History of the Polk Administration

Preface

. It was with a just appreciation of the difficult task before rue, that I commenced the history of Mr. Polk's administration. I have endeavored to de lineate, and I hope with impartiality, the transac tions which signalized that eventful epoch. Having been in Congress during the presidential term of Mr. Polk, many occurrences recorded in these pages passed under my own observation, which greatly facilitated my researches. I have incorporated co pious notes, containing arguments upon both sides of important questions, for the purpose of present ing the views of Mr. Polk's contemporaries. The work is respectfully submitted to the consideration of my countrymen, with the hope that they will deal gently with its faults, in return for the information which I trust it contains. The events which transpired during the admi nistration of James K. Polk will exercise a vast influence upon the destiny of this confederacy.

PREFACE.

. IV Future generations will designate it as an age of progress and reform. History will preserve the evi dences of the chivalryand military enthusiasm which, during the Mexican war, covered the Amer ican arms with immortal renown. Too brief a period has elapsed since those scenes occurred, to justify the belief that they will be weighed at the present day with an impartial judgment. Political and personal animosities have not yet been allayed by the soothing hand of time. Mr. Polk, but a few months ago, retired from his elevated position only to be gathered to the tomb. Posterity, however, will regard with unprejudiced minds the brilliant career of that administration, which for startling incidents, bold and comprehensive policy, and grand and successful design, stands unrivalled upon the pages of American history. CONTENTS

Chapter I

Early History of James K. Polk. — His Election to Congress. — Chosen Governor of Tennessee. — Influences which produced his nomination for the Presidency in 1844. — Presidential contest of 1844. — Elevated to the Presidency. — Selection of his Cabinet. .•••.. 9

Chapter II

First Annual Message of Mr. Polk. — Annexation of Texas. — Adjustment of the Oregon Question. . . .30

Chapter III

Different races in Mexico. — The information is received there thai Joseph Bonaparte was placed upon the throne of Spain. — Course pursued by the Mexicans. — Rupture between the Natives and Europeans. — Insurrection headed by Hidalgo. — Plan of Igualo. — Iturbide proclaimed Emperor. — He is banished, and on his return to Mexico, is shot. — Revolutions. — Santa Anna elected President. — Texas Revolution. .... 55

Chapter IV

The Boundaries of Texas. — Becomes a member of the Confederacy of 1894. — The Texas which was obtained from France in 1803, and which was ceded to Spain in 1819.— Grant of land to Moses Austin. — Settlement of Texas. — General Cos with a military force crosses the Nueces. — Collision of Arms. — Cos is forced to surrender. — Santa Anna invades Texas in person. — The garrison of Alamo slaughtered. — Murder of Fanning's VI CONTENTS. command. — Battle of San Jacinto. — Santa Anna makes a treaty with the Texans. — The Mexicans evacuate Texas. — The claim of Texas to the Rio Grande. <7

Chapter V

Independence of Texas. — She applies for admission into the Union. — Acquisition of terrilory by Mr. Jefferson. — Transfer of Texas to Spain by the Treaty of 1819. — Efforts of President Adams to have the title reconveyed. — Territory acquired while Mr. Webster was Secretary of State. — Efforts of England and France to prevent annexation. — Passage of the annexation resolutions. — Extension of our boundary. .... 97

Chapter VI

| American Consul at Mexico directed to open negotiations. — The Mexicans agree to receive a commissioner — Mr. Slidell appointed Minister Plenipotentiary. — The Mexicans refuse to receive him in that character. — Causes of rupture which had long existed. — The Mexicans raise troops. — Herrera forced to resign in favor of General Paredes. — Orders issued to the Mexican commanders upon the frontiers to attack the Americans. — Course pursued by the opposition members of Congress. — Assault upon the foreign policy of Mr. Polk. Ill

Chapter VII

Forward movement of the American troops. — The number and discipline of the American army. — General Taylor reaches Point Isabel. — Fort Brown erected. — The Mexicans cross the Rio Grande. — General Taylor moves from Fort Brown to Point Isabel. — Bombardment of Fort Brown. Battle of Palo Alto. — Resaca de la Palma. — The action of Congress. Reorganization of the army. — The object for which the war was prosecuted Difficulty with General Scott. — Requisitions made upon the Governors of several States for volunteers. — Plan of campaign Action of General Gaines. — General Taylor marches from Camargo in the direction of Monterey — Capture of Monterey. — Internal affairs of Mexico. Pass granted to Santa Anna. — General Wool marches upon Monclova. General Kearney takes Santa Fe.— Colonel Doniphan advances upon Chihuahua.— Victory of Sacramento.— General Kearney starts for California.— Operations of Colonel Fremont and Commodores Sloat and Stockton.

Orders issued to raise contributions from the Mexicans.— General Taylor advises the adoption of a defensive line — Preparations made to attack Vera Cruz —Civil Governments authorized by the President.— Movements of Colonel Pnce m • • ■ CONTENTS. VII

Chapter VIII

General Scott directed to proceed to the seat of war. — General Taylor advised to act upon the defensive. — Complaints of General Taylor. — Movements of Santa Anna. — He advances upon Agua Nueva. — Battle of Buena Vista. — General Scott takes Vera Cruz and the castle of San Juan De Ulloa. — Capture of Alvarado. — Victory of Cerro Gordo. — Jalapa and Perote fall into the hands of the Americans. — Appointment of Mr. Trist as Commissioner to Mexico. — Puebla is surrendered to General Worth. — Arrival of reinforcements from the United States. — The. American army enter the Valley of Mexico. . . . . . . 187

Chapter IX

Battle of Contreras. — Worth's division storms San Antonio. — Victory of Churubusco. — Armistice granted. — Negotiations broken off. — Sanguinary battle of Molino del Bey. — Storming of Chapultepec. — Surrender of the city. — Santa Anna resigns the Presidency. — Attacks Colonel Childs at Puebla. — Major Lally forces his way from Vera Cruz to Jalapa. — He is joined by General Lane with 9,500 men. — Battle of Huamantla. — Powers invested in Mr. Trist revoked. — Contributions exacted. — Treaty concluded by Mr. Trist. — General Scott recalled. — General Butler appointed to the command of the army. — Treaty of Guadaloupe Hidalgo. — Americans evacuate Mexico. — The army of the United States. — Territory acquired from Mexico. — Its value 227

Chapter X

The Tariff. — Opinions of Messrs. Clay and Polk upon that question. — Message of Mr. Polk. — Report of the Secretary of the Treasury. — Passage of the Tariff of 1846. — Arguments of the friends and opponents of free trade. — The Constitutional Treasury established. — Discussions in the Constitutional Convention. — Public Debt of the United States. — Proposed Tax upon Tea and Coffee. ........ 307

Chapter XI

Internal Improvements. — Contest between Congress and the Executive upon that question. — Discussions upon the power granted Congress to authorize the Suites to lay duties upon tonnage in the Constitutional Convention. — Public lands. — Pre-emption rights. — Lands granted to several States. — CONTENTS. Land granted to soldiers. — Post-Office Department. — Rates of postage. — Foreign mails. — Lines established to Chagres and California. — The Navy 396

Chapter XII

The veto power exercised by Mr. Polk. — The instructions to Mr. Slidell. — The slavery question. — The Wilmot Proviso. — The slavery question in the Constitutional Convention. — The Missouri compromise. — Territorial Government for Oregon. — Admission of Wisconsin and Iowa into the Union. — Progress made in the arts and sciences. — State of American literature and education. — Conclusion THE POLK ADMINISTRATION.

Chapter I

Early History of James K. Polk. — His Election to Congress. — Chosen Governor of Tennessee. — Influences which produced his nomination for the Presidency in 1844. — Presidential contest of 1844. — Elevated to the Presidency. — Selection of his Cabinet. James Knox Polk, the eleventh President of the United States, was born in Mecklenburgh county, North Carolina, on the 2d of November, 1795. He was the eldest of ten children. His ancestors emigrated from Ireland during the first part of the eighteenth century, and settled in the State of Maryland. A portion of the family removed, first to Pennsylvania, and about the year 1750 they located in North Carolina. In 1806, Major Samuel Polk, the father of James K. Polk, emigrated to Tennessee and settled upon Duck River. It was here that young Polk endured the hardships of a border life until his constitution, which was then quite delicate, came near giving way under the toil and fatigue to which he was exposed.

Yielding to the persuasions of his son. Major Polk enabled him to enter the college at Chapel Hill, North Carolina, in 1815, where he graduated in three years, with the highest honors. He was distinguished at col lege for laborious application to his studies, and by a strict conformity to the regulations of the insti tution. He was always present at recitations, and invariably attended morning and evening prayers in the Chapel. When he completed his collegiate education, he entered the office of the celebrated Felix Grundy to prepare himself for the practice of the law. He commenced the arduous duties of his profession in 1820, in the county of Maury, and at once assumed a high position at the bar. In 1821 he was Clerk to the Legislature of Ten nessee. His political career commenced in 1823, when he was elected a member of the Legislature of Tennessee.

In 1825 he was elevated to a seat in Congress. He was re-elected every succeeding two years until 1839. In 1835 he was Speaker of the House of Representatives, to which position he was Te-elected in 1837. In 1839, he was chosen Gover nor of Tennessee, and in 1844 President of the United States. The rapidity with which he was elevated, step by step, to the highest position on earth, is indeed remarkable, and proves conclusively that his success was not the result of circumstances alone. No one who knew Mr. Polk ever considered him a brilliant genius. His mind possessed solidity rather than imagination. His perception was intui tive, and his memory retentive to an extraordinary degree, while his judgment rarely led him into error. His manners were remarkably affable, and always made an impression upon those who knew him.

Among his intimate friends, he indulged his wit and humor with perfect freedom, and they always found him a pleasant and instructive com panion. The career of Mr. Polk was as remarkable for its brilliancy as for the substantial fruits which it produced. The prominent trait of his character was extraordinary energy. In college, at the bar, in his political canvasses, and in the discharge of his executive duties, he was alike distinguished for his untiring industry and indomitable will This frequently induced him to devote his attention too much to minute details, and had the effect of im pairing his constitution. It was in his canvasses that he exhibited all the resources of his mind. Disaster only had the effect of arousing his powers, and stimulated him to win victory where others were subdued by defeat.

Three times he canvassed the State of Tennessee as a candidate for Governor. In 1839 he was elected over Newton Cannon, and in 1841 and 1843 he was defeated by James C. Jones. No one who has not experienced the fatigues of such a struggle, can appreciate its labors. Undismayed by the task before him, Col. Polk always commenced the contest buoyant with hope. He invariably succeeded in inspiring his friends with his own enthusiasm ; no obstacle could deter him from an energetic discharge of his duty. Subsisting upon the plainest food, and perfectly temperate in his habits, he accustomed himself to a rigid system of diet, which alone could have sus tained him in his political conflicts. His powers of endurance were taxed to their utmost cajiacity during his presidential career. Ele vated to that responsible position at the age of forty-nine, being younger by several years than either of his predecessors, he was determined to em ploy all the resources of his intellect in the discharge of his duties.

His administration occurred in times big with great events, and his sound judg ment, and inflexibility of purpose, enabled him to control them with unparalleled success. The amiable and accomplished Mrs. Polk presided with great dignity and grace over the pre sidential mansion during the term of President Polk. All who approached her were warmly im pressed with her unaffected affability of manner, and probably no lady ever occupied that position, who left it with so many friends. The prominent aspirants for the presidency in 1844, were Mr. Van Buren and Mr. Clay. The democratic party were anxious to atone for the terrible defeat which they sustained in 1840, and the whigs were determined to do justice to the distinguished leader, who was the "embodiment" of their principles. These two gentlemen, either imagined that Mr. Tyler had pressed the question of the annexation of Texas to the United States, to advance his own prospects for the presidency, and were, therefore, determined to frustrate his designs by forcing their supporters to oppose that measure ; or they were honestly opposed to the consummation of that event.

And while a large majority of both parties, at least in the slave-holding States, were anxiously endeavoring to promote a union of the two republics, and were taking prompt and decisive steps to produce that result, they were astounded by the publication of letters from Messrs. Clay and Van Buren, in opposition to that measure.* The attachment of the whig party to Mr. Clay proved more powerful than their desire for the admission * " In the future progress of events, it is probable that there will be a voluntary or forcible separation of the British North American possessions from the parent country. I am strongly inclined to think it will be best for the happiness of all parties, that, in that event, they should be erected into a separate and independent republic. With the Canadian republic on one side, that of Texas on the other, and the United States, the friend of both, between them, each could advance its own happiness by such constitutions, laws, and measures, as were best adapted to its peculiar condition !"

" In conclusion, they [his objections to annexation] may be stated in a few words to be, that I consider the annexation of Texas, at this time, without the assent of Mexico, as a measure compromising the national character, involving us certainly in a war with Mexico, probably with other foreign powers, dangerous to the integrity of the Union, inexpedient in the present financial condition of the country, and not called for by any general expression of public opinion." — Letter of Mr. Clay, May 9, 1844. "I by no means contend that a formal recognition of Texas by Mexico is necessary to justify us in assenting to her annexation to the United States. Time and circumstances may work such a change in the rela tions between these two countries as to render an act of that character on the part of Mexico unnecessary and unimportant.

What I mean to say is, that, from all the information I have been able to obtain on the subject, no change has yet taken place that would make the objections I have here detailed inapplicable." — Letter of Mr. Van Buren, April 20, 1844. of Texas into the Union ; while the doctrines of Mr. Van Buren, meeting with no sympathy from a majority of the democratic party, resulted in his defeat in the Baltimore Convention, and produced the nomination of Mr. Polk. At the meeting of that convention, the claims of the latter gentleman were alone pressed for the office of Vice President, and it was only when there was danger that vio lence and anarchy would produce a dissolution of the body, that he was selected as the compromise candidate* About the same time the Whig Con- * The Baltimore Convention assembled on the 27th of May, 1844.

Mr. Hendricks R. Wright of Pennsylvania was appointed President. The two-thirds rule was adopted by a vote of 148 to 116. This was re garded as a test vote, the Van Buren men going in a mass against it. The first ballot resulted in the following vote : Van Buren, 146 ; Cass, 83; Johnson, 24; Buchanan, 4; Woodbury, 2 ; Stuart,!; Calhoun, 6. The second ballot: Van Buren, 127: Cass, 94; Johnson, 33; Bu chanan, 9; Stuart, 1 ; Calhoun, 1. Third ballot: Van Buren, 121; Cass, 92; Johnson, 33 ; Buchanan, 11 ; Woobury, 2 ; Calhoun, 2. Fourth ballot : Van Buren, 111 ; Cass, 105; Johnson, 32 ; Buchanan, 17 ; Calhoun, 1 Fifth ballot: Van Buren, 103 Cass, 107; Johnson, 29; Buchanan, 26. Sixth ballot: Van Buren, 101 25; Calhoun, 1. Cass, 116; Johnson, 23; Buchanan, Seventh ballot: Van Buren, 99 22; Calhoun 1.

Cass, 123 ; Johnson, 21 ; Buchanan, The excitement now became intense, and disorder and confusion prevailed. An effort was now made to establish the majority rule, but failed ; 118 voting for, and 148 against. On Wednesday the Convention again met. Eighth ballot : Van Buren, 104 ; Cass, 114 ; Buchanan, 2 ; Polk, 44 ; Calhoun, 2. Ninth ballot : Polk, whole number of votes, 266. Mr. Wright was nominated for the Vice Presidency, hut declined vention, with great unanimity and enthusiasm, nominated Mr. Clay, and thus the two aspirants were placed before the American people. Accusations were made by each party against the other, of un fairness in conducting the canvass. It was asserted by the whigs, that the northern democracy touched lightly upon the question of annexation, and in scribed upon their flags the motto of " Polk, Dallas, and the Tariff of 1842 ;" the democrats as posi tively declared that the southern whigs did not hesitate to denounce the question of the annexation of Texas after the publication of Mr. Clay's letter, although they had most zealously advocated that measure while his opinions were unknown.

It is but justice to both parties to say, that the canvass was the most exciting since the organiza tion of our Government, and was conducted with as much fairness as usually characterizes those strug gles. It is an evil which is an inevitable result of all elections where parties are zealously supporting their favorite candidates, that all the opinions, even if frankly promulgated by the aspirants, are not as frankly reiterated by partisan orators and the press of the country. Still this conduct upon the part of the politicians does not prevent the people froru honestly giving their support to that individual accepting the nomination, and on Thursday the Convention proceeded to elect another candidate. First ballot: Fairfield, 87; Woodbury, 56; Cass, 29 ; Johnson, 26; Stewart, 23; Dallas, 13; Marcy, 5.

Second ballot : Dallas, 220 ; Fairfield, 30 ; Woodbury 6. who will illustrate, in the administration of public affairs, the political opinions which they advocate. It cannot be denied that it was known to the Ame rican people, that Mr. Polk was in favor of the im mediate annexation of Texas to the United States, and in triumphantly electing him, they consequently sanctioned that measure.* The prominent questions discussed during the canvass of 1844 were the currency, the tariff, the annexation of Texas, the veto power, and the distribution of the proceeds of the sales of the public lands. The Democratic Convention which nominated Mr. Polk at Baltimore, in May, 1844, laid down a * " You request from me an explicit expression of opinion upon this question of annexation. Having at no time entertained opinions upon public subjects which I was unwilling to avow, it gives me pleasure to comply with your request.

I have no hesitation in declaring that I am in favor of the immediate re-annexation of Texas to the territory and government of the United States. I entertain no doubts as to the power or ex pediency of the re-annexation. * * * * * " It is a part of the great valley of the Mississippi, directly connected by its navigable waters with the Mississippi River, and having once been a part of our Union, it should never have been dismembered from it. The government and people of Texas, it is understood, not only give their consent, but are anxiously desirous to be re-united to the United States. If the application of Texas for a re-union and admission into our confederacy shall be rejected by the United States, there is imminent danger that she will become a dependency, if not a colony of Great Britain — an event which no American patriot, anxious for the safety and prosperity of this country, could permit to occur without the most stren uous resistance.

Let Texas be re-annexed, and the authoritv and laws of the United States be established and maintained within her limits, and also in the Oregon Territory, and let the fixed policy of our government be, not to permit Great Britain, or any other foreign power, to plant a colony or hold dominion over any portion of the people or territory of either." — Letter of James K. Polk, April 23, 1844. POLK AD MINIST RATION. platform for the campaign.* The whig party at the time they nominated Mr. Clay at Baltimore, on * Resolved, That the Federal Government is one of limited powers, derived solely from the Constitution, and the grants of power shown therein, ought to be strictly construed by all the departments and agents of the Government, and that it is inexpedient and dangerous to exercise doubtful constitutional powers. 2.

That the Constitution does not confer upon the Federal Govern ment the power to commence and carry on a general system of interna. improvement. 3. That the Constitution does not confer authority upon the Federal Government, directly or indirectly, to assume the debts of the several States contracted for local or internal improvements, or other state pur poses, nor would such assumption be just and expedient. 4. That justice and sound policy forbid the Federal Government to foster one branch of industry to the detriment of another, or to cherish the interests of one portion to the injury of another portion of our com mon country ; that every citizen of the country has a right to demand and insist upon an equality of rights and privileges, and to compel an ample protection of persons and property from domestic violence and foreign aggression. 5.

That it is the duty of every branch of the Government to enforce and practise the most rigid economy in conducting our public affairs, and that no more revenue ought to be raised than is required to defray the necessary expenses of the Government. 6. That Congress has no power to charter a national bank ; that we believe such an institution one of deadly hostility to the best interests of the country, dangerous to our republican institutions and the liberties of the people, and calculated to place the business of the country within the control of a concentrated money power, and above the laws and will of the people. 7. That Congress has no power, under the Constitution, to interfere with or control the domestic institutions of the several States, and that such States are the sole and proper judges of every thing appertaining to their own affairs, not prohibited by the Constitution ; that all efiorts of the abolitionists or others, made to induce Congress to interfere with the question of slavery, or take incipient steps in relation thereto, are calcu lated to lead to the most alarming and dangerous consequences, and that all such efforts have an inevitable tendency to diminish the happiness of the people and endanger the stability and permanency of the Union, and ought not to be countenanced by any friend to our political institutions. the 1st of May, 1844, adopted certain resolutions.* The struggle was fiercely contested, and almost every expedient was resorted to for the purpose of winning votes.

The friends of both the candidates 8. That the separation of the moneys of the government from banking institutions is indispensable for the safety of the funds of the government, and the rights of the people. Reso{ved, That the proceeds of the public lands ought to be sacredly applied to the national objects specified in the Constitution ; and that we are opposed to the law lately adopted, and to any law for the distribution of such proceeds among the States, as alike inexpedient in policy and repugnant to the Constitution. Resolutions were also adopted against taking from the President the right of exercising the veto power ; and proclaiming our title to the whole of the territory of Oregon and against surrendering any portion of it to Great Britain, and also in favor of the annexation of Texas.

Mr. Benjamin F. Butler was chairman of the committee who reported the resolutions. * The Whig Convention assembled at Baltimore, May 1st, 1844. Hon. Ambrose Spencer, of New-York, was appointed President. Henry Clay was nominated for the Presidency, and Theodore Frelinghuysen for the Vice Presidency. The following resolutions were unanimously adopted at the Whig Convention of May, 1844. " Resolved, That in presenting to the country the names of Henry Clay for President, and Theodore Frelinghuysen for Vice President, the convention is actuated by the conviction that all the great principles of the whig party— principles inseparable from the public honor and pros perity—will be maintained and advanced by the election of these candidates. " Resolved, That these principles may be summed as comprising a well regulated national currency, a tariff for revenue to defray the necessary expenses of the government, and discriminating with special reference to the protection of the domestic labor of the country, the distribution of the proceeds from the sales of the public lands, a single term for the Pre sidency, a reform of executive usurpations, and generally such an administration of the affairs of the country as shall impart to every branch of the public service the greatest practicable efficiency, controlled by a well regulated and wise economy."

POLK ADMINISTEATION. 19 were connclent of success, and were animated with the greatest ardor and enthusiasm. The result was the election of Messrs. Polk and Dallas to the Pre sidency and Vice Presidency of the United States, by a majority of sixty-five electoral votes.* On the 4th of March, 1845, the President elect of the United States delivered his Inaugural Ad dress in the presence of the assembled representa tives of the American people, the Supreme Court of the United States, the diplomatic corps, and an * For President. I For Vice President, 3 <° •— ■- — O o o STATES. = 6. 5 op O O.C . c a a> a. •-. so 9 6 12 4 6 6 36 7 26 3 8 17 11 9 10 12 13 23 6 6 12 9 9 7 3 6 Maine, New Hampshire, Massachusetts, Rhode Island, Connecticut, Vermont, New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Delaware, Maryland, Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, Kentucky, Tennessee, Ohiq, Louisiana, Mississippi, Indiana, Illinois, Alabama, Missouri, Arkansas, Michigan, . 36 26 17 9 10 9 6 12 4 6 6 7 3 8 II 9 6 36 26 17 9 10 12 4 6 6 7 3 8 11 6 6 12 9 9 7 3 5 ia 13 ■2i 12 13 23 6 6 12 9 9 7 3 5 275 170 105 I 170 immense concourse of spectators, and took the oath of office, which was administered by the Chief Justice.* Mr. Clay, the unsuccessful candidate of the whig party for the presidency, had for a long period been an aspirant for that office.

As early as 1824, he was supported for that position by many warm admirers. Perhaps no man in the Union has won the attachment of so many ardent and enthusiastic personal friends as Mr. Clay. JNo disaster can dampen their* zeal, and each successive defeat only has the effect of attaching them still more closely to his person and his fortunes. He is, indeed, a noble leader. His bold and impassioned eloquence, his affability and fascination of manner, and his unwavering devotion to his friends, altogether con stitute him one of the most influential statesmen which this country has ever produced. His patriotism has been too often put to the test to admit of doubt. Upon two occasions he has interposed his form between the exasperated citizens of the North and South. When the ex citement raged with frightful violence before the admission of Missouri, and threatened to destroy the Union itself, with a promptness and sincerity which proved that a patriot's heart beat within his bosom, he poured oil upon the troubled waters and assisted to allay the storm.

And now, when danger thickens, and a dark and threatening cloud hovers over the Temple of Liberty, his tall and venerable form is again seen protecting from sacri- * For the Inaugural Address, see Appendix. lege and violence our glorious Constitution, and in tones which are tremulous with age, he implores our distracted countrymen to pause in their career, and save the American Confederacy from the frightful horrors which must flow from its dissolution. The difficult and delicate duty now devolved upon Mr. Polk of selecting his cabinet, and upon a wise choice of those persons much of the popularity and success of his administration depended. Not only was it necessary to call around him states men whose ability and experience would enable them to illustrate the broad and comprehensive platform which he had laid down in his inaugural address, but whose commanding talents and popu larity with the American people would recommend its adoption by their representatives.