An Universal History, in a series of letters: being a complete and impartial narrative of the most remarkable events of all nations from the earliest period to the present time, etc

Front matter

> AN UNIVERSAL HISTORY IN A SERIES Of LETTERS: BEING- A (CompUte anil impartial Narrat'ro* OF THE MOST REMARKABLE EVENTS OF ALL NATIONS, FROM THE EARLIEST PERIOD TO THE PRESENT TIME. FORMING A COMPLETE HISTORY OF THE WORLD BY G. C. HEBBE, LL.D. VOL. I. ANCIENT HISTORY. NEW YORK: DEWITT AND DAVENPORT. TRIBUNE BUILDINGS. X848. Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the year ,848, BY WILLIAM H. GRAHAM, In the Clerk's Office of the District Court for the Southern District of New-York. M. L THE STATESMAN, OF TO 38 t s 23*ccellenc£, OUIS ADOLPHE THIERS, THE PATRIOT, THE ORATOR, THE HISTORIAN, AND THE FRIEND OF LIBERTY, SCIENCE, AND OF LITERATURE, THIS WORK IS, FROM A SENTIMENT OF ADMIRATION, ffiumOln Ocoicntcu op THE AUTHOR

Preface

. " Who dares think one thing, and another tell, My heart detests him aa the gates of hell." It is now about twenty years since I conceived the idea of composing an historical work. But in the midst of many other avocations, it was not until after the lapse of more than ten years, I found leisure to engage myself directly on the task of writing a work of this description. I then began to collect materials for a history of modem times, visiting, during some years, several foreign countries, and making myself acquainted, not only with many of the most eminent men of the age, but also mingling with the masses of the people. It is the historian's duty to gather know ledge from every source. The wish, however, to make my readers familiar with the history of the human race, from its infancy to the present time, has given birth to this more extensive work.

The form in which this has been accomplished may be objectionable to many readers ; still I shall be satisfied if no other fault is found with it. I frankly confess, however, that I anticipate many heavier charges will be made, to some of which I may be compelled to plead guilty. The bold censures I have passed upon the prejudices and superstitions of mankind ; the severity with which I have treated the disgraceful artifices, and ridiculous pretensions of princes, priests, and aristocrats ; together with my vindication of the people's rights, and of the free sway of their reasoning faculties ; cannot but raise many enemies against this work and its author. These reflections, with the importance and sublimity of the work itself, has, at times, made me doubt the propriety of offering my thoughts to the public ; but, convinced that my readers will find that I have had the promulgation of truth for my chief object. and that no pusillanimous fear of human enmity and criticism has

PREFACE.

. prevented me from uttering that which I deemed would promote the true interests of my fellow-men, I flatter myself with the hope, that the lovers of truth will acknowledge that my labor has not been in vain ; and that History, from the point of view I have represented her, will afford to mankind the strongest evidence of God's providential care — inspire us with the greatest confidence in his wisdom and goodness — fill our hearts with love and gratitude towards Him, and, at the same time, give us a clear insight into the means by which man can attain more general happiness during his terrestrial existence, by proving that the attainment of this great end depends chiefly upon himself. THE AUTHOR.

Introduction

TO THE STUDY OF HISTORY.

The study of History is the most fitting nourishment to promote the growth and strength of the expanding intellect of youth. The sports of childhood, and the convivialities of youth, we may cheerfully and innocently enjoy during their proper season. The joys of innocence, and the playful words of pure lips, leave to the future no bitter regrets. But, as the vernal days of life are short, let us enjoy their golden hours, and gather the flowers that bloom beneath their sunny rays, not forgetting to cultivate the fields, that, during the summer heat, are to bring forth the fruits ; so that when the chilly days of autumn, and the snows of winter shall have come, we may enjoy a rich recompense in place of the transient gifts of the spring. Time is precious, and bitter will be our regret, should the days of our youth have been spent without enriching our minds with something of the knowledge of God and of the human race, which is hoarded in the lap of History.

But having acquired this treasure, which neither the misforture nor the power of man can deprive us of, we shall feel amply rewarded for our labor, not only by a superior knowledge of human affairs, but also from a conviction that the hand of Providence leads mankind towards a glorious destiny. The reminiscences of our childhood are feeble ; so is the light which History casts upon the cradle of the human race ; but as the mists of ionorance are dispersed, a clearer light appears, until, amid the splendor of the noon-day's sun, we discern the hand of our Heavenly Father, and recognize, with grateful hearts, the wisdom and goodness of the plan he has prescribed for the advancement of mankind towards civilization and perfection. Many persons deem History too grave and serious a goddess for their devotion ; and instead of cultivating her graces, and adorning their minds with the inestimable treasures showered upon her votaries, they while away their time with the gay damsels who surround her throne, known under the general name of Novels.

Still, the real merits of the few of these inferior divinities who can justly boast of noble parentage, pure morals, and even elevated principles, can bear no comparison with those of History. Besides, the most of them are seductive syrens, who, fair in appearance, utter from their lips enchanting words, while their breath is poisonous and destructive. Although it must be conceded that the study of History appears grave and serious at the first view, yet, from my own experience, I venture to assert, that, upon a close examination, we will find her beauty irresistible, and soon become enamoured of her. Yea, when you shall have made yourselves acquainted with her most excellent endowments — which are at first hidden from your sight — she will be the constant object of your dearest thoughts. Fictitious writers allow themselves to deviate from truth, while the great end and aim of History is to represent man and his actions in true colors.

Yet, in days gone by, some of her most gifted lovers — and who in all other respects were worthy of her favors — have sullied their own renown, and tarnished her fair reputation, by bequeathing to posterity gilded falsehoods, by flattering tyrants, and slandering the wise and the good. Here, then, let me observe, that it is only by degrees that History has attained the high pinnacle of her present position. In her infancy she ran, gossip-like, from man to man, from hut to hut, and from country to country, full of tattling tales, and so mixing together the truthful and the fabulous, as to render it almost impossible to discover the gold amid the profusion of sand. For many ages she persisted in these traditionary fables, until the art of writing was invented, when she penned them down with the credulous simplicity of a child.

But she was soon roused to the consciousness of her faults, by observing the whispered doubts and satirical smiles of the sagacious Greeks, as Herodotus publicly recited his charming tales of the ancient nations. Therefore, hi Thucydides, we soon find her much wiser, and in many instances questioning the traditions which she herself had handed down from generation to generation. She began then to examine with scrupulous earnestness the evidences before her, as well in support of, as also against an alleged fact, summed up the case before her with impartiality, and either passed sentence of immutability, or set it aside in default of sufficient proof of its truth. Thus she ascended to the highest earthly tribunal, and reserved to herself the power to reward, by her applause, all those who have either signalized themselves by their benefactions conferred on mankind, or by glorious deeds ; and to punish, by her condemnation, those who have trampled upon humanity, and proved themselves the enemies of mankind.

With the view of inciting a more eager desire to make yourselves familiar with History, I will relate the inducements that led me to its study, and the course I have pursued in regard to it. My curiosity was first awakened by listening, in my childhood, to the conversation of intelligent and accomplished men, among whom my father was most

INTRODUCTION.

TO THE STUDY OF HISTORY. 11 eminent, on account of his great learning, admiration of history, and love of liberty. My views soon became enlarged, and I felt a burning thirst after knowledge ; and while attempting to make myself thoroughly acquainted with the actions of mankind in ages gone by, I feasted with pleasure on the most glorious productions of the human mind. I have wandered, with the immortal leader of the Israelites, through the countries which cradled the human family ; I have sought, with Herodotus, amid the Egyptian sages, for gems of antiquity ; with the admirable Thucydides, I have paid the tribute of admiration to the genius of Pericles, and deeply deplored the internal struggles of the Greeks. I have, with the charming Livy, followed the great Carthagenian chieftain over the glaciers of the Alps to the battle field of Cannae, and have stood aghast at the wonderful yet terrible triumphs of his tactics over a numerous army of the bravest people on earth.

The infamous deeds of Roman tyrants, as recorded by Tacitus, have made my blood boil within me ; and fain have I wished for the power to depict the tyrannical acts of more modern despots in the same vivid colors. By perusing Gibbon, I have acquainted myself with those centuries of darkness over which his brilliant genius has shed an inextinguishable light, and have smiled at the impotent attempts of pigmies to defame this glorious monument of historical architecture, raised by the gigantic labor of this extraordinary man. Often, by the midnight lamp, have my eager eyes devoured the pages in which Johannes Von Miiller has so admirably described immortal deeds in the cause of freedom. Many instructive and delightful hours have I spent with Machiavelli, the noble victim to republican principles, yet the subtle teacher of diabolical king's-craft ; with Hume, the keen judge of human nature, and the most rational sceptic of philosophic historians ; with Voltaire, the venomous scoffer at human follies, the blas phemer of the Christian religion, but at the same time a most powerful champion for the enfranchisement of the human mind ; with Sismondi, the grave historian and generous patriot ; with Rotteck, the stout friend of freedom, and able advocate of enlightened ideas ; with the entertaining Becker, the learned Mosheim, the profound Bossuet, the sagacious Guizot, and the eloquent, Geijer.

But the more I read, the more I panted and thirsted after knowledge, until my love of History became a predominant and ruling passion. I unhesitatingly sought after facts, by wading through voluminous works, which were neither enlivened by wit nor by eloquence, nor by sublime ideas, nor by subtle thoughts. But I soon hastened to refresh myself from the goblets which Chauteaubriand, Madame de Stael, Brougham, Mitchelet, Mignet, Macauley, and many other bright geniuses, have filled with intellectual nectar. At last, too, I have, with Thiers— the greatest historian of our age admired the terrible sarcasms of Mirabeau, the brilliancy of Verginaud's eloquence, and the heroic death of the high-minded Madame Roland. 1 have rejoiced with him over the glorious triumphs of reason, the downfall of feudal power, and at the flight of infamous priests ; with him deplored the degradation of human nature, and gloried in the immortal deeds of the republican armies.

With him I am now following the eventful career of the greatest warrior and prince of modern times, fully coinciding in his belief in an all All-Ruling Providence. I am sure that more than sufficient has been said to inspire you with a sincere desire to make yourselves familiar with History, and with those ornaments of the human race to whom I have alluded, and who have proved themselves worthy votaries at her shrine. I will therefore endeavor, to the full extent of my ability, to meet your wish ; not doubting but that this sublime study will animate your souls with generous sentiments and ennobling ideas ; enriching your minds with a vast amount of experience, and preventing you from becoming contaminated by the prejudices which ignorance generally engenders ; and lastly, confirming your belief in the goodness of our Heavenly Father.

Letter II. Man In His Infancy

It is now generally acknowledged by those who are the most competent judges, although many still entertain a different opinion, that the earth was not at once created in its present state, but that, by degrees, it has assumed it. This opinion receives additional weight from its conformity with the laws our Creator has, in all other instances, prescribed for nature — as, for example, the oak emanates from the acorn, and the butterfly from the chrysalis. The last great transformation which this globe underwent, occurred, probably, more than eight thousand years ago. Its form is now nearly spherical. About two-thirds of its surface is covered with water, while the other third is composed of greater and lesser isles of land, the greatest of which is formed by Europe, Asia and Africa ; the second in extent, by North and South America ; and the third, bearing the name of New Holland.

The three first mentioned continents are known by the title of the Old World, and America by that of the New World ; the cause of which distinction will hereafter be made manifest to you. Learned men have disputed much upon the point whether the human family originated from one pair, or from several, and to this day the MAN IN HIS INFANCY. 13 question remains unsettled. That the former was the case, is, however, the prevailing opinion, and to my mind yields the most satisfactory conclusions. Nevertheless, the remarkable variations of color in the human family are arguments to the contrary not easily refuted. Let this be as it may, the Creator gave to man the dominion over the earth, and made him " lord of the brutes," but provided him with no raiment wherewith to cover himself, no houses in which to take shelter from the inclemencies of the seasons, no arms to defend himself from the beasts of prey, no implements of husbandry, nor tame beasts of burthen.

In this primeval state his existence would have been short, had he not been placed in a region where abundance of fruits satisfied the cravings of hunger, and where a genial climate enabled him to dispense with raiment and shelter. Notwithstanding he had dominion over all things upon the earth, yet in his earlier existence, he was more defenceless than many of the brutes. But the Creator had endowed him with that intellectual capacity which has enabled him not only to supply his own wants, but also to make his authority valid. He was not, however, destined to a life of indolence or voluptuous repose, but rather, that his industry in striving towards perfection, might appear as undeniable evidence of his origin from Him, of whose ceaseless activity nature daily gives us the most evident proofs.

His necessities awakened the creative ingenuity within him. The earth, in all her magnificence, was but the dust from which he had to form the works which should make him worthy of that dominion and noble origin. The energies of his mind were brought to bear upon every thing around him — the earth, air and sky ; and as each successive generation has passed away among the things that were, we find his intellectual knowledge expanding. The mind of man has enabled him to plough the ocean's pathless billows with security ; to speed from territory to territory with bird-like velocity ; to make the lightning of heaven itself subservient to his will ; to read with certainty the countless myriads of stars in the firmament ; to float in the thin expanse of air above us, o'ertopping the clouds, and almost to grapple with the very throne of the Omnipotent.

Man, in his first attempts at the improvement of his condition, doubtless had to contend with many serious difficulties, and it has only been by his indomitable energy and inventive faculties that he has attained his present glorious state of civilization. With the want of positive information it is reasonable for us to suppose that Nature herself has been man's first tutor in the improvement of his condition ; and here I will allude to some of the means by which this may have been accomplished. When man first beheld a conflagration caused by the electric fluid, he trembled with terror at the phenomenon ; but when it had been repeated, in so many instances, that it ceased to be an object of fear, he made it subservient to his will. Such a fire may have been accidentally kindled upon a bed of mineral, the consequence of which was, that the ore was melted, thus leading him to the idea of extracting from the earth those durable substances of which he was so much in need.

Man, finding himself unable to compete in strength or agility with the animals, either in offensive or defensive attack, soon learned to arm himself with stones and clubs. Observing that these weapons were more effective when thrown from a distance, he soon invented the sling and javelin, and pointing the javelin with a piece of his newly-discovered iron, held in his hand a lance or spear. When the earth became more populous, and mankind found it difficult to supply the cravings of their appetite, and milk and fruits began to fail them, how natural it was that they should be led to taste of flesh, by seeing animals prey upon each other. Men thus became hunters and herdsmen, while the rude skins of the slaughtered beasts supplied them with primitive raiments. Then, too, they felt the need of shelter, both from the peltings of the storm, and the rays of the sun ; nor were they secure from the beasts of the forest ; which naturally gave rise to the erection of habitations.

These were at first but very rude and humble, yet how important the step in civilization, for in that he had a home and foretaste of the domestic endearments of life. Although the wants, curiosity, and evil passions of men have divided them, and spread them over the whole face of the earth, yet, by nature man is a sociable being. Hence, even in the earliest ages, their habitations were erected in proximity to each other, thus laying the foundation of society. Undoubtedly their first employment was that of hunters and herdsmen, and many nations to this day still adhere to those primitive occupations ; but the traditions handed down to us, prove also that there were people who early tilled the earth and cultivated the vine. It was a very natural wish of man to gather the harvest and store it, as the fruit of his toil ; and thus becoming husbandmen they ceased to lead a wandering and nomadic life.

Thus inducements were offered them to bestow more care upon their habitations. Having provided themselves with the necessaries of life, they began to promote comfort and the arts. But it is a curious fact, which I cannot pass over in silence, that the most industrious, and those who contributed most to the comforts and luxuries of life, were generally held in contempt, and it is even so in many countries to the present day. The cause — which will be self-evident to you in the continuation of these letters — was, that the industrious classes of society were subject to the sway of men, whose superior strength, bravery and cunning, to say nothing of their recklessness, made them masters over their fellow-men. Envy, jealousy, avarice, and sometimes devouring hunger, soon armed man against his fellow, and the earth was drenched with human blood, shed by a brother's hand.

Strong, brave but wicked men, soon found that MAN IN HIS INFANCY. 15 the weapons used against the brutes, were not less serviceable as instru ments of death and terror against their fellow-creatures. Hence originated the sway of the strong over the weak. But the Creator has left nothing without a counterpoise, for strength, courage and violence soon had to contend with cunning sagacity and deception, for the dominion over mankind. From the earliest date of time, mankind have been conscious of the existence of a Supreme Being. Some philosophers argue that this was innate with man, and others that he derived it from contemplating the wonders around him. The genial warmth of the sun ; the fragrance of the flowers ; the glittering stars upon the broad blue canopy of heaven, and the ever returning seasons, inspired man with gratitude, while the awful thunder, the bright, vivid flashes of lightning, and the devastating hurricane, alike engendered trembling and fear.

Thus, how naturally was he led by gratitude and fear, to worship that Great Being who was the great cause of such emotions in him. But having endowed that Divinity, by the strength of his imagination, with a human form and human desires, though of transcendent power, man then, in his simplicity, worshipped him by offerings, upon their altars, of the choicest productions, both of the animal and vegetable kingdoms. But the manifold phenomena of nature struck man with astonishment ; and, conscious of his own weakness, they seemed to him as exceeding the power of a single being, and led him to worship several deities ; some from love, and others from fear. Hence the origin of idolatry. The power of speech — one of the most precious gifts with which man has been endowed by the Creator — is, without doubt, a faculty innate in man.

" But is it so with language, or had man to form it of himself? Many have advocated the former, though it is opposed to the analogy of all nature." Nor is there any want of great writers who have proved conclusively, that language is formed only by degrees. History does not satisfactorily decide this question, nor does she inform us which was the first language of man. Two very opposite opinions also prevail in regard to the primitive condition of mankind. Traditions of the ancient world, for the most part, and particularly those transmitted to us in the religious books of various oriental nations — the Jews, the Egyptians, the Persians, the Indians, and the Chinese — commence with a golden age of innocence and felicity ; while others lead us to believe, that man's primitive state was one of barbarism and wildness.

Some say that the human race has, in each generation, become more debased ; and others, that it has gradually advanced toward perfection. In accordance with the former, man must have left the Creator's hands in perfect beauty, to dwell on the earth in immortal youth ; while the latter contend that he was formed by the slow labor of Nature, and only attained his present superior physical conformation aster many progressive generations. Truth is apparent in both views. Undoubtedly, men were at first innocent and happy in the undisturbed enjoyment of Nature's richest gifts ; but they were ignorant, for their mental faculties lay dormant. Asia is generally acknowledged to have been the cradle of the human race ; and, as the largest, richest, and most fertile part of the globe, it was worthy of that honor.

But in what part of Asia are we to look for it ? Upon the high plains of Thibet — where the vine, the olive, the rice, and many other plants adapted to the sustenance of man, spontaneously grow, and where the ox, the horse, the ass, the sheep, the camel, the hog, the dog, and the reindeer run wild . Or, in the fragrant vale of Cashmire, where eternal spring reigns supreme, and man, animals, and plants, exist in the greatest physical perfection . Or, on the exuberant fields watered by the Tigris and Euphrates 1 These are questions which never have and probably never will be satisfactorily answered ; but the general opinion is, that man's first abode, or, as Moses calls it, " the garden of Eden," was situated in the vicinity of the abrjve named rivers. Here I will give you the views of the celebrated historian Johannes Von Miiller, upon this subject : " The continents," says he, " which are inhabited by the human race, were raised from the fertilizing bosom of the ancient ocean, during the course of unnumbered ages, by certain movements of the primeval waters, and by the influence of foreign worlds, the laws of which are scarcely imaginable.

Where the primitive rock, on which everything rests, had those elevations we call mountains, high levels were formed around their sides, and living nature was there enabled to increase and develop itself. This occurred first in Asia ; then in Europe ; and lastly in America." Still further, he says, " that the noblest animals, and plants, and also man, then lord, were natives of the salubrious mountains, and beautiful valleys of Asia." There are also writers of authority who locate the garden of Eden in Persia — the charming land of roses. History does not define the time when the Creator inspired the first man with a spark of His divine spirit. It is in vain that we consult all human records. They are so contradictory that it is impossible to arrive at any certainty. Herodotus yields to the Egyptian nation an era of over 17,000 years, Diodorus, 23,000, and an anonymous writer swells it to 36,000 years.

The Babylonians boasted of an antiquity of a hundred thousand years, while the Chinese pretensions stop not short of millions. Improbable and rejected as these computations are, they however deserve mention at our hands. The earth's age is now acknowledged, by the most enlightened naturalists and geologists, to be far elder than the general opinion of the civilized world has for many centuries attributed to it. The Pentateuch itself gives us no satisfactory guidance with regard to the age of the human family. Besides, the Hebrew and Samaritan THE ORIGIN OF SOCIETY. 17 versions do not agree with that -of the Greek of the seventy interpreters generally called the Septuagint. Many learned and talented men have endeavored to arrive at the age of the human race, as well from these sources, as from the works of the famed Jewish historian, Flavius Josephus, and other ancient writers, but the time has been unprofitably spent, as their computations have generally disagreed, even to the extent of 1700 years.

Thus, for instance, Johannes Von Miiller assumes that 5722 years had elapsed from the creation of Adam to the birth of Christ. Other historians, of equal celebrity, have followed the chronology of Dyonysius Petavius, who computed that only 3983 years occurred between these epochs. This difference is the more remarkable, from the fact that both Miiller and Petavius took the chronology of Moses as the foundation of their computations, which proves, almost conclusively. the impossibility of arriving at the age of mankind. The many obstacles which man met with in his first attempts at civili zation, make it more probable that a longer, rather than a shorter period of time, transpired ere magnificent cities were erected and powerful empires established. I agree therefore with Von Miiller, who ascribes to mankind a greater age than with those who believe in a lesser.

Still, as the gene rality of modern historians give but about 4000 years between the creation of man and the birth of Christ, we will follow the computation most generally assumed, and take it for granted that mankind have existed 4004 years anterior to the birth of Christ. But the nearer we approach the time of Christ, the greater certainty we find in the dates of those historical events which it will be my duty to relate ; consequently, in order to be as correct as possible, I will date the occurrence of events, not from the creation of Adam, but from the birth of Christ, both for anterior and succeeding events.

Letter III. The Origin Of Society, And Of The Different Forms Of

GOVERN- MENT, THE FOUNDATIONS OF STATES, AND THE AGGRANDIZEMENT OF EMPIRES. The most precious and inestimable gift with which man was endowed, was, unquestionably, his natural freedom ; but it was necessary, for the benefit of the whole human family, that each individual should sacrifice some part of it. Had not men been united by social ties, mankind would never have attained any important degree of civilization. Still, there have been writers of brilliant genius, who, from the great objections which can Vol. I.— be brought against even the very best forms of society, have endeavored to prove that it would have been better for man had he always maintained his riffht to the full exercise of his natural freedom. Absurd as such principles are, we find many palliating circumstances, when we review all the sufferings which man has undergone in the social state.

But Provi dence has decreed that only by woes, difficulties and trials, in the school of experience, man can acquire knowledge how to attain happiness. As history gives us no definite information regarding the origin of human society, we must, while investigating this subject, follow in part the most probable theories of the learned. There may have been a time when men lived promiscuously, as the brute creation ; but whether this was, or was not so, we know that family regulations were established at an early period. The father was the supreme head of his family, the arbiter and judge of all the disputes and quarrels which might arise within it. He was the protector and defender of this little society, for which his will was law. There was no limit to his authority over those who composed his family, save that engendered by his own natural love and tenderness.