The Decline of the Roman Republic

Preface

. This volume contains the History of Caesar's Gallic campaigns, and of the contemporaneous events at Rome. With the ex ception of Cicero's orations and letters, the Commentaries on the Gallic and the Civil wars, and we may add the books on the Alexandrine, African and Spanish wars, are the only extant contemporary history of the Republic. The value of Caesar's mditary histories is well known to those who have studied them, but those who have read them carefully are very few. Parts of the Gallic war and of the Civil war are read by boys, and if the teacher does his duty, the pupil may learn some Latin and something else too. It is strange that one of the best Roman writers, perhaps the best of all Roman writers, is generally read only by schoolboys and to a small extent. One reason may be that the language is supposed to be so simple and easy that older students will be better employed on other writers, and that a military history is not so instructive as other antient books.

But Thucydides is a political and military history, and it is read most diligently, and it is worth the labour. The scene of Caesar's campaigns is so near to us and the events resemble so much those of more recent times that perhaps the matter seems common and famdiar, and we careless for it than for that which is more remote both in time and place. But there a2

PREFACE.

. is no country in Europe the history of which is so closely con nected with that of our own country as the history of France, and no history is more instructive to Englishmen than French histoiy; which ought to be a sufficient reason for studying the book from which we learn most about the antient nations of Gallia. This country has undergone many changes and revolutions since Caesar's time. The history of the Galli may be traced much farther back than the date of Caesar's first appearance in Gallia, but the history of France as a political community begins with Caesar's Commentaries. The country was con quered by the Romans and received from them a new language, a social organization, a system of law and many useful im provements. France still contains some of the noblest monu ments of Roman architecture and innumerable traces of the skill of the Romans in the magnificent works which supplied the towns with water.

The invasion of the Franks subjected a large part of this country to foreign invaders, and the effects of the conquest remain to the present day, particularly in the northern and eastern parts of Caesar's Gallia. But notwithstanding invasions, conquests and the mixture of races, a large part of the population of France retain the characteristics of the nations which Caesar brought under Roman dominion. The Gaul sticks to his native sod and is most tenacious of national habits, though he is also, as Caesar says, ingenious and capable of learning from others. His impetuous temper and want of reflection have made him in all ages the prey of greedy and cunning men, and he has paid dearly for his want of prudence and his political ignorance. In fact the elements which compose French society have not yet attained a condition of stabdity and never will so long as the nation remains so ignorant.

The mass of the people in other countries are ignorant also, but ignorance combined with the ex citabdity of the Gallic temperament, and the numerous civil disorders and revolutions which have agitated the country,

PREFACE.

. V make the prospect of permanent tranquillity very uncertain. The French are still disturbed by their own passions, and the love of military glory, and so they are liable to be misled by adventurers and sacrificed to the cupidity of governors, who draw from an industrious people the fruits of their hard labour and squander the money in luxury and expensive wars. Gallia was the country of revolutions in Caesar's time, and so it is still. There are many editions of Caesar and many Commentaries on his writings. The latest and in some respects the best Commentary on the Gallic war is the " Histoire de Cesar " (vol. ii.) written, as the publisher informs us, by the Emperor Napoleon III., who has also put his name at the end of the book and dated it from the Tudleries (March 20, 1866). The volume contains both the history of the Gallic campaigns and the contemporary events at Rome.

The history of the war is written after Caesar in a plain, simple and clear style, and the remarks and notes are useful for the explanation of Caesar's text. The work is accompanied by a very cheap atlas of thirty-two plates, well engraved, which will assist a reader who wishes to understand Caesar's campaigns. The author had the means of doing what no other person could have done. Excavations were made on the sites of Caesar's battle-fields and sieges, and excellent officers, among whom was Stoffel, furnished the author with valuable information. But the aid which he received diminishes in no degree the merit of the author's design, which may be assumed to be his own ; and he has produced a book which will be a lasting memorial of his reign. The work of Goeler (Casar's Gallischer Krieg, 1858) is also very useful, and I have often referred to it.

I have not always agreed with the opinions and conclusions either of the author of the " Histoire" or of the German soldier ; and I do not expect that those who have studied Caesar will always agree with me. The matter contained in the eight books of VI

PREFACE.

. the Gallic war is so varied and extensive that no man who handles it can avoid error. I have spared no pains, and I have done my best to make the history of the conquest of Gallia intelligible to any person who will read carefully and consult good maps. Cicero's letters, the letters written by him to Atticus, and the collection1 of letters written by him to other persons and by other persons to him, form a valuable part of the evidence for the facts stated in this volume. Those who would form a just estimate of Cicero's character will find these letters both instructive and entertaining. They are often very difficult to understand in the original and I do not know that there is any translation which is completely sufficient. There is an English translation with notes by Wdliam Melmoth of the " Letters of Marcus Tullius Cicero to several of his Friends; " and an English translation of the sixteen books of letters to Titus Pomponius Atticus by William Heberden.

There is also a French translation with notes of the letters to Atticus (1773), by the Abbe" Mongault. I have not seen the German translation which Wieland began. It was finished and published after his death. G. L. 1 They are entitled " Ad Familiares," or " Ad Diversos," and I have often referred to them under both titles. ROMAN CONSULS From b.c. 57 to b.c. 49. (CLINTON'S FASTI.) B.C. 57. P. Cornelius Lentulus Spinther. Q. Caecilius Metellus Nepos. 5G. Cn. Cornelius Lentulus Marcelhnns. L. Marcius Philippus. 55. Cn. Pompeius Magnus H. M. Licinius Crassus II. 54. L. Domitius Ahenobarbus. Appius Claudius Pulcher. 53. Cn. Domitius Calvinus. M. A'alerius Jlessalla. B.C. 52. Cn. Pompeius Magnus in. solo consul. Q. Caecilius Metellus Pius Scipio. The colleague of Pompeius during the last five months of the year. 51.

Ser. Sulpicius Rufus. M. Claudius Marcellus •>. 50. L. Aemilius Paullus. C. Claudius Marcellus 49. C. Claudius MarcelluB. L. Cornelius Lentulus Cms. 1 M. Claudius Mareellus, consul 51, and C. Claudius Mareellus, consul 49, were brothers, and the cousins of C. Claudius Mareellus, consul 50. CONTENTS.

Chapter I. The Helvetii

B.C. 58. PAGE Lh-y, Epit. 103; Caesar, S. G. i. 1—29; Dion Cassius, 38. c. 31 m — 33; Strabo,]!. 205.190; Plutarch, Caesar; Suetonius, Caesar, 24 — 26; Florus1, iii. 10. Caesar arrives at Geneva and raises troops in the Provincia — He constructs a wall and ditch along the south bank of the Phone from Geneva to the Montagne du Vuache to stop the passage of the Helvetii through the Provincia — The design of the Helvetii and the other emigrants is to reach the country of the Santones near the Lower Garonne — Caesar leaves T. Labienus in command of his lines on the Rhone, and crosses the Alps into Cisalpine Gallia to bring fresh troops — His return and inarch from Occlum over the Alps into Gallia Transalpina, and his passage over the Rhone above the junction with the Saone — The slow journey of the Helvetii through the defiles of the Jura to the Saone— They plunder the country — Caesar attacks one division of the Helvetii at the Saone after the main body had crossed the river, and thus destroys and disperses one fourth of the Helvetii — He crosses the Saone and follows the Helvetii — Caesar's Gallic cavalry put to flight by the enemy — Caesar's allies the Aedui do not keep their promise to furnish supplies for his army — He is informed of the treachery of Dumnorix, the Aeduan chief who commanded the Aeduan cavalry, and is only prevented from punishing him by the intercession of Divitiacus, the brother of Dumnorix— The pursuit of the Helvetii continued — Caesar's plans spoiled by the cowardice of P. Considius, one of his officers — Caesar leaves the pursuit of the 1 Florus has written the history of the first seven years' campaign in a singlo chapter, which is worthy of this wretched compiler and rhetorician.

CONTENTS. X PAGE enemy in order to advance to Bibracte, the capital of the Aedui, and get supplies— The enemy turn round to follow Caesar, who is compelled to fight — The Helvetii are defeated and the survivors retreat in the night to the territory of the Lingones — After three days Caesar follows and compels the enemy to surrender unconditionally — Six thousand men of one of the Helvetic cantons escape in the night, are brought back and " treated as enemies" — The survivors of the emigrants are sent back to their several homes, except the Boii — The muster rolls found in the Helvetic camp show the numbers of the emigrants to have been 368,000 — The number of those who returned home was 110,000 . . . 1

Chapter II. Ariovistus And The Germans

B.C. 58. Liiiy, Epit. 104 ; Caesar, B. G. i. 30 — 54 ; Dion Cassius, 38, c. 34 — 50 ; Justinus, xxxii. 3; Tacitus, Germania, c. 15; Plutarch, Caesar; Orosius, vi. 7; Cicero, De Provinciis Consularibus, c. 13.

Caesar is thanked by the Celtic states for defeating the Helvetii — The complaints of the Celtae about the cruelty of the German king Ariovistus, who had settled in Gallia — The parts occupied by the Germans — Caesar promises to look after the interests of the Galli — Caesar's reasons for dealing with Ariovistus — Caesar's description of the country of the Germans • — The Suevi and their character and customs — The religion of the Germans, and their public economy — Caesar proposes a conference with Ariovistus — The answer of the German, and Caesar's second message to him — Caesar's demands, and the answer of Ariovistus — Caesar marches to meet Ariovistus and seizes the town of Vesontio (Besancon) — The panic of Caesar's army at the prospect of a battle with the Germans, and their mutiny — Caesar's address to his officers — The army recover their cou rage, and Caesar leads them from Vesontio towards the Rhine — The course of his march to the great plain — The conference between Caesar and the German king, and his answer to Caesar's demands — The conference inter rupted by the Germans — Ariovistus proposes to renew the conference, which Caesar refuses, but sends two commissioners to him — The kino seizes the two men and puts them in chains — The movement of the king by which he places himself in the rear of Caesar and cuts off his communications with the Aedui and Sequani — The German manner of fighting — Caesar makes a second camp in the rear of the Germans — The German attack on the second camp — Caesar compels the Germans to fight at Cernay near Miihlhausen— The battle and defeat of the Germans, who fly to the Rhine— The escape of Ariovistus with the loss of his two wives — The supposition that the river 111 was then a branch of the Rhine The Suevi who had advanced to the Rhine retreat when they hear the news of Ariovistus' defeat — Caesar puts his troops into winter quarters, and crosses the Alps into North Italy CONTENTS.

XI PAGE 11

Chapter III. The Belgae

B.C. 57. Livy, Epit. 104; Caesar, B.G. ii. iii. 1 — 6; Strabo, p. 205; Dion Cassius, 39, c. 1 — 5 ; Plutarch, Caesar.

Caesar in Gallia Citerior hears of the combination of the Belgae — He raises two new legions and sends them over the Alps under Q. Pedius — He crosses the Alps and marches with eight legions from the winter quarters among the Sequani to the borders of the Remi, who submit to him — The report of the Remi about the Belgian confederates ; and the estimate of the forces of the several Belgian states — The geographical position of these states — Caesar places his camp on the north bank of the Axona (Aisne) — The Belgae attack Bibrax; their way of assaulting towns — They place themselves about two miles from Caesar's camp — Description of the ground of Caesar's camp, and his defences — The Belgae attempt to cross the Aisne and are defeated — The Belgian army disperses, is pursued by the Romans and slaughtered — Caesartakes Noviodunum a town of the Suessiones, and Bratuspantium a town of the Bellovaci — The leaders of the Bellovaci in this war run off to Britain — Surrender of the Ambiani — Caesar advances into the territory of the Nervii — The thick hedges in this country — Caesar prepares to make his camp on the Sabis (Sambre) — Description of the place which is identified with Neuf-Mesnil on the left bank of the Sambre — Caesar's troops are attacked while they are making their camp by the Nervii and their confederates — The great battle on the Sambre — The Belgae are defeated, and the Nervii are almost annihilated — The Aduatuci who are coming to aid the Belgae return to their country and retire to their stronghold — The position of this stronghold at the hill of Falhize, opposite to Huy on the Maas — Caesar forms a contrevallation round this hill fort, which surrenders — The Aduatuci attack Caesar's lines after the surrender and are repulsed — He breaks into the town and sells all the people in the place, 53,000 in number — P. Crassus with one legion reduces the Armoric states to subjection — The position of Caesar's legions during the winter — On the arrival of Caesar's despatches at Rome a thanksgiving (supplicatio) for fifteen days is decreed— Before setting out for Italy Caesar sends Galba with one legion into the Valais to open the passage over the Alps— Galba takes possession of Octodurus (Mar tigny) — Galba is attacked in his quarters by the Veragri and Seduni — He defends himself with difficulty, sallies from the camp and completely routs the enemy— Galba retreats into the country of the Allobroges and winters there CONTENTS.

PAGE 71

Chapter IV

P. CLODIUS, POMPEIUS AND CICERO. b.c. 58. Livy, Epit. 103; Plutarch, Cicero, Pompeius, Cato Minor; Dion Cassius, 38, c. 30; Cicero's Letters and Orations; Josephus, Antiq. 14, 5, 1 ; Plinius, H. N. 36, c. 2, and c. 15, 24, § 7. Cicero's house demolished after he fled from Rome — P. Clodius destroys the Porticus of Catulus and dedicates part of the ground on which Cicero's house stood — The story of Tigranes who was a prisoner at Rome — Gabinius and Clodius quarrel — Cicero's brother Quintus returns to Rome from Asia — Pompeius comes no more into public during the tribunate of Clodius — He does what he can to restore Cicero from exile — An effort is made to recall Cicero — The Roman attempts to prevent the repeal of enact ments by prohibitive clauses — The mode of fixing the allowance for the outfit of the consuls when they took a province — Piso and Gabinius leave Rome for their respective provinces — Ptolemaeus the king of Cyprus was on friendly terms with the Romans — His wealth and kingdom are coveted by the Romans, and a bill is passed for the annexation of Cyprus — M. Cato is appointed to take possession of tho island and the king's money — Cato stays at Rhodes on his voyage and advises king Ptolemaeus of Egypt, who calls there on his voyage to Rome, to return to Egypt — Cato first goes to Byzantium to settle affairs there and then visits Cyprus — The king of Cyprus commits suicide — Cato sells the king's property in Cyprus, and brings the money to Rome — Cyprus is annexed to the provincial government of Cilicia — The magnificent shows of the curule aedile M. Aemilius Scaurus — His great temporary theatre at Rome

Chapter V. Cicero's Restoration

B.C. 57. Livy, Epit. 104; Dion Cassius, 39, c. 6 — 11; Cicero, Pro P. Sestio, c. 33, &c. ; Pro Milone, c. 14; Pro Plancio, c. 32 ; Plutarch, Cicero, Pompeius ; Appian, B. C. ii. 16 ; Schol. Bob. in Orat. Pro P. Sestio. On the first of January Cicero's restoration is proposed by the consul Lentulus — On the day when the bill for his restoration is proposed, there is a great fight in the Forum — The tribune P. Sestius is nearly killed in Castor's temple — Sestius now collects a force for his defence — Milo attempts to bring CONTENTS.

XIII PAGE Si Clodius to trial for disturbing the public peace, but his attempt is frustrated — Tho Senate undertake Cicero's case — The popular feeling in Cicero's favour displayed — Pompeius exerts himself in favour of Cicero — The vote of the Senate in favour of Cicero, and the consequent fall in the price of grain — The people meet on the fourth of August to vote on the question of Cicero's restoration, and the bill for his return is carried — On the fifth of August Cicero arrives at Brundisium, where he is met by his daughter — His triumphant progress to Rome, where he arrives on the fourth of September — He thanks the Senate on tho fifth of September — The character of the extant speech supposed to have been delivered on this occasion, and of an extant speech in which he thanks the people — On the fourth and fifth of September there is again scarcity in Rome — Pom peius is appointed to look after the supply of grain — The story of Cicero writing a book in defence of his political conduct — Cicero speaks before the Pontifices about his house — The character of the extant speech attri buted to him — The nature of the question before this ecclesiastical court — The judgment is in favour of Cicero — The resolution of the Senate upon the judgment of the Pontifices — The valuation of the damage done to Cicero's property — Rome is disturbed by the riots of Clodius — Milo resolutely opposes Clodius — The matter of the Campanian land is again stirred in the Senate in the absence of Pompeius — The discussion on the trials for the late disturbances — Clodius escapes being put on his trial — Remarks on the Roman police of corn, and the poor in Rome .

Chapter VI. Caesar And The Veneti

B.C. 56. Livy, Epit. 104; Caesar, B. G. iii.; Dion Cassius, 39, c. 40 — 43 and 44—46; Strabo, 194, 195; Orosius, vi.8. Caesar in North Italy — The winter quarters of P. Crassus — Commis sioners are sent by Crassus to make requisitions on the Sesuvii, Curioso litae and the Veneti — The position of these several states — The Veneti had many ships and traded with Britannia : they make prisoners of the com missioners who are sent to them — All the coast people combine against the Romans— Caesar sends orders to P. Crassus to build ships, and leaves Italy for Gallia after the congress of Luca — Description of the country of the Veneti, and their preparation for war— The allies who join them— The country to which Caesar's operations were limited— Caesar sends Labienus with some cavalry to the country of the Treviri, and P. Crassus with a force into Aquitania— Sabinus with three legions is sent against the Unelli, Curiosolitae and Lexovii— Caesar's fleet— The position of the towns of the Veneti, and Caesar's way of attacking them— The ships of the Veneti: they use iron chains as cables— The only advantage which the Romans CONTENTS.

PAGE had over the Veneti was in the speed of their ships and the use of oars — Caesar waits for the arrival of all his fleet, and fights a battle with the Veneti in the bay of Quiberon — Dion's description of the battle and Caesar's — The contrivance of the Romans for disabling the tackle of the Venetian ships — The battle is fought in the presence of Caesar and his army, who look down from the heights — The wind suddenly drops and the Romans take nearly all the enemy's ships — The great loss of the Armoric States — They surrender to Caesar, who puts to death the Vene tian Senate and sells the rest of the people by auction — The campaign of Q. Titurius Sabinus'in the country of the Unelli — Many idle and desperate men in Gallia — The prudence of Sabinus — The Galli attack his camp and are completely defeated — The remarks of Caesar and Livy on the character of the Galli — P. Crassus enters Aquitania and increases his force by drawing men from the western towns of the Roman Provincia — He leads his troops against the Sotiates and takes their chief town — Adcantuannus and his soldurii — Crassus advances to the west parts of Aquitania — The league among the Aquitani, and the aid that they re ceive from Hispania — The old soldiers of Sertorius — Crassus attacks and takes the camp of the Aquitani, who attempt to escape — Great slaughter of the Aquitani and Cantabri — The submission of the greater part of Aquitania— The names and positions of the nations which submit — Caesar leads his forces against the Morini andMenapii — He cuts a road through the forest — He is compelled to retire by the heavy rains — He wastes the enemy's country, and takes his troops back to the country south of the Seine 105

Chapter VII

P. CLODIUS. B.c. 56. Livy, Epit. 104; Dion, 39, c. 12—16, and c. 18—21 ; Cicero, De Provinciis Consularibus ; Ad Q. Fr. ii. 2, 3, 4; Ad Div. i. 1 9- Cicero Pro P. Sestio, c. 44, and Schol. Bob. ; Pro Babirio Postumo ; Pro L. Cornelio Balbo ; Strabo, 796. 641; Plutarch, Pompeius, Caesar, Cicero, Cato Minor ; Appian, B. C. ii. 17. P. Clodius elected curule aedile— A Roman public meeting— Clodius unsuccessfully attempts to prosecute Milo— The street brawls in Rome- Cicero defends L. Calpurnius Bestia— The trial of P. Sestius for a breach of the peace : he is defended by Cicero in an extant speech— Cicero's speech against P. Vatinius, who gave evidence against Sestius— Ptolemaeus Auletes king of Egypt borrowed money at Rome — He leaves Egypt and his daughter Berenice is made queen of Egypt— C. Rabirius a loan contractor lends more money to Ptolemaeus at Rome— A deputation is CONTENTS.

XV PAGE sent from Alexandria to Rome to complain of the king— The question of the restoration of Ptolemaeus, who goes to Ephesus and takes asylum in the temple of Diana— The allowance to Pompeius for the purchase of grain— The conference at Luca— Caesar goes to the Venetian war, and Pompeius to Sardinia — Cicero's apology to Lentulus for his submission to Caesar and Pompeius — Cicero's books— He urges L. Lucceius to write the history of his acts from the conspiracy of Catilina to his return from exile— The reconciliation of Pompeius and P. Clodius— The speech De Haruspicum Responsis— The squabbles of P. Clodius and Cicero- Cicero's speech in defence of M. Caelius— The question of the Consular Provinces and Cicero's extant speech — Cicero's submission to Caesar — Cicero's extant speech in defence of L. Cornelius Balbus, a native of Gades, who had been made a Roman citizen — A Roman citizen could be admitted a citizen of another state, but he lost his Roman citizenship — A man cannot owe absolute obedience to two sovereign powers — The English Naturalization Act of 1870— The policy of Pompeius according to Dion 123

Chapter VIII. Caesar And The Germans

B.C. 55. Livy, Epit. 105; Caesar, B.G. iv. 1 — 19; Dion Cassius, 39, c. 47, 48; Plutarch, Caesar, Cato Minor, c. 51. The Usipetes and Tenctheri cross the Rhine from Germany, and occupy the country of the Menapii — The position of the Menapii and Eburones — Caesar leads his troops against the German invaders — The conference between Caesar and a deputation from the Germans — Caesar's cavalry is attacked and defeated by the Germans, whom he charges with treachery — He seizes a great number of Germans and all the chiefs, who came to his camp after the attack on his cavalry — Caesar suddenly falls on the camp of the Germans, who are put to flight and driven into the Rhine — The confluence of the Mosa and the Rhenus, where the Germans were routed — Caesar's description of the course of the Rhine — Caesar determines to cross the Rhine — Hisdescription of the wooden bridge which he built — The bridge made over the Schelde by the Duke of Parma — Caesar crosses the river and advances into the country of the Sigambri — He burns the villages and buildings and cuts the corn — The Suevi retire into the great forests — Caesar passes eighteen days on German soil, and returns to Gallia ........... CONTENTS. PAGE 162

Chapter IX. The First Invasion Of Britannia

B.C. 55. Livy, Epit. 105; Caesar, iv. 20 — 38; Dion Cassius, 39, c. 50 — 53; Strabo, p. 200. Caesar's reason for invading Britannia — He marches with his forces from the Rhine to the coast of the Morini — He is visited by commissioners from the island, who are sent back accompanied by Commius, king of the Atrebates — He gets together vessels enough to carry two legions, and sails for the British coast — Description of the coast which he reached, and of the place where he landed — He is opposed at his landing by the Britons — The Britons submit to Caesar and give hostages — The full moon after Caesar's landing, and the damage done to his ships by the spring tide — The Britons resolve to attack Caesar again — Caesar brings corn daily from the country into his camp and repairs his ships — The seventh legion goes out to forage and is attacked by the Britons — -Description of the British mode of fighting in war chariots — The Britons attempt to take the Roman camp and are repulsed — They are pursued by the Romans, who burn all the buildings within their reach — The Britons sue for peace and give the hostages which Caesar demanded — Caesar leaves Britain and reaches the Gallic coast safely — Two of the transports are carried further south than the other ships, and the men after landing are attacked by the Morini — The cavalry come to the relief of the men — The next day Caesar sends Labienus to attack the Morini — Titurius and Cotta waste the country of the Menapii, cut the corn, and burn the houses — Caesar's despatches reach Rome, and a thanksgiving (supplicatio) of twenty days is ordered by the Senate .......

Chapter X. The Second Consulship Of Pompeius

b.c. 55. Livy, Epit. 105; Dion Cassius, 39, c. 31—39. 55—65; Plutarch, Pompeius, Cato Minor, Antonius; Suetonius, Caesar, c. 24; Tacitus, Ann. xiv. 20; Plinius, 36, c. 15, 24, 7; 8, c. 7; Cicero, ad Div. vii. 1; Appianus, Syriaca, 51 ; Josephus, Antiq. xiv. c. 4, 5, 6, Wars, i. c. 8 ; Strabo, p. 588. 796. CONTENTS. XVII TAGE 190 Cn.

Pompeius and M. Crassus are elected consuls — The new consuls by fraud and bribery exclude M. Cato from the praetorship and P. Vatinius is elected — Disturbances at the election of the curule aediles — The bill of C. Trebonius about the consular provinces is carried by violence — Another bill of C. Trebonius gives to C. Caesar another term of five years in his provinces — The Lex Licinia dc Sodalitiis — The Lex Pompeia Judiciaria — The return of Calpurnius Piso from his province Macedonia — Cicero's extant speech against Piso — Pompeius dedicates his theatre — Cicero is present at the games exhibited by Pompeius — The elephant fights — The state of Spain — Gabinius in his province Syria — Alexander, the son of Aristobulus, makes disturbance in Judaea — Gabinius settles the affairs of Judaea and divides the country into five parts or conventus — Josephus affirms that Gabinius did good service in Judaea — Pompeius writes to Gabinius and urges him to restore Ptolemaeus Auletes to his throne — The king promises large sums of money to Gabinius — Berenice, queen of Egypt, strangles her first husband and marries Archelaus, the high priest of Comana — Gabinius advances to Egypt through the desert, occupies Pe lusium, and defeats the Egyptian troops and Archelaus, who is killed — Ptolemaeus takes possession of Egypt, and puts to death his daughter Berenice — Gabinius leaves some Gauls and Germans in Egypt to protect Ptolemaeus — Alexander, the son of Aristobulus, again stirs the Jews to revolt — Gabinius, the Publicani, and Cicero— Cicero is reconciled to M. Crassus, who sets out for his province Syria — The tribune Ateius curses Crassus as he leaves Rome 175