The History of Modern Europe, etc

Front matter

COTJKT OF CHANCEET. IMPORTANT COPYRIGHT SUIT. JARROLD v. HEYWOOD. (Before Vice-Chan cellor Sir W. M. James.) " The plaintiffs, Messrs. Jarrold and Sons, of Paternoster Row, London, and proprietors of Dr. Brewer's Guide to Science, instituted this suit for the purposes of restraining the sale and publication of the ' Class-Book of Modem Science,' published by the defendant, Mr. John Heywood, of 141 and 143, Deansgate, Manchester. " Mr. Kay, Q.C., and Mr. Westlake were counsel for the plaintiffs. Mr. Fry, Q.C., and Mr. F. C. J. Millar were counsel for the defendant. " The cause was argued in the Court of Vice-Chancellor James, on November 23, 24, 25, and on December 2, 3, 6, and 7, 1869." EXTRACTS FROM REPORT OF THE TRIAL. Mr. Fry, Q.C., for the defendant said: "On the other hand, the defendant's authors were practised writers, the authors (besides worts on Science) of a considerable number of books for schools and general readers — a list of which was read to the court, — while from their professional experience before writing their ' Class-Book of Modern Science,' they were acquainted both with the tastes and capacities ofthe class of pupils for which they wrote, and with the subjects on which their book treats."

"A mass of fresh materials has been brought forward, and my learned friends (Mr. Kay aud Mr. Westlake) have scarcely men tioned the ' Bill ' of Complaint. "Mr. Kay: I am not responsible for the 'Bill' your Honour." " Mr. Westlake : The 'Bill' is not mine." Mr. Fry followed Mr. Kay through the whole of his speech, and dealt with each passage that had been opened by the other side. The same process — of comparing passages and citing numerous authorities — was gone through, as had been adopted in repelling the charges in the ' Bill,' the learned counsel (Mr. Fry) remarking on many of the citations that they were eridently the source from which the plaintiffs' author had taken the very Questions and Answers which they now claimed as their own exclusive pi-operty — pirated, as they plainly were, and which they had the assurance now to ask the Court, for their benefit, to restrain other authors from using.

The learned counsel (Mr. Fry) further pointed out that the differences in form between plaintiffs' and defendant's Questions, which had been, charged as fraud on the defendant's authors, and attributed to their skill in altering for the i purpose of disguising the source of their information, were really differences from the original sources altered by the plaintiffs' author for the purpose of disguising the sources to which he was indebted for his book." " After going through every passage challengedin Court, and dealing more at length with those specially assailed by plaintiffs, particularly setting forth that the plaintiffs' author, in relation to the influence of lime on carbonic acid gas, did not appear to understand the difference between ' quick lime' and ' slaked lime,' the learned counsel (Mr. Fry), having spoken for a good part of three days, submitted that the plaintiffs had failed to sustatn their charge, and he appealed to his Honour to dismiss the Bill."

Preface

TO THE NEW AND REVISED EDITION. This Edition of the History of Modern Europe has under gone careful revision, and the author has taken pains to prevent such changes as were necessary, from interfering materially with the use of the present in connection with the last issue. Chapters and numbered paragraphs stand as they stood in the previous edition. The most delicate taste will here find nothing to offend, and the general style and spirit of the work remain substantially unaltered. While the facts of history have been faithfully recorded, the spirit of party has not been allowed to falsify events nor to mar the narrative. In this edition, a new and bolder type will make the work still more acceptable both to Teachers and Students ; and the adoption of a smaller type for the numerous dates (most import ant as connecting links in the narrative) removes an appearance of crowding, which, in a Class-book, is always more or less objectionable.

A new and carefully-prepared Index provides abundant means of reference to a large number of facts. Probably no period of history is so crowded with stirring events and startling incidents as the one dealt with in this

PREFACE.

. IV volume ; and the writer has constantly aimed to put this large mass of material in a form calculated at once to instruct and captivate the youthful reader. The opinion of the writer on the historical and literary merits of his own performance is scarcely worth recording ; but he may, perhaps, venture to direct attention to the Notices of the public Press, which include the criticisms of journals representing nearly all shades of opinion. Recent events have awakened in a large class of readers a desire to know more of the origin, growth, and present condition of those nations which now direct the policy and control the destinies of Continental Europe ; and the late Franco-German War in particular, with the foolish and fatal revolutionary throes of Paris — excited by the dreams of a fanatical socialism — will have impressed the Teachers of Youth with the necessity of giving increased attention in Schools to the character, position, and aims of our neighbours on the Continent.

This Edition of the History of Modern Europe brings down the narrative of European affairs to the present time ; and, it is hoped, will help to meet the enlarged demand which the startling events of 1870 and 1871 have created. July 25th, 1871. CONTENTS. GENERAL SURVEY OF EUROPE. CHAP. PAGE. I- General Survey of Europe from the Fall of the Roman Republic to the Conquest of Britain by William, Duke of Normandy (B.C. 44— AD. 1066) 9 II- General Survey of Europe from the Norman Conquest to the opening of the 16th Century (A.D. 1066-1500) 15 III. Condition, of Europe during the 15th Century — (AD. 1400—1500) 19 Germany. IV. Germany— the Reformation (AD. 1483-1517) 23 V Germany— the Reformation (A.D. 1617-1518) 30 VI- Germany — the Reformation (A.D. 1518) 34 VII. Germany— the Reformation (A.D. 1518-1520) 38 VIII.

Germany— the Reformation (AD. 1520-1525) 44 Switzerland. IX- Switzerland— the Reformation (A.D. 1525-1531) 50 Germany. X. Germany— the Reformation (A.D. 1525-1546) 53 XI. Germany— Charles 7.— Political History (AD. 1519-1544) 56 XII Germany— Charles 7.— Political History (AD. 1644r-1558> 61 England. XIII. England— Henry 7III. (A.D. 1509-1547) 65 XIV. England— Edward 71.— Mary I. ... (AD. 1647-1553-1558) 72 France- XV. Francis I. — Henry II. — Francis Il.—Cliarles IX. — The Huguenots (AD. 1515-1574) 77 XVI. France — Henry III. — Henry 17. — The Huguenots — (AD. 1574-1610) VI CONTENTS. chap. England. page. XVII. England— Elizabeth (AD. 1558-1588) 87 XVIII. England— Elizabeth (concluded) (AD. 1588-1603) 93 Condition of England under the Tudors 94 Spain. XIX Spain — The Netherlands — Philip II. — Philip III. — Philip 17.— Charles II.

(AD. 1556-1700) 96 France. XX. France— Louis XIII. (AD. 1610-1643) 103 Germany. XXI. Germany — The Thirty Years' Wore — Ferdinand I. — Maximilian II. — Rodolrph II. — Matthias — Ferdinand II.— Ferdinand III. (AD. 1558-1648) 110 England. XXII. 'England— James I. GAD 1603-1625) 119 XXIII. England— Charles I. (A. D. 1625-1641) 123 XXIV. England— Charles I. (continued) (AD. 1641— 1647) 127 XXV. England^- Charles I. (concluded) (A.D. 1647— 1649) 132 Condition of England during the Reigns of James I. and Charles I. 134 England. XXVI. England— The Commonwealth (A.D. 1649— 1653) 136 XXVII. The Protectorate -Oliver Cromwell (A J>. 1653— 1660) 140 Condition of England during the Commonwealth and Protectorate 142 England. XXVIII. England— The Restoration— Charles II. (A.D. 1660—1685) 143 XXIX. England— James II.— The Revolution .

(A.D. 1685-1688) 148 Great Men of Europe during the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries 152 France. XXX. France— Louis XI7. (A.D. 1643-1687) 153 XXXI. France— Louis XI7. (concluded) (A.D. 1687-1715) 162 Condition of France during the Reign of Louis XI7 CONTENTS. VII chap. England. page. XXXII. England— William III. and Mary II. . <A.D. 1702-1714) 169 Russia XXXIII. Russia — Early Sovereigns - — Peter the Great — (A.D. 989-1700) 176 XXXIV. Russia — Peter the Great {concluded.) — Catherine I. (AD. 1700-1727) 180 Sweden. XXXV. Sweden — Early Sovereigns — Charles XII. (AD. 1389-1718) 185 • England. XXXVI. England— George I. (AD. 1714-1727) 191 XXXVII England— George II. (A.D 1727-1760) 195 Condition of England during the Reign of George II. 200 France. XXXVin. France— Louis X7. (A.D. 1715-1748> 201 XXXIX France— Louis X7.

(concluded) (A.D. 1748-1744) 2u7 Germany. XL. Germany (Prussia) — Frederick I. — Frederick William I. — Frederick II. (A.D. 1688-1756) 212 XLI. Germany (Prussia) — Frederick II. (concluded) — Frederick William II. (AD. 1756-1791) 218 Germany. XLII. Germany — Ferdinand II. — Leopold I. — Joseph I. — Charles 71. — Maria Theresa — Charles 711. — Francis I. — Joseph II. — Leopold II. — Francis II. — Last da.ys of the Empire (A.D. 1648-1806) 224 Russia. XLIII. Russia — Peter II. — Anne — Ivan 71. — Elizabeth — Peter III.— Catherine II.— Paul I. (A.D. 1727-1801) 233 Poland. XLIV. Early Kings — John III. (Sobieski)— Frederick Augustus I. — Frederick Augustus II. — Stanislaus II. (AD. 830—1798) CONTENTS. chap. The Ottoman Empirepage. XLV. Turkey— Sultans— Otham to Abdul Medjid (AD. 1299-1839) 244 England.

XLVI. England— George III. (AD. 1760-1790) 250 XLVII. England— George III. (concluded) (A.D. 1790-1820) 256 France. XLVIII France — Louis X7I. — The French Revolution (A.D. 1774-1790) 260' XLIX France — Louis XVI. — France — The French Revolution — (concluded) (AD. 1790-1795) 266 !■• Napoleon Bonaparte — The Great European War • (AD. 1795-1802) 274 U- Napoleon Bonaparte — The Great European War (concluded) (A.D. 1802—1815) 282 Great Men of Europe during the Eighteenth and Nineteenth Centuries 292 England- LII. England— George 17.— William 17. ... (A.D. 1820-1837) 293 Continental Europe LIII. Continental Europe (A.D. 1815-1847) 297 England. LIV. England— Victoria I. (A.D. 1837-1863) 303 Continental Europe. LV. Continental Europe (A.D. 1848— 1863) 309 England. LVI- England^-Victoria (continued) (AD. 1863— 1871) 314 Continental Europe. LVII Continental Europe (A.D. 1863-1871) 324-340 Index 341-348 THE HISTORY OF MODERN EUROPE.

Chapter I. General Survey Of Europe From The Fall Of The Roman

REPUBLIC TO THE CONQUEST OF BRITAIN BY WILLIAM, DUKE OF NORMANDY. (B.C. 44— A.D. 1066.) 1. When Julius Cæsar, pierced by the daggers of his enemies, fell dead at the foot of Pompey's Statue (b.c. 44), there was virtually an end of the old Roman Republic ; and with an extent of territory till then unknown in the history of nations the ponderous Empire soon after began its career of grandeur, orime, and misfortune. 2. The sway of the Roman Empire reached over all Italy, and over Spain, bounded by the Mediterranean, the Atlantic, and the Pyreuees. It reached over Gaul (France), from the Alps and the Pyrenees, to the Rhine ; over Germany, to the Danube ; and over Asia, as far as Syria, the Euxine, and tbe Euphrates. It stretched over all the coasts and islands of the Mediterranean, over large tracts of Northern Africa, and eventually over Ancient Britain.

The power of Rome was felt, and her authority acknowledged, over an area of more than a million and a half square miles; her census (b.c. 28 ) gave the Roman citizens at about 4,000,000, and Gibbon reckons her entire subjects at 128,000,000 souls. Though she lived at ease for some ages amidst riches and luxury, her wealth and splendour early caught the eye and inflamed the avarice of the half-savage tribes of northern Europe. The glittering prize brought down upon her countless swarms of these barbarians, and there was no rest for the magnificent old empire, till her fair countries were laid waste, and her cities reduced to ashes ; till her power was broken, and the "tiara" and the "purple" — last emblems of former greatness — had been sent away by the remnant of the Roman Senate, from the once glorious capital (a.d. 476). 3.

In her own bosom, however, the Roman Empire had the seeds of her own death, or the barbarians under Alaric, B [Ch. I. B.C. 44 — 10 SURVEY OF EUROPE. Attila, and other northern leaders, must have thrown them selves in vain against her ancient strongholds. Her own vastness and weight, her insolence and tyranny, the corruption and crime, the luxury and consequent inactivity and feebleness of her rulers would, at length, have laid her in ruins. But the savage Northmen brought down prematurely the splendid fabric, and it lay a grand wreck, saved from the easier but more slow and lingering process of natural decay. Desolation, blood and death, filled her lands with mourning. At length Odoacer, a chief of the Heruli, seized Italy and sat on the throne of the Cæsars (47e). The Sueves, Alans, and Vandals reduced Spain ; Gaul was taken by the Goths, Pranks, and Burgundians ; the Vandals fixed themselves in Africa, and Britain fell under the rule of the Saxons. 4.

The eastern portions of the Empire suffered similar ravages. Attila, king of the Huns — a race which made its way from the north of Asia — spread terror and destruction every where, and boasted that he was the " Scourge of God." His sway already extended from the frontiers of Gaul to those of China, and now his vast armies moved upon southern Europe. After he had overrun the territories of the Emperor Theodosius, and destroyed 70 flourishing cities in and about Greece, he marched into Gaul, where the Franks and Goths met and defeated him at a great battle near Chalons-sur-Marne, where from 250,000 to 300,000 of his vast army lay slain (451). He then (452) marched for Italy, laid waste the country, and besieged many towns. Numbers of the people fled terror-stricken, aud sought safety in the marshes, at the head of the Adriatic Gulf, where it is stated — but on doubtful authority — they founded the city of Venice.

Attila threatened to destroy Rome, and was only prevented by the personal entreaties of Pope Leo I. He prepared once more (453) to descend upon Italy, but suddenly died. Historians of the time say his body was enclosed within three coffins — one of gold, one of silver, and one of iron. Cap tives dug his grave, and were then put to death, to keep secret his last resting-place. Within the limits of the Eastern Empire the Ostrogoths erected a kingdom — about the time Odoacer was proclaimed king of Italy. During these fearful tumults the great library of Constantinople, numbering 120,000 volumes — many of them of rare value — was consumed by fire. 5. The Eastern Empire, with its seat of Government at Constantinople, was now (527) under the rule of the Emperor Justinian, who, aided by his great Generals, Belisarius and Ch. I. A.D. 1066. 11 JUSTINIAN — LONGOBARDS.

Narses, infused new vigour into this last relic of greatness. Dionysius Exiguus, a monk, began this year the use of the Christian Era. A civil commotion in the capital was quelled (532) and 30,000 rebels were slain, while Africa (534) and Italy were wrested from the Goths and Vandals. Justinian's " Digests " of laws were an admirable collection, and have largely tinged the character of the laws which have since governed the nations of modern Europe. They comprise the "Code," the "Institutes," the "Pandects" — in 50 volumes (533) — and his own, known as the " Novels," or New Laws (535). Justinian built 25 churches in Constantinople, St. Sophia (532) — now a Mahometan Mosque — being one of the number. This splendid old temple is a masterpiece of architecture. During this reign (551) two monks brought, in a hollow cane, the eggs of the silkworm from the East, aud silkmaking commenced in Europe.

Justinian died (565), and was succeeded by his nephew Justin II., who was a good-natured, temperate man, but the slave of a termagant and troublesome wife. For a time he was a persecutor of heresy, and became a heretic himself in his last days. 6. Still another great tribe of northern barbarians had to descend on Italy. The Longobards or Lombards (from hardi a spear) came like a huge wave, and under their chief Alboin, joined by the Avars — archers from the heights of Mount Ural — they spread desolation and ruin over the fertile plains now known as Lombardy, and proclaimed their leader King of Italy (568). With the Exarchs of Ravenna, the Lombards held Italy for above two centuries. While these wars were convulsing the peninsula, the Papacy was rapidly growing into a great power. Early, the bishops of Rome began to claim superiority over all other bishops.

They struggled hard, and at last successfully, to gain their purpose. Innocent I. (402-417), Leo I. (440-461), and Gregory I. (590-604), may be regarded as the three pontiffs who founded the Papal authority. Above a century and a half later Pope Stephen II. received, as a gift from Pepin the Short of France, the Exarchate of Ravenna (754), and with this the popes began to reign both as spiritual and temporal sovereigns. 7. The victorious Northmen brought with them all their barbarism, and fixed it in every country in which they settled. Great names of the past were forgotten. Orators, statesmen, poets, philosophers, for ages the ornament and pride of Greece and Rome, no longer held their ancient and honourable position. War and plunder were the chief delights of the rude nations which had spread themselves over the classic lands of Greece SURVEY OF EUROPE. [Ch. I. B.C. 44— and Rome.

They had no taste for the arts, laws, philosophies, and literatures of past civilizations, and these studies fell into utter neglect. The shadow of the dark ages soon crept on, and though the barbarians generally adopted Christianity, they mixed with its simplicity their own violence, superstition, and follies. These vices were unhappily adopted by the priesthood — who made the best terms they could with the conquerors — but such vices brought disgrace on the Church of Christ, and impressed on the middle ages a more gloomy and revolting character than had ever yet brooded over Europe 8. In the midst of the desert sands of Arabia was now rising a new power, destined to play an important part in the world's history. This was Mahometanism. The founder of the system was Mahomet, an Arabic youth of noble race and born at Mecca (571).

The lad was left an orphan at six, and drove his uncle's camels and travelled with his caravans at an early age. Afterwards he undertook to manage the business of a rich lady — Cadijah — who, though of forty years, cast the eyes of a lover on this youth of twenty-five, and married him. Mahomet's fortune was now made ; no longer forced to toil for bread, he had time to reflect and to shape out the future of his life. Reserved and somewhat morose in temper, he spent days and weeks and months in secret thought, within a mountain cave near his home. There he busily employed himself with visions, and rather cleverly formed his plans. He declared he 'had constant intercourse with the invisible world, and was entrusted with new truths for the benefit of mankind. At forty, he proclaimed himself the " Prophet of God," and began to persuade his friends that in his cave the angel Gabriel had honoured him with numerous interviews, and had besides revealed to him a new system of religion, the leading doctrine of which was, that " there is but one God, and Mahomet is his prophet."

Three years of toil gave him forty disciples. He found it hard to convert the Arabians, for he came before them without miracles, or — at present — any marks of extraordinary genius. His kinsmen laughed at his foolish, and what they considered false pretences ; the citizens of Mecca began first to annoy and persecute the visionary, and then to threaten his life. In fear, and in the darkness of night, Mahomet fled to Medina (July io, 622), a place which, from this time, he made his headquarters. This hurried retreat the Moslems (Mahometans) called " Hegira," or the Flight, and from this time they reckon the years, as do Christians from the birth of Christ. Mahomet's Ch. I. A.D. 1006.] MAHOMET — CALIPHS. 13 Koran or Bible, given to him, he said, in portions by the angel Gabriel, is made up partly of Christian, partly of Jewish, and partly of heathen notions. 9.

The first mosque was built in Mahomet's newly-adopted city. Thirteen years of quiet, meek preaching, though rewarded by some success, gave results too slowly for Mahomet, when he took the sword and turned soldier (624). Ever after he and his followers held that " the sword is the key of heaven and hell." He had done all he could by persuasion. When men would not yield he fell on them with the cold steel and sharp sword, and converted them against their wills. His work of conquest was opened with only a few adherents, but one victory and another gradually increased his soldiers until, with a considerable army under his command, he cut down opposition and converted large numbers. At the head of 10,000 men he took Mecca (629). Sixty-one years of life brought Mahomet to the grave (June 7, 632).

He was buried at Medina, beneath the roof of the first mosque. Though, as appeared in his later years, a man of extraordinary genius and strong will, he was the apostle of a great deception, consciously or unconsciously, and his system has proved a curse to mankind. 10. Among many other doctrines, the Mahometans believe " there is one God," that there are angels of different ranks, one who was driven out of Paradise for refusing to worship Adam ; that there are six great prophets— Adam, Noah, Abraham, Moses, Jesus, and Mahomet ; that there is a hell, and a heaven of sensual pleasures ; and that fate rules all things. A really earnest Moslem practises washing with great nicety ; prays with his face towards Mecca five times a day ; gives a tenth of his property in charity ; fasts from sun-rise to sun-set, for one entire month (Rhamadam) in the year ; eats no pork, drinks no wine, and performs himself, or gets another to do it for him, at least one pilgrimage to Mecca during his life.

The successors of Mahomet — called Caliphs — carried out their master's policy, and, by a series of astounding conquests, overran and subdued Syria (eso-s), Persia, Egypt, and Asia Minor. They aho ravaged the Greek Empire, besieged but failed to take Constantinople (668-675), reduced the north of Africa (707), crossed thence to Spain and founded, in the south of that country, a powerful and prosperous kingdom (710-712). 11. France now began to show signs of her future greatness. The inroads of the Saracens (Mahometans), which had extended to that country, were thoroughly checked by Charles Martel in SURVEY OF EUROPE. [Ch. I. b.c. 44— a.d. 1006- a bloody battle fought between Tours and Poictiers (732), where the Mahometans were defeated, their chief, Abderahman killed, and 375,000 of his army slain.

Pepin, the son of Charles Martel, assumed the title and honours of a regular sovereign, aud his son and successor Charles, known as Charlemagne, began his brilliant reign (Oct 9, 76s). After a multitude of great con quests he was crowned Emperor at Rome by Pope Leo III. (soo). He revived the glories of the old Roman power and is regarded as the founder of a new Western Empire. His rule reached over all France, all ths north of Italy (774), over part of Spain, over the Netherlands, and over Germany (S04). But Charles the Great is most to be admired as a lover and patron of literature and learning. Men of genius from all countries shared his rewards and were kept at his palace, where they formed a kind ;f an Academy. The poor of his people were anxiously cared for, schools grew up, the University of Paris was founded, and this noble king shone like a great light in the sky of Europe, other wise black as midnight. 12.

Charlemagne's death, however (sh), was the death of his extensive empire; for his son, Louis I., divided the empire amongst his children (sio) — Charles, the Bald, taking France ; Lothaire I., Italy; and Louis, Germany. On the death of Louis III. (911) the imperial dignity* was transferred to German}-. As part of the empire Italy was the scene of frequent civil tumults; sometimes between contending popes, and sometimes between the popes and the German emperors. 13. Alfred the Great attempted, among the Saxons, what Charlemagne had attempted in France, and though success attended his labours, in the encouragement and spread of education and literature, the night of ignorance was too dark for the light he kindled in Britain ; and after his death (901), a still more dismal gloom set in all over Europe, with the ex ception of the south of Spain, where the Arabian Mahometans cultivated, with unrivalled success, literature and the arts.

The Danes at length subdued the Saxons, who were however soon restored (1013-1042), but only to be finally subdued by the Normans, who, under William the Conqueror, at the battle of Hastings, gave Harold — the last Saxon king — a fatal defeat (1066). By a rigorous enforcement of the Feudal System, which reduced the people to serfs, and bent and broke them into a state of servility, the Normans completely changed the manners, the habits, and the language of the people of Britain. Though blood and death had long stalked through the earth, [Ch. II, a d, 1066—1500.] NORMANS — CHIVALRY. 15 there now came a season of comparative quiet ; but it was the quiet of universal ignorance and superstition, a lull of the animal passions, without any stir of the intellect. A state, in fact, little less horrible than the savage conflicts so long wa»ed on the ruins of the Western Empire.

Chapter II. General Survey Of Europe From The Norman Conquest To The

OPENING OF THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY. (A.D. 1066-1500 ) 1. Out of the universal darkness of the middle ages there arose, at length, the institution of Chivalry, which, with some evils, yielded some good to the nations of Europe. Long prevailing disorder and anarchy everywhere left the poor and feeble at the mercy of the rich and strong. For the feeble and helpless there was little or no protection. Noble tyrants and warlike chieftains associated with ignorance and brutal ruffianism, often crushed and destroyed the defenceless and unfortunate. But the nobles themselves, at length, touched by a sense of justice, and a feeling of common sympathy, banded together for the purposes of public safety, and the redress of private wrongs. Knighthood became the fashion and the glory of the age. 2. The young noble, ere he was admitted to the honours of knighthood, had to serve some knight as a page, then as an esquire, and not till he had given many plain proofs of valour and address was he raised to the proud distinction, and allowed to appear in his costly steel armour, his sword and gold spurs.

Every knight took an oath to serve his prince ; defend religion ; protect the persons and characters of virtuous ladies ; and to deliver from the hands of the tyrant and oppressor, widows, orphans, or other innocent and helpless sufferers. These men went forth without reward into all lands, on their generous and noble errand, and often performed prodigies of valour. They became objects of universal admiration, while their devotion and gallantry had a marked influence in improving the habits and softening the manners of the peoples of Europe. Even war lost something of its savage features ; some of the rough barbarisms of society were smoothed down ; a higher respect for truth prevailed ; and woman was raised a step or two higher towards her true position. The knight himself became the man of the times.

He was foremost everywhere. In literature, the [Ch- II. a.d. 1060— 16 SURVEY OF EUROPE. great figure ; in court revels, the first character ; in field and soldier sports, in tilt-yards and on battle-fields, he took the lead. Still, chivalry had its evils. Sometimes it led to foolish, sometimes to wicked, enterprises. From "the brave old knight," probably came the modern notion of " a true gentleman ;" from his excessive courtesy to the gentler sex, sometimes came lax morals ; and from his overdone ideas of honour sprang our silly modern "duels." The advantages of chivalry, moreover, were to some extent counterbalanced by the institution and rapid spread of monkery, which, at one period, bid fair to turn Europe into one vast cloister. 3. Chivalry had much to do in originating and sustaining those great, but foolish, religious wars known as the Crusades (Wars of the Cross), so called from the soldiers engaged in them wearing a red cross on one shoulder.

For centuries these wars impoverished Europe, besides turning the plains of Western Asia into a frightful slaughter-house. Already we have seen that the conquering Caliphs, the successors of the once youthful camel driver, and afterwards religious dreamer, had planted themselves in Syria and other parts of Asia. But the " Holy Sepulchre," said to be the grave of Christ, was at Jerusalem, and there, from every corner of Europe, devout and earnest Christians, in these times of ignorance and superstition, went on a pilgrimage. As they passed the gates of Jerusalem the pilgrims often received abuse and insult from the ruthless infidel. When these tales were brought home, all Christendom was indignant ; and when Peter the Hermit — once a soldier, but afterwards the occupant of a cell — came back full of anger from the " Holy Land," and travelled through Europe preaching up a war against those infidel desecrators of the " holy places," millions, inspired by his wild eloquence, joined in his cry.