Greece under the Romans; a historical view of the condition of the Greek Nation, from ... its conquest by the Romans until the extinction of the Roman Empire in the East

Front matter

A HISTORICAL VIEW OF THE CONDITION OF THE GREEK NATION, FROM THE TIME OF ITS CONQUEST BY THE ROMANS UNTIL THE EXTINCTION OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE IN THE EAST. B. C. 140— A. D. 717. BY GEORGE FINL AY, K. R. G., MEMBER OF THE AMERICAN ANTsQUAMAN SOCIETY, AND CORRESPOKDINO MEMBER OE THE ARCH AsOLOUICAI. INSTITUTE AT ROME. Thucyd, i. -22, WILLIAM BLACKWOOD AND SONS, EDINBURGH AND LONDON. HDCCCXLIV. EDINBURGH : PRINTED BY ANDREW SHORTREDE, GEORGE IV. BRIDGE. C 0 N T E N T S. PAGK Preface, ........ ix Chronology, ....... xiii

Chapter I. From The Conquest Of Greece To The Establishment Of Con

STANTINOPLE AS CAPITAL OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE. B. C 140, to A. D. 330. Introduction — Changes produced by the conquests of Alexander the Great on the condition of the Greek nation, . . . 1 Sect. I. Immediate causes of the conquest of Greece by the Romans, 22 II. Treatment of Greece after its conquest, . . .28 III. Effects of the Mithridatic war on the state of Greece, . 33 IV. Ruin of the country by the pirates of Cilicia, . . 36 V. Nature of the Roman provincial administration in Greece, 4 1 VI. Fiscal administration of the Romans, ... 48 VII. Depopulation of Greece caused by the Roman government, 60 VIII. Roman colonies established in Greece, . . .66 IX. Political condition of Greece from the time of Augustus to that of Caracalla, . . . . . . 70 X. The Greeks and Romans never shewed any disposition to unite and form one people, . . . . .77 XI.

State of society among the Greeks, ... 83 XII. Influence of religion and philosophy on society, . . 95 XIII. The social condition of the Greeks affected by tho want of colonies of emigration, . . . . 103 XIV. Effects produced in Greece by the inroads of the Gotlis, 107 XV. Changes which preceded the establishment of Constantinople as the capital of the Roman empire, . . .117 CONTENTS. VI

Chapter II. From The Establishment Of Constantinople As Capital Of The Roman

EMPIRE, TO THE ACCESSION OF JUSTINIAN, A. D. 330—52?. PAGE Sect. I. Constantine, in reforming the government of the Roman empire, placed the administration in direct hostility to the people, . . . . . . 1*20 II. The condition of the Greeks was not improved by Constantiue's reforms, . . . . . .132 III. Changes produced in the social condition of the Greeks by the alliance of Christianity with their national manners, 138 IV. The orthodox church became identified with the Greek nation, 154 V. Condition of the Greek population of the empire from the reign of Constantine to that of Theodosius the Great, . 162 VI. Communications of the Greeks with countries beyond the bounds of the Roman empire, . . . 169 VII. Effect of the separation of the eastern and western empires on the Greek nation, ..... 173 VIII.

Attempts of the Goths to establish themselves in Greece, 183 IX. The national feelings of the Greeks arrested the conquests of the northern barbarians, .... 194 X. Declining condition of the Greek population in the European provinces of the eastern empire, .... 201 XI. The emperors who reigned from the death of Arcadius, to the accession of Justinian, displayed a tendency to yield to the influence of public opinion, .... 205 XII. State of civilization, and influence of national feelings, among the Greek population, ..... 219

Chapter III. Condition Of The Greeks Under The Reign Of Justinian

Sect. I. Influence of the imperial power on the condition of the Greek nation during the reign of Justinian, 229 II. Military forces of the empire, .... 243 III. Influence of Justinian's legislation on the Greek population, 257 1 V. Internal administration, as it affected the Greeks, . 264 V. Influence of Justinian's conquests on the Greek population, and the change effected by the conquest of the Vandal kingdom of Africa, ...... 279 VI. Causes of the easy conquest of the Ostrogothic kingdom of Italy by Belisarius, ..... CONTENTS. VII 1'AOK VII. Relations of the northern nations with the Roman empire and the Greek nation, ..... 308 VIII. Relations of the Roman empire with Persia, . . 321 IX. Trade and commercial position of the Greeks, and comparative condition with the other nations living under the Roman government, ...... 327 X. Influence of the orthodox church in supporting the national feelings of the Greeks, .... 340

Chapter IV. Condition Of The Greeks From The Death Of Justinian To

THAT OF HERACLIUS. A. D. 505— 641. Sect. I. Observations on the connection between the history of the Greek people and the Roman empire, during the reign of Justin the Second, ..... 345 II. Complete disorganization of all political and national influence during the reigns of Tiberius the Second and Maurice, 359 III. Maurice causes a revolution, by attempting to re-establish the ancient authority of the imperial administration, . 365 IV. Phocas was the representative of a revolution, not of a national party, ...... 374 V. Position of the population of the empire under Heraclius, 379 VI. Change in the position of the Greek population, which was produced by the Sclavonic establishments in Dalmatia, . 406 VII. Influence of the campaigns of Heraclius in the East on the Greeks, ... . . . . . 420 VIII. Condition of the native population of Greece, . . 433

Chapter V. Condition Of The Greeks From The Death Of Heraclius To

THE EXTINCTION OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE IN THE EAST. Sect. I. The Roman empire gradually changed into the Greek, or Byzantine, ...... 440 II. Conquest of the southern provinces of the empire, of which the majority of the population was not Greek nor orthodox, 445 III. Constans the Second followed the policy of Heraclius, . 468 IV. Constantine the Fourth yielded to the popular ecclesiastical party among the Greeks, ..... CONTENTS. PAGE 486 495 501 V. Depopulation of the empire, and decrease of the Greeks, under Justinian the Second, .... VI. Confused state of the administration under a succession of emperors, ...... VII. A change takes place in the organization of the empire under Leo the Isaurian, ..... VIII. General view of the condition of the Greeks at the extinction of the Roman power in the East, . . . .510 Appendix I. ...... 547 Atpendix II. ....... 553 ERRATUM. For Achæa, throughout the work, read Achaia.

Preface

. The social and political organization of life among the Greeks and Romans was essentially different, even during the period when they were subject to the same government ; and this difference must be impressed on the mind, before the relative state of civilization in the Eastern and Western empires can be thoroughly understood. The Romans were a tribe of warriors. Alf their institutions, even those relating to property and agriculture, were formed with reference to war. The people of the western empire, including the greater part of Italy, consisted of a variety of races, who were either in a low state of civilization at the time of their conquest by the Romans, or else had been already subjected to foreigners. They were generally treated as inferior beings, and the frame work of their national institutions was every where destroyed.

The provincials of the West, when thus left destitute of every bond of national union, were exposed to the invasions of warlike tribes, which, under the first impulses of civilization, were driven

PREFACE.

. X on to seek the means of supplying new wants. The moment, therefore, that the military forces of the Roman government were unable to repulse these strangers, the population of the provinces was exposed to subjection, slavery, or extermination, according as the interests or the policy of the invading barbarians might determine. In that portion of the eastern empire peopled by the Greeks, the case was totally different. There the executive power of the Roman government was modified by a system of national institutions, which conferred, even on the rural population, some con trol over their local affairs. The sovereign authority was relieved from that petty sphere of administra tion and police, which meddles with the daily occupations of the people. The Romans found this branch of government completely organized, in a manner not closely connected with the political sovereignty, and the institutions of the Greeks proved more powerful than the despotism of their conquerors.

Their nationality continued to exist in full vigour, even after their conquest ; and this nationality was again called into activity when the Roman -government, from increasing weakness, gradually began to neglect the duties of adminis tration. The conquest of Greece by the Romans had indeed left the national existence nearly unaltered ; but time, as it changed the government of Rome,

PREFACE.

. XI modified likewise the institutions of the Greeks, Still, neither the Roman Cæsars, nor the Byzantine emperors, any more than the Frank princes and Turkish sultans, were able to interrupt the continual transmission of a political inheritance by each generation of the Greek race to its successors ; though it is too true, that, from age to age, the value of that inheritance was gradually diminished. The history of the Greek nation, even as a subject people, cannot be destitute of interest and instruction. The Greeks are the only existing representatives of the ancient world. They have main tained possession of their country, their language, and their social organization, against physical and moral forces, which have swept from the face of the earth all their early cotemporaries, friends and enemies.

It can hardly be disputed, that the preservation of their national existence is to be partly attributed to the institutions which they have received from their ancestors. The work now offered to the public will attempt to trace the effects of the ancient institutions on the fortunes of the people under the Roman government, and to shew in what manner they were modified and supported by other circumstances. It was impossible, in the following pages, to omit treating, at times, of events already illustrated by the genius of Gibbon. But these events must be viewed by the historian of the Roman empire, and of

PREFACE.

. XII the Greek people, under very different aspects. The observations of both may be equally true, though inferior skill and judgment may render the views, in the present work, less correct as a picture, and less impressive as a history. The same facts afford innumerable conclusions to different indivi duals, and in different ages. History will ever remain inexhaustible ; and much as we have read of the Greeks and Romans, and deeply as we appear to have studied their records, there is much still to be learned from the same sources. In the references to the authorities followed in this work, a preference will often be shewn to those modem treatises, which ought to be in the hands of the general reader. It has often required profound investigation, and long discussion, to elicit a fact now generally known, or to settle an opinion now universally adopted, and in such cases it would be useless to collect a long array of ancient passages. C H R 0 N 0 L 0 G Y. CHRONOLOGY FOR

Chapter I. Before Christ

323. Death of Alexander the Great. 321 Egyptian monarchy of the Ptolemies established by the defeat of the Regent Perdiccas. 312 Era of the Seleucidæ dated from the time Seleucus recovered Babylonia, which is considered as the foundation of the Syrian monarchy. 310, Agathocles invaded the Carthaginian territories in Africa. 303, Demetrius Poliorcetes compelled to raise the siege of Rhodes. 300, The kingdom of Pontus established its independence under Mithridates Ariobarzanes. 280, Commencement of the Achæan League. Pyrrhus landed in Italy to defend the Greeks against the Romans. 279 The Gauls invaded Greece, and were repulsed at Delphi. 278, Nicomedes secures himself in the kingdom of Bithynia by calling the Gauls into Asia. 271 The Romans completed the conquest of Magna Grœcia. The Parthian monarchy founded by Arsaces.

The Greek kingdom of Bactriana founded. 2.50, 241 Attalus king of Pergamus. 212 Syracuse taken by the Romans, and the Sicilian Greeks subjected. 197 Battle of Cynoscephalæ. The Greeks declared to be free by Flamininus at the Isthmian games. 19G Antiochus the Great invaded Greece. CHRONOLOGY. XIV BEFORE CHRIST 188. The laws of Lycurgua abrogated by Philopœmen. 1 68. Battle of Pydna, and end of the Macedonian monarchy. 167. One thousand of the principal citizens in Achæa carried to Rome as hostages. 146. Mummius took Corinth, and reduced Greece to a Roman province. 141. Extinction of the Greek monarchy of Bactriana. 133 or 102. Rebellion of slaves in the Attic silver mines. 86. Sylla took Athens. 77. Depredations of the pirates throughout Greece. 67. Crete conquered by Metellus. 66. Monarchy of the Seleucidæ destroyed by Pompej-. 48.

Cæsar destroyed Megara. 44. Cæsar restored Corinth as a Roman colony. 30. Augustus founded Nicopolis. 21. Augustus deprived Athens of its jurisdiction over Eretria and Ægina, and established the confederacy of the free Laconian cities. a. d. Year of Rome, 753. Olympiad, 194. 4th year. The birth of Christ in the year 5509 of the world according to the Byzantins, or 5507, as the Greek fathers place the birth of Christ two years before the received era. 22. The Senate restricted the right of asylum claimed by many Greek temples and sanctuaries. 93. Josephus. Epictetus. 100. Plutarch. 124. Arrian. Lucian. 143. Herodes Atticus consul. 150. Appian. 160. Ptolemy. 170. Pausanias. Galen. 200. Oppian. Clemens Alexandrinus. Diogenes Laertius. Philostratus. 212. Edict of Caracalla conferred Roman citizenship on all the free inhabitants of the empire. 215.

Athenæus. 220. Dion Oassius. 226. Artaxerxes overthrew the Parthian empire, and founded that of the Sassanides. Year 538 of the era of the Seleucidæ. CHRONOLOGY. XV A. D, 240. Herodian. Ælian. Longinus. 251. The Emperor Decius defeated and slain by the Goths. 267. Invasion of Greece by the Goths. Athens taken, and recovered by Dexippus. 284. Era of Diocletian, called the era of the martyrs. 312. 1st September. The cycle of indictions was first reckoned from this year. 325. Council of Nice. 330. Dedication of Constantinople as the capital of the Roman empire.

Chapter II

330. Foundation of Constantinople. 332. Cherson assists Constantine against the Goths. 337. Constantine II. Constantius, Constant, emperors. 361. Julian. 362. Julian re-establishes paganism as the religion of the empire. Earthquake in Greece, Asia Minor, Palestine, and Sicily. 363. Jovian. 364. Valentinian Valens. 365. Earthquake in Greece, Asia Minor, and Sicily. Amm. Mak. xxvi. 10. 375. Earthquake in Greece and Crete, before the death of Valentinian, felt especially in Peloponnesus. Zosimus, iv. 18. Gratian. 376. Visigoths permitted by Valens to pass the Danube. 378. Defeat and death of Valens. Valentinian II. 379. Theodosius. 392. Law of Theodosius against the abuse of asylums in churches. 395. Arcadius, aud Honorius^ Huns ravage Asia Minor as far a.s Syria. Alaric invades Greece 398. Alaric named governor of Eastern Illyricum. 408.

Theodosius II. 428. Genseric enters Africa with the Vandals. 438. Publication of Theodosian Code. 439. Genseric takes Carthage. Eudocia (Athenai's) visits Jerusalem. 441. Theodosius sends a fleet against Genseric. CHRONOLOGY. XVI A. d. 442. Attila invades Thrace and Macedonia. 447. Attila again ravages Thrace, and takes seventy cities. 450. Marcian. 457. Leo, called by the Greeks the Great, the Elder, and the Butcher. 458. Great earthquake felt at Antioch and Cnidus, and in Cos, the Cyclades, Isauria, Ionia, and Thrace. 460. Earthquake at Cyzicus. 462. Marcellinus, who had defended Sicily against the Vandals, seizes Dalmatia, and holds it independent of the two empires. 465. Fire, which destroyed eight of the sixteen quarters of Constantinople. 468. Leo sends an expedition against Genseric. 469.

Excessive rains at Constantinople and in Bithynia 474. Leo II. Zeno the Isaurian. 480. Earthquakes felt for forty days successively at Constantinople. The statue of Theodosius the Great thrown down from the column on which it stood. 485. Bulgarians appear beyond the Danube. 491. Anastasius, (Flavius,) called Dicorus. 499. Bulgarians invade the empire. 507. Anastasius constructs the long wall to protect Constantinople. 518. Terrible earthquake in Dardania and Illyria. Justin. 527. Justinian ascends the throne.

Chapter III

527. Accession of Justinian. Gretes, King of the Heruls, receives baptism at Constantinople. The Tzans submit to the Roman empire. 528. Gordas, king of the Huns on the Cimmerian Bosporus, receives baptism at Constantinople, but is murdered by his subjects on his return. Germanus defeats the Antes on the banks of the Danube. Justinian commences his lavish expenditure on fortifications and public buildings over the whole empire. 529. First edition of the Code published. Rebellion of the Samaritans. Romans defeated by Persians at Mindon. CHRONOLOGY. XVII A. D. Persians defeated at Dara. Hilbudius defeats the Sclavonians. 530. 531. Battle at Callinicum. Death of Cobad. Negotiations for peace with Persia. Dreadful plague commenced, which ravaged the empire fifty years. Great sedition of the Nika at Constantinople, suppressed by Belisarius.

War declared against the Vandals. The Abbot Dionysius Exiguus, by his tables of the Easter festivals, fixed the date of the Christian era. 532. Peace with Persia. Hilbudius defeated and slain by the Sclavonians. Conquest of Africa. Institutions and Pandects published. 533. 534 Sardinia, Corsica, and the Balearic Island occupied by the Romans. Belisarius returns to Constantinople with Gelimer. Second edition of Code. 535 Conquest of Sicily. Dalniatia conquered and reconquered. Revolt of Roman troops in Africa. Belisarius invades Italy, and takes Rome. A very cold year, the sun shining dimly. 536 537 Siege of Rome by Witiges. Exile and death of Pope Silvester. Dedication of St Sophias at Constantinople. 538, Bulgarians invade the empire. Milan destroyed by Goths. Famine in the north of Italy. 539, Witiges sends ambassadors to the Lombards and Persians to demand assistance.

Surrender of Ravenna, and capture of Witiges. Romans defeated by Gepids. A plundering incursion of the Huns extended over Thrace and Greece, to the Isthmus of Corinth. Peoc Pers. ii. 4. Chosroes invades Syria. Capture and sack of Antioch. Totila king of the Goths. 540, 541 Consulate abolished by Justinian after existing 1049 years. Belisarius employed against Chosroes in person. Earthquake and plague at Constantinople, 10,000 persons perished in one day. 542 543 Solomon, the governor of Africa, defeated and killed by the Moors. 544 Belisarius sent to oppose Totila in Italy. Rome taken by Totila. John the Patrician takes the command in Africa. 546 Belisarius quits Italy. 548. CHRONOLOGY. A. D. 549. Rome retaken by Totila. Sicily conquered, but recovered by Artaban. 550. Sclavonians and Huns invade the empire.

Persian war in Lazica. Earthquakes in Phœnicia, Palestine, Syria, and Mesopotamia. 551. Introduction of silk worm. Narses sent to Italy. Earthquake in Greece. 552. Totila defeated, and Rome retaken by Narses. 553. Goths under Teras again defeated. Conquests in Spain. 554. Franks and Germans defeated by Narses. Earthquakes at Constantinople, Nicomedia, Berytus, and Cos, and church at Cyzicus fell during service. 556. Terrible earthquake at Constantinople. The emperor did not wear his crown for forty days. Agathias, v. 145. 558. Zabergan, king of the Cutigour Huns, defeated before the walls of Constantinople by Belisarius. Embassy of the Avars. 563. Treaty of peace with Persia. Belisarius accused of being privy to a conspiracy, falls into disgrace, and his property is confiscated. 564. Embassy of the Turks. Justinian favours the Eutychians. 565. Death of Justinian.

Chapter IV

565. November. Justin the Second ascended the throne. 567. Kingdom of Gepids destroyed by Lombards. 568. Italy invaded by Lombards. 570. Mohammed born. 571. Justin sends an embassy to the khan of the Turks. 572. War commenced between the Roman empire and Persia. 573. War with the Avars. 574. Infirm health of Justin induces him to name Tiberius Cæsar. 576. Battle of Melitene. Romans penetrate to Caspian Sea. 578. Death of Justin. Tiberius emperor. 579. Death of Chosroes. 580. Battle of Callinicum. Avars take Sirmium. CHRONOLOGY. XIX A. d. 581 Persian army defeated by Maurice at Constantine. Tiberius names Maurice his successor. Dies. 582 John the Faster, Patriarch of Constantinople, uses the title (Ecumenic, granted to the patriarchs by Justinian. 583, Avars recommence war. Battle of Solacon. 586, 587, Roman army defeated by Avars. 588.

Sedition of the army employed against Persia. 590. Rebellion in Persia. Chosroes, son of Hormisdas, flies to Maurice. 591 Chosroes II. restored by Maurice. Maurice quits the capital to march against the Avars. 593 Priscus defeats the Sclavonians. 600, Maurice concludes a peace with the Avars without ransoming the prisoners. 601 War recommenced. 602, Sedition of the Roman army. Maurice dethroned. Phocas emperor. 603 Chosroes declares war. 604, Phocas concludes a peace with the Avars. Persians advance to Chalcedon. 609 610, Phocas slain. Heraclius emperor. Sedition of the Jews. 613 614, Sisebut, king of the Visigoths, conquers the greater part of the Roman possessions in Spain. 615, Heraclius sends Niketas the Patrician to seize the wealth of John, the charitable patriarch of Alexandria. 616 Persians invade Egypt. 618, Abolition of public distribution of grain at Constantinople.

Avars attempt to seize Heraclius by treachery. 619 620. Peace with Avars. First campaign of Heraclius against the Persians. 622 1 6th July. Era of the Hegira of Mohammed. Second campaign against Persians. Roman possessions in 623 Spain lost. Third campaign. 624, 625. Fourth campaign. Constantinople besieged by Persians and Avars. 626. 627. Fifth campaign. CHRONOLOGY. XX a. d. 628. Sixth campaign. Death of Chosroes. Peace with Siroes. 629. Heraclius carries the Holy Cross to Jerusalem. 630. Heraclius occupied with ecclesiastical reforms. 632. Death of Mohammed. Era of Jezdedjerd reckoned from 16th June. 633. Invasion of Syria by Arabs. Bozra taken. 634. Battle of Adjnadin. Abubekr's death. Heraclius leaves Syria. 635. Arabs take Emesa, Alhadir, and Kinnesrin. 636. Baalbec pays tribute. Battle of Yermouk. 637.

Caliph Omer takes possession of Jerusalem. Capture of Aleppo. 638. Constantine, son of Heraclius, defeated, and Antioch taken. Battle of Cæsarea. 639. Arabs conquer Mesopotamia. Ecthesis of Heraclius. 640. Arabs conquer Egypt, and capture Alexandria. 641. Death of Heraclius.

Chapter V

641. Constantine the Third and Heracleonas emperors. Constan? the Second. Taking of Alexandria by the Saracens. 645. Persia conquered by the Arabs. 646. Alexandria retaken by the Romans, and recovered by Arabs. 647. Arabs invade Africa. 648. Arabs invade Cyprus. Type of Constans the Second. 651. Cos and Rhodes invaded by the Arabs. The colossus destroyed. 654. Pope Martin brought to Constantinople for trial. 655. Battle between the Roman and Arab fleets off Mount Phœnix. 658. Expedition of Constans against the Sclavonians. Peace with the Caliph Moawyah. 660. Constans orders his brother Theodore the Deacon to be executed. 662. Constans quits Constantinople, and passes the winter at Athens. CHRONOLOGY. XXI A. D. 663. Visits Italy, and is defeated before Beneventum. Visits Rome. Retires to Sicily.

Wars of the Romans and Saracens in Africa. 665. 668. Assassination of Constans. Constantine IV. Pogonatus. Constantine visits Sicily to avenge his father's death. 669. 670. Cairowan founded, and taken by the Romans. Invention of Greek fire by Callinicus. Saracens besiege Constantinople, and continue the attack every summer for seven years. 672. 672. Saracens form a winter camp at Cyzicus. 679. Defeat of the Saracen armament. Peace with Moawyah. Constantine defeated by the Bulgarians. 680. General council of the church at Constantinople against the Monothelites. 681 Constantine deprives his brothers of .the title of Augustus, and cuts off their noses. 685. Death of Constantine Pogonatus. Justinian the Second called Rhinometus. 688. Bulgarian war. War with the Saracens, and desertion of the Sclavonian troops.

Establishment of Haratch. General council of the church in Trullo. 692. G95. Revolution at Constantinople, Justinian dethroned, his nose cut off, and sent into exile at Cherson. Leontius emperor. 697, First doge of Venice elected. Carthage taken by the Saracens, retaken, and lost by the Romans. 698. Leontius dethroned, and Tiberius Apsimar emperor. 703. Successful campaign of Heraclius, the brother of the Emperior Tiberius, against the Saracens. 705. Justinian returns to Constantinople, with a Bulgarian array, and dethrones Tiberius Apsimar. Cruelties of Justinian against Ravenna and Cherson 710. 711. Army at Cherson rebels, and places Philippicus on the throne. Death of Justinian. Philippicus emperor. 712. 713 Philippicus dethroned. Anastasius the Second emperor. Fleet sent against the Saracens, under John the Deacon, rebels, and returns, having appointed Theodosius emperor.

CHRONOLOGY. A. D. 716. Anastasius dethroned, and Theodosius the Third emperor. Leo the Isaurian declared emperor at Amorium. 717. Constantinople besieged by the Saracens. 718. Saracen armament defeated. 723. Sardinia conquered by the Saracens. 726. Edict of Leo against picture-worship. 727. The Greek expedition, to restore imageworship, defeated before Constantinople.

Chapter I. From The Conquest Of Greece To The Establishment Of Constantinople

AS CAPITAL OF THE ROMAN EM- PIRE. B. G 146, to A. D. 330.

Introduction

— CHANGES PRODUCED BY THE CONQUESTS OF ALEXANDER THE GREAT ON THE CONDITION OP THE GREEK NATION CAUSES OF THE CON- QUEST OF GREECE BY THE ROMANS— TREATMENT OF GREECE AFTER ITS CONQUEST EFFECTS OF THE MITHRIDATIC WAR ON THE STATE OF GREECE RUIN OF THE COUNTRY BY THE PIRATES OF CILICIA NATURE OF THE ROMAN PROVINCIAL ADMINISTRATION IN GREECE — FISCAL ADMINISTRATION OF THE ROMANS DEPOPULATION OF GREECE CAUSED BY THE ROMAN GOVERNMENT ROMAN COLONIES ESTABLISHED IN GREECE POLITICAL CON- DITION OF/_REECE FROM THE TIME OF AUGUSTUS TO THAT OF CARACALLA THE GREEKS AND ROMANS NEVER SHEWED ANY DISPOSITION TO UNITE STATE OF SOCIETY AMONG THE GREEKS INFLUENCE OF RELIGION AND PHILOSOPHY SOCIAL CONDITION OF THE GREEKS AFFECTED BY THE WANT OF COLONIES OF EMIGRATION EFFECTS PRODUCED IN GREECE BY THE INROADS OF THE GOTHS CHANGES WHICH PRECEDED THE ESTABLISHMENT OF CONSTANTINOPLE AS THE CAPITAL OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE.

The conquests of Alexander the Great effected a permanent change in the political condition of the Greek nation, and this change powerfully influenced its moral and social state during the whole period of its subjection to the Roman empire. The inter national system of policy by which Alexander con nected Greece with Western Asia and Egypt, was /-* ». only effaced by the religion of Mohammed, and the conquests of the Arabs. Though Alexander was himself a Greek, both from education, and the prejudices cherished by the pride of ancestry, still, neither the people of Macedonia, nor the chief part of the army, whose discipline and valour had secured his victories, was Greek, either in language or feelings.* Had Alexander, therefore, determined on organizing his empire with the view of uniting the Macedonians and Persians in common feelings of opposition to the Greek nation, there can be no doubt, that he could easily have accomplished the design.

The Greeks might then have found them selves enabled to adopt a very different course in their national career from that which they were compelled to follow by the powerful influence exer cised over them by Alexander's conduct. Alexander himself, undoubtedly, perceived, that the greater numbers of the Persians, and their equality, if not superiority, in civilization to the Macedonians, rendered it necessary for him to seek some powerful ally to prevent the absorption of the Macedonians in the Persian population, the loss of their language, manners, and nationality, and the speedy change of his empire into the sovereignty of a mere Græco- Persian dynasty. It did not escape his discernment, that the political institutions of the Greeks created a principle of nationality capable of combating the unalterable laws of the Medes and Persians. * Q. Curtius, vi. 9. 35.

K. O. Muller ueber die Matedoner, p. 34. Muller's Dorians, i. 499, Eng. trans. Plutarch (Aratus, 38) shews us the light in which the Greeks viewed the noblest Macedonians when com pared with the Spartans. Alexander was the noblest model of a conqueror ; his ambition aspired at eclipsing the glory of his unparalleled victories by the universal prosperity which was to flow from his civil government. New cities and extended commerce were to found an era in the world's history. Even the strength of his empire was to be based on a political principle which he has the merit of discovering, and of which he proved the efficacy ; this principle was the amalgamation of his subjects into one people by permanent institutions. All other conquerors have endeavoured to augment their power by the subjection of one race to another.* The merit of Alexander is very much increased by the nature of his position with regard to the Greek nation.

The Greeks were not favourably disposed either towards his empire or his person ; they would willingly have destroyed both as the surest way of securing their own liberty. But the moral energy of the Greek national character did not escape the observation of Alexander, and he resolved to render this quality available for the preservation of his emjiire, by introducing into the East those municipal institutions which gave it vigour, and thus facilitating the infusion of some portion of the Hellenic character into the hearts of his conquered subjects. The moderation of Alexander in the execution of his plans of reform and change is as remarkable as * History and poetry seem to have taken Alexander as the type of an ambitious warrior. The phrase, " Macedonia's madman," and the circumstance of his weeping for worlds to conquer, hardly convey a correct idea of one whose views of glory were so intimately connected with the effects his conquests were to produce.

From Alexandria to Candahar the unlettered do him more justice. T^S the wisdom of his extensive projects. In order to mould the Asiatics to his wishes, he did not attempt to enforce laws and constitutions similar to those of Greece. He had profited too well by the lessons of Aristotle to think of treating man as a machine. But he introduced Greek civilization as an important element in his civil government, and established Greek colonies with political rights throughout his conquests. It is true, that he seized all the unlimited power of the Persian monarchs, but, at the same time, he strove to secure administrative responsibility, and to establish free institutions in municipal government. Any laws or constitution which Alexander could have promulgated to enforce his system of consoli dating the population of his empire into one body, would most probably have been immediately repealed by his successors, in consequence of the hostile feelings of the Macedonian army.

But it was more difficult to escape from the tendency imprinted on the administration by the systematic arrangements which Alexander had introduced. He seems to have been fully aware of this fact, though it is impossible to trace the whole series of measures he adopted to accelerate the completion of his great project of creating a new state of society, and a new nation, as well as a new empire, in the imperfect records of his civil administration which have survived. His death left his own scheme incomplete, yet his success was wonderful ; for though his empire was immediately dismembered, its numerous portions long retained a deep imprint of that Greek civilization which he had introduced. The influence of his philanthropic policy survived the kingdoms which his arms had founded, and tempered the despotic sway of the Romans by its superior power over society ; nor was the influence of Alexander's government utterly effaced in Asia until Mahommed changed the government, the reli gion, and the frame of society in the East.