Outlines of physical geography ... Illustrated by six maps and numerous engravings

Front matter

OUTLINES OF PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. ET GEOEGE W. FITCH. ILLUSTRATED BY Bh fHaps an& numerous <£ngrabings. ■** Let me once understand the real geography of a country,— ita organ.c structure, if I may so call it ; the form of ita skeleton, — that is, of ita hills ; the magnitude and course of its veins and arteries, — that ia, of its streams and rivers ; let me conceive of it aa a whole, made up of connected parts; and then the position of man's dwellings, viewed in reference to these parts, becomes at once easily remembered, and lively and intelligible besides." Dr. Abnold. NEW YORK: J. H. COLTON AND COMPANY 172 WILLIAM STREET, 1855. 32TTEKED, ACCORDING TO ACTS^t^Js^IN THE YEAR 1855, BT J. H. COLTON & CO. AND G. W. FITCH, IN THE GLZRK'S OFFICE OF THE DISTRICT COURT OF THE UNITED STATES FOR. THE SOUTHERN DISTRICT OF NEW TORE, NEW YORK STEREOTYPE ASSOCIATION. ■301 William Street

Preface

. The following pages have been prepared with a view of supplying the want of a treatise on Physical Geography, adapted to the use of Schools and Academies. It is rather a remarkable fact, that among the multitude and variety of school-books prepared for the schools in th1! United States, there is not one devoted exclusively to this science. The consequence is, that Physical Geography, as a separate study, is very rarely taught in our Bchools, and that all, or most of the knowledge acquired respecting it, is what is incidently obtained in pursuing other kindred studies. The Author has aimed to present none but well-authenticated facts, and ac cordingly he has consulted the latest and most reliable authorities. Among the works from which valuable information has been obtained are " Lyell's Principles of Geology," " Milner's Gallery of Nature," " Mil ner's Geography," " Kemtz's Meteorology," " Hughes' Outlines of Geography," and " Somerville's Physical Geography."

In this connection the Author would acknowledge his great obligation to Lieut. M. F. Maury, Superintendent of the National Observatory, Washington, for very valuable information on the recent deep-sea soundings which he has caused to be made in the Atlantic Ocean. From Maury's " Sailing Di rections" many interesting facts have been gleaned respecting the winds and currents of the ocean, trade routes, etc. To A. D. Bache, Superin tendent of the United States Coast Survey, the Author is indebted for va rious Reports of the operations of that department, and for a Tide Table of the United States which was specially prepared for this book. The maps were compiled with the greatest care by Mr. George W. Colton, the aim being to exhibit the most remarkable and interesting features of Physical Geography, so far as they are capable of being represented to the eye.

PREFACE.

. It is proper to observe that, in the preparation of this treatise, no attempt at originality was made, but simply an effort to digest and arrange the more important facts in an intelligible style for learners. In many in stances the Author has employed the phraseology of other writers, without always defacing the pages with quotation marks and references. Length ened extracts, and those containing peculiar views of an author, are credited to their proper sources. The Author can not refrain from expressing the hope that the book will meet the approbation of teachers, and excite in the minds of learners a desire for further attainments in this interesting department of science. CONTENTS.

Introduction

. Definition of Physical Geography— how divided— the First Part— the Second Part— the Third Part— the Fourth Part Pages 1-3

Part I. The

L AND . LESSON I. — Extent and Distribution of the Land 4-5 LESSON" II. — Continents: Eastern continent— ita extreme limits. North America: ita length and breadth — area — coast-line — indentations. South America: its dimensions. 6-7 LESSON III. — Continents (continued) : Eastern continent : its length and breadth — area. Europe: its dimensions — ita peninsular character. Asia: its dimensions. Africa; its dimensions. Table of the area of the five grand divisions, iheir extent of coast-line, etc.

General remarks on the continents 7-9 LESSON IV.— Islands : Australia — table of the area of some of the largest islands, and their comparative size — Rockall — chains of islands or continental islands — oceanic islands — archipelagoes — single islands, St. Helena, Ascension Islands — volcanic islands — examples of islands suddenly formed by volcanic action, Graham Island 10-12 LESSON V.— Cokal Islands: Great extent of coralline structures— Great Barrier Reefdescription of coral animals and their operations — an atoll — lagoons — encircling-reefs — barrier-reefs— action of the waves on the Great Barrier Beef- Florida Reef— Florida Keys— coral fringes— observations on coral islands by Capt. Basil Hall 13-17 LESSON VI.— Mountains : Insulated mountains— usual arrangement of mountainsmountain systems of the two continents — secondary ranges — highest known mountains on the globe— loftiest summits in the other four grand divisions — table of heights above the sea of some remarkable inhabited sites— list of some remarkable heights which have been reached 18-21 LESSON VII.— The Mountain Systems of the Western Continent: North American Mountains. — The Rocky Mountains, the highest summits— the Mountains of the West Coast — the Apalachian or Allegany ranges, Green Mountains, White Mountains, Adirondack Mountains, Catskill Mountains— highest summits in the Apalachian range— Ozark Mountains— the mountains in Mexico — South American Mountains.— The Andes — how divided — peculiarities us each division.

The mountains of Guiana— of Brazil. 22-26 LESSON VIII.— Mountain Systems of the Eastern Continents : European Mountains.— The Balkan Mountains — the Alps, celebrated passes — the Appenines— the Carpathian Mountains — the Mountains of the Spanish peninsula — the Scandinavian Mount- CONTENTS* VI ains— the Ural Mountains. Asiatic Mountains.— 'The Himalaya Mountains — the Altai Mountains— the Hindoo-Koosh— Lhe Mountains of Armenia— the chain of Mount Taurus. African Mountains.— Atlas Mountains— lhe Mountains of Abyssinia— mountains of the western coast — of the eastern coast — of South Africa Pages 26-33 LESSON IX— Upland Plains or Table-Lands : Table-lands of North America— plateau of Chihuahua— table-lands of South America— the most extensive table-land of Europe—table-lands of Asia— elevation of the plain of Tibet— table-lands of Africa. . 34-36 LESSON X.— Lowland Plains: The great central plain of North America— prairies— the plain or lowland of the Atlantic coast— the great central plain of South Americallanos — selvas — pampas 36-40 LESSON XL— Glaciers : Regions of glaciers— their origin— movements of glaciers— appearance of glaciers— their uses 40-43 LESSON XII.— Snow Mountains and Avalanches : Drift, sliding, creeping, and ice avalanches — destructive effects of avalanches 43-45 LESSON XIII.— Volcanoes: Active, intermittent, or extinct volcanoes — number and distribution of volcanoes 45—17 LESSON XIV.— Volcanic Regions: The Volcanic Regions ofthe Andes.— Of NorVi America.

Volcanoes of Mexico — of the West India Islands. Volcanic Region from the Aleutian Ides to the Moluccas and Isles of Sunda. Volcanic Regions ofthe Mediterranean 47-52 LESSON XV.— Vesuvius: Description of its crater — Herculaneum and Pompeii. Etna — its eruption in 1669. Volcanoes of Iceland — eruption of Skaptai Jokul in 17S3. Geysers 62-57 LESSON XVI. — Earthquakes : Proof that earthquakes and volcanoes have a similar origin — intensity of earthquakes — movements of the earth they produce — their duration, instances — their frequency — their effects in elevating and depressing tlie land, instances — clefts and Assures— fatal effects of earthquakes 57-59 PART n. THE WATERS. LESSON I. — Chemical Composition of Water : The fresh waters — the salt water — salts contained in sea-water — salt-water lakes — the benevolence of the Deity as manifested in the wide diffusion of water over the globe. 60-62 LESSON II.— Mineral Springs: Acidulous waters — chalybeate springs — sulphurous springs — saline springs, the salt springs at Salina and Syracuse — mineral springs of the United States 63-65 LESSON III.— Eiveks: Their sources — basins— area of the principal river basins — course of rivers— table of river windings 65-67 LESSON IV.— Eivebs (continued) : The fall ol rivers— cataracts— the Falls of Niagara— of SL Anthony— other noted falls in America— principal waterfalls of the eastern continent 68-71 LESSON V.— Kivf.es {continued) : The termination of rivers— deltas— the delta of the Mississippi, how produced— sedimentary matter of the Ganges — oceanic rivers — continental rivers— causes which determine the magnitude of rivers — proportional quantity of water discharged by some of the principal rivers — inundations of rivers— historic associations of rivers 71-T6 CONTENTS.

VII LESSON VI. — Tub River Systems of the Western Continent : North American Rivers.— Divisions of the continent with reference to its drainage — tho Mississippi — the Missouri — the Ohio — the SL Lawrence— other streams draining the Atlantic slope — rivers draining the region west of the Rocky Mountains— rivers draining the northern slopeother streams. Pages 76-79 LESSON VII.— River Systems of tub Western Continent [continued) : South American Rivers. — The Orinoco — the Amazon — the Rio de la Plata 80-81 LESSON VIII.— River Systems of tue Eastern Continent : The two principal river systems of Europe — tho Volga— Danube— Rhine— other European rivers 82-84 LESSON IX.— River Systems of the Eastern Continent (continued) : The two principal classes of Asiatic rivers— the Obi — Yenesei — Lena — Ganges — the Indus — other Asiatic rivers — drainage by continental rivers.

African Rivers.— The Nile— the Niger— other African rivers 84-8S LESSON X. — Lakes : Distribution of fresh-water lakes— salt-water lakes — physical dii^ ference of lakes — lakes which have no outlet, and do not receive any running water — lakes whicb receive water, but have no apparent outlet — lakes which receive no streams, but give birth to some— lakes which both receive and discharge water — elevations of lakes 88-90 LESSON XI. — Lakes (continued) : North American Lakes. — Lake Superior — Huron — Michigan— Ontario — other North American Lakes. South American Lakes. — Lake Titicaca 90-93 LESSON XII.— Lakes (continued) : European Lakes. — Tables of the dimensions of the principal European lakes, their elevations, etc. Asiatic Lakes. African Lakes. . 93-95 LESSON XIII.— The Ocean : Partial oceans and their branches— the Arctic Ocean — floating masses of ice — sheet ice — the Grinnell Expedition— icebergs^point of the greatest cold — the Atlantic Ocean — " Banks of Fucus"— the Pacific Ocean — the Indian Ocean — the Antarctic Ocean — discoveries of Wilkes and Ross 96-100 LESSON XIV. — The Ocean (continued) : Temperature — color — depth— deep-sea soundings 100-104 LESSON XV.— The Ocean (continued) : Waves— tides— theory of tides explaiHed— tide table for the coast of the United States 105-109 LESSON XVI. — The Ocean (continued) : Currents— causes of the oceanic currents— arctic current — equatorial current— Mexican Gulf Stream 110-115

Part III. The Atmosphere

LESSON I. — Composition of Air : Properties of oxygen gas 116-117 LESSON II. — Properties of tue Atmosphere: Transparency — fluidity — weight— how indicated— ihe use that is made of barometers to ascertain the height of mountainselasticity of the atmosphere — effect of rarefied air on the human body 118-121 LESSON III.— Winds: How caused— uses— how their direction is indicated— the direction of the wind in the upper regions often the reverse of what it is in the lower— velocity of winds.

Variable Winds.— Table of the relative frequency of winds in different countries— cold winds— the bora, mistral, vent de bise, gallego— hot winds— simoon — harmattan — sirocco — salano 121-129 LESSON IV.— Permanent Winds: The trade-winds— how explained — important uses of trade-winds 130-135 CONTENTS- LESSON V— PERiODirxt Winds: Monsoons — Etesian winds— land and sea breezes— the zone of calms 135-139 LESSON VI.— Hurricanes : The three hurricane regions 139- 140 LESSON VII.— Moisture: When least in the atmosphere— when greatest — mists and fogs 140-143 LESSON VIII.— Clouds : Cirrus or curlcloud— cumulus or stackencloud— stratus or fallcloud — composite forms — height of clouds 143-146 LESSON IX.— Rain : Extraordinary showers — unequal distribution of rain— table showing the diminution of rain from the equator to the poles — increase in the annual number of the rainy days as we go from the equator explained — fall of rain the greatest near the coasts — and in mountainous districts — rainless regions — rainy seasons in the tropics . . 147-149 LESSON X.— Snow and Hail : Forms of snow crystals— limits of snow at the level of the sea — uses of snow — hail, how formed 150-153 LESSON XI. — Climate : Meaning of the term — by what causes determined — the latitude of a country — elevation above the level of the sea — line of perpetual snow — climates of mountainous regions in the torrid zone — height above the sea of individual classes of vegetation — vegetable regions on Mount Etna — Teneriffe 153-157 LESSON XII. — Climate (continued) : The nearness to, or remoteness of a coxmtryfrom the sea — why America has a colder climate than corresponding latitudes in the eastern hemisphere — tlie slope of a country, or the aspect it presents to the sun's course — how observed in the Alps — the position and direction of mountain chains — ihe nature of the soil — the cultivation and improvement of a country — prevalent winds — annual ** quantity of rain 158-162 LESSON XIII.— Climate (continued): When the greatest cold occurs — table of the climates of different places — isothermal lines — hot regions — warm regions — temperate regions — cold regions— frozen regions ? 162-106

Part IV. Organic Existence

LESSON I.— Plants: Organic existence defined— wide distribution of plants — light, heat, and moisture as affecting plants — number of species known — divisions of the vegetable kingdom— ages of trees 16S-171 LESSON II. — Distribution of Plants: Indigenous and exotic plants — different regions inhabited by distinct species of plants— botanical provinces — diffusion of plants . . 171-175 LESSON III.— Food Plants: What plants man has selected for his food — arborescent food-plants— the food plants which prevail in the Old World— those wliich have their origin in the New World— barley, rye, oats— wheat, buckwheat — maize or Indian com, ri«e— olive, date-palm— banana — cocoa-nut palm— bread-fruit tree — potato — cassavaarrow root— sugar-cane — coffee — tea— the vine — fig— the cocoa or chocolate tree . 175-180 LESSON IV.— Animals: Number of species— four grand divisions— vertebrated animals — how subdivided — mammalia — birds — reptiles — molluscous animals — articulated animals—radiated animals 181-1S2 LESSON V.— Distribution of Animals : Diversity in the organizations of animals— profusion of animal life in the torrid zone— insects of the torrid zone— reptiles, birds, and mammiferous quadrupeds of the torrid zone — animal tribes of the temperate and cold regions— adaptatiofl' of animals to different climates 182-185 CONTENTS.

IX LESSON VI.— Zoolooioal Regions: Different regions inhabited by distinct species of animals, as well as plants — number of zoological regions — European region — African region— region of Southern Africa — of Madagascar —of India — of the Indian Archipelago — of New Guinea— of Australia — of North America— of South America 181-188 LESSON VII.— Man: Number of the human race — their wide diffusion— man's capability of accommodating himself to a great diversity us circumstances 188-189 LESSON VIII. — Races of Men: All mankind the offspring of common parents — classifications of mankind with reference to the color of the hair — with reference to the shape of the skull— the Caucasian race — the Mongolian race — the Ethiopic race — the American race — the Malay race 190-195

Appendix

. CIIIEF PRODUCTIONS OF THE EARTH AND THE COUNTRIES WHERE THEY ARE PRODUCED 197-199 EXPORTS OP COUNTRIES 199-201 TRADE ROUTES . 201-204 METALLIC PRODUCTIONS 204-21L LIST OF THE PRINCIPAL MOUNTAINS, WITH THEIR ELEVATIONS. 212-217 LIST OF THE PRINCIPAL RIVERS, WITH THEIR CHIEF TRIBUTA- RIES 218-221 TABLE OF TEMPERATURE 222-225 LIST of maps. I. The World, illustrating the Principal Features of the Land 6 Note— For the sake of greater clearness, the Co-tidal Lines are shown on this map rather than on the next, where the water portion is devoted to an illustration of the Oceanic Currents. IT. " illustrating the Divisions and Movements of the Waters of the Globe 62 m. " illustrating the Geographical Distribution of some of the Princepal Phenomena of Meterology 122 IV. " showing the Geographical Distribution and Limits of Cultivation of some of the Principal Plants useful to Mankind 172 V. " showing the Geographical Distribution and Range of some of the Principal Members of the Animal Kingdom 182 VI. illustrating the Productive Industry of various Countries, and exhibiting the Principal localities of Commerce and Navigation, Trade Routes, etc

INTRODUCTION.

. HYSICAL Geography is a description of the general features of the earth's sur face, the organized beings placed upon it, and the operations of the atmosphere by which it is uni versally surrounded. It relates to the earth as it exists in a state of nature, without regard to po litical or arbitrary divisions, or to any of those changes or im provements in the world which have been effected by man. 2. It may be divided into four parts, relating respectively to the following subjects : 1. The Land, or solid portion of the earth's Questions. — 1. What is Physical Geography? To what does it relate? 2. Into bow many parts may it be divided ? Name the subjects to which they relate.

INTRODUCTION.

. surface ; 2. The Water, or liquid portion ; 3. The operations of the Atmosphere ; 4. Animal and Vegetable life. 3. The First Part describes the extent and distribution of the land ; the arrangement of the continental masses and islands ; the magnitude and direction of the great mountain systems ; and the situation and extent of the vast plains, upland and lowland, which constitute the most productive portions of the earth's sur face. This part also relates to volcanoes, earthquakes, etc., in their relation to the character and aspect of the land portion of the earth. 4. The Second Part relates to the waters of the globe, whether salt or fresh ; the origin, course, fall, and termination of rivers ; the distribution and magnitude of lakes ; and the extent, depth. tidal and other movements of the oceanic waters. 5.

The Third Part treats of the operations ofthe atmosphere which surrounds our globe. It describes the laws which set the winds in motion, and the causes which influence their direction and velocity; it explains the phenomena of moisture, dew, rain, snow, and hail, and the various causes which are concerned in the regulation of climate. 6. The Fourth Part relates to organic existence, or the animals and plants distributed over the globe. It describes the great natural divisions of plants, the agencies which contribute to their diffusion, the food plants, and the regions where they are produced. It presents the orders of the animal kingdom, shows its diversity of organization, and its diffusion, and explains the zoological character of the different portions of the world. 7. The facts of Physical Geography are of a more permanent character than those which relate to the civil or political affairs of mankind.

The boundaries of nations are frequently changed, either by conquests or treat ies ; new countries become peopled, and new states and territories organ ized ; populous cities spring suddenly into existence ; and the arts of civilization are rapidly - .rried to distant quarters of the earth. The varying condition of countries with respect to population, internal improvements, boundary lines, etc., is such as to require a constant correction of maps and statistical works, in order to make them correct exponents of political affairs. Questions.— 3. What does the first part describe ? To what does it also relate ? 4. To what does the second part relate ? 5. Of what does the third part treat ? What does it de scribe ? 6. To what does the fourth part relate ? What does it describe ? 7. What is said of the facts of Physieal Geography ? Illustrate. Varying condition of countries ?

INTRODUCTION.

. 8. Such fluctuations do not belong to the science of Physical Geography. The grand and majestic features which God has impressed on the face of our globe — its continents and oceans — its mountains, valleys, rivers, and lakes, — remain now, with all their prominent characteristics, very nearly the same as they have existed for centuries past. 9. It is true that natural agencies are at work, changing to a limited ex tent the face of nature. Volcanic action has rent the crust of the earth in numerous places, raising some portions and depressing others ; some rivers have worked new channels, and formed extensive deltas at their mouths ; and, as in Holland, vast areas of land have been rescued from the ocean by embankments and artificial modes of drainage. These and other alterations, considerable as they may appear, are comparatively unimportant as regards the world at large, and scarcely serve to qualify the remark, that the physical aspect of the earth has not greatly changed in modern times. 10.

From what is here observed it must not be inferred that the earth has not been the scene of mighty convulsions. An examination of its sur face shows that at very early periods most important changes successively took place. To explain those changes, and the causes which have led to the present state or condition of the earth, belongs properly to the science of Geology. 11. Physical Geography explains many interesting facts of Civil Geog raphy. It shows where nature has provided for the growth of cities, the peopling of states, the construction of railroads, canals, and other works of internal improvement ; it points out what courses on the ocean the mariner must pursue in order to avail himself of its favoring winds and currents ; and it explains what pursuits are best adapted to the people of different countries.

The influence of mountains, rivers, seas, climate, and natural productions on the industry of people and the progress of nations is so great, that it is scarcely possible for one to possess a thorough knowledge of gen eral geography, without first understanding those facts which Physical Geography describes. Questions. — 8. Do such fluctuations belong to the science of Physical Geography ? 9. How are certain changes of the earth's surface produced ? What is observed of these al terations? 10. What does an examination of the earth's surface show? What belongs to the science of Geology? 11. Why is a knowledge of Physical Geography important?

Part I The Land

LESSON I EXTENT AND DISTRIBUTION* HE surface of the earth con sists of unequal portions of land and water. It has been estimated to contain about 196,500, 000 English square miles. Of this area, the dry land is supposed to occupy about 51,000, 000 of square miles. Hence it will be seen the fluid portion predominates over the solid in the ratio of about 285 to 100. The extent of each division, however, can not be exactly ascertained, owing to the north and south polar regions not having been fully explored. 13. There is but little regularity in the arrangement of the land upon the globe. In some parts the coast is indented bv deep bays and gulfs, in others the land projects into the ocean in capes and promontories, while the islands are scatteied throughout the ocean, either singly or in irregular groups. 14.

The distribution of the land is very unequal, — by far the greater portion being in the northern hemisphere. It has been calculated that there is about three times as much land north of the equator as south of it, and about two and a half times as much in the eastern as in the western hemisphere. Questions. — 12. Of what does the surface of the earth consist? How mnnv square miles does it contain? Square miles of the land? In what proportion does the fluid portion predominate over the solid . Why can not the extent of each division be exactly ascer tained ? 13. What is said of the arrangement of the land ? Illustrate. 14. Wbat'is said of the distribution of the land ? Which hemisphere contains the greater portion, the north ern or southern ? ITow much more land is there in the northern than in the southern hemisphere?

In the eastern than in the western ? EXTENT AND DISTRIBUTION OF THE LAND Its distribution through the different zones is as follows Northern Hemisphere, Sq. Miles. Arctic Zone 2,792,000 Temperate Zone 24,488,000 Torrid Zone 9,949,000 Total 37,229,000 Southern Hemisphere. Sq. Miles. Antarctic Zone Unknown. Temperate Zone 3,305,000 Torrid Zone 10,466,000 Total 13,771,000 Southern Hemisphere Northern Hemisphere. 15. The unequal distribution of the land may be most strikingly seen from an inspection of a map of the hemispheres, projected upon the plain of the horizon of London. The hemisphere, in which that city occupies the center, includes nearly all the land on the globe, while the other is almost covered with water. One may therefore be termed the continental or land hemisphere, and the other the oceanic or water hemisphere "Water Hemisphere.

Land Hemisphere. Questions— 15. How may the unequal distribution of the land be most strikingly seen ! Which hemisphere includes nearly all the land ? How termed ? CONTINENTS. LESSON II. CONTINENTS. 16. There are two continents, — the Eastern, which includes Europe, Asia, and Africa, and the Western Continent, or New World, which includes North and South America. The Eastern Continent is styled the Old World, from its being the only one known to Europeans previously to the close of the fifteenth century. The terms eastern and western refer to the meridian of the Ferro Isles, from which longitude was formerly reckoned. 17. The Western Continent is about 8,700 miles in length from north to south. The greatest breadth of the continent is about 3,250 miles, and its least breadth, in the center, across the the Isthmus of Panama, about 30 miles. 18.

North America is the northern portion of the Western Continent. Its greatest length from north to south is about 5,600 miles, and its greatest breadth about 3,100 miles. It con tains an area of about 8,600,000 square miles. The main body of the continent may be included within a triangle, whose base extends along the northern shores and whose vertical angle is in Mexico. 19. The eastern side of North America is penetrated by branches of the ocean, and consequently presents several peninsulas, and the western projects the long peninsula of California. These indented shores, which give to the continent a coast-line of 24,500 miles, or 1 mile to every 350 square miles of surface, are, with numerous rivers and lakes, the means by which civilization and commerce have been extended, and are now rapidly extending into the interior. 20.

Among the numerous indentations of the Atlantic coast south of Labrador, are the Gulf of St. Lawrence, Bay of Fundy, Questions. — 1C. now many continents are there, and what countries do they respectively include? Why is the Eastern Continent styled the Old World? To what do the terms Eastern and Western refer? 17. Length of the Western Continent? Greatest breadth? Least breadth? IS. Length and breadth of North America? Area? General fcrm of the continent? 19. What is the character of the coast-line? Extent of coast-line? 20. Principal indentations of the Atlantic coast south of Labrador? C O N T I M K JN T 8 . Passamaquoddy Bay, Penobscot Bay, Massachusetts Bay, Cape Cod Bay, Buzzards Bay, Narragansett Bay, New York Bay, Raritan Bay, Delaware Bay, Chesapeake Bay, Albemarle Sound, Pamlico Sound, Gulf of Mexico, Bay of Honduras, etc. 21.

South America is the smaller of the two divisions of the Western Continent. Its greatest length from north to south is about 4,600 miles, and its greatest breath from east to west about 3,000 miles ; its area is about 6,420,000 square miles. Its form is triangular. Its unbroken coast-line of 14,500 miles in extent, gives only a mile of sea-coast for every 420 square miles of sur face, and presents few bays or even harbors. 22. The slow progress of civilization in South America has been attributed in a great measure to the want of bays and gulfs extending inland and affording maritime advantages to the interior regions. This disadvantage of unbroken coast-line is partly counterbalanced by the vast navigable streams of the Orinoco, Amazon, La Plata, and their branches. LESSON III. continents — (continued). 23.

The Eastern Continent is the largest mass of land upon the globe. It extends for about 10,000 miles from east to west, and about 8,000 from north to south. It contains an area of about 33,000,000 of square miles, or about two and a fourth times as many as the Western Continent. 24. Europe is the smallest of the five grand divisions. Its greatest length from Cape St. Vincent, in the southwest, to the Gulf of Kara, in the northeast, is about 3,500 miles ; its great est breadth, from North Cape to Cape Matapan, is about 2,400 miles. The area of its surface, including the islands, amounts to about 3,500,000 square miles. 25. Europe is indented by numerous bays and seas on its western and southern sides, in consequence of which the coast- Questions. — 21. What is said of South America? Greatest length ?

Breadth? Area? Form? Extent of coast-line ? 22. Slow progress of civilization in South America ? What compensation is there for its unbroken coast-line ? 23. What is said of the Eastern Con tinent? Its length and breadth? Area?- 24. What is the comparative size of Europe? Its length and breadth ? Area ? 25. What is said of its coast indentation ? Extent of sea coast ? What is said of ils peninsular character ? What large peninsulas does it embrace ? CONTINENTS. line is of great extent, and in proportion larger than that of any other of the grand divisions. Its line of shores extends 17,000 miles ; it therefore enjoys a mile of coast-line for every 156 square miles of surface, thus possessing great facilities for commercial enterprise. Europe is essentially the region of peninsular for mations : it embraces the Scandinavian Peninsula (Norway and Sweden) ; the Peninsula of Denmark; the Peninsula of Spain and Portugal ; and the Peninsulas of Italy and Greece. 26.