Hindu Manners, Customs and Ceremonies ... Translated from the author's later French MS. and edited with notes, corrections, and biography by H. K. Beauchamp. With a prefatory note by the Right Hon. F. Max Müller, etc

Front matter

HINDU MANNERS, CUSTOMS AND CEREMONIES DUBOIS HENRY FROWDE, M.A. PUBLISHER TO THE UNIVERSITY OF OXFORD LONDON, EDINBURGH, AND NEW YORK From a Painting in the Library of the Madras Literary Society. HINDU MANNERS, CUSTOMS AND CEREMONIES BY THE ABBE J. A. DUBOIS TRANSLATED FROM THE AUTHORS LATER FRENCH MS. AND EDITED WITH NOTES, CORRECTIONS, AND BIOGRAPHY BY HENRY K. BEAUCHAMP WITH A PREFATORY NOTE BY THE RIGHT HON. F. MAX MULLER AND A PORTRAIT VOLUME I ©xfovb AT THE CLARENDON PRESS ©;cfor_> PRINTED AT THE CLARENDON PRESS EY HORACE HART, M.A. PRINTER TO THE UNIVERSITY It is difficult to believe that the Abbe Dubois, the author of Mœurs, Institutions et Ceremonies des Peuples de I' hide, died only in 1848. By his position as a scholar and as a student of Indian subjects, he really belongs to a period previous to the revival of Sanskrit studies in India, as inaugurated by Wilkins, Sir William Jones, and Colebrooke.

I had no idea, when in 1846 I was attending in Paris the lectures of Eugene Burnous at the College de France, that the old Abbe was still living and in full activity as Directeur des Missions Etrangeres, and I doubt whether even Burnous himself was aware of his existence in Paris. The Abbe belongs really to the eighteenth century, but as there is much to be learnt even from such men as Roberto de' Nobili, who went to India in 1606, from H. Roth, who was much consulted by Kircher in his China Illustrata (1667), and others, so again the eighteenth century was by no means devoid of eminent students of Sanskrit, of Indian religion, and Indian subjects in general. It is true that in our days their observations and researches possess chiefly a historical interest, but they are by no means to be neglected.

They make us see how the acquaintance of VI European scholars with India began, and under what cir cumstances the first steps were taken by these pioneers, chiefly missionaries, towards acquiring a knowledge of the ancient language of India, Sanskrit, and through it, towards gaining an acquaintance with one of the most interesting peoples and one of the richest and most original literatures of the world. The reports sent from India by the Pere Cceurdoux (1767), and published by Barthelemy in the Memoirs of the French Academy, the letters of the Pere Calmette (1733), and of the Pere Pons (1740), are full of curious information, anticipating on many points the later discoveries of Sir William Jones and other members of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, founded in 1784. It should be remembered also that the first Sanskrit grammar was published at Rome in 1790 by Paolino de S. Bartolommeo, four years before the death of Sir William Jones (1746 1794)- The Abbe Dubois, though born about 1770 and there fore considerably the junior of Sir William Jones, belonged by his place in the history of Sanskrit scholarship to the period that came to an end with the beginnings of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, which had been founded by Sir William Jones in 1784.

Chapter I

Division and Subdivision of Castes. — Castes peculiar to certain Provinces. — Particular Usages of some Castes. — Division of Castes founded on Parentage. — Subordination of Castes. — Outward Signs of certain Castes. — Division of Caste-groups into Right-hand and Left-hand 15 27

Chapter V

The Lower Classes of Sudras. — Pariahs.— Chucklers, or Cobblers, and others equally low. — Contempt in which they are held. — Pariahs strictly speaking Slaves. — Washermen, Barbers, and some others. — Disrepute into which Mechanical Skill has fallen. — Nomads and Vagabonds. — Gypsies. — Quacks. — Jugglers. — Wild Tribes, &c. . Contents XXX

Chapter IX

The different Hindu Sects. — Vishnavites and Sivaites. — The Exterior Marks and Customs peculiar to each. — The Pavadam. — The Mutual Hatreds and Differences between the Sects. — Reason for the Dislike which ordinary Brahmins feel for Vishnavite Brahmins and those belonging to other Sects — Subdivisions of the two Principal Sects ............ 1 12-123

Chapter X

The Gurus, or Hindu Priests. — The Portrait of a true Guru. — Their Temporal and Spiritual Power. — The Fear and Respect that they inspire. — Ecclesiastical Hierarchy composed of the Superior and Inferior Priests. — The Honours paid to them. — Priestesses . 124-134

Chapter XI

Purohitas, or Priests who officiate at Public and Private Ceremonies. — The Hindu Almanac as published by the Purohitas . . . 135-139

Chapter XII

Mantrams. — Their Efficacy. — The Gayatri — The word 'Aum.' — Magic Mantrams 140-145

Chapter XIII

Explanation of the Principal Ceremonies of the Brahmins and of other Castes. — The Sam-kalpa. — Puja. — Aratti. — Akshatas. — Pavitram. — Sesamum and Darbha Grass. — Puniaha-vachana. — Pancha-gavia. — Purification of Places where Ceremonies take place.— Pandals, or Pavilions made of Leaves 146-156

Chapter V

Defilements of the Soul, and the Means of Purification. — Places of Purification. — Sins for which there is no Forgiveness. — Conjectures on the Origin of Brahmin Customs connected with Defilement and Purification. — Defilement by Europeans, and an Incident which happened to the Author from this Cause ..... 197-207

Chapter VI

Marriage amongst Brahmins and other Hindus. — Celibacy. — Those who may' remain unmarried. — Polygamy tolerated only amongst the Upper Classes. — The two Sexes nearly equal in numbers. — Indissolubility ofthe Marriage Tie. — How Marriages are arranged. — Preparatory Ceremonies. — Solemn Ceremonies for the first and following Days.— Marriage amongst Sudras. — Marriage amongst Kshatriyas. — Duties after Marriage 208-237

Chapter VII

The Second, or Grahastha, Status of Brahmin. — Rules of Life which the Brahmin Grahastha should daily follow.— Introduction. — Forms to be observed when relieving Nature and when Washing. — Manner of cleansing the Teeth.— Sandhya, Part I.— Rules relating to Ablutions.— The Correct Order of Daily Avocations.— Rules to be Contents XXXII PAGES followed when Eating and when going to Bed.— Sandhya, Part II. _ Mantrams of which the Sandhya is composed.— Sandhya for Morning, Noon, and Evening.- Conclusion.- General Remarks . 238-270

Chapter XI

Religious Tolerance amongst the Brahmins.— Their Indifference with regard to their own Religion. — Their Sublime Ideas of the Deity.— A Comparison between them and the Greek Philosophers. — The State of Christianity.— The Political Intolerance and Ignorant Presumption of Brahmins 298-308

Chapter XII

The Morality of Brahmins.— Their Deceit and Dissimulation. — Their Want of Filial Devotion. — Their Incontinence. — Causes of their Depravity. — Unnatural Offences. — Outward Decency. — The Chastity of their Women. — Brahmin Methods of Revenge. — Brahmin Selfishness . 309-3 l8

Chapter XIII

The Outward Appearance of Brahmins and other Hindus. — Their Physical Defects. — Remarks on the Kakrelaks or Albinoes, as described by Naturalists, who are not allowed Burial after Death. — Other Hindus to whom the same Honour is denied. — Exhumation of Corpses. — The Feeble Physique of the Hindus. — The same Feebleness and Deterioration to be observed throughout the Animal and Vegetable Kingdoms. — Weakness of the Mental Faculties of Hindus. — The Language of the Brahmins. — Their Costume. — Their Houses 319-328

Chapter XIV

Rules of Etiquette amongst Brahmins and other Hindus. — Modes of Greeting 329~334 Contents XXXIII

Chapter XV. Pages

The Ornaments worn by Hindus. — The Different Marks with which they adorn their Bodies 335-338

Chapter XVI

Brahmin Wives. — The Education of Women. — Ceremonies which take place when they arrive at a Marriageable Age, and during Pregnancy. — The Low Estimation in which Women are held in Private Life. — The Respect that is paid to them in Public. — Their Clothing and Ornaments .......... 339-346

The Various Ceremonies observed after Burial in Honour of the Dead 495-506

Chapter XXXI

The Third Condition of Brahmins, viz. Vanaprastha, or Dweller in the Jungle. — The Respect paid to Vanaprasthas. — Conjectures as to their Origin. — Comparison between them and the Wise Men of Greece and other Philosophers. — The Rules of the Vanaprasthas. — Their Renunciation of the World and Pleasures of the Senses. — Their Moral Virtues ......... 507-515

Chapter II

Metempsychosis. — Explanation of this Religious Doctrine. — Penalties for Different Sins. — The Hindus as Authors of the Doctrine of Metempsychosis. — Difference between them and the Greeks in this Respect. — Naraka. or Hell ; Punishments endured there. — Abodes ofBliss 564-574

Chapter III

Hindu Feasts. — The New- Year Feast. — The Feast of the Household Gods. — Commemoration ofthe Dead. — Feast of the Schools. — Feasts in Honour of Serpents. — Military Feasts. — The Feast of Lamps. — Sacrifices to Plants. — The Feast of the Lingayats. — The Pongul Ceremonies. — General Remarks ... .... 575-584

Chapter IV

Hindu Temples. — Ceremonies performed in them. — Temples built on Mountains. — Pyramids. — The Architecture of Pagodas. — The Shape and Ornaments of the Idols. — Their Consecration. — Sacred Pillars. — Temple Priests and Servants. — Sacrificers. — Dancing-girls. — Musicians. — Hindu Music. — Brahmin Tricks and Artifices for attracting Worshippers. — The Hindu Desire for Children. — The Revolting Practices to which they submit to obtain them. — Remarkable Ceremonies and Vows. — Prostitution in Certain Temples. — Religious Tortures. — The Rape of Women. — Famous Temples. — Tirupati. — Jagannath. — Public Processions. — General Remarks 585-618

Chapter V

The Principal Gods of the Hindus. — Brahma. — Vishnu.— Rama. — Krishna. — Siva. — The Lingam. — Vigneshwara. — Indra. — The Abodes of Bliss of these Different Gods. — Swarga. — Kailasa. — Vaikuntha. — Sattya-loka ........ 619-642

Chapter IX

The Military System of the Hindus. — Ancient and Modern Methods of Warfare. — The Material formerly composing their Armies. — The Military Game of Chess invented by the Hindus.— Poligars.— Different Weapons that have been in Use at various Times in India 675-691

Appendix

I. The Jains. — Differences between them and the Brahmins .... 693

APPENDIX.

II. The Eka-Dasi, or Eleventh Day of the Moon 7°6

APPENDIX.

III. Siva-Ratri, or Siva's Night 711

APPENDIX.

IV Rules of Conduct for Women during their Periodical Uncleanness . . 713

APPENDIX.

V. Remarks on the Origin of the Famous Temple of Jagannath . . . 714

APPENDIX.

VI. Trial by Ordeal. — Its Different Forms ....... 720 Index ............ 725-730 HINDU MANNERS CUSTOMS, AND CEREMONIES B Though Europeans have possessed settlements in India for more than three centuries, it is only within recent times that authentic details have been obtained with respect to the people who dwell in this vast country and whose ancient civilization, methods of government, manners, creeds, and customs are nevertheless so well worthy of notice. It is impossible to doubt for a moment that science and art flourished amongst these nations at an epoch when our most civilized countries of the West were still plunged in the dark abyss of ignorance. The various forms of their institutions, both political and social ; their knowledge of mathematics, especially of astronomy ; their systems of metaphysics and ethics : all of these had long ago made the people of India famous far beyond their own borders ; while the renown of Hindu philosophers had reached even Europe.

The many ill-informed and often contradictory narra tives about India which have been published in modern times have deservedly fallen into discredit. Yet, it must be admitted, some good work has been done by certain Literary Societies that have of recent years been established in India, the members of which, possessing access to original sources of information, have begun to survey with a more critical eye these records of divine and human knowledge, whose depositaries have hitherto guarded them with zealous care behind a veil of mystery. Without doubt the members of these Societies, distinguished as they mostly are by their erudition, will continue to devote special study to the languages of the country and to make abundant use of the sources of information open to them. Yet, it must be confessed, the information which we possess about the people of India is very meagre compared with that which B Hindu Marnier^ Customs, and Cannon us it is must important (nl us to acquire.

The ancient history of iln n country is, for onething, enshrouded in chimera and fable, and, unfortunately, such incohtreHjSe and such obscurity prevail in Lhrir written records, which 3£p our only means of really getting at the truth, that it is not too much to (.resume that we shall never succeed En throwing proper light nu all this mass of absurdities. The most popular and best known of thesewritten records are the Rthuuvuiiti, the Bhiignvala, and the Malta hli.lrnln' ; but tht information which their authors give abouj the dates, events, and duration of the different dynasties ; about the hetoes of India and their prowess in war ; about tin.- various revolutions which occurred in the country and the circumstances ■vliiVh led to them; about the beginnings ol Hindu polity, libout the discoveries and progress in science and art ; in a rtnid, about all the most interesting features of history, — all in!omi;ition of this kind is, as it were, buried amid a mass of inble and superstition.

My read'-rs will gee in the following pages to what eMreiflES the people of India cany their belief in and toVC FOT 'he mar vellous. Their first historians were in real it v \>< rfttej Who seem t" have decided that they could not do brtter lhan compose their pOi ms in I he spirit of the people for whom they Were writing. That is t<> say, they were guided solely by the desire to p] .■-■ their readers, and accordingly clothed Truth in such 3 yiotesque jjStfb aa to render it a mere trawsty iVorn an historical puja! f»f > I'jff. The Indian Muse of History thus became a kind of magidffil whose wand performed wonders. The successors i>i tlic-se first poet-histdrians were actuated by the sanio uiniivi s, and even thought that it added to their OWD glory r,., jnipwjve no their piedecessors and to surpass them in the .ihsunlity i-.| their fictions.

While waitmy fur in<|iiin r-;, mor<- skilful than niysclfj U> find H way through this labyrinth, which to ntfe fs absolutely inex >'-, I oh'er tQ tliL pul il Jc a large number of authentic records which 1 hltTC inn lully collected, and whn h, tnr tin most part, rontom partii:ul<irs that ap ■ Mlier unkiK'Wn or only p:irti.ill\; known, iu the hope that they will bt Itninfl ped altogether dcVOfd Ml iniere-i I LcIicvBj at any rate, ihut ihuy will b L a.rknow- 1 Ilicsc in* the three priest Hindu Epic poems, Vide r.iri M Chnplcr XXIf < f,r. 111. Uiai-U- \ ledged to contain some useful materials for future savants who may undertake a complete and methodical treatise on the people of India, a task which is far beyond my powers and which more over I could not possibly have laid upon myself, seeing that I was without literary aids of any kind during my long and absolute seclusion amongst the natives of the country.

In this new edition the contents of my first MS. have been carefully revised and corrected. They have, moreover, been considerably augmented by many curious details which did not appear in the original document. At the same time, I have made no substantial changes in the order and classification of the contents. Five or six additional chapters, and a number of corrections and improvements in the body of the work, con stitute all the difference between this and the earlier draft. Since the English translation of the latter appeared, great political changes have taken place amongst the people whose manners and institutions I have sketched ; but, as these changes were not taken into account in my original plan, I have not considered myself bound, when referring to them, to go beyond the limits which I prescribed for myself in the first instance.

In all that I say about the administration of the Peninsula my readers will at once perceive that I have in mind the Governments preceding that which has now made itself master of the destinies of the Indian people, and which has freed them from the iron yoke of a long series of arbitrary rulers, under whose oppression they groaned during so many centuries. This colossal dominion, which a European Government has succeeded in establishing in India without any very great difficulty and without any very violent shocks, has filled the people of India with admiration, and has fully convinced the Powers of Asia of the great superiority of Europeans in every way, and more especially in the art of subjugating and govern ing nations. We too may well wonder at a conquest which appears indeed almost miraculous.

It is difficult for us to imagine how a mere handful of men managed to coerce into submissive obedience a hundred millions of people, scattered over a country which extends for twenty-four degrees of latitude north and south and for nearly the same number of degrees east and west. And it is still more difficult to understand how these few men are able to maintain within the bounds of duty and subordina tion a population whose creeds, habits, customs, and manner of life are so absolutely different from their own. Yet one will have little or no difficulty in accounting for such a phenomenon if one examines on the one hand the spirit, character, and institutions of the people governed, and on the other the system adopted by those governing them. The people of India have always been accustomed to bow their heads beneath the yoke of a cruel and oppressive despotism, and moreover, strange to say, have always displayed mere indifference towards those who have forced them to it.

Little cared they whether the princes under whom they groaned were of their own country or from foreign lands1. The frequent vicissitudes that befell those in power were hardly noticed by their subjects. Never did the fall of one of these despots cause the least regret ; never did the elevation of another cause the least joy. Hard experience had taught the Hindus to disregard not only the hope of better times but the fear of worse. The fable of the ass urged by its master to escape from approaching robbers is most appropriate to these people. They have always considered themselves lucky enough if their religious and domestic institutions were left untouched by those who by good fortune or force of arms had got hold of the reins of government. The European Power which is now established in India is, properly speaking, supported neither by physical force nor by moral influence.

It is a piece of huge, complicated machinery, moved by springs which have been arbitrarily adapted to it. Under the supremacy of the Brahmins the people of India hated their government, while they cherished and respected their rulers ; under the supremacy of Europeans they hate and despise their rulers from the bottom of their hearts, while they cherish and respect their government. And here I would remark that the rule of all the Hindu princes, and often that of the Mahomedans, was, properly speaking, Brahminical rule, since all posts of confidence were held by Brahmins. If it be possible to ameliorate the condition of the people of 1 This is illustrated in the familiar Rama reigns or the Rakshasa (Ra proverb, ' What matters it whether vana) reigns ? ' Ed. India I am convinced that this desirable result will be attained under the new regime, whatever may be said by detractors who are ready to find fault with everything.

Whatever truth indeed there may be in the prejudiced charges, engendered by ignorance "and interested motives, which are brought against the new order of things, and which are perhaps inseparable from every great administration, I for one cannot believe that a nation so eminently distinguished for its beneficent and humane principles of government at home, and above all for its impartial justice to all classes alike — I for one cannot believe that this nation will ever be blind enough to compromise its own noble character by refusing participation in these benefits to a subject people which is content to live peaceably under its sway. At the same time I venture to predict that it will attempt in vain to effect any very considerable changes in the social condition of the people of India, whose character, principles, customs, and ineradicable conservatism will always present insurmountable obstacles.

To make a people happy, it is essential that they themselves should desire to be made happy and should co-operate with those who are working for their happiness. Now, the people of India, it appears to me, neither possess this desire nor are anxious to co-operate to this end. Every reform which is obviously devised for their well-being they obstinately push aside if it is likely in the least degree to disturb their manner of living, their most absurd prejudice, or their most puerile custom. Nevertheless the justice and prudence which the present rulers display in endeavouring to make these people less unhappy than they have been hitherto ; the anxiety they manifest in increasing their material comfort ; above all, the inviolable respect which they constantly show for the customs and religious beliefs of the country ; and, lastly, the protection they afford to the weak as well as to the strong, to the Brahmin as to the Pariah, to the Christian, to the Mahomedan, and to the Pagan : all these have contributed more to the consolidation of their power than even their victories and conquests.

There is another circumstance no less remarkable which may account for the stability and power of this Government, and that is the sagacity with which it has chosen persons to fill places of responsibility under it. For uprightness of character, education, and ability it would be hard to find a body of public servants better capable of filling with zeal and distinction the offices, more or less important, that are entrusted to them. During the thirty years spent by me in the various provinces of India I have had the honour of knowing a very large number of these public servants, and it gives me much pleasure to testify here to the many excellent qualities which I have almost invariably found them to possess. Cast away, as it were, on the shores of this foreign land at a time when my own country was a prey to all the horrors of a disastrous revolution, I never failed to receive from them the warmest hospitality.

Even when a desperate war might well have given rise to bitter prejudice against everything French, I never failed to find amongst the rulers of India many friends and benefactors. Would that the fear of offending their modesty did not forbid my mentioning here in testimony of my regard the names of many of them equally distinguished for their high merit and for their commanding position. But even at the risk of appearing indiscreet I cannot pass over one of them in silence. I cannot, in the fullness of my gratitude, abstain from mentioning publicly how much I owe to the Honourable Mr. Arthur Henry Cole, the British Resident in Mysore. This worthy official, whose public and domestic virtues, inexhaustible charity, and polished manners are recognized throughout the whole ofthe Peninsula, has found a fitting recognition of his fine character in the love and respect of the natives subject to his jurisdiction, who with one voice have hailed him as the father of their country.

All that he has done for the natives of Mysore will be long remembered by them. As regards myself, nothing can equal the many acts of kindness which he has heaped upon me during my stay of twenty years in the province subject to his authority. If these words ever reach him I trust that he will recognize in them the genuine feelings of respect and gratitude which I shall ever cherish towards him. One might accuse me of blind prejudice if I went so far as to affirm that everybody vested with authority in this land was without exception worthy of high praise. The fact is, we do not live in an age of miracles. It is probable, it is even certain, that not all of those entrusted with the supervision of this huge political machinery are influenced by the purest motives. And yet the system of watchful control is such that any man who allows himself to be tempted from the path of duty by greed and avarice cannot hope to hide his corrupt doings from the eye of superior authority for any length of time.

Every subject ofthe dominant power, however humble he may be, is allowed the right of free petition ; and this is sufficient guarantee that any well founded grievances will be set right, any well-proven abuses put a stop to. It has been asserted that any great power based neither on a display of force nor on the affection and esteem of subject races is bound sooner or later to topple under its own weight. I am far from sharing this opinion altogether. The present Government occupies a position in which it has little or nothing to fear from extraneous disturbance. True it is that like all empires it is subject to possible chances of internal dissension, military revolt, and general insurrection. But I firmly believe that nothing of this sort will happen to it so long as it main tains amongst its troops the perfect discipline and the sense of comfort which at present exist, and so long as it does all in its power to make its yoke scarcely perceptible by permitting its subjects every freedom in the exercise of their social and religious practices \ It is the poverty of the country which in my opinion gives most cause for apprehension — a poverty which is accompanied by the most extraordinary supineness on the part of the people themselves.

The question is, will a Government which is rightly determined to be neither unjust nor oppressive be able always to find within the borders of this immense empire means sufficient to enable it to meet the heavy expenses of its administration2? But, after all, God alone can foretell the destiny of Governments ! But I must return to the contents of my work. During my long sojourn in India I never let slip any opportunity of collecting materials and particulars of all sorts. My information 1 Students of Indian History will bear witness to the wisdom of the Abbe's remarks, which subsequent history has so strikingly tended to - Within these few lines the Abbe, with extraordinary insight, has em bodied the great problem of British administration in India. — Ed. confirm. — Ed. has been drawn partly from the books which are held in highest estimation amongst the people of India and partly from such scattered records as fell by chance into my hands and con tained facts upon which I could thoroughly rely.

But in regard to the majority of the materials which I now offer to the public I am chiefly dependent on my own researches, having lived in close and . amiliar intercourse with persons of every caste and condition of life. Probably many Europeans settled in India would have been more capable than myself of performing the same task ; but I may be permitted to doubt whether there has been any person more favourably situated for gleaning information or more zealous in his pursuit of knowledge. I had no sooner arrived amongst the natives of India than I recognized the absolute necessity of gaining their confidence. Accordingly I made it my constant rule to live as they did. I adopted their style of clothing, and I studied their customs and methods of life in order to be exactly like them. I even went so far as to avoid any display of repugnance to the majority of their peculiar prejudices.

By such circumspect conduct I was able to ensure a free and hearty welcome from people of all castes and conditions, and was often favoured of their own accord with the most curious and interesting particulars about themselves. In publishing these records of my researches I have no wish to aspire to literary fame. I have noted down just what I saw, just what I heard, just what I read. I have aimed only at simplicity and accuracy. If I have here and there ventured to give a few opinions and conjectures of my own, I beg that my readers will not suppose that I have done so out of vanity and with the object of posing as a profound scholar, which I am not. However severely critics may attack my work, they cannot be more keenly aware of its imperfections than myself. I know well that my researches might have been presented in a form more agreeable, more animated, and more methodical.

There are many matters mentioned by me which called for more pro found discussion, clearer criticism, and wider treatment. A more correct and more brilliant style would have concealed the dryness of certain details. But I beg indulgent readers to consider the circumstances which have prevented me from satisfying such conditions. Separated as I was for more than thirty years from all intercourse with my fellow-countrymen, communicating only rarely and occasionally with Europeans, passing my whole life in villages in the midst of rude cultivators of the soil, deprived of all the advantages which great cities offer to those writers who are clever enough to profit by the labours of their predecessors, prevented from invoking the aid and counsel of intelligent men, having no books to refer to except my Bible and a few writings without merit and without interest which chance rather than choice put into my hands, compelled indeed to rely upon the imperfect recollection of what I had read and learned in my youth : with all these disadvantages it was only to be expected that my work would be defective.