separate bodies, and thus, urged by all the feelings of national emulation, pressed forward with an ardour that nothing could withstand : the fort was taken, but Seiran with the scanty remains of his band, retreated in good order over a shallow part of the bog towards the city.

This was a severe blow, but Barbarossa refused to yield. The fortifications of Tunis were weak and straggling ; the inhabitants knowing that their king was in the Spanish camp, were ill disposed to defend the usurper, so that finding his forces by this time increased to fifty thousand, he thought it most advisable to leave the valley and offer battle to the invaders in the open field. Charles was not slow in accepting the challenge. Confident in the superiority of their numbers, and the fortune of their leader, the Moors and Arabs rushed in a wild, disorderly manner to the attack, while their scimitars gleamed and their shouts rent the air; but their confused onset made little impression on the Christian warriors, who, trained in a thousand fields of carnage, coolly maintained their ranks, repelled those undisciplined barbarians, and " foiled their wild rage with steady skill."

In vain Barbarossa did all that courage could prompt, or prudence dictate; in vain he exposed his own person to every danger ; attempted to rally his troops, and lead them once more to the attack ; the shock had been too dreadful, the rout became general, and despite his threats, his prayers, his reproaches, and his entreaties, he was hurried along by the fugitives, and borne reluctantly on the tide that now set backwards towards the city. Here a new disaster awaited him. Ten thousand Christian slaves imprisoned within the walls of Tunis had taken this opportunity of gaining their freedom. Breaking the chains by which they had been bound, and, bursting from their dungeons, they quickly made themselves masters of the city, and over powering the small Turkish garrison left in the citadel, turned its cannon against their former op pressors.

Thus assaulted on all sides, Barbarossa, with a few attendants, yielded to fate, and fled to Bona, while Charles, having sacked the city, and received the acknowledgments of the captives whom he had restored to freedom, found himself prevented by the tempestuous state of the weather, and a sickness which broke out amongst his troops, from pursuing up his successes. He re-established Muley- Hassan in his dominions, and having engaged him to receive a garrison, and pay a yearly tribute, returned to Spain; while his adversary, soon re covered from the effects of this expedition, which had engaged the attention of all Europe, and con firming his power at Algiers, entrusted the government there to one of his oldest corsairs, Hassan- Aga, while he himself was called away to fulfil his duties as admiral of the Ottoman fleet.

The Christians soon found that they had gained little by the change. Trained up under the ban ners of both the Barbarossas, Hassan equalled them in courage, while he exceeded them in ferocity. His enterprizes were marked by a spirit of audacity beyond any before exhibited ; the coasts of Spain were kept in a state of such constant alarm, that numerous military posts were obliged to be established to preserve the inhabitants from the invasion of the barbarians. Enraged at seeing his power thus set at nought, and his authority defied, Charles, though advanced in years, determined once more to make a descent on the enemy's coast, and again assembled a formidable armament. But fortune had this time deserted him. His preparations were not completed until late in the year (October 15, 1541). Doria, in the strongest terms, dissuaded him from embarking at a period when the weather was so uncertain, and when the success of the whole enterprize might be perilled, in approaching the dangerous coast of Algiers, by a sudden gale.

The event showed how sage was the advice of this skilful mariner. Scarcely had the fleet put out to sea, when they encountered a violent tempest, and it was not until after undergoing many dangers and difficulties, that they succeeded in reaching Ma jorca, which had been appointed as the general rendezvous. The voyage thence to the coasts of Africa was equally long and hazardous. When they came within sight of land, the agitation of the waves and the fury of the tempest prevented their de barkation, which, however, was at length effected, during a favourable moment, within a few miles of Algiers. It is impossible to depict the general consternation and terror of the Algerines on the appearance of this powerful fleet and army. So little had they expected their arrival, that there was scarce one of their vessels in the port, and the great body of their army was scattered through the country engaged in collecting tribute.