The Cave Dwellers of Southern Tunisia ... Translated from the Danish ... by L. A. E. B

Preface

My journey among the cave dwellers of Southern Tunisia was essentially one of research, since I was entrusted by Doctor Sophius Miiller, Director of the Second Department of the National Museum, with the honourable task of purchasing ethno graphical objects for the said museum. On submitting this work to the public, it is incumbent upon me to osier my sincere thanks to all those who afforded me support and help in my travels : the Minister of Foreign Affairs, at whose recommendation Cubisol, the Danish Consul in Tunis, addressed himself to the French Regency, and obtained permission for me to travel through the country, and also an escort, guides, etc. Doctor Midler and Chamberlain Veclel, whose respective introductions, given from the National Museum and the Society concerned with ancient manuscripts, and addressed to other similar institu tions, introduced me not only to these, but also to those remarkably scientific men, Gauckler and V

PREFACE.

VI Doctor Bertholon, whose friendship I have to thank for much information and assistance. England's Representative in Tunis, Drummond Hay, may be said to have traced my path through Tunisia, as, on the basis of his remarkable know ledge of both individuals and of relative circumstances, he sketched a plan of my journey, from which I required to make little or no deviation. The Government and officers in El Arad, the officials, both military and civilian, showed me the greatest hospitality, and assisted me in the highest degree ; Colonels Billet and Gousset especially claim my warmest gratitude. Much of what I have recorded has been left in its original form, namely, as letters written home, some to my wife, some to other persons, as, for instance, to the publisher, Herr Hegel. I have not altered these lest they might lose the fresh impression under which they were written.

Several por tions were composed with a view to publication in the French journal the Revue Tunisienne, and in the Parisian magazine Le Tour du Monde. The illustrations were obtained from various sources. Albert, the photographer in Tunis, obligingly allowed me to make use of a number of photographs, from which were chiefly drawn the views of the town and of the sea - coast. With a detective camera I myself took some

PREFACE.

VII instantaneous photographs on the journey from Gabes to the mountains, of which a number are introduced. Besides these, Mr. Knud Gamborg has engraved some drawings of my own. Mr. Gauckler also gave me the free use of the sketches already published in his Collection Beylieale, from which were selected the pictures of the villages in the Matmata mountains. Lastly, from the wife of Consul Henriksen at Sfax I received two paintings, which are reproduced. When, in the spring, I made an expedition to Greenland, I left my manuscript with my friend Doctor Kragelund, of Hobro, who had already afforded me his assistance, and gave him full powers to arrange the somewhat heterogeneous materials. In my absence he corrected the proofs as they came from the press, and has therefore taken a very important part in my w*ork, and enabled it to be published in its present form.

For this act of friendship I tender him my warmest thanks. Danikl Bruun. November 1894. Note. — The fact of three years having elapsed since the Danish original of the Cave Dwellers was published, renders the letter form of which the

PREFACE.

VIII author speaks somewhat unsuitable for translation. It has been necessary, therefore, in many cases to modify that form, and also to omit certain passages in the work as being of little or no interest to English readers. CONTENTS l HAP. PAGE I. WITH DRUMMOND HAY IN TUNIS .... 1 II. SUSA . ....... 5 iii. from sfax to gabes . . . . .17 iv. from gabes to the matmata mountains . . 32 v. return to gabks ...... 59 vi. of the matmata mountains and their inhabitants . 93 vii. from gabas to the oasis of el hamma — the shotts. 116 viii. the oasis of el hamma . . . . .129 ix. over aglat merteba to the matmata mountains . 152 x. bridal festivities in hadeij .... 158 xi. over the mountains and across the plain from hadeij to metamer ..... 197 xii. metamer and medinin ..... 217 xiii. southwards over the plain to tatuin . . 233 xiv. duirat ....... 243 xv. the tuareg ...... 253 xvi. back to tunis ...... 274 xvii. tunis ....... 285 supplement — the tribes of tunisia : a synopsis . 292 costumes — the dress of the countrywomen . . 324 postscript ....... 334 i .

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS FAGE the bey of Tunis ...... Frontispiece DRUMMOND HAY, BRITISH CONSUL-GENERAL AT TUNIS . . 3 SUSA ........ 8 TWO K.HRUMIR WOMEN . . . . . .13 AT SFAX ........ 20 TOWER IN THE VILLAGE OF MENZEL . . . .24 JEWESSES AT MENZEL . . . . . .25 ON THE OASIS OF GABES . . . . . .28 WASHERWOMEN AT THE JARA BRIDGE . . . .30 MAP OF SOUTHERN TUNISIA . . . . .33 PLOUGHING — GABis . . . . . .37 JEWISH FAMILY IN A CAVE DWELLING IN HADEIJ . . 43 CAVES IN MATMATA . . . . . .45 A CAVE DWELLING, MATMATA . . . . .46 THE BRIDAL FESTIVITIES . . . . . .49 HOLD UP ! . . . . . . . .59 EXCAVATED STABLE ....... 62 BERBER WOMAN OF THE VILLAGE OF JUDLIG . . .65 A CAVE INTERIOR . . . . . . .66 FALCONERS ........ 77 MANSUR ........ 100 SECTIONS OF DWELLING IN MATMATA WHERE I LIVED — PLAN . 103 MEDININ . . . . . . . .112 BEDOUIN WOMEN GROUPED BEFORE THEIR HUT . . .113 AT GABES . . . . . . . .117 IN THE MOUNTAINS — ON THE ROAD TO AIN HAMMAM . . 120 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS XII TAGE REARING ........ 150 CAMEL WITH CANOPY ...... 169 THE BRIDE ESCORTED OVER THE MOUNTAINS . . • 170 FANTASIA . . . . . . . .179 A STREET IN BENI BARKA . . . . . .219 MEDININ ........ 224 DUIRAT ........ 245 SHENINI ........ 248 A HALT IN THE DESERT — TENT OF A TRIBAL CHIEF . . 251 A TUAREG ........ 254 A TUAREG ........ 262 MOORISH WOMEN IN A STREET IN TUNIS .... THE CAVE DWELLERS OF SOUTHERN TUNISIA

Chapter I

With Drummond Hay in Tunis Though the midday sun still shone bright and hot, I sat at my ease and breathed again in the pleasant atmosphere of a cool drawing-room, from which the stifling air and the flies were excluded by closely drawn blinds. I had just arrived from Tunis by rail, over the scorching hot plain, and past the milky-white shallow lagoon known as the Lake of Tunis. Be yond Goletta the blue hills seemed to quiver beneath the rays of the sun, and my eyes were blinded by the dazzling white walls of the cathedral standing on the heights, where, in olden days, Byrsa, the fortress of Carthage, stood, defying the invader and the storm. As we sped over the traces of the mighty circular wall, which formerly enclosed the town, I caught a glimpse of a white roof amongst the green trees of a wood, and requested the conductor to stop the train at the English Consul's summer abode.

Down a pretty shady avenue I walked to the white summer palace, with its beautiful columned portico, the finest in all Tunisia. It is a proud name that my host bears, — a name associated with unfailing honour in the history of Morocco. His late father, Sir J. II. Drummond Hay, as England's Representative, prac tically led Morocco's policy during the past forty years. He represented Denmark also, and under him his son won his diplomatic spurs. My host had invited me that we might quietly arrange a plan for my intended expedition to visit the Berber tribes of Tunisia. I was aware that in the south-west mountains of the Sahara I should meet with Berbers of a pure race such as are scarcely to be found elsewhere. Our country's excellent Representative, Consul Cubisol, had procured me a French permit for the journey, without which it would be difficult for a lonely traveller to visit regions unfrequented bv Europeans.

In the spring, Drummond Hay had made a tour on horseback over the greater part of Southern Tunisia ; he was therefore acquainted, not only with WITH DRUMMOND HAY IN TUNIS 3 the localities, but also with several of the native chiefs who would be able to assist me. He under stands the people and their country thoroughly, for he speaks Arabic like a native, and is quite con versant with the life, opinions, manners, and customs of the in habitants. His wife had travelled far and wide with him in Morocco when he was serving under his father, and accom panied him to the capital of Morocco ; so she also is well versed in Oriental life. Together we traced the plan of my journey, which, in the main, I afterwards followed. Here I will not anticipate DRUMMOND HAY, BRITISH CONSUL-GENERAL AT TUNIS. what I shall relate later ; only premising this — that I owe first and foremost to Drummond Hay the fact of having comprised in my journey those reo*ions which no traveller has as yet described.

To him I was also afterwards indebted for the elucidation and explanation of what I had seen and heard. Both my host and hostess had resided for many years in Stockholm, when Drummond Hay was Consul there. The north has great attractions for them, as Drummond Hay's mother was a Dane, a Carstensen, being daughter of the last Danish Consul-General at Tangier. England has great interests in Tunis, not only directly on account of the many Maltese living there under British protection, but also in directly, more especially since the French settled in the country ; it will therefore be understood that the post of British Representative is one of confidence.

Chapter II

Susa " A happy journey until our next meeting, and may Allah preserve you from cholera ! " These were the parting words of my friend Gauckler, Inspector of Antiquities and Arts, who bade me a last farewell at the Italian railway station of Tunis. Numbers of flamingoes stalked along the shores of the lagoon, showing like white patches on the blue-grey expanse of water. Out on the horizon, where the lake ended, I could see Goletta's white houses, and beyond them a deep, dark blue line — the Mediterranean. At midday the heat was stifling, but after we reached Goletta Bay the sun sank rapidly, and the air grew cooler as a little steamer took us through the entrance to the harbour, past the homeward bound fishing-boats. Just at sunset we reached our large steamer. To the north, Carthage's white church on the heights near Marsa appeared on the horizon, and, in the south, the blue mountains of Hammam li f. Amid the noisy whistling of the steamer, mingled with screams and shouts, I tumbled on board with my numerous bundles and packages ; finding my way at last to the saloon, where a frugal dinner awaited us.

Next morning, when I went on deck, the coast lay like a flat, grey stripe ahead of us. I went forward and enjoyed the fresh sea breeze for which I had so longed in Tunis. Near the bows of the ship were two dolphins. One of them rose to the surface of the water and spouted a stream of spray through the little orifice in its head, then sank again. The other then rose in its turn. '© The white bundles on the fore part of the deck now began to stir into life, and each as it rose threw back its burnous, and showed a dark face. One Arab had with him his whole family. He had spread a rush mat on which, amongst their numerous belongings, lay, closely packed, husband, wife (per haps wives), several children and a large poodle. A roguish little girl came to discover what I was contemplating. She was sweet, brown, and clean, and peeped up at me, hiding her face the while with one hand, evidently conscious of wrong-doing.

The tips of her fingers and toes were stained red with henna, which was not unpleasing. Soon after, a closely veiled figure, apparently the mother, came to fetch the little one. I had just time to perceive SUSA 7 that she was pretty, as she threw back a fold of her haik to wrap round her child and herself. What a charming picture they made as they leant against the bulwarks and gazed towards the land ! Upon a slope, quite near, lay Susa — white, white, everything was white. On the summit of the slope were some towers and a crenelated wall, and on the seashore beneath, yet another wall. Below lay the harbour, too shallow, however, for our ship to enter ; we had therefore to lie out in the open. A boat took me to the quay, where some twenty black-eyed boys of all ages, with gleaming teeth and red caps, lay watching for their prey.

As the boat drew alongside, they rushed down to seize my luggage. The boatmen attempted to push them aside, but, nevertheless, one caught up my little handbag, another my umbrella, and a third my photographic apparatus. There was nothing for me to do but to jump ashore and chase the thieves. It was long before I could collect everything under the charge of one lad. Then, with a couple of smart taps right and left, my little guide and I marched up to the Kasba, where the Commandant lives. Here are the magazines and barracks, and here, too, I knew that I should find a collection of antiquities. Susa was originally a Phœnician colony, and played no small part in the Punic Wars. Trajan called it " Hadrumetum," and made it the capital of the province. It was laid waste by the Vandals, rebuilt by Justinian, and destroyed by Sid Obka, who utilised the greater portion of its ancient materials to build the holy city of Kairwan.

Later SUSA. the town was rebuilt by the Turks, who had here for a long time one of their hiding-places for their piratical fleets. The town was therefore assaulted by Charles v. in 1537, and again by Andreas Doria in 1 5 3 U , and, lastly, was occupied without a struggle on the 10th of September 1881, by a force under General Etienne. It is, after Tunis, the most SUSA 9 important town in the Regency, and is governed by a Khalifa in the name of the Bey. Numerous remains of all these periods are to be found in Susa. In the houses, mosques, and in the surrounding country, antiquities and ancient ruins abound. From the Commandant I learnt that the foundations of the Kasba date from the time of the Phœnicians. Later, the Romans, as also those conquerors who followed them, built over these. In the scdle d'honneur are arranged many earthen vessels of Phœnician origin found in tombs, together with other objects of the same period.

From Roman times remain magnificent mosaics, partly buried in the walls ; vessels, vases, and broken fragments of marble figures. The Kasba itself, with its many arches, gateways, turrets, and walls inlaid with tiles, dates from the days of the Arabs or Turks. In nearly every instance the mosaics depict horses, their names being introduced beside them. Evidently, in those days, this was already deemed an important mart for horses bred in the country. The breeding of Barbs appears to date further back than is generally believed, and, in fact, to be older than the Arabian conquest of this land. One sees horses depicted with red head-stalls, decorated on the top with tufts of feathers, and with their near quarters branded, exactly as seen on the troop horses of to-day. The outlines of the horses on the mosaics prove that the Barbs of that period were the same in type as those of the present age; also that their careful treatment is not of recent date.

Even the same class of flat iron shoes is used now, as then, on the horses' forefeet. I inquired of the Commandant whether particu larly fine horses were reared in this region. He replied in the affirmative, and that in the direction of Kairwan there are nomad tribes whose horses are of noble race. I climbed the high tower of the Kasba, — now used as a lighthouse, — whence I overlooked the town which lay below me encircled by its protecting wall. Over the country, on all sides, olive woods met my view, and far away on the horizon I could catch a glimpse of villages, looking like white specks. There dwell the ill-disposed tribes wdio, in 1881, held out against the French. They neverventured on an open engagement, but at night assembled in their hundreds and kept up an incessant fire on the French lines ; killing a number of both officers and men.

These were avenged by heavy levies and fines on the inhabitants. Poor people, they had only defended their hearths and homes. My boy guide followed me through the streets, SUSA 11 where drowsy lazy Moors crouched, half asleep in their shops, waiting for purchasers. The loveliest small boys and girls were lying about in the streets, much to the obstruction of traffic, here conducted by means of small donkeys and large mules. Stepping into a little Moorish coffee-house, I found, to my astonishment, that the interior re sembled in construction an old Byzantine basilica, its dome being supported on arches and pillars. The whole was white-washed, but well preserved. The coffee-house was named " el Kaunas el Kubba," which may be translated Church Cafe.1 Nothing could be more artistic than the cooking utensils, mats, and pottery scattered here and there about this very old building.

At five o'clock it was dark. The stream of wayfarers diminished, and the streets were deserted and empty. I dined at the Hotel de France on the seashore, not far from the esplanade, and sat after dinner reading my papers, till I heard a frightful noise outside, and, peering out, saw a crowd of Arabs gathered behind an unfurled banner. They shouted and yelled in measured time. One of them said a few words which all the others repeated. I was told that they were praying to Allah for rain. They halted a few paces from a kubba, called Bab el Bahr, 1 More accurately the coffee-house of the dome. — Translator's Note. and the procession dispersed, the banner being taken into the kubba. I went for a turn on the seashore by the road which leads along the walls to Bab el Jedir. The sun was melting hot.

Against the walls were built a number of mud huts and sheds, in which, amongst carriages and carts, horses and donkeys were stabled. Outside were piles of pottery, vessels of all shapes and sizes, from the largest receptacles for wine or water — reminding one of those found be longing to the Roman age — to cups and jars of spiral or other strange forms, such as I have seen in the museum at Carthage. This clay ware is brought from Nebel, where, since very ancient times, there has been a manu factory that produces pottery the same to-day as it was a thousand years ago. The gateway is deep, and has, as have most gates in this country, recesses with seats on both sides, always filled by idlers and beggars. Indeed, it is quite an Eldorado for the blind, halt, and maimed, as well as for many who have nothing the matter with them.

The whole day they sit there and stretch out their hands for alms. I placed myself near the corner stone of the gate, where the shade was cool and pleasant ; through the dark archway I could see the sun blazing on the shore, and the road looking like a bright streak of TWO KHRUMIR WOMEN. SUSA 15 light, and, beyond it, the harbour and the beautiful blue sea. In the space of half an hour, at least a hundred little donkeys passed me, laden with vessels of water or bundles of straw, with often a man or boy perched behind the load. A solitary rider also passed, his small but wiry horse going at an amble. Along the seashore came, picking their way, a herd of goats, most of them wearing small bells that rang incessantly. The herd settled in the corner outside the gates between the towers and the town wall.

Then came unveiled Bedouin women, dark-skinned almost as negresses, but with very fine features. Then other veiled Arab women with black masks that covered their faces. A number of boys followed these, all good-looking and black-eyed. One held out his hand ; they are accustomed to European good nature, and a copper is a foretaste of Paradise to an Arab boy. Lastly passed a strange couple. On an ordinary Arab saddle a veiled woman rode astride, and behind her, on her horse, a little boy ; he held the reins in one hand, and a parasol in the other. Towards evening it grew cooler. Amongst the shippinolay the Ville d'Oran, which next morning was to take me south. It was lit up with numbers of lanterns, and the town was illuminated and hung everywhere with flags, in honour of the Russian fleet, which that day was to enter Toulon.

Festival was kept, not only all over France, but also in her colonies. Illustrated editions of French newspapers, with coloured pictures of Russian and French admirals and of the ships of both countries, were displayed on the walls of all cafes, tobacco shops, taverns aud drinking booths in Susa. The light on the Kasba had been lit. The moon rose over the town, and lanterns gleamed along the seashore and the promenade. The irregular line of the wall and the Kasba tower showed dark against the heavens. Mingling with the ripple of the water against the quay, I heard the -Marseillaise played, followed by cheers, and on the terraces and balconies appeared dark figures, enjoying the cool air and the music.

Chapter III

From Sfax to Gab_.s At 9 a.m. on the morning of the 14th October, the Vide d'Oran weighed anchor and left the roadstead of Susa in brilliant weather for Monastir. Monastir, or Mistir, has a population of nine thousand inhabitants, of whom one thousand are Europeans. It was originally a Carthaginian town ; later, the "Ruspina" of the Romans. It is now surrounded by battlemented walls interspersed with towers and pierced by five gates. Ornamented with coloured tiles, the minarets of several mosques rise here and there above the houses. I crossed the town from the south to the opposite side. Here I found an immense cemetery ; grave upon grave grouped about kubbas. In the very midst of the cemetery is a cistern, w*hich must supply remarkably good water ! Following* along the walls of the town I soon reached the beach, where before me lay three small islands — Jezirel el Hammam (Pigeon Island), Jezirel Sid Abd el Fairt el R'dani (so called after a Marabout whose kubba crowns its summit), and the third island named Jezirel el Austan (Central Island).

Still following the walls, I passed Moorish women and children washing clothes on the shore. A num ber of boats were lying in the shallow water under the lea of the islands. At ten o'clock I was again on board, and at eleven we started, steering for Mehdia, some thirty six miles farther south. On the way we passed Cape Diauros, the site of ancient Thapsus. It was a Carthaginian colony where fought Cæsar Scipio and Cato. Numerous ruins recall the old times. In Mehdia harbour we anchored about three o'clock. Mehdia was once a very important towrn ; now* it has only some ten thousand inhabitants. The Sicilians besieged it in 1147 ; the Arabs in 1160 ; the Duke of Bourbon in 1390; and Charles V. in 1557. The knights of Malta took part in this last assault, and the grave of one of these knights is still shown.

Some Europeans carry on a trade here in oil, dried fruits, sponges, coral, and sardines. In the months of May and June there are often a couple of hundred boats lying off the shore fishing for sardines, and generally making good hauls. In one night a single boat may take even as much as from four to six hundredweight of fish. Large vessels do not follow the coast from Mehdia to Sfax, but make a long circuit round the island of Kirkennah, the water along the coast being shallow. Along this stretch of sea have been placed light-buoys to mark the course. These buoys are filled with compressed oil, and burn in cessantly day and night. They are constructed to burn three months, but are inspected monthly. Early in the morning of the 15th October we cast anchor about two miles outside Sfax, of which the white walls glistened in the morning sun.

A steam tug took us ashore. The ebb and flow of the tide here is very strong, with a possible rise and fall of as much as eight feet, which accounts for the flatness of the beach. The only ship in the roadstead was the Fœder landet from Bergen, lying -to and discharging timber. Sfax was taken on the 16th July 1881 by a force under Admiral Garnault, after a serious bombardment which laid waste a great part of the ramparts and the town. The walls enclosing the European quarter, which faces the sea, have been pulled down lately, and here the French have established themselves. To the rear lies the Arab town, still surrounded by its walls and towers. On landing I met the Vice-Consul for Sweden and Norway, Olaf Henriksen, a young man who in the course of a few years has made for himself a good position as partner in the large, and perhaps sole, firm of timber traders in the place.

His AT .SFAX. (Front a painting hy Mrs. Henriksen.) office and warehouses are on the quay. Olsen, his co-partner, is likewise a Northerner. Henriksen is agent for the United Shipping Co., but it is seldom that Danish vessels touch here. After a stroll through the town, Mr. Henriksen led me to his home and introduced me to his wife, a Norwegian lady from Christiania. I spent a comfortable and most enjoyable day in their house, which is outside the town and commands a view of the harbour. Mrs. Henriksen is a very fair artist. On the walls hung sketches of her northern home and of Sfax, painted by herself and showing considerable talent. The tombs of Marabouts, the cemeteries outside the walls, and the Arab tents In the vicinity were the subjects that pleased me most. She most amiably promised to be my collaborator, by allow ing me to make use of a couple of her sketches for my book.

Sfax is a large town, with about fifty thousand inhabitants, of whom the eighth part are Europeans. A considerable trade is carried on in sponges, oil, and esparto grass, this last being worked by a Franco-Anglo-Tunisian Company ; in addition to these, there is a trade in fruit and vegetables, more especially cucumbers, called in Arabic " Sfakus," from which, no doubt, arises the name of the town. In the neighbourhood are many villas and gardens, where the townsfolk take refuge in the hot season, but beyond these is the sandy desert. In ancient days the Romans had here a large city, of which many traces are found. In the covered streets I saw* arches, which by their capitals and columns were of Roman origin, and heard of old Roman graves and foundations being frequently discovered. Sfax is a garrison, and amongst the soldiers is a fine body of Spahis, but at the time of my visit many were absent at the manœuvres.

During the night we steamed in four hours from the roadstead of Sfax to Gabes. A golden strand : in the background some white houses, and to the right a palm grove. Such is the view of Gabes from the sea. The landing-place was only a short distance from the European quarter. I called on the com manding officer, Colonel Gousset of the Spahis, to whom the Regency at Tunis had recommended me, directing that he should assist me by word and deed in my journey to the cave dwellers (trog lodytes) of the southern mountains. It was the hour of muster, and the Colonel introduced me to many of the officers, one of whom, Captain Montague of the General's staff, lent me his horse, and a Spahi was told off as my guide. " When one wanders tow*ards the Syrtes and ' Leptis Magna,' one finds in the midst of Afric's sands a town called Tacape ; the soil there is much cultivated and marvellously fruitful.

The town extends in all directions to about three thousand paces. Here is found a fountain with an abundant supply of water, which is only used at stated times ; and here grows a high palm, and beneath that palm an olive, and under that a fig tree. Under the.fig tree grows a pomegranate, and beneath that again a vine. Moreover, beneath these last are sown, first oats, then vegetables or grass, all in the same year. Yes, thus they grow them, each sheltered by the other." Thus wrote Pliny of the oasis near Gabes over eighteen hundred years ago, and this description can be applied in the main at the present day. Of this town, created by the Carthaginians, colonised by the Romans, and later the seat of an archbishopric, and which stood nearer the ocean than the existing villages, there remain now only some crumbled ruins on the hills near Sid Bu'l Baba's Zauia, now difficult even to trace.