The History of England from the Landing of Cæsar to the Reign of Victoria

Preface

. For several years, during which the study of English history has been my favourite pursuit, it has appeared to me that whilst some periods have been brought into brighter light (of late) through the researches of fascinating writers, there is still room for a connected narrative including more characteristic details than are contained in ordinary abridg ments. To trace the course by which our country has emerged from barbarism into general freedom and com parative enlightenment has been to me a most interesting task. Every work of this kind must be in great measure a compilation, whether derived in part from early records, or relying on the authority of able writers. My continual recourse to the works of Hallam. Freeman, Macaulay, and other historians, may have led me occasionally to borrow their language somewhat freely, but numerous references to their pages indicate at the same time the authorities which I have consulted and the sources whence the reader may obtain fuller information.

The division into separate reigns appears to me more distinct, for those at least not well acquainted with the course of events, than the sections adopted by Mr. Green, in his learned and valuable compendium. In the spelling of proper names I have followed the examples of Lingard and Hallam. A short Appendix to the First Volume contains a sketch of the life of St. Patrick, the Apostle of Ireland, and some information concerning the first promulgation of Christianity in the British islands, which may, I hope, be interesting to my readers. Hampstead : November, 1876. PAGE CONTENTS or THE FIRST VOLUME.

Chapter I

B.C. do — A.D. 428. Ancient Britain — Roman invasion — Description of the inhabitants —The Druids — Roman invasion under Claudius — Roman wall — Abandonment of Britain — Roman remains— Roman roads . . . . 1

Chapter II. Anglo-saxon Period

— THE HEPTARCHY. A.D. 428-871 Saxons first mentioned — Saxon Settlement in the Isle of Thanet — Subjugation of the British — Saxon Britain divided into seven kingdoms, called the Heptarchy — Ethelbert's Conversion to Christianity — Degrees of rank — Danish incursions — Egbert, King of Wessex — The Witenagemot — Great Inroad of the Danes — Their defeat by Ethelwulf — Death of Etbelwulf — His successors — Christian schools at Jarrow and York — Venerable Bede 10

Chapter III

A.D. 871-1016. Alfred, King of Wessex — Domination of the Danes — Victories of Alfred — His legislation — Danish incursions renewed — Death of Alfred — Edward the Elder — Athelstan, first King of Ens/land — Victorious in Northumberland — Death of Athelstan — Edmund, Edred, and Edwy — Prosperity of Edgar's reign — Edgar in Cheshire attended by vassal princes — His death — Edward — Ethelred — Massacre of Danes — Danish incursions renewed — -Ethelred in Normandy — Sweyn — Canute — Ethelred restored— His death — Edmund Ironside — Defeat of Assinsrton — Death of Edmund CONTENTS OF THE FIRST VOLUME. PAGE 33 55 81

Chapter IV

A.D. 1016-1066. Canute the Dane— Earl Godwin— Canute visits Rome— His Government —His death— Rival parties— Division of England between Canute's sons— Harold— Death of the Etheling Alfred— Death of Harold— Harda-Canute— Edward the Confessor— Norman customs— William, Duke of Normandy— The three great Earls— The Godwins banished —The Duke of Normandy in England— Harold invades Somersetshire — Return of Godwin — Flight of the Normans— Godwin's death — Death of the Etheling Edward— Tostig— Banishment of Alfgar — allied with Gruffydd, King of Wales— Harold meets the Welsh — Alfgar restored— Conquest of Wales — Northumberland revolts — Tostig outlawed — Harold in Normandy — His oath — Westminster Abbey — Edward's death — Coronation of Harold — Tostig in Northumberland — Battle of Stamford Bridge — The Duke of Normandy at Pevensey — Harold at Westminster — Battle of Hastings, or Senlac — Death of Harold — The Bayeux tapestry .

Chapter V. William The Conqueror

A.D. 1066-1087. Crowned at Westminster Abbe_y — Grants a charter to London — Visits Norinandy — Rebellion in the West of England — Exeter capitulates — Insurrection in the North — Durham attacked — Devastation of Northumberland — Lanfranc, Archbishop of Canterbury — Assembly of Penenden Heath — Formation of the New Forest — Revolt in the Fens — William at Ely — Submission of Malcolm — Waltheof's rebellion and execution — Odo arrested — Severity exercised — Domesday Book — Assembly on Salisbury Plain — William leaves England for Normandy — Wounded at Mantes — and dies at Rouen — His funeral at Caen

Chapter VI. William II

, SURNAMED RUFUS. A.D. 1087-1100. Odo's conspiracy and banishment — Exactions of Flambard — War between the King and his brothers — War with Scotland — Death of Malcolm — EebeUion of Robert Mowbray — Anselm, Archbishop of Canterbury — The Crusades — Kobert pawns Normandy — Death of William — The royal treasury seized by Henry 7;J

Chapter VII. Henry

I., SURNAMED BEAUCLERK. A.D. 1100-1135. Charters granted — His marriage with Matilda — Exile of Flambard — Treaty between Henry and Robert — The king attacks Belesme — War between the brothers — Seizure and imprisonment of Robert — War between France and England — Shipwreck of Prince William — Marriage of Matilda to Geoffrey of Anjou — Henry's severity — He dies at Rouen . PAGE 124 135

Chapter VIII. Stephen

A.D. 1135-1154. Coronation of Stephen — Acquiescence in his rule — Invasion of the King of Scots — Battle of the Standard — Feebleness of the government — Discontent of the clergy — Matilda lands in England — Civil War — Captivity of Stephen — Assembly of Winchester — Matilda expelled from London — Stephen released — Prince Henry lands — Adopted by Stephen as his successor — Death of Stephen 91

Chapter IX. Henry II

A.D. 1154-1189. Henry's dominions in France — General tranquillity in England — Thomas a, Becket, Chancellor — Disadvantage of a separate Spiritual Jurisdiction — Becket Archbishop of Canterbury — Constitutions of Clarendon — The Archbishop fined and exiled — Banishment of his followers — Excommunication of his adversaries — Prince Henry crowned as assistant sovereign — Meeting of the King and Archbishop — Murder of Becket — Henry's visit to Ireland — His recall to Normandy — Does penance at Canterbury — Capture of King William of Scotland — Improvements in the laws — Disobedience of Henry's sons — Death of Prince Henry — Death of the King 98

Chapter X. Richard

I., SURNAMED CŒUR DE LION. A.D. 1189-1199. Richard's coronation — Massacre of the Jews — He joins the Crusade — Hostility towards the Kings of Sicily and Cyprus — Reaches the camp before Acre — Massacre of the hostages — Victory over Saladin — Retires to the coast — A truce agreed upon — He sails for Europe — Is driven ashore near Venice — Seized and imprisoned — Dissensions between Longchamp and Prince John — News of Richard's arrest — John's disloyalty — Longchamp discovers the King's abode — Richard summoned before the German Diet — Treaty for his release — He returns to England, and is again crowned — War with the King of France — Fitz-Osbert, a leader of the people — Death of Richard in France ....

CHAPTER XL JOHN.

A.D. 1199-1216. John suspected of Arthur's murder — Condemned at Paris — Loss of the English provinces in France — John's quarrel with the Pope — England under interdict — Threatened invasion of the King of France — John swears fealty to the Pope — Disaffection in England — Assembly of Runnymede — Magna Charta — The Pope opposes the Barons — They seek help from France — Prince Louis arrives — Death of John . X PAGE 150 1G7 184

Chapter XII. Henry III

A.D. 121G-1272. Henry crowned at Gloucester— The Earl of Pembroke his guardian- Revision of Magna Charta— Prince Louis defeated at Lincoln — Surrenders his pretensions— Death of the Earl of Pembroke— Rivalry of Hubert de Burgh and Des Roches, Bishop of Winchester— Procession to Canterbury— Fall of Hubert de Burgh— His restoration— Simon de Montfort — Marriage of the King of Scotland to Princess Margaret — Henry renews his promise to maintain Magna Charta — The Mad Parliament— The Provisions of Oxford— Civil War— Battle of Lewes — The King and Prince Edward taken prisoners — De Montfort summons deputies from the towns to Parliament — Battle of Evesham — Defeat and death of De Montfort — Henry recovers authority — His death — Edward I. proclaimed king — Roger Bacon at Oxford

Chapter XIII. Edward

I. A.D. 1272-1307. Edward absent — crowned at Westminster Abbey — ' Statutes o_ Westminster ' — Expedition into Wales — Statute of Mortmain — The Welsh revolt — Death of Llewellyn — Conquest of Wales — Birth of the King's son at Carnarvon — Punishment of Weyland, Chief Justiciary — Death of Alexander, King of Scotland — The ' Maid of Norway ' — Her death — An assembly at Norham — Rival claims of John Baliol and Robert Bruce — Baliol styled King John — Displeasure of the Scots — Wrar between England and France — Baliol devastates the English border — Edward subdues Scotland — Berwick taken — Baliol deposed — William Wallace — Victory of Stirling — Wallace defeated at Falkirk — Rival Earls of Hereford and Norfolk — First complete Parliament — Second invasion of Scotland — Coronation of Robert Bruce — His death — Expulsion of the Jews from England

Chapter XIV. Edward II

A.D. 1307-1327. Recall of Gaveston — Appointed Regent — Edward's marriage to Isabella of France — Remonstrance of the Barons — Gaveston Governor of Ireland — Parliament of Stamford allows his return — Gaveston offends the Barons — ' Ordainers ' regulate the King's household — Gaveston leaves England — returns — and is reinstated — taken prisoner — and beheaded at Warwick — The Barons pardoned — The English defeated at Bannockburn — Edward Bruce invades Ireland — The Earl of Lancaster — Banishment of the Despencers — They return — Earl of Lancaster executed — The Scots invade England — Civil war — Edward deposed — His son proclaimed as Edward III. — Murder of Edward II. at Berkeley Castle — Extincti in of the order of Knights-Templars

Chapter XV. Edward III

A.D. 1327-1377. Edward succeeds — Incursion of the Scots — Treaty of peace — Murder of Edward II.— Marriage of the young King to "Isabella of Hainault— PAGE 195 229 255 268 The Earl of Kent put to death by Mortimer — Execution of Mortimer — Edward asserts his authority — Philip of France — Edward claims the French crown — Sails to Antwerp — Naval victory at Sluys — Edward's first campaigns unsuccessful — Quarrel with Archbishop Stratford — Interferes in Brittany — His alliance with Flanders — ■ Battle of Crecy — Defeat of the Scots at Neville's Cross — Siege of Calais — Naval victory over Spanish fleet — The Plague — Oppression of English labourers — Campaigns of the Black Prince — Battle of Poitiers — King of France captive — Misery of France — Peace of Bre'tigny — King of France dies in London — Renewal of war — Mas sacre at Limoges — Unsuccessful attempt to relieve Thouars — The ' Good Parliament ' — Death of the Black Prince — Wyclif summoned to St. Paul's — John of Gaunt, Duke of Lancaster — Death of the King — Bishop Wykeham — Chaucer — English language employed in law-courts

Chapter XVI. Richard II

A.D. 1377-1399. The Duke of Lancaster in Parliament — The Poll-tax — Rebellion of Wat Tyler — Richard's intrepidity — Tyler slain — Concessions afterwards revoked — Richard's marriage to Anne of Bohemia — Death of Wyclif — Unpopularity of the ministers — The Duke of Gloucester — Civil strife — Impeachments and executions — Death of Sir Simon Burley — ' The Wonderful Parliament ' — Richard takes the coronation oath a second time-Regains his authority — Rule in Ireland — Marries a young French Princess — His tyranny — Arrest of Gloucester — Execution of Arundel — The Dukes of Hereford and Norfolk exiled — Hereford inherits the dukedom of Lancaster — Lands in Yorkshire — Presents himself before Richard at Flint Castle — Richard sent to the Tower — Deposed by Parliament

Chapter XVII. Henry IV

A.D. 1399-1413. Henry's accession — Insurrection in favour of Richard — Death of Richard at Pontefract — First victim burned for heresy — Insurrection in Wales — The Percies head a confederacy against the King — Battle of Shrewsbury and death of Hotspur — Execution of the Archbishop of York and the Earl Marshal — Captivity of the Prince of Scotland — The Earl of Northumberland slain in battle — Death of the King

Chapter XVIII. Henry

V. A.D. 1413-1422. Popularity of Henry V. — Sir John Oldcastle put to death as a Lollard — The French war renewed — Battle of Agincourt— Henry takes Rouen — Civil war in France — The treaty of Troyes — Henry declared the next heir of the French monarchy — His marriage to the Princess Catherine Dies at Vincennes— Charles VI. dies — The infant Henry declared King of both France and England PAGE 280

Chapter XIX. Henry VI

A.D. 1422-1461. Proclamation of the King— Regency in France— The Duke of Bedford — The English besiege Orleans— Joan of Arc— Siege of Orleans raised — Joan taken prisoner — Delivered to Bedford — Burned at Rouen — Coronation of Henry at Paris — Death of Bedford at Rouen— Charges brought against the Duchess of Gloucester — The King's marriage to Margaret of Anjou — Arrest and death of the Duke of Gloucester — Popular outcry against the Dukes of Suffolk and Somerset — Exile and murder of Suffolk — Jack Cade's rebellion — The rebels driven out of London — Cade killed — Contention of York and Somerset — The King's incapacity — York becomes Protector — Battle of St. Alban's — Dissensions renewed — Attainder of the Yorkists — The Earl of Warwick — Henry a prisoner — Battle of Wakefield and death of York — Edward, his son, proclaimed King .......

Chapter XX. Edward IV

A.D. 1461-1483. Battle of Towton — His coronation — Servility of Parliament — Henry VI. captured by the Earl of Warwick — Edward's marriage to Elizabeth Woodville — Defeat at Edgecote — Warwick joins Queen Margaret — Edward lands in Yorkshire — Battle of Barnet — Death of Warwick — Death of King Henry's son — Murder of Henry VI. — Richard, Duke of Gloucester, marries the widow of Prince Henry — Death of Clarence —Death of Edward IV. 299

Chapter XXI. Edward

V. — RICHARD III. A.D. 1483-1485. The son of Edward IV. proclaimed King — Richard, Duke of Gloucester — Arrests Lords Rivers and Grey — Brings the young King to London — Execution of Lord Hastings — The Duke of York removed from the sanctuary — Sent to the Tower with the young King — Insinuations against the legality of the late King's marriage — Buckingham's harangue — Address and offer of the crown accepted — Richard crowned at Westminster with Anne, daughter of Warwick — Murder of the princes in the Tower — Conspiracy in favour of Henry, Earl of Richmond — Execution of Buckingham — Henry lands at Miltbrd Haven— Battle of Bosworth— Death of Richard— Caxton's printing-press g!2

Chapter XXII. Henry VII

A.D. 1485-1509. Henrys accession— Marriage— Lord Lovell's insurrection— Treaty with bcotland-Lambert Simnel-Battle of Stoke— Laws against Maintenance-Star-chamber-Anne of Brittany-Henry lands at Calais- Peace with France-Perkm Warbeck-Execution of Sir William Stanley— State of Ireland— Warbeck's invasion— His surrender— TAGE 327 345 Executions of Warbeck and of Warwick — Marriage of the Princess Margaret to James of Scotland — Marriage of Prince Arthur to Catherine of Spain — Death of Arthur — Contract of marriage between Catherine and Prince Henry — The King gets possession of the Earl of Suffolk — The King's extortions — Danger of Sir Thomas More — Death of Henry — Discovery of Newfoundland

Chapter XXIII. Henry VIII

A.D. 1509-1547. Executions of Dudley aud Empson — Alliance with the Emperor of Germany — Battle of Flodden — Rise of Wolsey — Peace with France — Field of the Cloth of Gold — Execution of Buckingham — Resistance to taxation in Suffolk — Suppression of monasteries — The Protestant Controversy — Hugh Latimer — Henry's preference for Anne Boleyn — Henry and Catherine before Campeggio — Fall of Wolsey — Sir Thomas More, Chancellor — Death of Wolsey — Henry's efforts to obtain a divorce — Cromwell's advice — Cranmer, Archbishop of Canterbury — Marriage and coronation of Anne Boleyn — The Princess Elizabeth declared heir to the crown — Elizabeth Barton, the Nun of Kent — Her execution — Fisher executed — Sir Thomas More executed — the Priors of the Charter House executed — Henry excommunicated — Death of Catherine — Charges against Anne — Her execution — Henry marries Jane Seymour — The Bible in English — ' The Pilgrimage of Grace ' — Birth of Edward, Prince of Wales — Cardinal Pole's plots — The Marquis of Salisbury and others executed — The Six Articles — The King marries Anne of Cleves — Divorced — Fall and execution of Cromwell — The King marries Catherine Howard — Execution of the Countess of Salisbury — Execution of Catherine Howard — The King marries Catherine Parr — War with Scotland — Death of James V. — The infant Mary of Scots crowned at Stirling — A Benevolence required — Severe treatment of Alderman Reed — Execution of the Earl of Surrey — Death of the King . . . .

Chapter XXIV Edward VI

A.D. 1547-1553. Edward's accession — The Duke of Somerset, Protector — Edward crowned by Cranmer — Alliance between France and Scotland — Somerset invades Scotland — Victory at Pinkie Cleugh — Repeal of the 'Six Articles ' — Mary, Queen of Scotland, sent to France — Execution of Lord Seymour — Discontent of the People — Ket's Rebellion — Charges against Somerset — His Trial and Execution — Martyrdom of Joan Bocher — Christ's Hospital School — The Duke of Northumberland's plot — Marriage of Lady Jane Grey — The King's death — Lady Jane proclaimed Queen — The Council declare for Queen Mary — Arrest of Northumberland 411

Chapter XXV. Mary

A.D. 1553-1558. Mary and Elizabeth enter London — Trials of Northumberland, Warwick, and Northampton — Northumberland's execution — Protestant Bishops imprisoned — The Coronation — Parliament restores Catholicism — PAGE Condemnation of Cranmer, Lady Jane Grey, and Lord Guildford Dudley— Objection to Philip of Spain— Mary's reply— Wyatt's rebellion — Mary addresses the Citizens — Execution of Lady Jane Grey — of Northumberland — Mary married by proxy to Philip of Spain — Elizabeth sent to the Tower — Punishment of a Jury — Eliza beth removed to Woodstock — Philip's arrival — Married to Mary at Winchester — Cardinal Pole as Papal Legate — Removal of the Inter dict — Hooper and Rogers burnt — Latimer and Ridley burnt — Philip departs — Cranmer burnt — Calais surrenders to the French — Death of the Queen 430

Chapter XXVI. Elizabeth

A.D. 1558-1603. Elizabeth crowned — Protestantism re-established — Acts of Supremacy and Uniformity — Mary Stuart, Queen of France — Treaty of Leith — The Earl of Leicester — Mary Stuart's return to Scotland — Marries Lord Darnley — Civil war in Scotland — Murder of Rizzio — Murder of Darnley — BotlrweU's trial — Mary married to Bothwell — Maryat Loch Leven — Escapes into England — ' The casket-papers ' — Spanish war in the Netherlands — Disaffection in Ireland — Plots in favour of Mary — Murder of the Earl of Murray — Elizabeth excommunicated — Rudolphi's Conspiracy — The Duke of Norfolk executed — Massacre of St. Bartholomew — Elizabeth at Kenilworth — The Duke d'Alencon, a suitor — Voyages of Francis Drake — DAlencon's suit rejected — Murder of the Prince of Orange — Return of Admiral Drake — Defence of England — Babington's plot — Trial of Mary Stuart — Her execution — Death of Sir Philip Sidney — Intended invasion of England — The Spanish Armada — Dispersed — Death of Leicester — The Earl of Essex — Sir Walter Raleigh — Henry IV. in alliance with Elizabeth — Attack on Cadiz — Death of Lord Burleigh — Death of PhUip — The Earl of Essex in Ireland — Revolts — Trials of Essex and Southampton — Execution of Essex — Elizabeth's concessions — Her death — The Ladies Grey 465

Appendix

HISTORY OF ENGLAND.

Chapter I. Ancient Britain

The first history of a country is usually written by its invaders. Savages write no account of themselves. They have frequently a rude poetry recording the deeds of their great men, floating on the memory and forming their national chronicle ; but their real condition and abode are first described by the pen of a conqueror, and their wild freedom must have been invaded before they advance towards a more civilised state. Thus it was with the ancient inhabitants of our country- ' The first traces of our national history must be sought not in Britain but in Germany; in the reports given by Cæsar and Tacitus of the tribes which they knew.'1 Even long before the Romans reached Britain, the Phœnician adventurers who resorted to Spain for metals had heard that tin might be found in Cornwall, and sailed over to the ' Cassiterides,' or Tin-islands, supposed by antiquaries to be the Scilly Isles ; but according to a late writer, St. Michael's Mount, near Penzance, more exactly corresponds with the description first given by a Eoman geographer.

Whatever may be left to conjecture, it is interesting to believe, with Mr. Merivale, that 'the bare brown mountain called Carn Menellis,' near Falmouth, ' has never rested from the strokes of the miner's pick, nor the neighbouring creeks from the dash of the trader's 1 The words of Professor Stubbs, quoted by Mr. Freeman. See Essay in ' Fort nightly Review,' September, 1871. VOL. I. E B.C. 55. 2 ANCIENT BRITAIN. oar, since first the old Phœnicians came." Far from extending knowledge of the British Isles, the merchants jealously con cealed the exact position of the shore whence they obtained their treasure ; and as the Mediterranean was long the boundary of naval adventure, Britain still remained nearly unknown. In the year B.C. 55, this island was first revealed to the Roman world by the invasion of Julius Cæsar.

After his conquest of Gaul, which then comprised the Prance of a later age, with Switzerland and other lands adjoining, Cæsar was induced to cross the Channel. He desired to revenge on Britain the assistance which British chiefs had rendered to the Gauls. Cæsar must have planned the expedition with eager curi osity, for he relates that he found in Gaul none who could satisfactorily answer his questions concerning the size of the island or the condition of its inhabitants. It appeared that the southern coast only had been visited for the sake of traffic.2 It was in August, fifty-five years before the Christian era, that Cæsar set sail for Britain. The Britons were aware of his intention, and mustered in force to oppose him. As Cæsar approached the shore, he beheld the cliffs covered by numbers of armed men, and, altering his course to avoid a combat, is said to have landed where now stands the town of Deal.

The natives boldly followed his course, even urging their horses into the waves, and with loud cries bade defiance to the invaders. The Romans were at first dismayed by the frantic appear ance of the islanders; but, after a short pause, a Roman standard-bearer, calling on his comrades to follow him, leaped into the sea, and on landing, they soon overcame the undis ciplined enemy. But the Britons were not disposed to yield ; they sent messengers in different directions to represent to their countrymen that the Romans were few in number, and to implore help in repelling them. They even ventured to attack the Roman camp, though without success. Nevertheless, after a three weeks' sojourn in Kent, Cæsar judged his force insufficient for the conquest of Britain, and withdrew to Gaul, where he spent the winter in preparing a second expedition.

He embarked again in the sprino-, trans porting across the Straits a large body of foot soldiers, and 1 Merivale's ' Historical Studies; ' ' Antiquities of Cornwall,' p. 380 2 Cæsar, ' De Bello Gallieo,' lib. iv. c. 20. The exact spot 'where Cæsar landed has been much discussed, other points of the coast having been named besides Deal See Professor Long's edition of ' Cæsar,' p. 274. b.c. 55. CÆSAR'S INVASION. 3 two thousand horsemen, in more than eight hundred ships. The Britons, unable to resist such troops, retired to the shelter of their woods. The Romans again occupied their former encampment, and were not molested. Soon after their landing, about forty of their vessels were destroyed by a storm. Cæsar ordered that the rest should be drawn to shore beyond the reach of the tide, and be surrounded by a mound ; after which precaution he marched in pursuit of the Britons.

Cæsar has described the Britons as brave and dexterous combatants, often successful in slight encounters. They separated into small bands within hail of each other, watched for the approach of the enemy, cut off stragglers, and greatly impeded his progress. Their chiefs, we are told, fought from chariots armed with scythes, driving on rough ground and down steep descents with much dexterity. They drove fearlessly along the Roman line, espied every opportunity of breaking the ranks of the enemy, and during the heat of action would run along the poles, leap on the ground, and regain their seats with great skill. The strength and excellence of their horses also excited the admiration of the Romans. But when, encouraged by the apparent disorder of their assailants, the Britons attempted a regular attack, they suffered so severe a defeat that many of the tribes retired to their homes and laid down their arms in despair.

The dissensions of the various native princes now smoothed the way for the Roman arms, and Cæsar soon gained possession of the royal residence of King Cassibelan (Caswallon) near the present town of St. Alban's. The best habitations were huts built of timber and reeds on a foundation of stone, a hole being left in the centre of the roof to let out the smoke and give light to the inhabitants. Such was the palace of an ancient British king ; and a town was a place of defence among woods and marshes, surrounded by a mound and ditch for the security of families and cattle. The continual wars in which the Britons engaged had taught them early to take measures of defence. Even the rude dwellings just described were found only in the southern part of Britain, where the inhabitants had acquired some degree of civilisation.

In another part of the island the Britons lived in forests, or under slight sheds formed of stakes driven into the ground interwoven with wattles, and covered with branches of trees ; in the winter they retired into caves in the earth. They were accustomed to paint themselves, and sometimes to print on their skins figures of animals by using pointed B ANCIENT BRITAIN. B.C. 55. instruments, applying blue dye to the punctures in order to appear the more terrible in battle. They used shields made of osiers covered with skins, and long heavy swords. The inhabitants of Kent were the most civilized ; they wore cloth dresses either of their own weaving or imported from Gaul, raised corn, and stored it in the cavities of rocks. Cæsar states, in fact, that when he landed on August 26th, the harvest was nearly over.

But the tribes of the central and western districts were unskilled in either agriculture or manu factures. Their herds were their sole dependence ; like the wandering Tartars, they satisfied their hunger with milk and flesh, and by clothing themselves in skins were enabled to brave the rigour of winter, which, owing to the extent of forests and undrained marshes, must have been much colder than at present. The tribe called by the Romans Caledonians, who inhabited Scotland, were the strongest and fiercest, and prin cipally supported themselves by hunting. Cæsar accepted hostages from the defeated princes, fixed the amount of tribute which they should henceforth pay to the Roman Government, and in the month of September of the year succeeding his invasion (b.c. 54) withdrew to Gaul.1 The Romans boasted of their conquest, yet without actual possession of one foot of British ground, and Cæsar's whole expedition has been considered by some as a failure.

It is much more probable that he completely succeeded in his main object of cutting off British supplies from Gaul.2 It was the descriptions of Cæsar and of other writers whose works have perished that first called the attention of the Roman world to this remote island and its inhabitants, awaken ing much curiosity. Some of his more marvellous accounts have been more or less discussed even down to the present day. Barbarous as he found the people, and although he had penetrated but little way into the country, Cæsar announced 3 the existence of a class of wise men, called ' Druids,' whose office was the direction of religious ceremonies, the instruction of the people, and the cure of diseases. The name of ' Druid ' was derived from the oak, their sacred tree, and the Druids dwelt in solitary huts among the forests.

They wore white robes at religious celebrations ; mistletoe, their sacred plant, was cut with a golden knife from an oak, and two white heifers were slain as a sacrifice. Bards were described as forming a class of this singular 1 De Bell. Gall. v. 23. ' Ib. iv. 20. - Ib. vi. 13. B.C. 54. SECOND INVASION. priesthood. They sang the praise of heroes in war, and trans mitted their notable deeds by memory to posterity. Every chieftain was accompanied to battle by a bard, who sounded his harp when the troops were ready to engage. With these descriptions there were others less agreeable to dwell upon. The Druids were said to believe that human sacrifices were acceptable to the Deity, and burned their victims in immense osier cages. In succeeding ages it became customary to call the large rough stones found frequently in circles, or standing in the form of a huge altar, Druidical remains, and to believe that on these the Druids made their human sacrifices, or there buried their dead.