Primitive Man. Revised translation [from the French.] Illustrated with ... scenes of primitive life, etc

Front matter

A Family ul the Stone Age (Frontispiece). By LOUIS FIGUIER. $Ubtset> translation. ILLUSTRATED WITH THIRTY SCENES OF PRIMITIVE LIFE, AND TWO HUNDRED AND THIRTY-THREE FIGURES OF OBJECTS BELONGING TO PRE-HISTORIC AGES. " Arma antiqua manus, ungues, dentesque fuerunt, Et lapides, et item silvarum fragmina rami, Et flamma atque ignes, postquam sunt cognita primum. Posterius ferri vis est ærisque re pert a ; Et prior sens erat quam ferri coguitus usus." Lucretius, De Rerum Natura, lib.V., v. 1281-5. LONDON: CHAPMAN AND HALL, 193, PICCADILLY. 1870.

Preface

TO THE ENGLISH EDITION. The Editor of the English translation of ' L'Homme Primitif,' has not deemed it necessary to reproduce the original Preface, in which M. Figuier states his purpose in offering a new work on pre-historic archæology to the French public, already acquainted in translation with the works on the subject by Sir Charles Lyell and Sir John Lubbock. Now that the book has taken its position in France, it is only needful to point out its claims to the attention of English readers. The important art of placing scientific knowledge, and especially new discoveries and topics of present controversy, within easy reach of educated readers not versed in their strictly technical details, is one which has for years been carried to remarkable perfection in France, in no small measure through the labours and example of M. Figuier himself.

The present volume, one of his series, takes up the subject of Pre-historic Man, beginning with the remotely ancient stages of human life belonging to the Drift-Beds, Bone-Caves, and Shell-Heaps, passing on through the higher levels of the Stone Age, through the succeeding Bronze Age, and into those lower ranges of the Iron Age in which civilisation, raised to a comparatively high development, passes from the hands of the antiquary into those of the historian. The Author's object has been to give within the limits of >■ b

PREFACE.

TO THE ENGLISH EDITION. VI a volume, and dispensing with the fatiguing enumeration of details required in special memoirs, an outline sufficient to afford a reasonable working acquaintance with the facts and arguments of the science to such as cannot pursue it further, and to serve as a starting-ground for those who will follow it up in the more minute researches of Nilsson, Keller, Lartet, Christy, Lubbock, Mortillet, Desor, Troyon, Gastaldi, and others. The value of the work to English archæologists, however, is not merely that of a clear popular manual ; prehistoric archæology, worked as it has .been in several countries, takes in each its proper local colour, and brings forward its proper local evidence. It is true that much of its material is used as common property by scientific men at large.

But, for instance, where an English writer in describing the ancient cave-men would dwell especially on the relics from the caves of Devon and Somerset as worked by Falconer and Pengelly, a French writer would take his data more amply from the explorations of caves of the south of France by De Vibraye, Garrigou, and Filhol — where the English teacher would select his specimens from the Christy or the Blackmore Museum, the French teacher would have recourse to the Musee de Saint-Germain. Thus far, the English student has in Figuier's ' Primitive Man ' not a work simply incorporated from familiar materials, but to a great extent bringing forward evidence not readily accessible, or quite new to him. Some corrections and alterations have been made in the English edition. The illustrations are those of the original work ; the fac similes of pre-historic objects have been in great part drawn expressly for it, and contribute to its strictly scientific value ; the page illustrations representing scenes of primitive life, which are by another hand, may seem somewhat fanciful, yet, setting aside the Piaffaelesque idealism of their style, it will be found on examination that they are in the main justified by that soundest evidence, the actual discovery of the objects of which they represent the use. The solid distinctness of this evidence from actual relics of pre-

PREFACE.

TO THE ENGLISH EDITION. VII historic life is one of the reasons which have contributed to the extraordinary interest which pre-historic archæology has excited in an age averse to vague speculation, but singularly appreciative of arguments conducted by strict reasoning on facts. The study of this modern science has supplied a fundamental element to the general theory of civilisation, while, as has been the case with geology, its bearing on various points of theological criticism has at once conduced to its active investigation, and drawn to it the most eager popular attention. Thus, in bringing forward a new work on ' Primitive Man,' there is happily no need of insisting on the importance of its subject-matter, or of attempting to force unappreciated knowledge on an unwilling public. It is only necessary to attest its filling an open place in the literature of pre-historic archæology. E. B. T. b C 0 N T E N T S.

Introduction

1 THE STONE AGE. I. The Epoch of Extinct Species op Animals ; on, op the Geeat Beak and Mammoth.

Chapter I

The earliest Men — The Typo of Man in the Epoch of Animals of extinct Species — Origin of Man — Refutation of the Theory which derives the Human Species from the Ape .......... 25

Chapter II

Man in the Condition of Savage Life during the Quaternary Epoch — The Glacial Period, and its Ravages on the Primitive Inhabitants of the Globe — Man in Conflict with the Animals of the Quaternary Epoch — The Discovery of Fire — The Weapons of Primitive Man — Varieties of Flint Hatchets — Manufacture of the earliest Pottery — Ornamental objects at the Epoch of the Great Bear and the Mammoth ........... 39

Chapter III

The Man of the Great Bear and Mammoth Epoch lived in Caverns — Bone Caverns in the Quaternary Rock during the Great Bear and Mammoth Epoch — Mode of Formation of these Caverns — Their Division into several Classes — Implements of Flint, Bone, and Reindeer-horn, found in these Caverns — The Burial Place at Aurignac— Its probable Age— Customs which it reveals- Funeral Banquets during the Great Bear and Mammoth Epoch . . .56 CONTENTS. X

Chapter IV. Tage

Other Caves of the Epoch of the G reat Bear and Mammoth— Type of the Human Race during the Epochs of the Great Bear and the Reindeer — The Skulls from the Caves of Engis and Neanderthal ....... 72 II. Epoch of the Eeindeee; oe, of Migeated Animals.

Chapter I

Mankind during the Epoch of the Reindeer — Their Manners and Customs — Food — Garments—^Weapons, Utensils, and Implements — Pottery — Ornaments — Primitive Arts — The principal Caverns— Type of the Human Race during the Epoch of the Reindeer . . . . ■ . . . . .85 III. The Polished-stone Epoch; oe, the Epoch of Tamed Animals.

CHAPTER I.

The European Deluge — The Dwelling-Place of Man during the Polished-stone Epoch— The Caves and Rock-Shelters still used as Dwelhng-Places — Principal Caves belonging to the Polished-stone Epoch which have been explored up to the present time — The Food of Man during this Period . . . 125

Chapter II

The Kjoeklien-Moeddings or " Kitchen-middens " of Denmark— Mode of Life of the Men living in Denmark during tho Polished-stone Epoch — The Domestication of the Dog— The Art of Fishing during the Polished-stone Epoch— Fishing Nets — Weapons and Instruments of War — Type of the Human Race ; the Borreby Skull ......... 129

Chapter III

Tombs and Mode of Interment during the Polished-stone Epoch— Tumuli and other Sepulchral Monuments formerly called Celtic— Labours of MM. Alexander Bertram! and Bonstetten — Funeral Customs . . . . IS! CONTENTS. XI THE AGE OF METALS. I. The Bronze Epoch.

Chapter I. Page

Tlie Discovery of Met ds — Various Reasons suggested for explaining tlie origin of Bronze in the West— The Invention of Bronze — A Foundry during tlie Bronze Epoch — Permanent and Itinerant Foundries existing during the Bronze Epoch — Did the Knowledge of Metals take its Rise in Europe owing to the Progress of Civilisation, or was it a Foreign Importation ? . . . 205

Chapter II

The Sources of Information at our Disposal for reconstructing the History of the Bronze Epoch — The Lacustrine Settlements of Switzerland — Enumeration and Classification of them — Their Mode of Construction — Workmanship and Position of tho Piles — Shape and Size! of (lie Huts — Population — Instruments of Stone, Bone, and Stag's Horn — Pottery — Clothing — Food — Fauna — Domestic Animals . . . . . . . . . . . . 215

Chapter III

Lacustrine Habitations of Upper Italy, Bavaria, Carinthia and Carniola, Pomerania, France, aud England — The Crannoges of Ireland .... 227 CHAPTEE IV. Palustrino Habitations or Marsh-Villages — Surveys made by MM. Strobel and Pigoriui of Ihe Terra-mares of Tuscany — The Terramares of Brazil . . 232

Chapter V

Weapons, Instruments, and Utensils contained in the various Lacustrine Settlements in Europe, enabling us to become acquainted with the Manners and Customs of Man during the Bronze Epoch 240

Chapter VI

Industrial Skill and Agriculture during the Bronze Epoch — The Invention of Glass — Invention of Weaving ......... 25S CONTENTS.

Chapter VII

l'ACE The Art of War during the Bronze Epoch— Swords, Spears and Daggers— The Bronze Epoch in Scandinavia, in the British Isles, France, Switzerland and Italy— Diil the Man of the Bronze Epoch entertain any religious or superstitious Belief? 271

Chapter VIII

Mode of Interment and Burial-places of the Bronze Epoch — Characteristics of the Human Race during the same Period ...... 284 II. The Ieon Epoch.

Chapter I

Essential Characteristics of the Iron Epoch — Preparation of Iron in Pre-historic Times — Discovery of Silver and Lead — Earthenware made on the Potter's Wheel— Invention of Coined Money 297

Chapter II

Weapons — Tools, Instruments, Utensils, and Pottery — The Tombs of Hallstadt and the Plateau of La Somma — The Lake-Settlements of Switzerland — Human Sacrifices — Type of Man during the Iron Epoch — Commencement of the Historic Era . " . 312 PRIMITIVE MAN IN AMERICA 333 CONCLUSION .343 PACE FIG. A Family of tho Stone Age (Frontispiece). 1. Human Jaw-bone found at Moulin-Quignon, near Abbeville, in lSt>3 .18 2. Skull of a Man belonging to the Stone Age (The Borreby Skull) . . 27 3. Skull of the Gorilla 28 4. Skull of the Orang-Outang ib. 5. Skull of the Cynncephalus Ape ........ 29 6. Skull of the Macacus Baboon ib. 7. The Production of Fire ( whole page engraving). 8. Dendrites or Crystallisations found on the Surface of wrought Flints. . 40 9. Section of a Gravel Quarry at Saint-Acheul, which contained the wrought Flints found by Boucher de Perthes ....... 47 10.

Hatchet of the Almond-shaped type from the Valley of the Somme . . 48 11. Flint Hatchet from Saint-Acheul of the so-called Almoiid-.haped type . 49 12. Wrought Flint {Moustier type) ib. 13. Flint Scraper 50 14. Flint Knife, found at Menchecourt, near Abbeville .... ib. 15. Flint Core or Nucleus 51 1G. Man in the Great Bear and Mammoth Epoch (whole page engraving). 17. The First Potter (whole page engraving) . 18. Fossil Shells used as Ornaments, aud found iu the Gravel at Amiens . 54 19. Theoretical Section of a Vein of Clay in the Carboniferous Limestone, before the hollowing out of Valleys by Diluvial Waters . . .50 20. Theoretical Section of the same Vein of Clay converted into a Cavern, after the hollowing out of Valleys by Diluvial Waters . . . . .57 21. The Cave of Galeinreuth, in Bavaria 59 22.

Section of the Sepulchral Cave at Aurignac ...... 62 23. Flint Knife, found in tlie Sepulchral Cave at Aurignac . . . .63 24. Implement made of Reindeer's or Stag's Horn, found in the Sepulchral Cave at Aurignac .......... ib. 25. Series of Perforated Discs of the Cardium Shell, found in the Sepulchral Cave at Aurignac ......... 64 26. fragment of the Lower Jaw of a Cave-Bear louud in the Sepulchral Cave at Aurignac ........... ib. LIST OF PLATES. FIG. ''AGE 27. Upper Molar of a Bison found in the Ashes of the Fire-Hearth of the Sepulchral Cave at Aurignac .....••• 28. Arrow-head made of Reindeer's Horn, found iu the Sepulchral Cave of Aurignac . . . . . ... . • • .66 29. Bodkin made of Roebuck's Horn, found in the Sepulchral Cave of Aurignac ib. 30. Truncated Blade in Reindeer's Horn bearing two Series of transversal Lines and Notches, probably used for numeration . • • .67 31.

Funeral Feast during the Great Bear and Mammoth Epoch (whole page engraving). 32. Carved and perforated Canine Tooth of a young Cave-Bear . . .69 33. Head of a Cave-Bear found in the Cave of Aurignac . . . .70 34. Head of the Rhinoceros tichorhinus, found in the Cave of Aurignac . . ib. 35. Head of a great Stag (Megaceros hibernicus), found in the Cave of Aurignac 71 36. Sketch of the Great Bear on a Stone, found in tlie Cave of Massat . . 75 37. Portion of the Skull of an Individual belonging to the Epoch of the Great Bear and the Mammoth, found in the Cave of Engis . . ... 80 38. Portion of the so-called Neanderthal Skull ...... ib. 39. Man ofthe Reindeer Epoch < whole page engraving). 40. Rock-Shelter at Bruniquel, a supposed Habitation of Man during the Reindeer Epoch (whole page engraving). 41.

A Feast during the Reindeer Epoch ' whole page engraving). 42. Flint Bodkin or Stiletto for sewing Reindeer Skins, found in the Cave of Les Eyzies (Perigord) 92 43. Bone Needle for Sewing .......... ib. 44. The Canine Tooth of a Wolf, bored so as to he used as an Ornament . 93 45. Ornament made of the bony part of a Horse's Ear . . . . . ib. 46. Spear-head, found in the Cave of Laugerie-Basse (Perigord) . . .95 47. Worked Flint from P&igord (Knife) 96 48. Worked Flint from Perigord (Hatchet) ib id. Chipped Flint from Perigord (Knife) 97 50. Chipped Flint from Pe'rigord (Scraper) ib. 51. Small Flint Saw, found in the Rock-Shelter at Bruniquel . . .98 52. The Chase during the Reindeer Epoch (whole page engraving). 53. Barbed Arrow of Reindeer Horn 99 54. Arrow of Reindeer Horn with Double Barbs ib. 55.

Animal Bone, pierced by an Arrow of Reindeer Horn -. . . . 100 56. Tool made of Reindeer Horn, found in the Cave of Laugerie-Basse (Stiletto?) .ib. 57. Tool made of Reindeer Horn, found in the Cave of Laugerie-Basse (Needle?) a. 58. Spoon of Reindeer Horn 101 59. Knuckle-bone of a Reindeer's Foot, bored with a hole and used as a Whistle ..... . 102 60. Staff of authority, in Reindeer's Horn, found in the Cave of Pe'rigord . ib. 61. Another Staff of authority in Reindeer's Horn ..... ib. 62. A Geode, used as a Cooking Vessel (?), found in the Cave of La Madelaine (Pe'rigord, . 103 63. Earthen Vase, found in the Cave of Furfooz (Belgium) . . . .104 64. Sketch of a Mammoth graven on a Slab of Ivory 106 S5. Hilt of a Dagger carved in the Shape of a Reindeer . . . .107 r'G. PAGE 66. Representation of a Stag drawn on a Stag's Horn 108 67.

Representation of some large Herbivorous Animal on a Fragment of Reindeer's Horn .......... ib. 68. Arts of Drawing and Sculpture during the Reindeer Epoch (whole page engraving). 69. Representation of an Animal sketched on a Fragment of Reindeer's Horn . 109 70. Fragment of a Slab of Schist bearing the representation of some Animal, and found in the Cave of Les Eyzies ....... ib. 71. A kind of Harpoon of Reindeer's Horn carved in the Shape of an Animal's Head .......... 110 72. Staff of Authority, on which are graven Representations of a Man, two Horses, and a Fish .......... Ill 73. Skull, found at Furfooz by M. Edouard Dupont 114 74. Skull of an Old Man, found in a Rock-shelter at Bruniquel . . .115 75. A Funeral Ceremony during the Reindeer Epoch (whole page engraving). 76. Man of the Polished-stone Epoch (whole page engraving). 77.

Bone Skewers used as Fish-hooks . . . . . . . .134 78. Fishing-net with wide Meshes ........ 136 79. Stone Weight used for sinking the Fishing-nets . . . . . ib. 80. Fishing during the Polished-stone Epoch (whole page engraving) 81. Flint Knife from one of the Danish Beds ...... 138 S2. Nucleus off which Knives are flaked ....... ib. 83. Flint Hatchet from one of the Danish Beds . . . . . . ib. 84. Flint Scraper from one of the Danish Beds ...... ib. 85. Refuse from the Manufacture of wrought Flints ..... 139 86. Weight to sink Fishing-nets ........ ib. S7. Danish Axe of the Polished-stone Epoch ...... 140 88. Double-edged Axe .......... ib. 89. Danish Axe-hammer drilled for handle . . . . . . .141 90. Ditto . ib. 91. Spear-head from Denmark ......... 142 92. Ditto . ib. 93. Toothed Spear-head of Flint 143 94.

Flint Poniard from Denmark ........ ib. 95. Type of the Danish Arrow-head ........ ib. 96. Another Type of Arrow-head ......... ib. 97. Arrow-head 144 98. Arrow-head from Denmark . . . . . ■ . . . . ib. 99. Flint Chisel from Denmark ......... ib- 100. Small Stone Saw from the Danish Deposits ...... 145 101. Another Stone Saw from Denmark ....... ib. 102. Bone Harpoon of the Stone Age, from Denmark . . . . .ib. 103. Bone Comb from Denmark ......... 146 104. Necklace and various Ornaments of Amber ...... ib. 105. Nucleus in the Museum of Saint-Germain, from the Workshop of Grand- Pressigny ........... US 106. Polisher from Grand-Pressigny, both faces being shown .... 150 107. The earliest Manufacture and Polishing of Flints (whole page engraving). 108. Polisher found by M. Leguay IJG. PAGE 109.

Spear-head from Spienues ......... 158 110. Polished Jade Hatchet in the Museum of Saint-Germain . . . . 159 113. Polished Flint Hatchet with a Sheath of Stag's Horn fitted for a Handle . 161 112. Flint Hatchet fitted into a Stag's-horn Sheath having an Oak Handle, from Boucher de Perthes' Illustration ....... 162 113. Hatchet Handle made of Oak . . . . • • ... 163 114. Stag's-horn Sheath open at each end, so as to receive two Hatchets . . ib. 115. Polished Flint Hatchet, from Belgium, fitted into a Stag's-horn Sheath . ib. 116. Gardening Tool made of Stag's Horn (after Boucher de Perthes) . . 164 117. Ditto ib. 118. Ditto 165 119. Flint Tool in a Bone Handle . .166 120. Flint Tool with Bone Handle ib. 121. Ornamented Bone Handle ......... ib. 122. Necklace made of Boars' Tusks longitudinally divided .... 167 123.

Flint Knife from the Peat Bogs near Antwerp 168 124. Primitive Corn-mill 170 125. The Art of Bread Making in the Stone Age (whole page engraving). 12G. The Earliest Navigators (whole page engraving). 127. The Earliest regular Conflicts between Men of the Stone Age ; or, The Entrenched Camp of Furfooz (whole page engraving). 128. Flint Arrow-head from Civita-Nova (Italy) 180 129. The Borreby Skull 182 130. Danish Dolmen 185 131. Dolmen at Assies (Department of Lot) ....... ib. 132. Dolmen at Conne're' (Marne) .......... 186 133. Vertical Section of the Dolmen of Loekmariaker, in Brittany. In the Museum of Saint-Germain .......... ib. 134. Tumulus- Dolmen at Gavr'inis (Morbihan) ...... 187 135. A Portion of the Dolmen of Gavr'inis ....... ib. 136. General Form of a covered Passage-Tomb ...... 188 137.

Passage-Tomb at Bagneux, near Saumur ...... ib. 138. Passage-Tomb at Plauharmel (Morbihan) 189 139. Passage-Tomb, the so-called Table de Ce'sar, at Loekmariaker (Morbihan) . ib. 140. A Danish Tumulus or chambered Sepulchre ...... 190 141. Usual Shape of a Menhir ......... 191 142. The Rows of Menhirs at Carniic ..... ib. 143. Dolmen with a Circuit of Stones {Cromlech), in the Province of Constantine 192 144 Group of Danish Cromlechs ........ . ib. 145. Position of Skeletons in a Swedish Tomb of the Stone A»e 194 146. A Tumulus of the Polished Stone Epoch (whole page engraving). 147. A Founder's Workshop during the Bronze Epoch (whole page engraving). 148. Section of the Teneviere of Hauterive ... , 220 149. A Swiss Lake Village of the Bronze Epoch (whole page engravin"-). 150. Vertical Section of a Crannoge in the Ardakillin Lake .... 230 151.

Vertical Section of the Marniera of Castione ...... 233 152. Floor of the Marniera of Castione ..... oq4 lo2. luoor ot the Marniera ot Castione ...... 234 153. Plan of the Piles and Cross-beams in the Marniera of Castione . . g, 154. The Chase during the Bronze Epoch (whole page engraving). ib. 155. Stone Hatchet from the Lacustrine Habitations of Switzerland . . FrG- PAGE 156. Stone Chisel with Stag's-horn Handle, from the Lacustrine Habitations of Switzerland ........... 241 157. Flint Hammer fitted with a Stag's-horn Handle ..... 242 158. Stone Hatchet with Double Handle of Wood and Stag's Horn . . . ib. 159, 160. Serpentine Hatchet-Hammers from the Lacustrine Habitations of Switzerland ............. 243 101. Another Hatchet-hammer from the Lacustrine Habitations of Switzerland . ib. 162.

Flint Saw fitted into a Piece of Stag's Horn 244 163. Flint Spear-head from the Lacustrine Settlements of Switzerland . . ib. 164. Various Shapes of Flint Arrow-heads from the Lacustrine Settlements of Switzerland . ......... ib. 165. Arrow-head of Bone fixed on the Shaft by means of Bitumen . . . 245 166. Stone Arrow-head fixed on the Shaft by means of Bitumen . . . ib. 167. Arrow-head fixed on the Shaft by a Ligature of String . . . . ib. 168. Bone Bodkin, from the Lacustrine Habitations of Switzerland . . . 246 169. Ditto ib. 170. Carpenter's Chisel, from the Lacustrine Habitations of Switzerland . . ib. 171. Bone Needle ib. 172. Pick-axe of Stag's Horn 247 173. Harpoon made of Stag's Horn, from the Lacustrine Habitations of Switzerland ............ ib. 174. Ditto ib. 175. Vessel made of Stag's Horn ......... ib. 176.

Bronze Winged Hatchet, from the Lacustrine Habitations of Switzerland . 249 177. Winged Hatchet (front and side view), from the Lacustrine Habitations of Switzerland ........... ib. 178. Socketed Hatchet, from the Lacustrine Habitations . . . . . ib. 179. Knife Hatchet (front and side view) from the Lacustrine Habitations . ib. 1S0. Carpenter's Chisel, in Bronze ........ 250 181. Hexagonal Hammer .......... ib. 182. Knife with a Tang to fit into a Handle, from the Lacustrine Settlements of Switzerland ........... ib. 183. Socketed Knife, from the Lacustrine Settlements of Switzerland . . 251 184. Bronze Sickle, found by M. Desor at Chevroux . . . . . ib. 185. Bronze Fish-hook, from the Lacustrine Settlements of Switzerland . . 252 186. Double Fish-hook, from the Lacustrine Settlements of Switzerland . . ib. 187.

Hair-pin. found by M. Desor in one of the Swiss Lakes .... 253 188. Ditto . ib. 189. Hair-pin with Cylindrical Head ........ ib. 190. Hair-pin with Curled Head ......... ib. 191. Bronze Bracelet, found in one of the Swiss Lakes ..... 254 192. Another Bronze Bracelet 255 193. Bronze Ring ........... ib. 194. Bronze Pendant, from the Lacustrine Habitations of Switzerland . . 256 195. Another Bronze Pendant, from the Lacustrine Habitations of Switzerland . ib. 196. Bronze Ring, from the Lacustrine Habitations of Switzerland . . . ib. 197. Another Ornamental Ring ib. 198. Earthenware Vessel with Conical Bottom, from the Lacustrine Habitations of Switzerland .......... 259 199. Earthen Vessel placed on its Support ....... ib. PAGE FIG. 200. Fragment of an Earthen Vessel with a Handle 259 201. Vessel of Baked Clay, from the Lacustrine Settlements of Switzerland . 260 202.

Ditto *• 203. Cloth of the Bronze Age, found in the Lacustrine Settlements of Switzerland • • 262 204. The First Weaver (whole page engraving). 205. Spindle-whorls, made of Baked Clay, found in the Lacustrine Settlements of Switzerland .......••• 263 206. Principal Designs for the Ornamentation of Pottery during the Bronze Epoch 264 207. The Cultivation of Gardens during the Bronze Epoch (whole page engraving). 208. A Feast during the Bronze Epoch (whole page engraving). 209. Bronze Sword in the Museum of Neuchatel ...... 272 210. Bronze Dagger, found in one of the Swiss Lakes . . . . . ib. 211. Bronze Spear-head, found in one of the Swiss Lakes .... 273 212. Bronze Arrow-head, found in a Lacustrine Settlement of Switzerland . ib. 213. Scandinavian Sword . . . . . • . . . . . 274 214. Hilt of a Scandinavian Sword ........ ib. 215.

Mode of fixing the Handle to a Scandinavian Hatchet .... ib. 216. Another Mode of fixing the Handle to a Scandinavian Hatchet . . ib. 217. Danish Bronze Knife of the Bronze Epoch . . . . . . 275 218. Ditto ib. 219. Blade of a Danish Razor of the Bronze Epoch ..... 276 220. Woollen Cloak of the Bronze Epoch, found in 1861, in a Tomb in Denmark 277 221. Woollen Shawl, found in the same Tomb ...... ib. 222. Woollen Shirt, taken from the same Tomb 278 223. First Woollen Cap, found in the same Tomb ...... ib. 224. Second Woollen Cap, found in the same Tomb ..... ib. 225. Bronze Comb, found in the same Tomb ....... ib. 226. Warriors during the Bronze Epoch (whole page engraving). 227. Bronze Hatchet Mould, found in Ireland ...... 279 228. Stone Crescent, found in one of the Swiss Lakes ..... 280 229.

Skull found at Meilen, Front View 289 230. Skull found at Meilen, Profile View ib. 231. Primitive Furnace for Smelting Iron (whole page engraving). 232. Bronze Coin, from the Lake of Neuchatel ...... 310 233. Sword, from the Tombs of Hallstadt (with a Bronze Hilt and Iron Blade) 313 234. Ditto ib. 235. Dagger, from the Tombs of Hallstadt (Bronze Handle and Iron Blade) . 314 236. Ditto ib 237. Funeral Ceremonies during the Iron Epoch (whole page engraving). 238. A Skeleton, portions of which have been burnt, from the Tombs of Hallstadt ......... 315 239. A Necklace with Pendants, from the Tombs of Hallstadt .... 316 240. Bracelet, from the Tombs of Hallstadt ..... 3X7 241. Ditto ib. 242. Bronze Vase, from the Tombs of Hallstadt . ' . . . ;;, FrG- PAGE 243. Bronze Vase, from the Tombs of Hallstadt 317 244.

Warriors of the Iron Epoch (whole page engraving). 245, 246. Fore-arm encircled with Bracelets, found in the Tombs of Belleville (Savoy) 319 247. Iron Sword, found in one of the Swiss Lakes ...... 321 248. Sword with Damascened Blade, found in one of the Swiss Lakes . . ib. 249. Sheath of a Sword, found in one of the Swiss Lakes .... 322 250. Lance-head, found in one of the Swiss Lakes . . . . . 323 251. Head of a Javelin, found in the Lacustrine Settlement of La Tene (Neuchatel) 324 252. The Chase during the Iron Epoch (whole page engraving). 253. Square-socketed Won Hatchet, found in one of the Lakes of Switzerland . 325 254. Sickle ib. 255. Scythe, from the Lacustrine Settlements of Switzerland .... 326 256. Lon Point of Boat-hook, used by the Swiss Boatmen during the Iron Epoch ............ ib. 257.

Horse's Bit, found in the Lake of Neuchatel . . . . . . ib. 258. Fibula, or Iron Brooch, found in the Lake of Neuchatel .... 327 259. Iron Buckle for a Sword-belt, found in the Lake of Neuchatel . . 328 260. Iron Pincers, found in the Lake of Neuchatel ...... ib. 261. Iron Spring-scissors, found in the Lake of Neuchatel . . . . ib. 262. Razor 329 263. Agriculture during the Iron Epoch (whole page engraving). PRIMITIVE MAN.

INTRODUCTION.

. Fokty years have scarcely elapsed since scientific men first began to attribute to the human race an antiquity more remote than that which is assigned to them by history and tradition. Down to a com paratively recent time, the appearance of primitive man was not dated back beyond a period of 6000 to 7000 years. This historical chronology was a little unsettled by the researches made among various eastern nations — the Chinese, the Egyptians, and the Indians. The savants who studied these ancient S} stems of civilisation found themselves unable to limit them to the "6000 years of the standard chronology, and extended back for some thousands of years the anti quity of the eastern races. This idea, however, never made its way beyond the narrow circle of oriental scholars, and did nothing towards any alteration in the general opinion, which allowed only 6000 years since the creation of the human species.

This opinion was confirmed, and, to some extent, rendered sacred by an erroneous interpretation of Holy Writ. It was thought that the Old Testament stated that man was created 6000 years ago. Now, the fact is, nothing of the kind can be found in the Book of Genesis. It is only the commentators and the compilers of chronological systems who have put forward this date as that of the first appearance of the human race. M. Edouard Lartet, who was called, in 1869, to the chair of palæontology in the Museum of Natural n

INTRODUCTION.

. 2 History of Paris, reminds us, in the following passage taken from one of his elegant dissertations, that it is the chronologists alone who have propounded this idea, and that they have, in this respect, very wrongly interpreted the statements of the Bible : " In Genesis," says M. Lartet, " no date can be found which sets a limit to the time at which primitive mankind may have made its first appearance. Chronologists, however, for fifteen centuries have been endeavouring to make Biblical facts fall in with the preconcerted arrangements of their systems. Thus, we find that more than 140 opinions have been brought forward as to the date of the creation alone, and that, between the varying extremes, there is a difference of 3194 years — a difference which only applies to the period between the commencement of the world and the birth of Jesus Christ.