Amongst the Shans ... With ... illustrations, and an historical sketch of the Shans by Holt S. Hallett ... Preceded by an introduction on the cradle of the Shan race by Terrien de Lacouperie

Front matter

AMONGST THE SHANS. RAPIDS AT KENG-LUONG, ON THE MEKONG RIVER AMONGST THE SHANS BY ARCHIBALD ROSS COLQUHOUN A.M.I.C.E., F.R.G.S. Author of "Across Chrysi" etc. W\i\ uptoarirs of Jrftg fofcnle-page Illustrations and an Historical sketch of the shans BY HOLT S. HALLETT, M.T.C.E., F.R.G.S. preceded by an introduction on THE CRADLE OF THE SHAN RACE BY TERRIEN DE LACOUPERIE Professor oj Indo-Chinese Philology, University Coll. Lond., Author of " The Oldest Book of the Chinese" etc., etc. LONDON : Field & Tuer ; Simpkin, Marshall & Co. ; Hamilton, Adams & Co. New York : Scribner & Welford. 1885. Field & Tuer, The Leadenhall Press, E.C. T 3180. CONTENTS.

Introduction

BY PROFESSOR T. DE LACOUPERIE. THE CRADLE OF THE SHAN RACE. Ancient Indo-Chinese inseparable from the formation of the Chinese nation — Their Chinese affinities have originated before they settled in their present seats. Misunderstandings still current on China, and the recent researches — How to explain the affinities of civilization — Reasons of the similitudes — How they are illustrated in China and Indo- China. Causes of the misunderstandings — Special arrangement of the Chinese Annals — Geographical and administrative divisions of the Chinese Dominion. Avowed existence of non-Chinese populations — Slow extension of the dominion of the Chinese — Distinction between their dominion and their influence. Ancient intrusive races — TEK and TOK race— -Jung or NUNG race — Woman-ruled tribes — Lolos, etc.

Non-intrusive races — Tattooed, Dwarfs, Long-legged, etc., tribes. MAN or MON race — Ngu — San Miao — Pang — Kuei divisions. KING race — Karen tribes and the non-Chinese state of Tsu or Teru. TAI-SHAN race — Mung — Pa-y — Lao — Leao — Tchao divisions. Conclusion. AMONGST THE SHANS.

Chapter I

The golden country — Mineral wealth — M. Mouhot's account — Precious stones — Fortune-hunters — Golden pagodas — Khmer ruins — Their design — Enormous stones — Indian CONTENTS. VIII PACK 19 art — Indian migration to Cambodia — Advance of the Mekong delta — Volcanic action — The French expedition — Ambition— Hardship and disappointment — The MeTcong or Cambodia River unnavigable — Sickness — Exposure — The French castle in the air — Tonquin as a base — M. de Carny's views — Little known of the country — Effect of slave-hunting — Depopulation of Vien-Chang — Population west of the Mekong — Richness of the valley of the Menam — Importance of Zimme — Railways proposed — Opening up China and the Shan country — Mission . . . i

Chapter II

Leave Bangkok — Reach Maulmain — Our start for Zimm£ — Arrive at Pahpoon — Mr. Davis — A dacoit hunter — Intended murder — Presence of mind and pluck — Saved by his spectacles — Importance of Pahpoon — Moung Deepah — Quieting a district — Mr. Bernard — Improved communications — Our mission — Elephants — To the Dahguin ferry — Police-stations — The Salween River — Catching timber .

Chapter III

Foiled in crossing — Frightened Elephants — In Siam — Police — Pitching tents — Building houses in an hour — AVild beasts — Miasma — Sleeping in howdahs — Hmine Long-gyee valley — Population destroyed — AVhite Karens — An oppressed people — American missionaries — A fruitful field — Mr. Bernard's report — Main Long-gyee — Large game — A vast breeding-ground — Value of youths and maidens — Slave-hunters — The Red Karens — A block to trade — Decency versus Mrs. Grundy — Steep roofs — An immoral priest — Quiet people — A Siamese official — Gentlemanly nails — Pain-killer — Kindness of the town-eater — Arrogance of the Burmese 30

Chapter IV

March to the Baw plateau — The water parting of the Mtfnam and Salween — Lawas — Cultivation of cotton, indigo, sugar-cane, tobacco, and safflower — Preparation of cotton — CONTENTS. IX PAC7E 47 58 Chinese purchasers — Iron manufactured — Women miners — Taxes of hill-tribes — Lawas — Lawa converts to Budd hism — Lawas called " Man-bears " — ■ Singular custom- Difference between hill-races on the Anam and Shan mountains— Value of slaves— Highlanders of the Shan country

Chapter V

Sources of information — Karen habitat — Orang-outang — Lawas and Kachyens — Ka-kuis — Bamboo ornaments — Cultivation — Kakuas — Pig-tails — Buried in their bonnets — Ka-koi — A Jack-in-the-green costume — -Independent Lawas — Heads for ornaments — Thugs — Bartering gold — Red Karens — Remnant of a Chinese army — Sacrificing to nats — Pixies' pranks — Offerings — Divination by fowls' bones — Frequent sacrifices — Propitiation — Marriage Feast — Divorce — Funerals — Money for the next world — Black-mail — Burmese oppression — Karen-nee — Terraced cultivation — Mineral wealth — Rich soil — Dress — Language — Dacoits — Slaves — Debt — Loss of freedom as a legacy — Serfs not slaves — Kidnapping — Selling wife and children — Slavery on our border — A clever catch — Mutsa — A mixed language — Si-sun — Opium cultivated — Kapin — Corpses as messengers — Kadams — Curly hair — Goitre — Palongs — Tea and opium — Yins — -Fixed garments — Toung-thoos — Motsoos — Becoming dress — Shan-Tayoks — Poppy — Sugar-cane — Yendalines — Change of husbands — A degraded race — Let-htas — Tusks as ornaments — Elongated skulls — Girls and boys separated — Offerings of fruit and flowers — Suicide from shame — Karens — Sgaw — Sho — Pye-ya— Ma-meepgha — American missionaries — Christians — Pa-koo — Magic stones — We-wa — Not weavers — Pie-do — A strict people — Koohto — Love-locks — Brass coils for ornaments — Shoung — Border-guards — Ha-shoo — Degraded race — Ka-roon — Slaves buried alive — Daring men — Rosy cheeks — Pye-ya — Bghai-ka-tew — Bghai-ka-hta — Pray — Naked — Ma-noo-ma-naw Tshaw-kho — Karen language — The La-la — Yem — Kali — Putai — Kalau — Ka-kau — Hair like buffalo-horns — The Kama — Kamet — Tsen — Thin — Nga — Ka — La CONTENTS. X PAGE

Chapter VI

Leave Baw — Beautiful scenery — Dulness of natives — Rubies — Muang Haut — Silkworms — Fruit —Vegetables — Female . labourers— The Meping — Karen villages— Looms— Glutinous rice — Felicity — A vast plain — Railway to Bangkok — Worked-out teak-forests— Deep potations— Inundation — Bastard sandal-wood — Stick-lac — India-rubber — Kiang Tong — Half-wild elephants — Devastation — Our train- Elephants necessary for travel in the rains— Not hardy animals — Grazing with cattle — Difficult to re-capture — Motherly affection— Baby elephants — Mahouts as footstools — Kind Karen drivers — Elephants rising in price — Catching and taming — White elephants— Inhabited by princes — A cause of war— Elephant artillery . . .84

Chapter VII

Rest-houses provided — Hospitality — Paying for presents — Foolish scruples — Kiang Tong — Boats — Boat-women — A friendly official — Bathing incident — Curiosity of Shan ladies — Contretemps — Modesty triumphant — Pagoda serfs — Cities of refuge — Monasteries — Chinese ornamentation — Avarice — Rudeness — Shameless priests — Lost in the forest — Kindness from villagers — Good-natured curiosity — White all over — Primitive modesty — The shameless people — Water-wheels — Rural life during harvest — Fertility of the Meping plain — Two harvests — Sugar-cane — Pilferers — Hill cultivation — Fishing hamlets — Balachong — Nga-pee — Siamese Northern Shan States peopled by the Burmese Shans — People of Vien-Chang removed to Bangkok and Zimme Shans to Mopme — Return of descendants as slaves .......... gf

Chapter VIII

A chief — Shaking hands — Entry into Zimme — A cottage orne — King of Siam's kindness — Parisian knick-knacks — A Yunnanese cook — Zimme — Large households — Bazaar — Women conservative — Shan costumes — Home manufactures — Distance from Bangkok — Dyes — Fair complexions and rosy cheeks— Quiet as Quakers— Cattle-thefts— Frogs CONTENTS. XI 1-AGE7 a delicacy — Chained and unfed prisoners — Punishments — Rule-of-thumb law — Palm-oil — Barbarity — Even-handed justice — Death for theft — Fines for adultery — Her husband's slave — The bad old times 1 1 8

Chapter IX

The Sooptip pagoda — Burmese forts — An aqueduct — The Meping valley — A gigantic bell — A nest of monks — Entrance of Buddhism into Burmah, China, and Cambodia — Shamanism — Absorption into Buddhism — The Tha-tha-na-paing ; its former powers — Monasteries for the lazy — " Pure from infancy " — Burmese monks ; respectfully treated — Temples and monasteries at Zimme' — Dissolute priests — Character 01 schools — Two bad to one good — A light of Buddhism — Ruined pagoda — A nat's temple — Human sacrifice — Religion of the Steins — Shamanism the fount of nat worship . . . . . . . . . .137

Chapter X

Buddhists browsing in the missionary fold — Anamite converts — The last, best gift of France — An ugly race — The Giao-chi ; a distinct race ; character — A purgatory for missionaries — Hunting a tiger — The Steins — An opening for missionaries — Ancient belief of the Aryans, Chinese, and Jews — Shanti worshipped by the Emperor of China — Missionaries at Zimme — Voyage up the Menam — Difficult navigation — Bangkok — Its population — Sir John Bowring's mistake — Population of Siam — Census not published — Need of further exploration — Siam an unknown country . 156

Chapter XI

Burmese contempt for the Shans— Theatres as schools for manners— Matrimony in Burmah— Madras women sold in British Burmah— Value of slaves in Cambodia, Siam, and French Cochin-China— Laws of slavery— Slaves from gratitude- Voluntary slaves— K'ai fak and K'ai kat— Wives and children for sale— A lesson for servants— Forced marriage —Wives purchasing each other— Wives and husbands mutually responsible — Bond-service not slavery — King's CONTENTS. XII PAGE 206 slaves — Debt-bondage — Heavy interest — Compound in terest not allowed — Mortgaging one's person — Debtors in chains — Consent of slave required before he can be sold — Can change his master — A bill of sale — Slaves kindly treated — Heavy taxation, gambling, and improvidence — Government in Siamese provinces — Small pay, and ex actions of officials — One-third of the people slaves — Clans — Chiefs and vassals — Danger of feudal power — Weakness of Siam — Railways required — A nation of slaves — Effect of slavery — Chinese traders — France is taking advantage of Siam's weakness — Enlightenment of the present rulers — Fear of France — Siam at present our market — French jealousy and intentions — Intended annexation — M. Blan scube's programme — The French railway — Siam's help lessness — The French toils — France's action depends upon us — Our stake — The protection of Siam vital to British Burmah — Friendliness of the king to the English — Peace on the frontier — Eagerness for our alliance — The French a cause of disturbance in Indo-China — A warning given by The Times ... ... . . 174

Chapter XII

The home of the Shans — Various names for diverse races — Origin of tattooing — Description of the Youe — Tattooing tribes — The operation— Different styles — The History of Siam — A strange story — Scepticism of the King of France — Regal brooms at work in the monasteries— The maxims for monks— Difference between Buddhism and Christianity

Chapter XIII

Influence of education upon habits — AVoman's superiority in Burmah and Siam — Training girls — A moral people Bishop Bigandet's opinion of Burmese and Siamese women — Equality of sexes — Rules of the novitiant — Duties Life in a monastery— Condition of priesthood — Zeal dying Gross pictures of purgatory— The Zimme' military— Visit from a chao— The tsobua and his wife— A dominant queen —Morganatic marriages— A moral police— The chao hona —American exiles— A Cingalese " woondouk " in his cups A married man — Number twenty-three . . 2,2 CONTENTS. XIII PACE

Chapter XIV

The Siamese commissioner — The power of Siam — Phra Yahna Rangsee — A well of information — The confidence trick- Description of chiefs and people — Light taxation — Elephants of chiefs — Value of slaves — System of slavery— Corvee and Military service — The King of Siam extirpating feudalism— Regeneration of Siam — A patriotic king and minister — Progress under the present King — An Augean stable — The long purse wins the day — Law and justice — Trials — Ordeal by water — Contented people . . .251

Chapter XV

Tyranny in Burmah — Character of Shans — Weapons — AVarfare — Rewards for killing tigers — Monkeys with tigers and crocodiles — Chasing deer — Killing a rhinoceros — Buffaloes our foes — Pocketing the French flag — The breeding-ground of our cattle — Cattle disease in Burmah — Difficulties of travel — Rivers unbridged, and without ferries — Pestilence and heat — Fate of Dr. Richardson's party— A quack and his medicines — Causes of disease — Various cures — Burial and burning — Theatres — Child actors and actresses — Plays — Marriages — Go-betweens — Girls in hiding — Enforced matrimony — Divorces — Monopoly of spirits — Gambling-houses — Opium — Children . . . . . .268

Chapter XVI

McLeod's journey — The " Golden Road " — Advice of the Chinese — The former tsobuas of Kiang Tung and Kiang Hung anxious for trade — A great thoroughfare for Chinese — Bazaar at Kiang Tung — Siamese hostility to Burmah — Shan States independent — Trade route again opened — Zimme" towards Kiang Hung — Zimme to Kiang Tsen — Carl Bock on Zimmd — Carl Bock on North Siam— Exploration required — Proposed railway — The field open to our enterprise ......••• CONTENTS. XIV Our SUPPLEMENTARY CHAPTERS. BY HOLT S. HALLETT.

Part I. History Of Upper Shan

neighbours the Shans — Extent of their location — Incor porated with the Chinese — La Couperie's remarks — The progress of the Aryans and Chinese — Death of feudalism — Annexation of Ss'chuan— Foundation of Yueh and Wu — Shan kingdoms B.C. 220S — Conquest by the Chinese — Migration to Burmah — Old towns — Birth of the Mau em pire — Increase of Shan kingdoms— Effects of having no rule of primogeniture — Killing brothers — Rise of the Mau empire — Conquest of Shan States, Assam, Tali, and Arra can — Shattering Burmah — Conquest of Yun and the Malay Peninsula — Disruption of Burmah — Arrival of the Shan alphabet — A reign of a hundred years — Theinni as large as Paris — Conversion to Buddhism — A career of conquest — Killing monks — A Shan iconoclast — A Peguan emperor — Burning people by thousands — A depopulated country — - The kingdom of Piao — Conquest of Yunnan — The Karen country — Advance of the Thibeto-Burmese — Kolarians and Dravidians — The Mun aborigines of Burmah — A mongrel brood — Resemblance of Talain to Kol — Indo-Chinese languages — Conversion of Malays and Thiamese to Ma homedanism — Lewas — Karen tribes — Connection of the Karens with China — Their early kingdom of Yun — Entrance of the Shans — Their vassalage — Yun and Yun-gyee — Kingdom of Lin-y, or Lam-ap — Karen kings — Zimmd a Karen State — Advance of the Laos Shans — Foundation of towns by the Yun Shans — Origin of the Siamese era — Extent of Zimme' — A refractory infant — Contradictory chronicles — Conquest of Zimme' — Ousting of the Siamese — Shans in Yunzaleen — Changes of capital — Rebellion against Cambodia — Phra Ruang — Shan conquest of Cam bodia — The ancient Khmer — A masterful language Savage, a misapplied term — Civilized and courteous mountaineers — The Bannavs — Influence of China An early phonetic language— Anam tributary to China — The CONTENTS.

XV PAGE 327 end of the Thang — Disruption of China — Kublai Khan's conquests — Lin-y, a bar to the Shans — Movements of population — Absorption of Lin-y — A magic sword — Re mains of great nations — Disastrous effects of independence — Wars and riches of Lin-y — The Laos Shans of Vien- Chang — Rise of their power — Zimme annexed — Wars with Pegu and decrease of prosperity — Independence of Luang Prabang — Settlement in Bassac — Destruction of Laos cities — Attack of the Tonquinese — Conquest by Siam

Part II. History Of Lower Shan

Cambodia — Prea Thong — Entrance of Brahmanism, architecture, and sculpture — Conversion to Buddhism — Divisions of empire — Homage to China — Prosperity — Arrival of Portuguese and English — The commencement of the French empire in Indo-China — Brahmanism and Buddhism — Description of people — Conquest of Cambodia by Shans — Wars of Siam, Zimme', Cambodia, Burmah, and Pegu — Peace after 2,000 years of warfare — Growth of French power in Indo-China — French action in Anam — Investiture of Anamese King by China necessary — Concluding remarks . . . . . . • • 3S2 Appendix 373 Index 3^7 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. i. Rapids at Keng-Luong, on the Mekong River (to face title page). PAGE 2. Ancor AVat : AVestern Entrance of Temple ... 4 3. A Laotian Raft ascending a Rapid 10 4. Specimen of a Laotian Raft 16 5.

The Giant's Highway at Ancor Thom . . . .21 6. AVhirlpools at Keng Kanien . . . . . .27 7. Type of Karen Man ....... 34 8. A Karen Woman ........ 37 9. Eastern side of the Isle of Khong 46 10. Type of Khmou (Man) . . . . . . -55 11. AVild Tribes in the Vicinity of Muong-Lim ... 67 12. AVild Man of Ban Kon-Han (southern frontier of Yunnan) 74 13. AVild Man of Pak Ben 82 14. View of Mekong, down Phou Fadang . . . .92 15. A Settlement in the Khong Island, on the Bank of the Mekong ......... 99 16. A Street in Compong Luong . . . . . .106 17. Fishing Utensils . . . . . . .• .111 18. Fishing Utensils . . 115 19. A Laotian Ox-cart ........ 122 20. Laotian Market Women . . . . . . .126 21. A Laotian Girl of Bassac 134 22. Section of a Ruined Pagoda at Xieng hong . . . 139 23. Dress of People at Bassac . . . . . .146 24.

Hollow Dragon, used as Utensil for holding Consecrated AVater iS° 25. A Stieng AVoman !53 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. XVIII PAGE 26. A Stieng Chief l62 27. Navigation in Inundated Forest Land . . • .166 28. Chinese Cultivator at Bassac J7° 29. A Laotian AVoman (Environs of Petchaboury) . .176 30. AVild Men near Stung Treng l84 31. Domestic Utensils .....••• I°8 1,2. Fruit Tray or Dish of bamboo, with plaited cover. 3. AVooden Comb. 4, 5, 6. Baskets of bamboo for holding rice. 7. Wooden Ladle for water. 8. Bamboo Lantern. 32. A Fresco in the Pagoda of Peunom .... 193 33. Gongs and Tam-tam inside a Pagoda . . . 197 34. View on the Mekong River below the Khon Cataracts . 202 35. Type of Cambodian 209 36. A Pagoda Library in the Laos Country . . . .218 37. Temple or Sanctuary of Mount Crom .... 224 38.

Fan Palms in the Ruins of Xieng-Sen .... 229 39. Implements used for Spinning Cotton, Hemp, and Silk, in the Laos Country ....... 235 I. Winder to reel cotton. 2. Basket and Bow to card cotton. 3. Spinning-wheel. 4, 5, 6. Distaff, Spindle, and Winder, for hemp. 40. Entrance of the Cave of the Nam-hou .... 241 41. Type of a AVild AVoman at Ban Kon-Han (southern frontier of Yunnan). ........ 247 42. Graves at Amnat . . . . . . . .254 43. Types of Siamese (the late King and Queen of Siam) . 261 44. Hut or Cottage of the Poor People in the Country of Laos. 266 45. Weapons of the Laotian People ..... 270 I. Lance used in the chase of elephants, length 4 m. 20c. 2. Footsoldier's Lance. 3. Plaited Bamboo Bullet-box. 4. A Wooden Powder-horn, the cover a being used as a measure. 5. Sword with scabbard. 46.

Stag Hunting in the Laos Country 275 47. Agricultural Implements ....... 280 I. Hoe. 2. Harrow. 3. Plough for a buffalo, (11) iron share, (b) yoke, (c) trace. 4. sickle. 4S. Crossing a Small Arm between The Khon Island and the AVaterfall of Salaphe . . . . , . 2g, 49. Launching a Boat at Luan-Prabang LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. XIX PAGE 50. Harvest of the " Toddy " extracted from the Corassus Palm-tree 294 51. Laotian AVeapons and other Implements .... 298 I. Bow and Arrow in Bamboo. 2. Razor and Case. 3, 4. Knife. 5. Scissors. 6. Axe for felling trees ; the part f is movable. 7. Screw-driver, also used as a hammer for guns. 8. Small Axe. 9. Scissors used as areca-nut chopper. 10. Cleavingknife, to open the way through thickets and brambles. 52. Panelling in the Pagoda at Xieng-hong .... 303 53.

Prospect of the Cataracts of Khon ; the Fall of Don Isom .......... 309 54. Laotian Coins ......... 314 I. Iron money (lozenge shape) in use at Stung-Treng. 2. Siamese silver tical, and its sub-divisions. 3. Copper lats, in use at Bassac and Abone. 4. String of cowries, a currency in use at Luang-Prabang. 5. Cast silver, in use in the Birman Laos. 55. Highway Stone at Wat-phou 323 N.B. — The titles of the illustrations, — from F. Garnier's "Voyage d'Exploration dans l'Indo-Chine," — should be read according to the preceding list, where several errors of the context have been amended.

INTRODUCTION.

. THE CRADLE OF THE SHAN RACE. SUMMARY. Ancient Indo-Chinese inseparable from the formation of the Chinese nation. Their Chinese affinities originated before they settled in their present seats. Misunderstandings still current on China, and recent researches — How to explain the affinities of civilization — Reasons of the similitudes — How they are illustrated in China and Indo-China. Causes of the misunderstandings — Special arrangement of the Chinese Annals — Geographical and administrative divisions of the Chinese Dominion. Avowed existence of non-Chinese populations — Slow extension of the dominion of the Chinese — -Distinction between their dominion and their influence. Ancient intrusive races — TEK and TOK tact— Jung or NUNG race — Woman-ruled tribes — Lolos, etc. Non-intrusive races — Tattooed, dwarf, long-legged, tribes.

MAN or MON race — Ngu — San Miao — Pang — Kuei divisions. KING race — Karen tribes and the Non-Chinese state of Tsu or Teru. TAI-SHAN race — Mung—Pa-y — Lao — Leao — Tchao divisions. Conclusion. The valuable description of a branch of the great Tai race, which is the subject of Mr. Archibald R. Colquhoun's new book Amongst the Shans, as well as

INTRODUCTION.

. XXII his former account of his journey Across Chryse} is not an unimportant contribution to ethnology. The two works contain a good deal of information taken in situ, which increases the knowledge, hitherto so unsatis factory, of a large number of the independent and semi-independent non-Chinese tribes still existing within and without the southern boundaries of the Chinese Empire. Remnants of the non-absorbed and non-Sinicised parts of larger stocks of several races, gradually driven south-westwards, these tribes are now scattered, on a large area, into an undefined number of fragments, intermingled to a great extent, and often difficult to trace individually up to their original stems. With the exception of the northern region, which was supplied with a constant renewal of Altaic and Ugro- Finnish blood pouring into the Chinese agglomeration, they formerly composed the native population of China Proper.

Their modern descendants are the representatives (much altered and modified by multi plied crossings and re-crossings) of those ethnic stocks, of which the southern off-shoots have gradually and successively migrated to Indo-China, and developed there into several nations of importance. Therefore the ancient history of the Indo-Chinese populations is so completely interwoven with that of 1 Across Chryse, being the narrative of a Journey of Exploration through the South China borderlands from Canton to Mandalay, by Archibald P. Colquhoun, 1883. The gold medal of the Royal Geographical Society has been awarded to the intrepid explorer. Across Chryse has already been translated into French (Paris, Oudin) and German (Leipzig, Brockhaus). the formation of the Chinese themselves, that, unless we dwell upon the peculiarities of this formation, the study of the former is incomplete and partly mis understood.

In the surviving aboriginal tribes and the valuable archives of the huge country, we have documentary evidence of the early movements of those races, and we shall see further that the cradle of the Tai'-Shan race was in China Proper. The truthful ness of this history unwritten and written is simply wonderful, and the only task of the modern critic is to disintegrate the genuine information from the tribal interminglings and the marvellous details added to the ancient records in later ages under non-Chinese influence. Since we have known anything of the Indo-Chinese, the considerable proportion contributed by China to their languages, culture, and blood, has been a matter of bewilderment. And the more extensive grew the knowledge, the more irrefutable were the affinities detected on the two sides.

No satisfactory explana tion has been forthcoming, because too little was known of the ethnological history of the Flowery Land. The hypothesis of a common descent goes beyond the mark, inasmuch as the ground of the Chinese languages, shown by their evolution, grammar, and vocabulary, is not Indo-Chinese. The same must be said of the races and of the civilizations. A few glimpses obtained by the learned explorer, Francis Gamier, had led him to guess the truth, so far as concerns the presence in ancient times of the Shan

INTRODUCTION.

. XXIV race in Southern China. The whole problem, how ever, was grasped by the late Capt. C. J. Forbes, of Burmah, when he wrote that "the close affinity of words and root forms which exists between the Chinese and the languages of Ultra-India . . . must have originated before the different races speak ing these languages came into their present seats." The next step towards the solution is that this affinity is not identical throughout, and differs in the various groups. The stock-in-trade of misunderstanding, bias, and untrue statements with regard to China, its languages and races, which is commonly used and credited in proof of speculations, or in illustration of a peculiar development, is simply appalling and ought to be thoroughly revised. It might be suggested, with suf ficient reason, that the best plan would be to make a tabula rasa and begin the matter afresh, trusting no other sources than the ancient Chinese works and a few important books published in late years by eminent Sinologists.

The ancient Sinologists accountable for this deplor able state of things, however, must not be criticised with too much severity. They have done their best with the materials they had at hand, but were not able, either by training or position, to use an effec tive criticism. They could only accept grosso modo the various statements derived from the books they could read for themselves, or which were explained to them. They had not at their disposal the means of verifying these statements ; so that, with out supporting in its full bearing the appellation of " gobe-mouches," which has been lately applied to the ancient Jesuit missionaries by an eminent Russian scholar, we cannot help saying that, severe as it is in respect of their position and time, this judgment from our present standpoint is not altogether undeserved.

The researches and disclosures of late years on ancient China have revealed, in the evolution of that country, a state of things very dissimilar from that which was supposed to have existed. The history of China was considered to be that of the self-growth, during the protracted period required for such an evolution, of an homogeneous race occupying nearly the whole territory of China Proper, from savage life to a state of culture unparalleled by any western nation five hundred years ago. Now it turns out that neither one nor the other of these assumptions have been confirmed by the progress of knowledge. Important deductions for the philosophy of history and science of politics, have been drawn from the existence of this supposed self-rise and development of an important focus of civilization.

Obvious similarities with our own culture, which could not be traced to a recent importation, have been explained away, as the outcome of the identity of human mind everywhere. Chinese of high education and rank, acquainted with European culture, and struck with the c

INTRODUCTION.

. XXVI many similitudes between our institutions and their own as they are framed in the Code of Rites of the Tchou dynasty (b.c 1050-7 78),1 have ventured to explain the difficulty in their own way. They held that Lao-tze, their great philosopher of the sixth century, who was the librarian and keeper of the Museum at Loh, the capital of the Tchou dynasty, had taken away with him a copy of the said code, the Tchou-Li, when he left China to disappear in the West. Leaving aside this childish speculation, which is contradicted by all that we know respecting the book and the man, and without mentioning the other impossibilities of the case, let us consider the question from a higher point of view. In researches of this kind, it should be borne in mind that communication of culture from one people to another may be either (a) complete, more or less, — by common descent, migration, intermingling, protracted intercourse, religious conversion, vicinity, or conquest ; or (5) incomplete and more or less fragmentary, — by trade, fortuitous communications, and occasional inter course in one or more cases.