The Advanced Class-book of Modern Geography, physical, political, commercial

Preface

. This Work, as the title implies, is designed for the use of ad vanced students, and also as a work of reference for those who are engaged in teaching geography. The Introduction deals with the essential elements of the science, and its study should accompany, if it does not precede, that of the general geography of the various countries and continents in the body of the work. Special prominence has been given to the British Empire, and it will be found that not only the United Kingdom but also every British Colony and Dependency throughout the world have been treated in careful detail, and that all important countries outside the Empire — such as the United States, China and Japan, and the great Continental Powers — are dealt with in a manner commensurate with their importance from our point of view.

Recent discoveries and territorial changes in Africa have received special attention, and it is hoped that the arrangement and grouping of the subject-matter in this section will — if supplemented by constant reference to good and recent maps — enable the student to complete and define his knowledge of what can no longer be justly termed the " Dark Continent." In America, the two great English-speaking countries — Canada and the United States — have been dealt with in detail proportionate to their interest and inherent importance ; while the sections relating to the Australasian Colonies, which may ultimately unite in one great " Commonwealth," and those dealing with the insular world of Polynesia — the political partition of which has been completed by the agreements that define the limits of the British, French, and German spheres of influence and non-interference — are unusually complete. In fact, all the Countries of the World, as well as the Continents, are described in a sufficiently exhaustive manner to meet the requirements of VI

PREFACE.

. almost all examinations in geography. Due prominence has been given to the Mountain and River Systems and other natural features ; the present political condition of each State is indicated ; and, bearing in mind the fact that the study of Commercial Geo graphy is daily becoming of greater importance, the Industries and Trade of the principal countries are dealt with in considerable detail. In the preparation of this work the best and most recent British and foreign authorities have been consulted, and no pains have been spared to make the book a reliable exponent of the geographical knowledge of the present day. J. F. W. January^ i8g2. . CONTENTS. INTRODUCTION, PAGE Definition of Geography — Main Divisions — Close connection between the Physical, Political, and Commercial aspects of Geography . i I. The Stars — The Sun — The Planets — Satellites — Comets and Meteors — The Solar System — The Earth as a member of the Solar System — Form and Size of the Earth — Proofs of the Earth's Rotundity — The Earth and the Sun — Rotation of the Earth — Revolution of the Earth — Inclination of the Earth's Axis — The Seasons — Varying length of Day and Night — The Equinoxes — The Solstices — The Tropics — Duration of Daylight — Amount of Heat — The Earth and the Moon — Phases of the Moon — Eclipses — The Tides . 3 II.

Definitions of Geographical Terms — Degrees, Minutes, and Seconds — Points, Lines, and Circles — Relative Positions of Places — Form of the Earth — The Equator — The Tropics — The Polar Circles — Zones — Parallels — Latitude — Meridians — Longitude — Longitude and Time — Time Standards — International Date Line — The Determination of Latitude and Longitude — Methods of representing the Earth — Maps and Globes — Projections — Scale — Map-Making — Map-Reading — Map-Drawing .... 12 III. The Earth's Surface — Natural Divisions of Land, according to position relative to adjacent waters, and according to degree of elevation — Natural Divisions of Water — The Distribution of Land and Water — Contour of the Land — Contrasts and Similarities — Development of Coast Line — Relief of the Land — Forms of Relief — Relief and Area — Law of Relief — Absolute Elevation — Mean Elevation — Influence of Elevation — Contour ofthe Ocean — Oceanic Intercommunication — Form of Sea-bottom — Depth ofthe Ocean — Saltness ofthe Sea — Temperature ofthe Sea — Density of Sea Water — Movements of the Sea — Waves — Tides — Oceanic Circulation — Influence of the Earth's Rotation — Ferret's Law — Ocean Currents CONTENTS.

PAGE — Influence of the Sea on Climate — The Atmosphere — Air Pressure — Composition, Temperature, and Moisture of the Air — Mists — Fogs — Clouds — Dew — Rain — Snow — Hail — The Snow Line — Ava lanches — Glaciers — The Movements ofthe Air — Constant Winds — The Trade Winds — Periodical Winds — Land and Sea Breezes — The Monsoons — Occasional and Variable Winds — Local Winds — Weather and Climate — Circumstances which determine Climate — Latitude — Altitude — Proximity to the Sea — Maritime and Con tinental Climates — The Influence of Ocean-Currents — Prevailing Winds — Direction of Mountain Chains — Rainfall — Distribution of Life — Plant Life — Plant Zones — Botanical Regions — Animal Life — Agency of Man in Modifying the Natural Distribution of Animals 25 IV.

Geographical Distribution of Man — Classification — Physical Characteristics — Types of Mankind — Distribution of Races — Language — Religion — Forms of Society — Degree of Civilization — Government — Forms of Government — Revenue — Expenditure — Public Debt — ■ Means of Defence — The Head of the State — The Officers of the State — Ambassadors — Consuls ..... 57 V. Necessaries of Life — Comforts and Conveniences — Luxuries — Natural Products or "Earth-Gifts" — Raw Materials — Manufactured Articles —Plant Products or Vegetable Commodities — Food Plants — Cereals — Edible Roots — Edible Fruits — Plants yielding Sugar — Plants yielding Spices and Condiments — Plants yielding Beverages — Medicinal Plants — Plants yielding Narcotics — Oleaginous and other useful Plants — Dye Plants — Textile Plants — Cotton — Flax — Hemp — Jute — Timber Trees — Other Commercial Plants — Commercial Products ofthe Animal Kingdom — Fur — Wool — Hides and Skins — Hairs and Bristles — Horns — Ivory — Tallow and Stearine — Birds — Insects — Silk — Honey and Wax — Commercial Products of the Mineral Kingdom — Iron — Gold and Silver — Mercury — Copper — Tin — Lead — Mineral Fuels — Coal — Mineral Oils — Building Stones — Clay — Salt — Sulphur — Graphite — Precious Stones — Division of Labour — Occupations — Agriculture— Lumbering — Fishing — Mining — Manufacturing — Commerce — Barter — Home Trade — Foreign Trade — General Commerce — Special Commerce — "Aids" to Commerce — Money — Banking and Insurance — Standard Weights and Measures — Facilities for Rapid Correspondence — The Postal, Telegraphic, and Telephonic Services — Means of Transport — Transport by Land — Roads — Railways — Transport by Water — Results of Commerce — Growth of Commerce — Obstacles to Commerce — Prohibition — Protection — Bounties — Subsidies — Fair Trade — Free Trade .......

CONTENTS. IX EUROPE. PAGE General Description, Extent, Natural Features, Coasts, Relief, Mountain and River Systems, Climate and Produc tions, Inhabitants, Trade and Commerce, Government, and Political Divisions ....... 97 THE BRITISH ISLES *...... 120 England and Wales : Boundaries and Extent . . . 120 Natural Features . . . 122 Climate and Productions . . 130 Inhabitants, Race, and Language . 132 Industries and Trade . . . 132 Counties and Towns . . 135 Scotland : Boundaries and Extent .... r49 Natural Features .... 149 Climate and Productions .... 154 Inhabitants, Industries, and Trade . . 154 Counties and Towns . . . . . . 156 Ireland : Boundaries and Extent .... 164 Natural Features ..... 165 Climate and Productions . . . 167 Inhabitants, Industries, and Trade . . . 168 Provinces, Counties, and Towns . . . 169 The United Kingdom : Industrial and Commercial Supremacy 176 Industries .... 179 Agriculture .... 179 Fishing .... 180 Mining ..... 180 Coal .... 181 Iron .... 183 Other Minerals . . . 184 Manufactures .... 185 Trade and Commerce . . 192 Internal Trade .... 192 Railways . . . 193 Canals .... 198 Posts and Telegraphs . . 199 Foreign Trade .... 200 Imports and Exports . . 202 British Mercantile Marine . . 209 Coasting Trade . . 210 Ports ..... 211 Constitution and Government 218 Finance and Forces . . . 219 Religion and Education X CONTENTS.

PAGE THE BRITISH EMPIRE .... .221 The Isle of Man ... . . 223 The Channel Islands • 223 FRANCE ..... - .225 BELGIUM ..... 239 HOLLAND, or THE NETHERLANDS ■ 239 SWITZERLAND ..... 244 GERMAN EMPIRE : General Description . . • 249 Prussia ...... 2S& The Smaller States of North Germany . . 259 The Hanse Towns .... 260 Alsace-Lorraine or the Reichsland . . .261 The Smaller States of South Germany . . 262 Luxemburg ........ 263 Liechtenstein ..... 263 AUSTRIA-HUNGARY ....... 263 DENMARK ...... .270 SWEDEN AND NORWAY . .... 274 RUSSIA 279 TURKEY IN EUROPE . . . . . .288 Turkey Proper. .... . 291 Bulgaria ........ 294 Bosnia and Herzegovina ..... 295 MONTENEGRO. ....... 295 SERVIA .... ... 296 ROUMANIA ........ 297 GREECE ........ 299 ITALY . -303 San Marino ....... 315 Malta .... ... 315 SPAIN. ........ 317 Andorra .... ... 325 Gibraltar ..... . 326 PORTUGAL ........ 326 The Azores ..... 330 Madeira ... . .

CONTENTS. XI ASIA. PAGE General Description, Extent, Natural Features, Climate and Productions, Industries and Commerce, Inhabitants, Political Divisions. ....... 332 THE INDIAN EMPIRE ... ■ ■ 353 INDIA 354 Bengal ....... 365 The North-West Provinces and Oudh . . . 366 The Punjab ...... 367 The Central Provinces .... . 367 Burma ..... ... 368 Assam ........ 368 Bombay ........ 369 Madras ........ 369 The Native States of India .... 370 Dependent Native States ..... 370 Kashmir ...... 371 Sikkim ....... 371 Manipur . . - . . . . 372 Baluchistan . . ... 372 Tributary Native States .... 372 Independent Native States .... 373 Nepal ....... 373 Bhutan ....... 374 Foreign Possessions ...... 374 CEYLON ......... 374 FURTHER INDIA ........ 376 British Indo-China ...... 379 Burma ..... 379 Siam ......... 380 French Indo-China ...... 381 Cochin China .... . . 381 Cambodia . . . . . . 382 Annam . . . . . . . 382 The Straits Settlements ..... 383 Native Protected States of the Malay Peninsula . 384 THE EAST INDIAN ARCHIPELAGO .... 384 Dutch East Indies .... . 387 British East Indies ..... 389 Spanish East Indies ... . .

CONTENTS. PAGE THE EMPIRE OF JAPAN ..... 39' THE CHINESE EMPIRE ...... 395 China ........ 396 Tibet ........ 4°+ Mongolia ....... 4°5 Zungaria ........ 4°6 Eastern Turkestan ...... 4o6* Manchuria ........ 4°7 Corea ........ 4°8 Hong-Kong ........ 4°9 Macao . . ..... 410 ASIATIC RUSSIA ....... 4*° Siberia ........ 410 Russian Central Asia ...... 415 Khiva .... . . 418 Bokhara ....... 418 Caucasia ...... 419 AFGHANISTAN ....... 421 BALUCHISTAN ...... 426 PERSIA ......... 428 ASIATIC TURKEY. . . . 433 Cyprus .... ... 445 ARABIA ........ 446 Aden ......... 451 AFRICA. General Description, Extent, Natural Features, Climate and Productions, Inhabitants, Industry and Trade, Political Partition ...... 452 SOUTHERN AFRICA ....... 477 BRITISH SOUTH AFRICA . . 477 The Cape Colony ... . ,-7 Natal 484 Zululand ........ .35 Swaziland .... .3 Tongaland . . 487 Basutoland ... . 4g8 Bechuanaland . . . 43S Zambesia ... .' 4go Southern Zambesia ..... 4gl Northern Zambesia .....

CONTENTS. XIII SOUTHERN AFRICA— continued. page THE ORANGE FREE STATE ..... 494 SOUTH AFRICAN REPUBLIC .... 496 GERMAN SOUTH-WEST AFRICA . . . -497 EASTERN AFRICA. ...... 498 Portuguese East Africa ...... 499 German East Africa ...... 502 British East Africa ...... 503 Uganda ........ 505 Unyoro ........ 505 Zanzibar. ....... 506 Italian East Africa ...... 506 Eritrea ....... 507 Gall aland ....... 507 Somaliland ...... 507 THE NILE COUNTRIES 508 Abyssinia ....... 508 The Eastern Sudan ...... 509 Egypt ........ 511 THE BARBARY STATES ...... 515 Morocco. . ., . . . . . 516 Algeria ........ 517 Tunis ........ 518 Tripoli ........ 519 THE SAHARA ....... 520 THE SUDAN ........ 522 The Eastern Sudan ...... 524 Kordofan ....... 524 Darfur ....... 524 The Central Sudan ...... 525 Wadai — Kanem— Bagirmi .... 525 BORNU ........ 526 The Empire of Sokoto ..... 526 The Western Sudan ...... 527 WESTERN AFRICA ...... 528 The Senegal ....... 531 The Gambia ....... 531 Portuguese Guinea ...... 532 Rivieres du Sud . ... 532 Sierra Leone .......

S32 Liberia ........ 533 The Ivory Coast ....... CONTENTS. XIV WESTERN AFRICA— continued. page The Gold Coast— Ashanti ..... 534 The Slave Coast ....... 535 Togoland ....... 535 Porto Novo — Dahomey ..... 535 Lagos — Yoruba ...... 536 The Niger Protectorate ..... 537 The Cameroons Protectorate .... 538 The French Congo ...... 539 The Congo Free State ..... 54° Portuguese West Africa ..... 542 ISLANDS OF AFRICA ...... 543 Madagascar ....... 543 The Comoro Islands ...... 545 Reunion ........ 545 Mauritius ....... 546 Socotra ........ 546 Madeira ........ 547 The Canary Islands ...... 547 The Cape Verde Islands ..... 548 Islands in the Gulf of Guinea (Fernando Po, Prince's Island, St. Thomas, and Annobon) . . . 548 Ascension ....... 548 St. Helena ....... 549 Tristan d'Acunha ...... 549 AMERICA.

Introductory Remarks on the New World . . - 550 NORTH AMERICA. General Description, Natural Features, Climate and Productions, Inhabitants, and Political Divisions . 550 ARCTIC AMERICA ....... 561 Greenland ....... 561 British Arctic America .... . 562 Alaska ........ 564 BRITISH NORTH AMERICA ..... 565 Newfoundland. ...... 565 Labrador ........ 566 St. Pierre — Miquelon ...... 566 THE DOMINION OF CANADA ..... 567 The Maritime Provinces ..... 584 Nova Scotia ...... 584 New Brunswick ..... 585 Prince Edward Island ..... CONTENTS. XV THE DOMINION OF CANADA— continued. page Quebec ........ 586 Ontario ........ 587 Manitoba ... ... 588 The North-West Territories . ... 590 Assiniboia ....... 59° Saskatchewan ....... 59° Alberta ........ 591 Athabasca .... ... 591 Keewatin .... . . 591 British Columbia ... . . 592 THE UNITED STATES. ... ■ • 595 States and Territories ... . . 612 The Atlantic States . 613 The New England States ... . 613 The Middle Atlantic States .... 614 The Southern States ..... 617 The Central States ..... 620 The Northern States . . . • 623 The Western States and Territories . . 625 Rocky Mountain Division .... 626 Great Plateau Division .... 627 Pacific Division .... 628 MEXICO ....... 630 CENTRAL AMERICA . . ... 634 British Honduras ... . ■ 636 Guatemala ... • • 636 Salvador • ..... 637 Honduras ■ ■ • 637 Nicaragua ... ■ ■ 637 Costa Rica ........ 638 THE WEST INDIES ... .638 British West Indies ... . . 640 Jamaica ... ■ - 64° The Bahamas .... .641 The Leeward Islands ..... 642 The Windward Islands ..... 643 Trinidad and Tobago . . • 644 Barbados . • .... 644 The Bermudas ..■•••■ 645 Spanish West Indies . • ■ • • 645 Cuba. ....... 645 Porto Rico ......

CONTENTS. THE WEST INDIES— continued. page French West Indies ...... 647 Danish West Indies ...... 647 Dutch West Indies ...... 647 Haiti— San Domingo ...... 648 SOUTH AMERICA. General Description, Natural Features, Climate and Productions, Inhabitants, Political Divisions . . 649 VENEZUELA ....... 658 GUIANA ........ 660 British Guiana ...... 660 Dutch Guiana .... . . 661 French Guiana . . . . . . 661 THE UNITED STATES OF BRAZIL . . . .662 PARAGUAY ........ 665 URUGUAY ........ 666 THE ARGENTINE REPUBLIC. . . . . 666 The Falkland Islands ...... 669 CHILI 669 BOLIVIA ....... .671 PERU ......... 673 ECUADOR . . . . . . .674 COLOMBIA 6?6 OCEANIA. General Description — its Three Great Divisions . . 678 AUSTRALASIA. General Description, Extent, Discovery, Settlement, Exploration, Government ...... 578 AUSTRALIA.

General Description, Extent, Natural Features, Climate, Productions, and Inhabitants ..... 683 THE AUSTRALASIAN COLONIES:— New South Wales ...... 699 Victoria ...... . 7I, Queensland ....... ~2I South Australia . ..... 730 Western Australia ...... 73g Tasmania ........ 7 New Zealand . . . . . . „ The Off Islands ...... ~~z Norfolk Island — Lord Howe Island . . CONTENTS. XVII POLYNESIA PAGE General Description — Coral and Volcanic Islands, Climate, &c. , and Divisions ....... 774 MELANESIA ....... 775 New Guinea ... ... 775 Dutch New Guinea . . . 778 German New Guinea . . • 778 British New Guinea ... . 778 Papuan Islands ....... 78° The Bismarck Archipelago ... .781 The Solomon Islands ....■■ 7Si The Santa Cruz Islands and the New Hebrides . 782 New Caledonia .....■• 783 The Fiji Islands ... • 784 MICRONESIA -787 The Bonin Islands— The Ladrones . 788 The Pelew and the Caroline Islands • 788 The Marshall Islands .... 789 The Gilbert Islands ... ■ 789 The Ellice Islands . ■ ■ • 789 POLYNESIA (Proper) ... • ■ 79° Northern Polynesia ... • 791 The Sandwich Islands 791 Central Polynesia ...■•■ 792 The Phœnix, Union, and Manihiki Islands . . 792 The Marquesas . 793 Southern Polynesia ..•••• 793 Tonga— Samoa ..■••• 793 The Cook Archipelago 795 The Society Islands, The Austral Isles, and the Low Archipelago ..... 795 Pitcairn and Easter Islands .... 796 ANTARCTICA ■ ■' 797 APPENDICES.

A.— Orthography of Native Names of Places . . .801 B.— Etymology of Geographical Names ... 803 C— The International Struggle for the Niger, by Sir George Taubman-Goldie . . . ■ ■ Sw D.— Alphabetical List of Countries, &c. . . • 8l4 CLASS-BOOK OF MODERN GEOGRAPHY.