An historical and archæological sketch of the City of Goa, preceded by a short statistical account of the Territory of Goa. Written by the authorization of the Government ... Illustrated with a map, a plan, and lithographic plates

Front matter

AFF0NC0 DE ALBUQUERQUE. AN HISTORICAL AND ARCHÆOLOGICAL SKETCH OF THE CITY OF GOA, PRECEDED BY A SHORT STATISTICAL ACCOUNT OF THE TERRITORY OF GOA. WRITTEN BT THE AUTHORIZATION OF IHE GOVERNMENT, BT JOSE NICOL AU DA FONSECA, PRESIDENT OF THE SOCIEDADE DOS AMIGOS DAS LETRAS. Illustrated with a Map, a Plan, and Lithocraphig Plates. THB ABCH OF THE TICEEOTS. Bomiag: THACKER & Co, LIMITED 1878. AH rights reserved. " The history of the Portuguese in India would point the moral nnd ad<>rn the tale ofa philosophical historian nho should write of the de cline and soil of the empires. . . It (the city of Goa) is a place an Englishman ought to visit. It is a place which an English Pi ince especially may visit with great profit. If we are proud of our deeds and of our history in India, and if we are elated by the greatness of the doings of our race, we may be led by the aspect of the ruins, such as those which the Prince of Wales has been gazing upon, to turn our thoughts to the investigation of the causes which sap the foundation of mighty states, and lay the work of statesmen and soldiers in the dust." — Dr. Russell.

Preface

. The present work is written, hy the authorization of the Bombay Government, in connection with the local and im perial Gazetteer. The materials have been gathered from the most reliable sources — such as the writings of many eminent authors aud of distinguished travellers who visited Goa at different times, official documents and records preserved in the Secretariat of the Government of Goa, ancient inscriptions recently deciphered, and the information supplied to me by the heads of several Public Departments in Goa. The plan of the city appended to this work is taken from D. L. Cottineau de Klogucn, and the outlines of tho Map of Goa from that of Lieutenaut J. F. d'Assa Castel Branco. The proper names, except the Portuguese, are spelt according to the Hunterian system. I have to thank Messrs. Joaquim Heliodoro da Cunha Rivara and Eduardo de Sa Nogueira P. de Balsemao, the late and tho present Chief Secretary to the Government of Goa, for having kindly placed ntmy disposal some of the most important records of the Secretariat ; as well as several other public authorities and literary gentlemen of Goa, who have favoured me with valuable information on different subjects, and whose names will be mentioned in the more detailed work on the territory of Goa which is under preparation.

I also avail myself of this opportunity to acknowledge my obligations to several other gentlemen for their kind assistance, especially Messrs. James Macnabb Campbell, C. S.} Ganpat Sadashiv Sao, M. A., and Julio Lucas Brito. Bombay, lQih December 1878. CONTENTS.

Part I

A short Statistical Account op the Territory oe Goa.

Chapter I. Page

Position and Area 1 Boundaries and Divisions 1 Physical Features 2 Rivers 2 Harbour 4 Islands 4 Climate 4 Minerals 5 Trees and Forests 5 Animals 6

Chapter II

Population 8 Classes and Castes • 10 Births, Marriages, and Deaths 10 Immigration aud Emigration 11 Houses and Furniture 12 Language 13 Food 13 Dress and Ornaments 13 Amusements and Games 15 Daily Life .-. 16 Village Communities VI CONTENTS.

An Historical and Archæological Sketch op the City op Goa.

Chapter I

The Island of Goa Ill Its aspect from the harbour 112 Derivation of its name 114 Its name as known to the ancient Hindus 115 Its name as known to the Greeks and Arabs ..., 117 The ancient Hindu city of Goa, capital of the Kadambas... 119 Its capture by the Yadavas of Devagiri 123 Invasion of Goa by the Muhammadans 123 Its conquest by the king of Vijayanagara 124 The foundation of a new city in the north of the island ... 125

Chapter II

Conquest of Goa by the Bahmani kings I_i7 Attempt ofthe Hindus to recover the city 129 Decline ofthe Bahmani kingdom and revolt at Goa 130 Its subjugation by the king of Bijapur 131 Its nourishing condition and commercial importance 132

Chapter III

The advent of the Portuguese to India 136 Conquest of Goa by Albuquerque .; vm CONTENTS. PAGE His expulsion from the city by the king of Bijapur 138 Sscond invasion of Goa by the Portuguese and final conquest ofthe city 139 Policy of Albuquerque 143

Chapter IV

Material progress of the city after the death of Albuquerque 145 Privileges conferred on the city by the Home Government. 147 Construction of suitable defences for the city 148 Siege of Goa by the king of Bijapur 149 First outbreak of epidemic in the city and its causes 149 Extent, population and aspect of the city in its palmy days, as described by several travellers 151

Chapter V

The social manners and customs ofthe Portuguese during the prosperity ofthe city 161 Their luxury and ostentation 161 The mode of living of their ladies 161 Their manner of appearance in public, especially at church. 165 The solemnities attendant on marriages and baptisms 166

Chapter VI

The decline and fall of the city 168 Its causes 168 Depravation of private and public morals 168 The war with the Dutch, and its disastrous result 169 Second outbreak of the epidemic 169 State of the city as described by several travellers 170 The invasion of Goa by the Mahrattas, followed by famine and general distress in the capital 172 The gradual abandonment and decay ofthe city 173 The increasing misery of its inhabitants 1 CONTENTS. IX page The project of removing the capital to Mormugao and the consequent decay of the city 174 A fresh invasion of Goa by the Marathas, and their repulse. 180 The condition of the city as witnessed by several travellers. 180 The project ofthe Marquis of Pombal to rebuild it 183 Its impracticability 1 84 The last days of the city as described by many writers ... 186 The suppression of the religious orders and the final abandonment of the city 188 Its present ruinous state 189

Chapter XI

The Convent and Church of St. Cajetan 248 Convent and Church of St . Dominic 250 Church of Santa Luzia and the Suburb of Daugim 255 Church of Nossa Senhora de Monte 256 Convent and Church of the Carmelites 256

Chapter XV. Page

The Holy Hill 302 Church of Nossa Senhora do Rozario 302 Chapel of St. Anthony 304 Convent and Church of Santa Monica , 304 Convent and Church of St. Augustine 311 Convent and Church of St. John of God 314 New College of St. Paul or St. Roch 315

Chapter XVI

The Suburb of Sao Pedro 321 Fountain of Banguenim 321 College of St. Thomas 322 Church of St. Peter 323 Palace of the Archbishops at Panelim 324 Casa de Polvora 326 Ribandar 328 Hospital ofthe Poor 328 Church of Nossa Senhora de Ajuda 328 Retreats of Nossa Senhora de Serra and Santa Maria Magdelena at Chimbel 330 Causeway of Ribandar LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. Afponso de Albuquerque, Conqueror of Goa. Map of Goa. Plan of the City of Goa. House and Church of Bom Jesus. Tomb op St. Francis Xavier. Body of St. Francis Xavier. ERRATA. For " 1497," at page 37, line 7, read " 1498." For " 1814," at page 70, line 2, read " 1812." For " 21st May," at page 70, line 2, read " 16th June." For " the latter part," at page 83, line 9, read " about the middle." For " transparency," at page 292, line 9, read " brilliancy." t'<:«)«lC' — -!• 5'- M«___fr S ?^p_»»J _P______R,T I 1 SHORT STATISTICAL ACCOUNT OF THE TERRITORY OE GOA.

Chapter 1. Position And Area Boundaries And Divisions Physical Fea- Tures Rivers

— HARBOUR ISLANDS — CLIMATE MINERALS TREES AND FORESTS ANIMALS. Position and Area. — The territory of Goa lies on the Malabar Coast between 15° 41' 30" and 14° 53' 30" north latitude, and 73° 45' and 74° 26' east longitude, and is distant about 250 miles SSE. from Bombay. Its extreme length from north to south is 60 miles, its greatest breadth from east to west 30 miles, and its entire area 1060 square miles. Boundaries and Divisions. — On the north the territory is bounded by the Tiracol or Araundem river, which sepa rates it from the Savantvadi State, on the east by the Western Ghats, on the west by the Arabian Sea, and on the south by the district of Kanara. It is divided into the Vellias and Novas Conquistas, or the Old and New Conquests. The for mer, which came under the Portuguese sway at an early date, comprise the three provinces of the Ilhas, Salsette, and Bardez, with an area of 48, 102, and 72 square miles respectively.

The latter, conquered at a comparatively recent date, consists of four divisions composed of the following provinces : — Pernem, 73 square miles ; Bicholim or Batagrama, 67 square miles; Satari, 144 square miles; Ponda or Antruz, 79 square miles; Canacona, 113 square miles; Embarbacem, Iff square miles; Cacora, 5 square miles; Chandrovadi, 37 square miles; Balli, 57 square miles; Astagrar, 77 square miles. The last five are collectively known under the name of Zambauhm, or Panch-Mahal. The island of Anjediva and the district of Tiracol, having each an area of one square mile, are also, for administrative purposes, included in the territory of Goa. Physical Features. — Goa is a hilly country, especially that portion which is known as the Novas Conquistas. Its most distinguishing features are the Sahyadri mountains, which, skirting a considerable portion of its north-eastern and eastern boundary, branch off into numerous spurs and ridges westwards across the district, the valleys between them forming the beds of rivers.

Of the isolated peaks with which this range of mountains is studded, the most conspicuous are on the north Sonsogor, 3827 feet above the level of the sea ; Catlanchimauli, 3633 feet ; Vaguerim, 3500 feet, and Morlem chogor, 3400 feet, all in the Safari mahal or province. On the east and west Sidnato at Ponda, Chandarnate at Chandrovadi, Consid at Astagrar, and Dudsagor at Embarbacem are no less prominent, but their exact altitude has not yet been determined. Rivers- — The territory is intersected by numerous rivers, which, being mostly navigable, are, in such a hilly country, the natural highways of communication between its most distant provinces, only requiring here and there a few small canals to complete the system of internal navigation. Be ginning with the north the principal rivers are the following : — 1.

The Tiracol or Arauudem river, so called from the fortress of that name guarding its estuary, has its source in the Western Ghats in the Savantvadi State, flows south-west for a distance of 14 miles, and, forming the northern boundary of Pernem and of Goa itself, discharges its waters into the Arabian Sea. 2. The Chapora or Colvalle river, 18 miles long, rises at __t_,n_ Ghat, and after separating the provinces of Bardez, Bicholim, and Sanquelim from that of Pernem, takes a zigzag direction to the south-west through the villages of Salem, Bevord, Colvalle, &c, and empties itself into the sea close to the village of Chapord. 3. The B&ga river, only a mile long, rises in Bardez, and, passing by a redoubt of the same name, falls into the Arabian Sea. 4. The Sinquerim river, 3J miles long, also rises in Bardez, close to the village of Pilerne, and, after describing almost a right angle westwards and southwards and forming the peninsula of Agoada, falls into the bay of the same name. 5.

The Mandovi, 38^ miles in length, is the most impor tant river in the Goa territory, both the ancient and the modern Portuguese metropolis being situated on its banks. It rises in the Parvor Ghiit in the province of Safari, first runs north-west of Ponda, and then south-west of Bicholim and Bardez, and, after forming some islands and passing Pangim or Nova Goa, discharges its waters into the bay of Agoada. Its principal branches drain the villages of Mapuga, Tivim, and Assonora, and the provinces of Bicholim, Sanquelim, andZam baulim, and are named after the localities through which they flow. 6. The Zuari is the longest river in Goa, exceeding the Mandovi by half a mile in length. It rises at the foot of the Digni Ghat in the province of Embarbacem, runs northwards, separating Salsette from Ponda, and falls into the bay of Mormugao.

Like the Mandovi, it has numerous tributaries, one of which joins that river between Margaim and Sao Lourengo after forming the island of Tisvadi. 7. The Sal river, 15 miles long, runs close to the town of Margao and through some neighbouring villages, and dis charges itself into the Arabian Sea near the fort of Betul. 8. The Talpona river, 7 miles long, rises at Ambughdt, in the province of Astagrar, and, running westwards through the province of Canacona, falls into the sea near the small fort of Talpona, from which it derives its name. The boats by which these rivers are navigated are called hodde or tonas, and the ferries across them, of which there are more than a hundred, are designated tan or passagens. Harbour.— Goa has a fine harbour formed by the promonto ries of Bardez and Salsette.

Intermediately between these extremities projects the Cabo (Cape) from the island of Goa, dividing the harbour into two anchorages, those of Agoada and Mormugao. Both are capable of safely berthing the largest shipping from September to May ; but Agoada is virtually closed to navigation during the south-west monsoon, owing to the high winds and sea, and the formation of sand banks in the estuary of the Mandovi at that period ; while Mormugao, where these causes act with less or no force, is accessible at all times. Islands. — The necessary consequence ofthe intersection of numerous rivers is the formation of many islands, of which the principal are the islands of Goa (Tisvadi), Chorao, Divar, Cumbarjua, Jua or Santo Estevao, De Ratos, Acado" or De Mota, Tolto, Dohgorim, De Capao or Vanxim, De Sao Venan cio, Panelem, Corjuem, Dos Banes, Sao Jacintho, Quelossim, and Vanxo.

Climate. — Except in a few localities, the climate of Goa is generally salubrious. Tlie seasons, being the same as in the neighbouring Kohkan districts, call for no special remarks. The rainfall for the three years ending 1875, as registered by the Meteorological Department, was 79'96, 118-58, and 102-12 inches respectively. The prevailing endemic diseases are intermittent and remittent fevers, diarrhœa, and dysentery. According to a statement published in the Boletim do Governo, epidemics, chiefly of fever, have, on several occasions, raged in the following places : — In the old city of Goa in 1570 ; in the villages of Pomburpa and Simla, in Bardez, in 1 775 ; at Talei gao, Santa Ignez, Pangim, Murda, in the Ilhas, in 1781; at Margao, in Salsette, at Colvalle and Revora, in Bardez, in 1 782 ; at Talaulim, Goalim, Mould, Batim, Gancim, Mandur, Azossim,' Carambolim, Corlim, and NeurS, in the Ilhas, in 1783; at Loutolim, Mormugao, Chicalim, Vaddem, and Bogmal6, in Salsette, in 1785; at Rachol, in Salsette, in 1787 ; at Malvara, Agagainj, Goa-velha, Neura, and Sao Lourengo, in the Ilhas, in 1790; at Sancoale and the neighbouring villages in Salsette in 1792; at Diyar, in the Ilhas, and at Sinquerim, in Bardez, in 1840; at Chimbel, in the Ilhas, in 1842; at Mormugao, Vaddem, and Chicalim, in Salsette, in 1843.

In addition small-pox and cholera have on various occasions prevailed with more or less virulence, the outbreaks of the latter in 1775, 1845, 1849, 1853, and in the middle of the present year being specially worthy of notice. Minerals. — Laterite is the stone most abundant throughout the district. Iron is found at Baga, Satari, Pernem, and especially in the provinces of Zambaulim. Though no other mines or quarries are worked, the above by no means represent all the geological resources of the country, which are very imperfectly known, owing to the soil not having yet been scientifically explored. Trees and Forests. — Goa is rich in trees, shrubs, and plants. Stately forests are found in the Novas Conquistas. The reserved and other forests, — which are scattered over an area of 30,000 hectares, or 74,133 acres, — of the aggregate value, according to the report of the Forest Committee of 1871, of £700,000, are divided into four zones, corresponding with the four provinces of Pernem, Satari, Embarbacem, and Canacona.

The jDrincipal timber trees are Nanon (Bagerstrce mia parviflora) , Asson (Briedelia spinosa), Marthi (Terminalia glabra), Babul (Acacia arabica), Hedii (Nauclea cordifolia), Kinzol (Pentaptera paniculata), Sailo (Tectona grandis), and Sisso" (Balbergia latifolia). Honey, lac, and other forest products do not appear to be utilized for revenue purposes. The pernicious practice of humri or wood-ash cultivation, till very lately prevalent in the forest tracts, greatly denuded them of valuable trees. More attention is now paid to this important branch of public administration, and the conservation is entrusted to a special department. In 1874 the forest revenue amounted to £1040-7-6, and the expenditure to £426-16-0. Animals.— The ferce naturæ are the tiger (Felis tigris), bison (Gavœus gaurus), monkey (Presbytis entellus), black bear (Ursus labiatus), jackal (Canis aureus), common grey jungle cat (Felis chaus), &c. The domestic animals consist of buffaloes, oxen, cows, pigs, dogs and cats, as well as of turkeys, fowls, and ducks.

The forests abound with the various species of birds common to the Kohkan, while the rivers and estuaries are plentifully stocked with fish, which forms an important element in the diet of the country people. The following is an official return of some of the domestic animals in Goa in 1877 : — [Table Domestic Animals, 1877. .orses. Asses. Oxen. Goats. Sheep. Pigs. District. No. Value. No. Value. No. Value. No. Value. No. Value. No. Value. £ s. d. £ s. d. £ s. d. £ s. d. £ s. d. £ s. d. I s Ilhas ° "i Bardez 'oj r Salsette 29 267 10 0 0 3 4 6,835 4,004 5 10 210 49 9 2 43 5 3 4 9,940 2,507 10 10 24 48 0 0 15,204 7,602 0 0 429 10 14 6 33 14 9 23,951 1,682 3 10J 34 87 4 5| 0 16 8 19,873 15,267 8 4 542 95 11 6 0 10 4 45,346 15,460 15 6 '1st Division... 02 "I 2nd do. ... m 3rd do. C fe 1. 4th do. ... 20 77 12 6 12,186 5,739 11 8 676 93 17 6 1,400 271 0 0 37 21 12 G 0 13 4 15,530 5,908 18 4 1,003 171 19 2 890 49 8 4 11 18 18 4 13,305 5,233 13 9 487 51 13 9 3,891 624 7 6 2 10 8 12,615 11,725 5 10 578 80 11 8 1,976 304 4 2 ...

Total 157 522 4 5J 5 1 13 4 102,548 55,481 3 9 3,925 553 17 31 78 6 18 5 87,394 20,899 10 2| CHAPTER IJ. POPULATION — CLASSES AND CASTES — BIETHS, MARRIAGES, AND DEATHS IMMIGRATION AND EMIGRATION — LANGUAGE HOUSES FOOD DRESS AND ORNAMENTS GAMES AND AMUSEMENTS — ■ DAILY LIFE VILLAGE COMMUNITIES. Population.— The total population of Goa in 1800, not including the Novas Conquistas, was estimated at 178,478, of which 91,436 were males and 87,042 females. No sufficiently detailed statistics of the whole population of the Velhas and Novas Conquistas have been published since 1851, the census for which year gave a total of 363,788 inhabitants, or a density of 342'54 to the square mile, being an increase of 1044 over that of 1848, when the aggregate was returned at 362,744 souls. By the enumeration of 1851 the population was classified under the following heads : — I.— Sex:— Males 180,240, females 183,548.

II. — Age : — Males and females from birth to five years osage 52,387 ; from five to fifteen 73,633 ; from fifteen to twenty-five 85,895 ; from twenty-five to fifty 104,856; from fifty to a hundred 47,006 ; above a hundred 11. III. — Baces : — (A) European males and females and their descendants 1851, (B) Asiatic males and females 361,241, (C) African males and females and their descendants 696. IV. — Social Condition : — Married males 81,522 ; married females 81,682 ; widowers 16,753; widows 35,202; unmarried males 81,965 ; unmarried females 66,664. V. — Beligion : — Christians 232,189 ; Hindus 128,824, Muhammadans 2,775. The present population of Goa, as gathered from the statis tics published in the Boletim do Governo, is as follows : . Population, 1877. ■2ff Men. Women. District. Widow" Total. era. ■jrana Total.

But supposing that the popu lation was in both these years the same in the Novas Conquis tas, about which nothing is known as regards the latter year, there would appear to have been an increase of 86,262 in 1877, or a density of 369- 335 to the square mile. Classes and Castes. — The inhabitants of the country are divided into three classes — Europeans, Eurasians, and natives. The natives are again subdivided into Christians and pagans. The former, who constitute about two -thirds of the entire population, are the descendants of Hindus converted to Christianity on the subjugation of the country by the Portuguese, and can still trace the caste to which they origi nally belonged. The predominating caste among the Hindus is that of Shenvis, or Sarasvati Brahmans. The Chitpavans and Karadas are also to be found, as well as the low or de pressed castes, as Mahars, Chambars, &c, who are generally distinguished from the former by their darker complexion.

There are a few Muhammadans in the territory, who, as a class, are in a poor condition. Births, Marriages, and Deaths.— The average number of births to each marriage is from four to six children. The native Christian males generally marry between the ages of twenty and twenty-five, and the females between thirteen and eighteen. The Hindus of course, as everywhere in India, marry earlier. On the occasions of marriage, the native Chris tians invite all their relatives and friends, even those livinoin distant villages, aud continue to feast for two or three days, the rich giving balls and sumptuous entertainments, and their less favoured brethren contenting themselves with homely but profuse dinners, followed by their country dance called mdndo. On the occasion of a death, the relatives and friends of the deceased meet at his house, and all the males accompany the funeral to the last resting-place.

The family for a few days after the event keep strictly to the house, and abstain from every kind of work. So closely is this rule carried out in some villages that they do not even cook at home, the neigh bours sending them food at the usual hours for meals. The following tabular statement shows the number of births, marriages, and deaths in each district of Goa in 1876 :— Immigration and Emigration— In the zenith of its prosperity, Goa was the centre to which the enterprising people of almost all the countries of the East flocked for commercial purposes. Hence it was for a long time one of the most populous cities in India during the Portuguese ascendancy. At present, however, there is little occasion for immigration, and, with the exception of a handful of Gavalis who annually resort from British territories to Satari for grazing cattle, scarcely any people think of fixing their abodes permanently in the once flourishing settlement of Goa.

On the other hand, for the last forty or fifty years it has been noticed that a vast pro portion of the natives of the place, principally belonging to the menial classes, annually emigrate to British India in search of employment. The total number of such may be esti- Excess of Births District. Births. Deaths. M arriages. over Deaths. Ilhas 836 689 147 473 Bardez ... 2264 1809 437 896 Salsette ... 2887 2424 463 782 1st Division of Novas Conquistas 220 155 65 172 2nd Division of do. 508 316 192 225 3id Division do. 471 188 283 221 4th Division do. 473 235 238 270 Total... 7641 5816 1825 mated at 25,000 or 30,000. Their stay is, however, temporary, for after some years they return to their native country. In 1874 the number of those who returned to Goa amounted to 6938, and of those who left it to 5969.

Houses and Furniture.— According to the statistical re port of Captain Koi published iu 1850, the following was in that year the ratio of the number of houses to the population in each district of Goa : — In the Ilhas the houses stood in the same relation to the population as 1 to 3-626, or 989 souls to every square mile; in Salsette they were as 1 to 3'368, or 945 souls to the square mile ; in Bardez, which is by far the most cultivated and thickly populated province of the whole territory of Goa, as 1 to 3'457, or 1331 souls to the square mile ; and in the Novas Conquistas, the most extensive but least populous and cultivated, as 1 to 4'598, or scarcely 144 souls to the square mile. The present number of houses — or rather fogos (hearths), as they are generally styled— amounts in the Velhas Conquistas to 42,972, or 19P839 per square mile, and in the Novas Con quistas to 15,323, or 18'285 per square mile.

The better class of houses, which are built of stone and covered with tiles, are of two kinds, two-storied and one storied. The former, found especially in the city, contain on the upper floor all the requisite accommodation, such as a hall, which is generally spacious, a passage, a dining-room, two or more sleeping apartments, and a few other rooms intended for various purposes, the groundfloor being ordinarily used as shops, granaries, storehouses, etc., or converted into habitations for the poor. The latter, more numerous, and seen chiefly in the villages of the Velhas Conquistas, have the groundfloor elevated to a height of three to seven feet, in consequence of which they are called meio sobrados or halfstoried. Most of the houses of either description have windows with thin and transparent oyster-shells instead of glass.

They cost from £100 to £1000 each. Those of the humbler classes, chiefly in the Novas Conquistas, are built of mud and covered with tiles, palm leaves, or grass, and cost from £5 to £10 each. Scarcely any house is let to tenants in the villages ; but in the city and towns a house can be hired at from two shillings to three pounds a month. Most of the indispensable and even ornamental articles of furniture that constitute the internal appendages of a modern European household may be seen in the dwellings of the well-to-do citizens. Language. — All classes of the people speak the Kohkani dialect, except the Europeans and educated natives residing in the capital and the principal towns and villages, who use Portuguese, which is also the official language. French is understood by some, and English chiefly by those who have resided for a long time in British territory.

Food. — Bice is the favourite article of diet, supplemented among the upper and middle classes by various dishes of meat, fish, aud vegetables, dressed in the modern European style, and among the poor by fish and vegetables, meat being indulged in on Sundays or festive occasions alone. The meals are generally wound up by a course of fruits and sweets by those who can afford these luxuries. Owing to the compara tive cheapness of the necessaries of life, the ordinary monthly expenses of a family of five persons would be among the rich from £5 to £10, among the middle class £3, and among the poor from 10s. to £1. Dress and Ornaments. — The males among Christians for the most part adopt the European costume ; while a great ma jority of the females still adhere to the primitive sari known as oil or panpalo.

This dress for domestic purposes is very simple and chaste, consisting of a simple web of cloth seven or seven and a half yards long, and a bodice or choli. The former is worn as it comes from the loom, and can be arranged in such a manner as to cover the whole body. It is first wrapped twice or thrice round the waist and the lower part ofthe body, and then one of its ends is drawn over the back and shoulder and brought down again over the breast, the remaining portion being gathered into small folds which are fixed, or tied with a string. This web of cloth has at each end a narrow border of silk or common thread, and two others of greater width at the extremities lengthwise, called pdloum. On festivals and occasions of marriage the dress is very costly and gaudy. The church attire consists of the above garments made of materials of a superior description, and a long piece of cloth, called hdl, which serves to cover the whole body cap-a-pie.

Be sides this dress there is another much used, called bdju-toropo, composed of two articles, one of which covers the lower, and the other the upper part of the body, respectively known as toropo and bdju. The former is wound several times tightly round the waist and the nether part of the body, and one of its ends is collected into a number of uniform folds. The latter, which forms the complement of this dress, covers the shoulders and breast, and being loose resembles the upper part of a chemise rather than the Hindu choli or bodice ; its sleeves are short, loose, and ornamented with frills, while round the neck narrow pieces of silk or rich embroidered velvet are stitched, according to the taste or means of the wearer. The church attire of this class of women is identical with that of those who wear the oil, described above.