Geological Rambles in Yorkshire. Leeds to Scarbro', Filey, Whitby and Bridlington. A popular handbook, etc

Front matter

Geological "Rambles in Yorkshire. LEEDS TO SCARBRO', FILEY, WHITBY, AND BRIDLINGTON. A POPULAR HANDBOOK ON Magnesian Limestone ; New Red Sandstone ; Lias ; Lower, Middle, and Upper Oolite ; Corals ; Speeton Clay ; Chalk ; Flints ; The Great Ice Age, etc. P.V EDWARD MAULE COLE, M.A., VICAR OF WETWANG, YORK, A Local Secretary of the Yorkshire Geological Society, Joint Geological Secretary of the Yorkshire Naturalists' Union, etc. Price One Shilling. London : Simpkin, Marshall & Co. Fork: John Sampson. Halifax : Whitley & Booth. Hull: A. Brown & Son. Geological "Rambles in l^orfcsbire. LEEDS TO SCARBRO', FILEY, WHITBY, AND BRIDLINGTON. A POPULAR HANDBOOK OK Magnesian Limestone ; New Red Sandstone ; Lias ; Lower, Middle, and Upper Oolite ; Corals ; Speeton Clay ; Chalk ; Flints ; The Great Ice Age, etc.

BV EDWARD MAULE COLE, M.A., VICAR OF WETWANG, YORK, A Local Secretary of the Yorkshire Geological Society, Joint Geological Secretary of the Yorkshire Naturalists' Union, etc. Price One Shilling. London : Simpkin, Marshall & Co. Pork: John Sampson. Halifax: Whitley & Booth. Hull : A. Brown & Son. TO THE MEMBERS OF THE YORK AND HULL STUDENTS' ASSOCIATIONS, AND KINDRED SOCIETIES, IN MEMORY OF MANY PLEASANT GEOLOGICAL EXCURSIONS, THIS LITTLE HANDBOOK IS DEDICATED, By The Author, and Conductor. We/wang Fork, 1883.

Chapter I

An age of travel. — How to make it profitable. — Geological formations. — Value of fossils. — Typical journey. — Magnesian Limestone. — New Red Sandstone. — Lias. — Dogger. — Cale. Grit. — Coral Rag. — Kimeridge Clay. — Chalk. — Boulder Clay. This is a great age for travel. Since the introduction of railways and ocean steamers, we seem to have arrived at the time spoken of by the Prophet Daniel, when " many shall run to and fro, and knowledge shall be increased." But to make travel profitable, some acquaintance with the physical features and geology of the country we travel in, is essentially requisite. Not to go beyond our own coun try, how many people make every year an excursion from the W. Riding to Scarbro, Whitby, or Bridlington, without ever realizing the wealth of interest and information, contained in the plains they pass over, the hills which bound their vision, or the rocks which greet them on arriving at their destination.

To supply this information in a popular form, without entering deeply into technicalities, is the object of this handbook. The first chapter must necessarily be some what general, giving a sketch of what will afterwards be filled up in detail. As the French say " II y a fagots et fagots" i. e. there are rocks and rocks. All rocks are not the same rocks : they are not of the same material, were not deposited at the same time, nor under similar condi tions. Some consist of lime, some of sand, some of hardened mud. Some were deposited in inland lakes, some in the open sea. Some were built up by the agency of animal life, e. g. coral reefs ; some by the accumula tion of microscopical animal remains, e. g. chalk. Some are the produce of simple sediment, e. g. Kimeridge Clay, some are the result of ice action, e. g. Boulder Clay.

Some are comparatively old, e. g. the Coal measures, some are comparatively new, e. g. the Boulder Clays of Holderness, which mark the latest glacial epoch. But however different in constitution, all and each of them contain evidence, in the fossil remains found in them, of the various conditions under which they were formed, of the then distribution of land and sea, and of the class of animals and plants existing at the time, and by their present aspect bear witness to the changes in physical features, which have been wrought in process of time by atmospheric agencies, such as rain and rivers, ice and air. The same agencies are going on still. "There is nothing new under the sun." Every shower which falls, every brook which runs, carries down somewhat from a higher level to a lower, and finally deposits it in the gre -.1 receptacle of the sea, forming mud or sand banks, to be hereafter consolidated, and perhaps eventually to be elevated into dry land, or even moutain ridges ; whilst the lime, etc , held in solution in the running streams, supplies to the sea the necessary material, wherewith the shellfish, the corals, and the foraminifera build their stony skeletons, and contribute in turn, by their decay, to the formation of new strata on the surface of the earth.

Let us now take our journey by train from Leeds to Bridlington, and pass in review the physical and geological features which present themselves en route. Leaving behind us the Lower and Middle Coal measures which characterize the country about Leeds, we find ourselves, soon after passing Garforth Station, approaching the escarpment of the Magnesian Limestone, with its debateable underlying red sandstones, believed by Sir R. Murchison to be the equivalent of the Rothliegende beds of Germany, but classed by modern geologists with the upper millstone grit. The country is picturesque, but presents uo striking features. Were one to wander into the adjacent quarries he would find few fossils, save in that on Garforth hill where there is a bed oischizodus obscurus, characteristic of Permian age. ■ From the horizon of Sherburn, a fine view of the plain is unfolded, from which with a telescope may be observed as many as 40 church towers and spires.

Soon the plain of York is reached consisting, underneath the overlying debris of loam, sand, and boulder clay, of New Red Sand stone, deposited doubtless in a large inland sea, into which flowed streams impregnated with iron, which gave its colour to the sands. On approaching Kirkham Abbey, a new set of rocks is met with, higher in the scale and more recent than the Magnesian Limestone and New Red Sandstone over which we have just been travelling. Here on the left may be found the Lias, the dark shaly mud, so finely developed on the coast N. and S. of Whitby. On the right hand of the beautiful gorge we are now entering, through which the whole of the drainage of the Moors and the Vale of Pickering finds its circuitous route to the sea, lies the Dog ger, the lowest member of the Oolites, rich in iron ore, for the sake of which it has been extensively quarried in Rose dale, though deserted workings seem to show that it is here less rich in this valuable commodity than its northern cousin.

Many beds above the Dogger are absent in this locality on the east side of the river, possibly from past denudation, but more probably from the fact that they were thinning out against an old shore line, and in some cases were not deposited at all. The hills on the left are composed of Lower Oolites — the whole series is passed through by the railway in a space of 2000 yards starting from Castle Howard Station. Further on, the high ground of Langton Wold on the right, and of Malton on the left, is composed of Coralline Oolite and Coral Rag. Yes, we are passing through a modern gap in an ancient coral reef, formed in exactly the same way as the coral islands in the Pacific are being formed now. These reefs extend all round the Vale of Pickering, from Filey Brig on the East, by Scarbro, Hackness, Pickering and Helmsley, then back by Oswald kirk, Slingsby, Malton and Langton Wold to North Grimston, where they disappear beneath the Chalk.

Good Sections may be seen on the Malton and Driffield railway near Settrington and North Grimston Stations. When corals lived and flourished in rich profusion, as at N. Grimston, the climate of England, and the general temperature of the sea, must have been considerably higher than now, for corals of the same order require at least a temperature of 68°. A great fault, or fracture of the Earth's crust, on the north, aud another on the south, have left the narrow peninsula, on which the town of Malton is built. Similar faults on the N. and S. sides of the Vale of Pickering, pro duced a deep chasm, into which sank bodily, long after the age of corals, a mass of Kimeridge clay from ioo ft. to 600 ft. in thickness. This clay resists, of course, the percolation of water, and in consequence the district above Malton in times of heavy rainfall is liable to extensive floods, from the mass of water brought down from the Moorlands, which can only escape by the gorge we have passed through.

As we speed onward to Seamer Junction, Corallian rocks on our left form the Tabular Hills, whilst on our right stands up the bold escarpment of the Chalk Wolds. This is a newer formation than any we have yet met with. It forms the celebrated headland of Flamborough, and the lofty precipitous cliffs of Bempton, the breeding place, in local phraseology of the "Parrot'' and the "Scout," in other words of the puffin and the guillemot ; stretching thence westwards past Malton it reaches Acklam Brow, from which point on a clear day the finest view in York shire can be obtained, embracing an arc of some 2300. Turning suddenly to the south, the chalk escarpment passes onwards to the Humber, and crossing Lincolnshire, finally disappears at Hunstanton in Norfolk. The chalk of the South of England differs from the chalk of York shire ; we are only concerned now with the latter.

This in an eastward direction passes under the North Sea, reappearing in the little island of Heligoland, and subsequently in Prussia. Descending in the railway the incline from Bridlington we finally reach our destination, and find ourselves on Boulder Clay, lying on the top of the Chalk, and con gratulate ourselves that the icy mantle, which in the last Glacial epoch enveloped the whole country, as it does Greenland now, and filled the North Sea with one huge glacier, has yielded to a more genial climate, and given us the smiling cornfields of the East Riding.

Chapter II

The sequence of rocks. — Teaching of fossil remains. Geological divisions. — Permian Series. —Red Grits. ■ — Magnesian Limestone of Yorkshire. — Dolomite. In the last chapter we gave a general sketch of the different rocks and of the physical features of the country, which meet the eye of a traveller, as he journeys on business or pleasure from Leeds to Bridlington. We must now fill up in detail what has been alluded to in out line, and that in a popular form ; in a form, that is, which will prove, we hope, interesting and instructive to a large class of persons who desire to obtain some definite know ledge of the wonders of Geology, but who have not the time, or perhaps the means to purchase and read the many learned works which have been written on the subject. It must first be clearly understood, that all the various rocks, with the exception of Volcanic, whether sandstones, limestones, or clays, which form the solid crust of the Earth follow one another in a regular series or order.

In some localities certain of them may be wanting, either because they were not deposited at that particular spot, or because, after deposition, they were denuded by atmospheric agencies, or by marine action. The former of these agencies is generally considered the most potent, by virtue of its extending over a wide area ; whereas the action of the sea is limited to the sea coast. But in any case this is to be noted, that the rocks which do remain always appear in the same sequence. For the sake of illustration, suppose the rocks all . distin guished by the letters of the alphabet. A, 6, c, d, etc. And suppose "a" to be the lowest in the series, b and c may be wanting, in which case a is followed by d, but you will never find b below a, or d below c. Some of the rocks may closely resemble others higher or lower in the series, in general appearance and texture, but, on examination, an infallible guide steps in to distin guish one from the other, in the animal and vegetable remains, commonly called fossils, imbedded in them.

These fossils reveal the forms of life existing on the earth at the time that the rocks were being deposited ; and all life is progressive, rising from lower to higher forms of life : each lowly form however being as beautiful and per fect in its degree, as the higher which succeeded it. From this fact 'it is not surprising to learn that there was a time, extending over an immeasurable series of ages, during which the older rocks were being formed, when there were no Fishes. It would be a waste of time to look for fossils of fish in Laurentian, Cambrian, or Lower Silurian rocks. Later on came Reptiles : then Birds : still later Mammals : and, last of all, Man. Hence we cannot but acknowledge a progress from lower to higher animals of the same class, e. g. Vertebrata, whether or no we accept the modern doctrine of development, as contended for by Messrs. Darwin, Wallace, and others.

This progression of life-remains stamps the position, which the various rocks occupy relatively to one another. It does not tell us their age absolutely. That is an impos sibility. Geology knows nothing of Time absolute, any more than Astronomy of Space. Time and Space are simply terms made use of to meet man's finite intellect. There are no such things with the Eternal, the Omnipre sent Creator. He is not cognizant of one or the other. Now we do not find all these rocks simply piled one upon another, like a set of Scott's novels arranged in the form of a column, or how should we be able to examine the lower ones ? No, they have been tilted over by sub terranean forces, or thrown into folds by crumpling of the earth's surface, or superimposed on widening shore lines, in such a way that we are able, as it were to look across the backs of them, and read the title or contents, one after another, from vol. i to vol. 25.

In our own country the older rocks appear on the W. and N. W. and the succession develops itself to the E. and S. E. Geologists have divided the known rocks into three great periods, according to the life-remains discovered in them, viz., the Primary, Secondary, and Tertiary Periods. Of course these are sub-divided over and over again ; but the general broad fact remains, that in each of these three Periods, the varied forms of life were essentially distinct. In other words there was an obvious gap between them, greater than any which occurred between the minor divisions con stituting each period. Let us revert now to our journey from Leeds to Brid lington. At starting we are surrounded by rocks belonging to the Lower Coal Measures, but almost immediately pass into the more valuable district of the Middle Coal Measures, containing the Barcelona or Silkstone, the Haigh Moor, the Barnsley, and the Stanley Main Beds.

Of course coal, like gypsum, rocksalt, and other de posits, partly of mechanical, partly of chemical origin, is being always formed, but in England the Carboniferous or coal-bearing strata occupy a definite horizon. They occur near the top or close of the Primaiy Period men tioned above. The coalmeasures, as a whole, rest upon a series of rough sandstones, containing large pebbles of quartz and felspar, known as millstone grit. In Prussia and Germany however there is an extensive deposit of grit, amounting to 3000 feet in thickness, which was accumulated possibly by ice action, as the fragments are angular, not rounded, lying above the coalmeasures, and immediately underneath what is termed in England the Magnesian Limestone. This foreign grit, which is of a red color, has been classed by distinguished geologists, such as Murchison, Sedgwick and Lyell, as identical with the red grit which underlies the Magnesian Limestone in certain parts of Yorkshire, and which appears N. of Leeds in the picturesque rocks of Plumpton, near Harrogate, and the singular platform of Brimham, near Pateley Bridge.

But the investigations of the officers of H. M. Geological Survey point decisively to the conclusion, that these red-colored grits and shales belong to the Mill stone Grit series which underlies the coalmeasures, rather than to any grit above ; and consequently, that they are not identical with the Rothe-todte-liegende, or red-dead- GEOLOGICAL R3UIBLES IN YORKSHIRE. layers of the Continent, and have nothing whatever to do with the Magnesian Limestone of England. We use the term Magnesian Limestone, as being familiar and popular, rather than exact. The recognized geological name for the series under consideration is Permian ; because these particular rocks, forming the top most strata of the great Primary Period, are largely developed in the ancient kingdom of Permia in Russia, over a district as large again as France.

The lower Lime stone band in these Permian rocks, which are essentially a Northern deposit, contains a large percentage of car bonate of magnesia. The fossil remains, whether of animals or plants, are identical in Russia and in England, and are allied to those of the coal measures, whilst totally distinct from fossils of the Secondary Period above them. There is no doubt that the formation is the same. Hence the band of Limestone with intercalated marls, which crosses Yorkshire from N. to S. with an average width of five miles, in the direction of Ripon, Knaresborough, Micklesield, Knottingley, and Kirk Smeaton, and which is commonly known here as the Magnesian Limestone, is the same as that known on the Continent under the name of Zechstein. It has been suggested that the word Zechstein has been derived from sequin-stone, because, on piercing this formation abroad, the miners came upon a copperbearing stratum, from which large quantities of copper were obtained, out of which the coins called " sequins " were manufactured.

We may also notice that the beds abroad beneath the copperbearing strata were called "todte liegende," " dead-layers," because no copper was found in them, and " rotbe-todte-liegende," "red-dead-layers" because of their red colour. Magnesian Limestone is so called because it is com posed of two carbonates, carbonate of lime and carbonate of magnesia, in nearly equal proportions : the carbonate of lime however preponderating, especially in the upper beds. It is as yet undecided whether these two carbonates were deposited simultaneously, or whether the carbonate of magnesia subsequently replaced the carbonate of lime under the influence of heated water or gases. Magnesian Limestone has in some countries passed through another phase, probably from volcanic or electric action, whereby its particles have become more or less crystalline, and then it is known as Dolomite, from a dis tinguished Frenchman, Mons. Dolomieu, who first investi gated the subject.

There is a band of small grained Dolomite, 200 feet thick, between the Lower and Upper limestones in York shire, largely quarried for building purposes. From this formation Archbishop Gray built the south transept of York Minster, out of the Hudlestone quarries, near Sherburn, inthe 13th century, and only recently the same beds in Derbyshire have supplied the materials for building the new Houses of Parliament. The striking hill, Monte Salvatore, 3000 ft. high, on the lovely lake of Lugano, is composed of Dolomite, and much of the magnificent scenery of the Alps in the Tyrol is due to the picturesque weathering of this same rock. In Yorkshire the scenery of the Magnesian Limestone is pretty rather than grand, as it nowhere attains a high elevation. The Lower and Upper Limestones are quarried for agricultural purposes, for mortar, and for road making, and the soil is well adapted for potatoes and plums ; the winesour growing in perfection in the neighbourhood of Sherburn, and occasionally fetching fabulous prices. B

Chapter III

Primary Rocks. — Granite. — Province of Geology. — Laurentian. — Silurian. — Devonian. — Carboniferous. — Permian. — Triassic. — Volcanic agency in Permian age. — Gypsum. — Succession of Vertebrata. In the preceding chapter it was stated that the Permian rocks, represented in Yorkshire by a band of Magnesian Limestone, extending from N. to S., on the East side of the Pennine range, with an average breadth of 5 miles, useful for agricultural and building purposes, formed the top most series of the great Primary Period, which embraces the oldest known rocks on the surface of the earth, and is separated from the succeeding Secondary Period, as the Secondary is from the Tertiary, by a great gap in the con nection of fossil remains of animals and plants, in other words, of the fauna and flora, which mark the progress of life in successive ages of the world's history.

With this Primary Period we have little to do now, as, in our journey from Leeds to Bridlington, we commenced with the topmost beds of the series. But it may be as well to note that the Primary Period of geologists embraces the following principal divisions, each more or less sub divided, as the various rocks have been more or less locally examined. Laurentian. Cambrian. Silurian. Devonian. Carboniferous. Permian. The most ancient are the Laurentian, largely developed in Canada, taking their name from the river St. Lawrence. There they show a thickness of some 30,000 ft., and are evidently the germ of the present N. American continent. A similar formation is traceable in Scotland and in Scan- -■3 dinavia, which proves the great antiquity of the land in those regions. These rocks were originally deposited as sediment in the sea, similarly to sedimentary deposits now going on ; but they have been altered in character by heat and volcanic forces, and present now the appearance of gneiss, which is crystalline, and passes eventually into granite.

This last statement leads us into a slight digression. It was once supposed that granite was the original crust of the globe, or floor of the earth, so to speak; and consequently, that all granite rocks maik a very high antiquity. But the fact is, that granite is being formed now under high pressure, below the overlying beds, and that it is only a feature of the ever-varying changes of the materials of the earth's surface, brought about by heat and volcanic action, which changes move in a circle, like everything else in nature, and that therefore it may be developed in the present, though it has been more largely apparent in the past. Geology, though dealing with the rocks which form the crust of the earth, and demanding therefore unlimited time for their formation, extending possibly over millions of years, is not properly concerned with cosmogony, or the theories respecting the original condition of the earth, as a member of the solar system.

The planet we live on, called the Earth, about equal in size to Venus, the so-called Morning or Evening Star, may have originated by contraction from a rotating nebu lous mass, as some astronomers hold, or by accretion from flights of meteoric and cometic matter, as others suggest, or from a combination of both these causes. It may have existed for millions of years in a gaseous form, or in a glowing form ; but the geologist is only concerned with the changes, wrought upon its surface, after that surface presented a solid form. Hence, Geology, though treating of matters unknown to History, and Archæology, and demanding, as said above, millions of years for its results, deals only with what is comparatively recent. Recent, so far as the origin of the earth is concerned ; but ancient, so far as the immense antiquity of its sedimentary rocks forms the subject of enquiry.

To the Laurentian succeeded the Cambrian rocks, so called from being largely developed in Cambria, or N. Wales : and, next above them, the Silurian, named after an old tribe of Silures, who inhabited S. Wales. These Silures have recently been identified with the Iberian tribes, men with long skulls, black straight hair, of small stature, using weapons of polished stone, who preceded in Europe and Britain the Celts, men of tall stature, fair hair, with round skulls. After the Silurian came the Devonian deposits, occurring largely in Devonshire, otherwise known as the Old Red Sandstone. To these succeeded the Carboniferous, or coal-bearing formations, consisting of Mountain Lime stone, Grits, and, last of all, Coal Measures. It is foreign to our purpose to describe these at pre sent. Suffice it to say that the above remarks on the earlier rocks have been made with a view to identify the position, which the Permian, or Magnesian Lime stone, occupies relatively to other beds ; for the Permian immediately follows the coal measures, and, whilst most of its fossils are closely connected with those of the underlying rocks, none are continued on into the Trias, or new Red Sandstone, which lies above.

Here the first great gap occurs. The Permian is the top of the Primary Period. The Trias is the bottom of the Secondary. We have now to ascertain some of the surrounding conditions under which the Magnesian Limestone in Yorkshire was deposited. It must be noticed first, that N. of Leeds, in the direction of Knaresborough, this formation rests on Millstone Grit, whilst S. of Leeds, in the direction of Tickhill, it rests on the Coal Measures. How do we account for this ? Simply by the fact that, subsequently to the formation of the Coal Measures, which took place in a tranquil period, on a low land surface, slightly oscillating above or below the sea level, a period of subterranean or volcanic energy set in. The land in certain lines or directions was elevated, gradually it may be, but to a great extent.

The original of the present Pennine range, the backbone of England, was formed ; great faults, or fractures of the earth's crust took place, such as the Pennine fault, and that N. of Leeds. The Durham and Yorkshire Coalfields were separated, as also the Yorkshire and Lancashire, and in N. Yorkshire the underlying Millstone Grit, brought to the surface by the denudation of the Coal above it, was in its turn exposed to the ravages of rain and rivers, till a period of depression set in, and the whole Eastern flanks of the new Pennine range were submerged beneath a sea, extending for a distance of 2500 miles across Germany and Russia to the borders of the Ural Mts., in which the rocks now forming the Permian series were deposited. In S. Yorkshire the sea bottom consisted of Coal measures ; In the N., in consequence of the fault above men tioned, of Millstone Grit.

On these dissimilar beds the Magnesian Limestone was evenly deposited. We know that in the present day carbonate of lime cannot be precipitated without the agency of lime-forming animals, notably of foraminifera, who first secrete from the seawater the lime, wherewith thev build their micro scopic shells, and then, by their daily decay in myriads, form a calcareous ooze at the bottom of the sea. There is now such an abundance of carbonic acid in the sea water that it keeps all the lime brought into it by rivers in a state of solution, or bi-carbonate, but in former days it may have been different ; and, in the case of Magnesian Limestone, there is a strong presumption, that the state of things was then different : There is certainly evidence of great igneous activity during the Permian period from the quantity of gypsum or alabaster associated with it.

Alabaster, so named from the town Alabastron in Egypt, where it was first used for making boxes to hold ointment, is chemically speaking, sulphate of lime. It is found in many formations, and is closely connected with volcanoes. Sulphurous acid, given out in great quantities from volcanic fissures, attacks the carbonate of lime, and changes it into a sulphate ; in other words, converts lime stone into gypsum. It also mixes with the lime held in solution in the sea or lakes, and, in consequence of evapor ation, which from physical causes may sometimes be ex cessive, induces a deposit of sulphate of lime in minute crystals. In such a way originated, in a freshwater lake, at a recent period, the gypsum of the Paris basin, which supplies to trade the well-known Plaster of Paris. In passing eastwards from the Magnesian Limestone in Yorkshire, we leave behind us most, if not all, of the primæval types of animal and vegetable life recorded in the previous strata.

The Permian period, from whatever cause, was comparatively barren of life. Such fauna and flora as it reveals were analogous to those of the Coal measures beneath ; but above it, new types appear, ushering in the great Secondary Period, with which we have next to deal. The age of the one-lobed fish has ceased, with one or two exceptions, and the age of fish with a backbone termin ating in the centre of two equal lobes, forming the tail, is about to begin. Hitherto there had been no Reptiles, but these were soon to be introduced, and their solitary fore runner, appropriately called " Proterosaurus," or first sau rian, made its appearance in the Magnesian Limestone, just as the first Fish, made its appearance immediately before the Devonian Period. As yet there were no Birds. Long ages, the whole of the Secondary Period, had to elapse before there were any Mammals : whilst for ages after that, Man, be it reverently spoken, was only a con ception in the Divine Mind.

Chapter IV

Trias, or New Red Sandstone. — Bunter. — Keuper. — Extent and origin. — Rock Salt. — Origin. — Red Rocks. — Paucity of Fossils. Those who have kindly followed us so far will be aware that, in travelling from the low range of hills in the neighbourhood of Sherburn to Church Fenton Station, we have not merely passed from one group of rocks to another, but have left behind the Primary, and entered upon the Secondary Period of Geologists. This is a very important fact to bear in mind. All the ancient forms of life are behind us. A new life-period is commencing. The Trias, or New Red Sandstone, forms the lowest beds of the new series. This formation received its name of Trias, (Latin, tres, tria ; three) from the fact that, on the continent, where it is largely developed in Germany, it consists of three divisions. 1.