Narrative of a Mission to India, and the countries bordering on the Persian Gulf, by way of the Red Sea

Preface

. Although the work which I now submit to the public contains a narrative of my Travels in various countries of the East, where I have long resided, and some of which I have visited more than once, yet I do not purpose to describe all those places minutely, as most of them are already sufficiently known, and I am desirous of avoid ing details which may be found elsewhere. In trusted with the charge of watching over the political and commercial interests of France in a large portion of Asia, I shall more especially direct my attention to those topics. Although Eastern questions are worthy of the notice of France, yet her interest in them is not so paramount as is generally imagined, and the exaggerated no tions generally entertained on this head have been by no means advantageous to us. Matters of de tail, and even the simplest precautions have been neglected, because they were thought inadequate to influence events held to be of the greatest importance. VI

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. These events have moreover conferred on my mission more weight than it otherwise could have possessed. Instead of limiting my observations within the ordinary bounds of a Consulate, it be came necessary to extend them from Suez to China ; from Ceylon to the frontiers of Russia. Communi cations between Europe and India were established by the way of Suez, during my residence in Asia ; it was then also that occurred the rupture between Persia and England, along with the Affghan campaign, followed shortly afterwards by its frightful catastrophe. During the same period, the trade with China was opened, and a quarrel took place between the Sultan and the Pacha of Egypt. Bombay, during the time of my residence there, was the centre of most of these affairs, the pro gress of which it became necessary for me to watch.

I deem this explanation due, lest it should be imagined that I voluntarily undertook a duty which should have been confided to some one of a higher rank and more acknowledged talent. As the better part of my life has been spent abroad, and as I have never had to give my at tention to questions of domestic policy, I shall be less prone to be influenced by party considerations than otherwise might have been the case. I shall not conceal the errors of detail, which, in my opinion, government may have committed; but on the other hand, I shall not hesitate to defend it, when I consider it to have been unjustly attacked.

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. VII I do not pretend to speak of the general policy of France, of her alliances, or of her acts in every quarter of the globe. I pity, as much as I ad mire, those who consider themselves equal to treat so vast a subject. My business is to speak only of that which concerns those parts of Asia which I have visited ; and I do not admit, as has been affirmed, that our influence there has decreased ; or that our policy has been upon the whole weak, ignorant, and dishonourable. So far from this, it appears to me that the French and English governments alone understood the great question which was raised, and to the solution of which two poor Turks, the Sultan and Pacha of Egypt, have served as the nominal pretexts. This solution has in fact been brought about in strict con formity with the views of France, and has covered with confusion the cabinets of London and St. Petersburgh.

The object which both Russia and England have long been aiming at, and which they have not attained, is to share the rule of Asia between them. The triumph of France and the other continental powers would have been more complete, and more prompt, if the Chamber of Deputies had not compelled that able minister to retire, who, up to 1840, had imparted so great a degree of freedom, and such perfect independence to French policy. I entertain the most profound respect for the re presentatives of the nation ; not only do they give

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. great weight to the influence of France abroad, but their discussions, taking a higher tone, as their experience daily renders them more practically familiar with affairs, diffuse a useful light over many subjects. I do not pretend to criticise its conduct in 1839, for I am not even acquainted with all the motives by which it was actuated ; but I believe, and I hope to prove that in so far as concerns the affairs of the East, the retirement of Count Mole was fatal to our policy. Let us bear in mind that whenever the Chamber, either by its addresses or by its amendments, takes the initiative in foreign affairs, it runs the risk of coming to a decision upon insufficient grounds. When a discussion arises upon a matter of this sort, it usually happens that but one person is intimately acquainted with the facts of the case : that person is the Minister, who on most occasions ought not to divulge them.

The debate gives rise to oratorical struggles, brilliant it is true, but seldom leading to any practical result. These displays lead astray the noblest minds, and cause them to forget that it is far easier to give utterance to an eloquent speech, in which the orator arranges matters after his own fashion, than to discuss particular questions usefully and rationally. In this eloquent strife waged upon an imaginary ground, it must be confessed the least adventurous combatants are not always upon the side of the government. These contests of wit are sometimes

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. IX dangerous in a Legislative Assembly, as proved to be the case in 1840. The ministry which succeeded M. Mole, in its opening address to the Chambers, directed their attention at once to the affairs of the East. The Chamber of Deputies exaggerating, as it seems to me, the importance of this question, entrusted the preparation of its answer to one of its most experienced members. By this step it took the initiative ; for the reply, commented on during the discussion in a manner by no means circumspect, became when adopted the political rule of the Cabinet. Instead of frankly exposing the manœuvres of England, it merely referred to the Sultan and his vassal; and recommended intervention in terms which most certainly could not be agreeable to other nations whose interest was identical with ours.

The Ministry, too recently installed in office to be able to modify the harshness of these views, offered no opposition ; and the orators, ignorant of the real state of the case, gave free scope to their imagination. Such is the true origin of the difficulties with which France has had to deal in its Eastern policy, and they are not to be laid to the charge of the various Ministers who have succeeded each other. Most of these Ministers seem it is true to have been deluded as to the actual condition of Egypt ; but this error was of little consequence, as the independence of the Pacha was not the real matter at issue. The Chamber itself, not comprehending the whole

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. X bearing of the question, first overthrew the Minis ter who had handled it with so much prudence, then assumed the initiative ; and the policy of the country thenceforward took a wrong direction. I anticipate that some of my opinions will en counter contradiction, as they will not be found to agree with generally received ideas. Perhaps like most other agents abroad, I have been too partial to my own country ; I would certainly prefer not to deserve this reproach ; but I would rather be accused of having praised than of having reviled it. I would willingly have refrained from speak ing of the governments of Asia, because this sub ject has been treated so often, that public opinion is now formed upon it. I have not in any way concealed the little consideration that is due to Mahometans, and have shown no indulgence to wards the Pacha of Egypt.

The treachery prac tised by him against his own country ought not to be forgotten or excused. Mehemet Ali, in 1826, broke the most solemn pledges made to one of our Admirals, M. de Rigny ; and in 1840, he complained to the enemies of France of her be stowing on him that support which he had actually solicited at her hands. The sentiments I ex press are identical with those already put for ward by one of our most illustrious orators, M. de Lamartine, and I trust they will meet with the approbation of the public. I fear I shall not be so fortunate when I come to

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. XI treat of the establishments of the English in India. Not only is England, from being the centre of an immense trade, enabled to act upon every point of the globe, but her social organization is such that private individuals can engage and urge her on in all sorts of enterprises. From this results a prodigious activity, giving rise to innumerable publications which attract the attention of the wTorld, and bestow on their themes a factitious importance, representing that as grandeur which is often merely turmoil. Is there a man whose imagination does not take fire on beholding an empire with a population of a hundred millions, raised at the extremity of Asia by a handful of Europeans ; at beholding disciplined armies led from India to the frontiers of Russia ; and an im mense kingdom thrown open to a new trade ?

I admire as much as any one those con quests of civilization, and the great men by whom they have been accomplished ; I admire no less the great art with which so extraordinary a struc ture is maintained. I have received from the Eng lish nought but good treatment, and I entertain for their government, more especially for that of India, a profound respect. But is that a reason why I should not seek to reduce to its proper level the exaggerated admiration with which it has inspired so many minds ; why I should not expose the errors of its policy, the injustice of which it is guilty, and the real weakness concealed beneath so

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. XII much splendour ? Without envy, without bitter ness, this task may be undertaken ; and it will not be an useless one if it give rise to other labours, if it bring forward other testimonies. When, about fifteen years ago, I endeavoured to show the im practicability of imparting an European organization to Mahometan society, I met with but little approbation. Since that period experience has not belied me ; and perhaps it will also confirm what I shall advance concerning India, as it has confirmed what I have already said of Turkey. An author who is anxious to inspire confidence ought, if it be in his power, to show that his asser tions do not rest upon slight foundations, and that he has studied the subject he is treating with care. The events which during the last few years have shaken Asia to its very centre are known to every one.

If I can furnish proofs that I have in my official capacity predicted a great number of them ; if I have asserted that they were the inevitable consequences of certain acts ; it ought to be admitted that I have accurately studied those acts and the circumstances which accompanied them. The principal facts are these : English influence was paramount in the Euphrates from 1838 to 1842 ; I wrote in 1836 that they would try to establish their sway there. The rupture between England and Persia occurred in 1838; I announced it in 1837, and by whom and through what motives it would be rendered inevitable. At the same time I

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. XIII foretold the intention of the English to ren der themselves masters of Aden, which actually took place in 1839. In 1839 I warned Mar shal Soult of the probable issue of the campaign in Affghanistan. At that period also I foresaw and prevented the execution of the plan of a certain government to awaken civil war in Per sia. It is most assuredly not my fault if too much reliance was placed on the power and sincerity of the Pacha of Egypt. In 1841, I was enabled to send the draft of a treaty between China and Eng land, which was not signed until 1842. I should not so frequently have beheld my opinions confirmed, if I had not studied the country with the utmost assiduity and impartiality. Political questions are of an ephemeral nature, and depend on circumstances so varied and shifting, that they are constantly assuming new forms, and the events which give birth to them pass at once into the domain of history.

I have, therefore, not concealed anything I have seen, or anything I have done, in political affairs ; I had no secret orders ; I remarked nothing which others could not have observed as well as myself. With respect to commerce, it will be acknowledged, I hope, that I have not neglected this important part of my mission . But commercial observations rest upon perma nent interests, and require the more caution inas much as they relate to the future. I cannot forget that England was the first to take advantage of the

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. XIV earliest commercial route to Trebizond, which I had long before pointed out. I shall therefore be less explicit on this head ; but if I am silent it is with some regret, for it might perhaps have been useful to call public attention to certain commercial questions not devoid of importance, which yet remain unsolved. What most forcibly strikes the traveller on his return to France, is an eagerness for petty intrigues and paltry discussions dignified with the name of politics and parliamentary affairs. It en grosses even ministers themselves, and impedes the progress of all public business. No one heeds the serious matters which claim attention ; and thus it often becomes necessary to place before the public much that it would be more advantageous to conceal. I wished to have confined this work writhin the limit of two volumes, but the abundance of my ma terials has not permitted me to do so, and I have been therefore induced to divide it into two parts.

They are so intimately connected together as to form one work, but yet not so closely linked as to prevent me from publishing them separately. The part I now publish, relates to the countries connected with India ; the second shall be exclusively de voted to India, and will form two volumes. Paris, March, 1844. CONTENTS.

Chapter I. Egypt

Departure from France — Arrival at Cairo — Obstacles in obtaining correct ideas of Egypt — M. Mimault, French Consul- General — Mehemet Ali — Ibrahim Pacha. Towards the close of 1834, I received instruc tions to proceed to the Persian Gulf for the purpose of transmitting to the French government such information as it required relative to the southern provinces of Persia and Turkey. The Embassy was to be apprized of my mission, that it might confer on me such an official character as would secure protection. The title of Vice- Consul, if directly conferred upon me, would not have suited my views, as it would have annulled any claims existing previously to the appoint ment ; it was accordingly decided that, if practi cable, I should be nominated as a commercial agent, and that unless such a title should be at variance with the usages of the Porte, nothing should induce the government to depart from this decision.

VOL. I. B OBJECTS OF THE MISSION. 2 At the period of my nomination, public attention was actively directed to the attempts made by the English to open more speedy communications with India by the Red Sea or through Syria. They had already despatched a steam-boat from Bombay to Suez, but the experiment had not proved quite satisfactory; they anticipated better results through Syria, and Colonel Chesney received instructions to attempt the navigation of the Euphrates. For several consecutive years, the plague and the cholera had ravaged Babylonia and the shores of the Persian Gulf. Attempts had been meanwhile made to usher into these distant provinces the innova tions introduced by the Sultan at Constantinople. The aged monarch of Persia was no more, and his grandson had succeeded to the throne ; Russian influence was disputing the supremacy with English ascendancy in that kingdom ; and expeditions against the British possessions in India were vaguely spoken of.

In fine, the commerce of the Persian Gulf, and the position which the English occupied there, were but imperfectly knowm. To select and transmit to government such facts as might contribute to throw light upon all these questions, was the outline I had traced of the duties of my intended mission, and which was approved of by the Minister for Foreign Affairs. In order to carry out my plan with advantage, I at first proceeded to London, where I examined the pro posed plans of communication with India. After accomplishing the above-mentioned objects I was to go to Bombay by way of Suez ; from Bombay I intended going to Bassora, and, after some so journ there, to return to France by Constantinople. VOYAGE TO ALEXANDRIA. 3 This plan was only partially carried out, and I shall hereafter explain the motives of the altera tion ; instead of proceeding through Turkey, I re visited India where I made a long stay, and then returned to France after going round the Cape.

I have been a passenger on board vessels be longing to most nations of the old world ; but there is not one of which I retain a more dis agreeable recollection than that which took me from Marseilles to Alexandria. It was a small Greco-ragusian brig, and a more dirty, more offensive, or more poverty-stricken craft cannot be imagined. The captain had discovered the means of stowing eleven passengers in the small cabin; and, as I was the las^; comer, they had prepared a temporary berth for me with four deal boards, which looked very much like a coffin. My fellow passengers were for the most part Saint Simonians, who were going to join their chief in Egypt. Full of fervour, and carried away with illusions, they believed, alas ! that they should find the promised land, and could not comprehend the feelings of scorn which I experienced on beholding them abandon themselves to such vain fancies.

However, our discussions tended to destroy the monotony of the passage, which lasted seven teen days, and offered nothing remarkable but the diet to which we were subjected. Each day two unfortunate fowls were condemned to death ; and I shall never forget the regular prepara tions through which they passed ; one of the sailors, who filled the functions of cook, chopped them to pieces, after they were plucked, and they then served to make a wretched soup ; taken out b ARRIVAL AT CAIRO. of the broth and mixed with potatoes, they might have formed a dish, if the cook, in order to in crease its bulk, had not taken the precaution to throw in the broken bones, which penetrated our gums, and obliged us to eat with the greatest precaution. Our main support was kidney-beans and potatoes made into a salad.

Consequently, no sooner had I arrived at Alexandria, where M. de Lesseps was kind enough to receive me, than my first care was to ask for something to eat. A Bri tish officer, who had been our fellow-passenger, unexpectedly arrived whilst I was at table, and my host supposing him to be quite as famished as myself, invited him to keep me company, which he readily acceded to. Captain Wroughton belonged to the Company's service, and died shortly after his arrival at Bom bay ; he had like myself been informed that Alex andria wras to be put under quarantine on the following day, and that it was necessary to start immediately for Cairo if we wished to avoid delay. Thanks to the kindness of M. de Lesseps, we were enabled to procure a boat, and prepared to depart. On the following morning all was ready, and se veral of our quondam passengers with whom we had been on intimate terms having joined us, we embarked upon the canal, Mahmoudiah, and ar rived at Cairo three days afterwards.

Nothing occurred in this short voyage worth noticing unless it was our insatiable appetite, for we dined no less than five times the first day. Peradventure, the brilliant chimeras with which my companions had rocked themselves, began also to disperse ; a populace in rags ; beggars surrounding our ERRONEOUS OPINIONS ON EGYPT. 5 boat ; huts in ruins ; and the dread which was depicted upon every countenance, proved clearly that we had not found a new El Dorado. It is not my intention to write a tour through Egypt, nor to enter into long details as regards that country. Egypt has been singularly over estimated by men whose good faith and talents are incontestible ; the errors into which both private individuals and the government itself have fallen have been so disastrous to France, that it is interesting to inquire into their causes.

The de lusive importance which the chief of a despotic state acquires amongst civilized nations is well known ; few are the qualifications he requires to cause him to be looked upon as a genius. In Russia, for instance, the Emperor who passed, before his ac cession to the throne, for a man of slender abilities ; who, since then, has only rendered himself remarkable for his tyranny, by strange caprices and in credible pretensions, is now-a-days considered a prodigy of wisdom — a demi-god. This tendency to overrate is not so prevalent with the Asiatics, accustomed as they are to reverses ; if they nourish a legitimate fear of the grandees of the earth, it is certainly not through esteem for their per sons, nor respect for their talents. But they are cautious in expressing their sentiments, and any one, while under the jurisdiction of a prince, or a governor, or the most miserable chief of a village, who did not loudly bless him would pass for an idiot.

Complaint is only tolerated when it comes from higher authority. It is, therefore, quite evi dent that to inquire of the Egyptians if they are satisfied with their Pacha ; if they are happy or well THE PACHA 6 treated ; is to ask so many useless questions. Unless you inhabit the country, speak their language, and obtain the confidence of the inhabitants, you will hear nothing but abundance of praise. The mass of the population cannot, it is evident, be consulted by travellers who seek to ascertain their state. Neither does the enquirer stand a better chance of gaining information by consulting foreigners who reside in the country. Some of these are employed by government, and others are established there for commercial pur poses. I do not suspect the impartiality of all these parties ; but, besides the involuntary illusions which most Europeans form, as regards men armed with great authority, it is evident that the ma jority of foreign residents would compromise them selves in frankly expressing opinions unfavourable to the head of the State, or to his administration.

If a government officer be denounced as a luke warm admirer of the Pacha, he loses his place ; if a similar accusation be made against a merchant, no more cotton will be sold to him, and he will no longer have any profitable contracts ; his ruin is sure to follow. The above are some of the real difficulties which those who have written about Egypt have had to encounter, and they are not the only ones. Mehemet Ali Pacha has governed that country for a great number of years, and his intercourse with Europeans has been frequent. He knows far better than the major part of his fellow-country men, whose adroitness in this respect is remarkable, how to say that which shall please, how to make a show of philosophy, and display noble senti- MEHEMET ALI. ments before those whose approbation he seeks.

But he also possesses the art of mingling with the most ostentatious reception certain forms, which in the presence of the faithful, testify his utter contempt for the unbelievers ; his guests do not observe this, nor do they imagine that, after their departure, they have become the objects of raillery both of the Pacha and his courtiers. This system, added to a generosity rarely to be met with among the Turks, causes Mehemet Ali to be regarded by Europeans as an innovator, whilst in Tur key he is looked upon as the last of the Janis saries. Independent of the art of flattery — re peating at night all what he has heard during the morning — Mehemet Ali is a great adept in quackery. Nothing pleases him more than to occupy public attention ; compliments, presents, all sorts of encouragement are reserved for those who flatter and praise him, or make mention of his name in the newspapers.

It is therefore not surprising that his fame has outstepped his merit, and that he passes for a great man in the estima tion of the multitude. As to his government, what could be more humiliating than the confession made by one of our ministers regarding Egypt, before one of the legislative chambers : "Gentlemen," said M. Guizot, "we have de ceived ourselves in the estimate which we made of the strength of the Pacha of Egypt." Un doubtedly, with our official establishments in Egypt, and the number of Frenchmen who travel, or are employed in that country, aided too by the natives wrho are under our protection, nothing M. MIMAULT, 8 ought to take place there without our know ing and understanding it better than the Pacha himself. How comes it then that we have been deceived, ay, grossly deceived in so important a matter?

I will explain this in a few words. With us the superior authorities are careless in choosing suitable Consuls amongst those they send abroad ; they seem to consider such an appointment nothing more than a matter of course, and they do not form a distinctive class destined for Asia. They ought surely to bear in mind that our Consuls and agents must meet with the same difficulties in Egypt which I have already stated thwart the investigations of other travellers. In order to surmount them, it is requisite that they should be acquainted with the habits and dispositions of the Asiatics. This knowledge is not ac quired at once, and it cannot be expected to be possessed by persons, however clever they may be, who have been merely educated in Europe, or America, and as frequently happens at Paris only.

If examples were required to prove all that I have urged, I could not find a better one than in the person of M. Mimault, who was our Con sul-General when I passed through Egypt. During the two months I resided at Cairo, I took up my abode with him, and consequently wTas enabled to appreciate his position. Certainly, very few men could be compared to him for the qualities of the heart and the mind ; a historian, a man of letters and an antiquarian, he shone conspicuously by the elegance of his manners and the charm his society diffused around him. His life had been spent in the capitals of Europe, and in the THE FRENCH CONSUL. 9 midst of the most eminent personages. He had been one of Prince de Talleyrand's attache's, then was promoted to office under the Minister for Foreign Affairs for the Kingdom of Italy ; and he was employed as Consul-General at Venice when he was appointed successor to M. Drovetti in Egypt.

Now this gentleman, so distinguished wherever he had been, was completely misplaced among the Turks, and his very qualifications prevented his acquiring any great influence amongst them. With the exception of a few travellers, with whom chance placed him in contact, who could appreciate his merits ? After having mingled and taken part in so many affairs of importance in Europe, how could he familiarize himself with the puerile disputes, the vile intrigues, and the pettyfogging complaints which occupy the minds of those agents who desire to obtain influence amongst the Mahometans ? M. Mimault turned from these with disgust ; the result was that the Consulate was encumbered wTith complaints from our countrymen who could get no redress. Bestowing his time upon his favourite studies and the society of friends, he did not choose to attend to any other than important affairs ; and often waited on the Pacha, who received him with favour.

Mehemet, who profited ultimately by the misdoings of his subordinates, was too cunning not to flatter a diplomatic agent who discoursed with him solely about important political questions, or measures for improving Egypt. Moreover, he had discovered an ingenious method for ridding himself of troublesome claims. Amongst the num ber of his officials was a cunning Armenian, named BOGHOS. Boghos, who had attached himself to his fortunes, and knew Europe tolerably well. Now it sometimes happened that the Pacha purposed hanging him ; but changing his mind he again took him into his service. At last he conceived the idea of trans forming him into a species of minister ; and this man, who at one time could not have presumed to purchase a dozen plates without the consent of the Pacha, issued diplomatic notes in the most solemn manner.