A General View of the World, geographical, historical and philosophical; on a plan entirely new

Preface

. J.N the acquisition of knowledge, not less than in procuring the necessaries and con veniencies of life, we are united to our fellowr men, by various degrees of dependance. An infant, deprived of the benefits of society, will either soon perish, or, if, as in a. few instances it has occurred,, he should., by some strang-e interposition of Providence, arrive at more mature years, will be found to be only a mere savage, naked and speechless, resembling other wild animals in the perfection of their senses, and in their aversion to mankind. Yet though it is evident, that without education, no one would have made the least pr6gress in any department of literature, the oblig-ation to the assistance of others is peculiarly apparent with regard to general history ; for while she mathematician obtains his science from comparing his ideas, and the Experimental philosopher his information from the evidence of his senses, the general historian derives the value of his labours from the credibility of the authorities by which he is supported.

We shall therefore enumerate, in alphabetical order, the principal works by which we have been furnished with materials, or assisted in ascertaining or illustrating facts. Mr. Adam's Lectures on Natural Philosophy deserve the warmest commendation, as being equally adapted to the improvement of the head and of the heart. Such is the classic purity of Mr. Addison's style, and such the permanency of the objects to which his attention was directed, that his Travels in Italy are still read with entertainment and profit. The great abilities and extensive learning of the gentlemen wh« compose the Asiatic Society have procured for their researches a just celebrity. Bingley's Animal Biography has furnished several interesting anecdotes. Blair's Lectures on tbe Belles Lettres have contributed their aid in tracingthe history of literature.

Of Bonnvcastle's Introduction to Astronomy, and Mrs. Bryan's Lectures on the same subject, it is sufficient to observe, that the former excels in the originality of ideas, and the latter in the elegance of expression. We have examined Bryant'. Mythology, without adopting every part of his system. We are under considerable obligation to Bruce's Travels in Abyssinia. The excellencies and defects of Buffon ale very generally known. The lively descriptions of* nature which proceeded from his pencil, poorly compensate for his indirect attacks on the principles of natural and revealed religion. Busching's Geography, though ted.ous, from a minuteness of detail, is a valuable store-house of topographical information. Of Cæsar and Tacitus it would be presumptuous to give any character. Coote's .History of England, though inferior to Hume's in elegance, is far superior in impartiality.

Coxe's Travels through Poland, Russia, Sweden, and Denmark, afford very satisfactory information concerning each of these countries. Du Halde's description of China is a work of acknowledged *A2.

PREFACE.

. IV excellence. In the Encyclopedia Britannica every branch of* universal knowledge is subservient to the interests of religion and virtue. Eutropius and Florus have heen found useful in ascertaining of facts. We have followed Forster's Voyages and Discoveries in the North, in treating of the geography of the middle ages. The various character of Gibbon, his extensive intelligence, his magnificent periods, aud his disguised hatred to the Christian religion, are well known to the public. The Historical Compendium of Goldsmith has been serviceable in compiling the history of the Roman empire. Dr. Gregory's Economy of Nature has afforded considerable assistance to the Introductory part of this work. Nor must our acknowledgments of the late editions of Guthric's Geography be omitted ; editions, which are rendered more valuable by the spirit of moderation with which the account of recent transactions are recorded.

Henry's History of Great Britain, though not written on such a plan as to render it highly entertaining, affords much information respecting the progress of society in our native country. Of the life of Nadir Shah, by sir William Jones, it is unnecessary to say more than to mention the name of that distinguished scholar. Kirwan's Treatises on Mineralogy and Geology are superior to our praise. That portion of the writings of Livy which remains, makes us regret that we are prevented from reading the whole History of the Roman Republic, as recorded by_iis inimitable pen. Maurice's Antient and Modern Histories of Hin dostan have afforded us considerable entertainment and assistance. Milner's History of the Church of Christ is particularly valuable for his account of the Waldenses and other early reformers ; and that of Mosheim for his impartial and critical discrimination ofthe opinions of different sects.

The earl of Oxford's Collection of Voyages aud Travels contains a number of productions, of different degrees of merit, but some of them curious. The reputation of Pinkerton's Geography is deservedly high. Pontopidan's Natural History of Norway is the work of a diligent observer of nature, whom some will esteem too credulous as to marvellous stories. Radcliff's Travels in Sweden has some merit. Russel's History of Modern Europe is highly entertaining aud instructive ; it would be agreeable if the ingenious author continued it down to the present eventful times, and, by a slight alteration of some exceptionable passages, render it a safer companion for youth. We have in our description of the. Chinese empire availed onrselves of what assistance might be derived from Sir George Staunton's embassy to that country.

Colonel Symes has the uncommon happiness of introducing to the knowledge of the public a populous and highly civilized empire, with which before they were but slightly acquainted. Townsou's Travels in Hun gary, though especially devoted to mineralogical purposes, contain very correct and copious information relative to the present state of that part of Europe. The Trans actions of the different Missionary Societies inform us of the various success of a number of benevolent men, who have sacrificed every comfort, that they might carry the benefits of civilization and religion to the most barbarous regions. The Travels of the celebrated atheist Volney into Egypt aud Syria have considerable merit ; his known character will necessarily put the reader on his guard as to some of his re marks. Whiston's Lectures on Astronomy have assisted us in describing the phenomena of the planets.

Winterbotham's America contains information concerning that quarter of the world, well digested and excellently arranged. Wraxall's Travels in the North of Europe derive considerable interest from their being undertaken at a time when the late unfortunate queen of Denmark and the celebrated naturalist Lin neus were living. In selecting from this mass of materialswe have constantly kept two objects ia

PREFACE.

. V view : the first has been to compress as much information as possible within our limits ; the second to suffer nothing to appear, which might injure the moral or religious principles of the most inexperienced reader. How far we have succeeded, it is not our province to determine : in one respect the work has been necessarily imperfect. Events have succeeded so rapidly to each other in the political world, so many discoveries have been made in science, so many voyages and travels have been per formed, and so many praise-worthy designs have been carried on by the friends of the human species, that we should have had no other alternative, than either to sub mit a jejune and unsatisfactory account of the most interesting facts, an account which must have chiefly rested on the authority of newspapers, or to wait till more respectable information could be received, though we might be obliged, by this delay, to present it in another form to the public.

We have, therefore, in contem plation, to publish, early in the year 1808, a General History of the World, from the termination of the late war, as nearly as possible to the present times. In this work, which will be comprised within about ten sixpenny numbers, we shall notice particularly whatever may be most interesting in modern discoveries, while we shall register every very important event which may have occurred in the political trans actions of nations. Should this prove acceptable to the public, we shall probably publish, early in each year, a concise annual register, which will afford the most recent information on all the before-mentioned subjects, and prevent the present edition of the work from being superceded by any future improvements. ♦ VIEW OF THE WORLD.

Introduction

. Preparatory View of the World.

Chapter I

Astronomy. Introductory remarks — Apparent diurnal revolutions of the heavens — Referred to the rotation of the earth on its own axis — The sun — His apparent annual motion — Signs of the zodiac — The planets, inferior and superior — Newtonian system — Relative distances of the planets — Parallax of the sun — Georgium Sidus — Ceres — Pallas — Secondary planets — Lunar Phases — Imws of the motion of the satellites — Eclipses — Lunar — mountains- -Habitableness of the planets — Comets, their motion, nature, Syc. — Fixed stars, their number and mag' nitude — Newton's and Herschell's system of the universe — Reflections. fTHHE world is both an extensive and a fertile field. The knowledge of the relations -*- it sustains, of the elements of which it is composed, of the vegetables with which it is furnished, of the numerous tribes of ailimals by whom it is inhabited, and especially of its most distinguished possessors, the busy race of men, with their successive revolutions in language, in manners, in government, in religion, in the constitution of their bodies, and the disposition of their minds, comprehends an immense variety of information.

Much of this treasure is unfortunately lost for ever. The most antient records are generally scanty and fabulous ; the steps by which nations advanced to maturity are usually unknown ; and of some of the greatest natural commotions which ever agitated the terrestrial globe, nothing can now be discovered but their remaining effects. This want of materials contracts the reward of the inquirer, but rather increases than diminishes his labour. If the complete history ofthe universal nature was extant, persevering industry might reduce it to a compendium ; but to discover clearly the facts which are concealed by the veil of allegorical fiction, to supply by happy conjecture the want of authentic evidence, and to unite the scattered fragments of truth which might be thus brought to light, so as to form them into one perfect and harmonious system, is a task which must prove too arduous for the most transcendant human abilities.

Enough may, however, still be collected that has escaped the ravages of time to produce a rich supply of entertainment and instruction : we must, to the various difficulties we have to encounter; oppose Vol I. B ASTRONOMY. 4 the fittest precautions in our power ; we must content ourselves within the limits of real knowledge, and rather choose to confess our ignorance than give to mere opinions thc authority of facts ; we must seek to arrange our ideas in the most easy order, and give the reader such intimation of our method as may most contribute to facilitate his im provement. As connection and distinction are each of them useful to the memory, we shall endeavour to avail ourselves of the assistance of both. It is our wish that each chapter should form one distinct disseitation ; that so many of those should be collected into the same book as treat of subjects which are united by a natural affinity ; and, finally, that the books should so follow each other, that the mind may be conducted without any rapid transition, through the whole extent of our present undertaking.

The object of our introduction is to exhibit general views of the world, without descending to its political divisions. The first of these views we shall in this chapter place before the eye of the reader : it is that of the earth, as a planet, connected by certain established laws to the other bodies which constitute the universe. Our attention must now be directed to the heavens, that immense blue coacave sphere which every where surrounds thc terrestrial globe. In this thc sun, moon, planets, and fixed stars seem to be situated, and are for that reason denominated celestial bodies. That point of the heavens which is directly over our heads is the zenith ; that, which, if the world were transparent, would be seen beneath our feet the nadir ; and a circle placed at equal distance from each of these the rational horizon.

The elevation of any celestial body above this circle is called its altitude. Every circle which divides the heavens into two equal hemispheres is called a great circle ; such is the horizon, and such is every circle which passes through both the zenith and nadir. Every great circle is di vided into 36*0 degrees, and subdivided into minutes, 60 of which constitute a degree- All the celestial luminaries describe an apparent revolution in the space of 24 hours. The sun, moon, planets, and most of the fixed stars are observed by every one to rise and set, and though some constellations continue at all times above thc horizon, they are perceived to revolve rpund an immoveable point near the tail of the little bear. This imaginary point is called the north pole, opposite to which is , another denominated the south pole.

Midway between them is the equinoctial circle which distinguishes the northern from the southern hemisphere. Whether this diurnal motion be really performed by the heavens, or only an appear ance produced by the rotation of the earth on its own axis, is a question which was for merly the subject of much dispute, but concerning which most thinking people are at this day perfectly agreed. The evidence of our senses would persuade us of the reality of the motion of the heavens, had we not several strong reasons to suspect that their testimony is in this instance delusive. For, first, if we suppose that the earth revolves round its axis, and all the other bodies of the universe at rest, the same phenomena will in consequence be exhibited as are every day offered to our observation. As when we sail down a smooth stream our own progress is no otherwise perceived than by ob serving how the neighbouring objects are continually receding from us.

Secondly, The supposition of this celestial revolution puts aU nature to an unnecessary labour, as ASTSONOMY. 5 it makes globes, many thousand times greater than the terrestrial, and many millions of miles distant from it, to be hurried round it with an inconceivable rapidity, in order ta accomplish a purpose as completely obtained by the gradual rotation of this diminutive world. Thirdly, the moon, and several of the planets, not to mention the sun, turn round each of them on its own axis, so that were we fix our station on any of these, we should perceive the heavens describing a circuit about that globe on which we were situated ; but the position of their poles, and the space of time in which they complete their movements, would at each removal be found to differ materially. We should have the same evidence that the whole starry sphere revolved round the moon in 29 days, or round Jupiter in nine hours 52 minutes, as we now have that they perform that revolution from which our days and nights derive their existence.

The poles of these planets would be found to differ widely from ours, so much so, that the same stars which appear to the inhabitants of the earth to be partakers of no sensible motion, would be seen by us, if stationed at Venus, to describe a circle of the greatest possible dimensions- Knowing that it is utterly impossible that the same revolution should be performed round different centres, and in different times, we should become convinced that the evidence of our senses is not always to be admitted without cautious examination. We should discover no cause why this earth in particular should be the centre of such a mighty re volution, and at length rest satisfied with the conclusion of the learned, that each of these worlds, by revolving round its axis, procures to its own respective inhabitants, the grate ful vicissitudes of darkness and light.

The source from which all the bodies in this part of the universe derive their light and heat is the sun. To the naked eye he appears all over equally luminous, but through a telescope, of even moderate powers, some parts look brighter, and others darker than the rest of his disk. The dark spots are not endowed with any permanency, nor are they at all regular in their shape, magnitude, number, or in the time of their appearance or continuance. One was observed by Hevelius to rise and vanish in ,6 or 17 hours ; nor have any been observed to continue more than 60 or 70 days. Those that are formed gradually are gradually dispersed, and those that arise suddenly are usually suddenly dissolved. When a spot disappears, that part where it was generally becomes brighter than the rest of the sun, and continues so for several days : on the other hand the bright parts sometimes turn to spots.

The nature and formation of these spots have occasioned among the learned much uncertain debate ; but as they seldom change their place on the sun's surface, they discover, what otherwise would not have been known, that the sun is a globe, and performs a rotation round his own axis in 25 days, 15 hours, 10 minutes. Besides this rotation which the sun actually performs, and his apparent diurnal motion, which has been already accounted for, there is also an annual circuit which he seems to describe, and to which we are indebted for the variety of our seasons. The path in which he appears to journey is called the ecliptic, and intersects the equinoctial at two opposite points, stiled the vernal and autumnal equinoxes. These points of the ecliptic which are most remote from the equinoctial are denominated the summer and winter sol- ASTRONOMY. 6 utices, or the tropics of cancer and Capricorn ; their distance from the equinoctial is about 23x decrees.

The deviation of the sun to the north or south of that circle is termed his declination. The ecliptic is divided into twelve signs, which are denominated from so many con stellations situated in that part of the heavens through which this circle is drawn : it is also subdivided into degrees and minutes. The name6 and characters of these signs, the months to which they correspond, the days when the sun passes from one sign to another, the time of the equinoxes and of the solstices are all to be seen at one view by inspecting the following table : SUMMER SIGNS Spring. «¥• Aries March 20 Vernal the ram April 20 Equinox _ Taurus April 20 the bull May 21 n Gemini May 21 the twins [ June 21 Summer. ss Cancer June 21 Summer the crab July 23 Solstice a Leo July 23 the lion Aug. 23 wr Virgo Aug. 23 the virgin Sept. 23 WINTER SIGNS Winter.

Autumn. y Capricorn Dec. 20 Winter the goat Jan. 19 Solstice ~ Aquarius Jan. 19 the water bearer Feb. 18 X Pisces Feb. 18 the fish j March 20 ** Libra Sept, 23 Autumual the balance Oct. 23 Equinox wi Scorpio Oct. 23 the Scorpion Nov. 22 / Sagittarius Nov. 22 the archer, | Dec. 21 As the Chaldean shepherds are undoubtedly to be numbered among the most early cultivators of astronomy, it cannot be thought wonderful that they should be referred to as the authors of the names and characters by which the signs of the zodiac are distin guished. Aries and Taurus correspond with those months of the year when their flocks and herds were increased by the addition of their young. Gemini, for a similar reason, was antiently characterized by the kids. Cancer represents the retrograde movement of the sun, when, having arrived at the summer solstice, he directs his journey towards the equinoctial line.

The raging heat of July was compared to the fury of a lion. The virgin with the sheaf of corn afforded an easy and elegant cymbol of harvest and glean ing. The equality of days and nights about the autumnal equinox is well represented by Libra the balance. The sickly season of leaf falling was compared to the sting of \he ASTRONOMY. 7 Scorpion, an insect peculiarly dreadful in the warmer climates. Sagittarius which was originally designed for a hunter mounted on horseback, and armed with a bow, denoted that part of the year which was more especially devoted to the chace. As the goat de lights to climb the rocks and mountains, it aptly represented the sun when ascei ding from the winter solstice. The whole circle was completed by the water bearer and the fishes, which indicated the continual rains that occurred in that part of the world du ring the months of January and February.

The reasons here assigned for the names of the signs are not to be considered as fully ascertained, but as the result of the most pro bable conjecture. It may with more certainty be affirmed that the character of Libra is of more modern date than those ofthe other eleven, as the stars of which it is composed were formerly denominated the Scorpion's claws. This circumstance explains the rea son of these signs being named the signs of the zodiac, or of the animals, as before the invention of the name and character of Libra, every one of them was supposed to repre sent something possessed of animal life. The annual revolution to which we are indebted for our seasons, has been the occa sion of a dispute nearly similar to that which concerns the diurnal motion of the earth. In both instances the first suggestion of our senses is opposed by the more deliberate de cision of our reason.

The sun appears to change his place among the fixed stars, but this is easily accounted sorby supposing that we view him from different positions. The superiority of his magnitude to that of the earth, renders it more probable that the earth should be carried round the sun than that the sun should be carried round the earth ; and this opinion will be abundantly confirmed when we have contemplated the planetary motion, and examined the laws by which they are regulated. Some philosophers have divided the animal creation into three distinct gradations of beings : the first extending from the elephant to the mite, comprehends every different species visible to the naked eye. To the second class are referred all that have been discovered by glasses : and to the third, those w hich, though entirely invisible, are for probable reasons supposed to exist.

The same distinction is applicable to the celestial bodies, w hether fixed stars, comets, or planets. The planets visible to the naked eye are five : Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn. Mercury has a very small apparent diameter, but a remarkably bright white light. Venus is the most beautiful of the planets, and Mars is distinguished by a red hue. Jupiter shineswith a bright white light, and Saturn with a pale faint one. The planets which have been discovered by the telescope are three : Georgium Sidus, Ceres, and Pallas. How many other planets may exist in our system is a question impossible to be answered; but as three have been discovered in less than 30 years, it is probable that our catalogue will at length be amply enlarged. The orbits of the planets do not exactly coincide with the ecliptic, but are, however, comprehended within the zodiac or circle of animals, a large belt extending about ten degrees on each side of the sun's path.

The zodiac is not only divided by the signs of the ecliptic, but by meridian lines, imagined to proceed through every part of this belt to the poles ofthe ecliptic. These me ridian lines serve to ascertain the longitude both ofthe planets and of the other celestial Vol. h C ASTRONOMY. bodies, which is always counted from the first meridian of Aries: the latitude of a planet, as well as that of a fixed star, is its distance north or south from the ecliptic. Any circle which has every part of its circumference at equal distance from the ecliptic is called a parallel of latitude. The geocentric place of a planet is that situation in the heavens which it appears to occupy as seen from the earth. The positions of the planets relative to each other are called their aspects; these are principally three, the conjunction, the opposition, and the quartile.

The conjunction takes place when two planets have the same longitude; the opposition, when they appear in opposite .situations; and the quartile, when their meridians cut each other at right angles. Having premised thus much, that our reasoning might be better understood, let us now resume our enquiry to discover the centre of our system. If the earth were possessed of that important station, we should behold the planets moving regularly round us, and describing circular orbits ; whereas we now perceive them to be sometimes stationary, sometimes receding backward, and only, during certain intervals, journeying forward according to thc order of the signs. Hence, therefore, we derive a conclusive argument that the earth is not the centre of the planetary system. Where then does this centre exist ?

To decide this question let us first examine the phenomena of Mercury and Ve nus, and then raise our attention to Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn. The most remarkable phenomena of the inferior planets are the following : First, They never come to a square with the sun, much less to an opposition to him, and in the mean while that they depart from the sun, sometimes to the east, sometimes to the west, their greatest distance from him never amounts to two whole signs, Mercury being carried from him never further than the space of 28 degrees, and Venus never exceeding the in terval of 48 degrees. Second, In consequence of their continuing so near the sun, their periodical times, in which they go over the ecliptic, are altogether equal, and are measured by his annual motion, so that the Sun, Venus, and Mercury, if their apparent motions be stated at the interval of many years, will be found to go over the zodiac in an equal space of time.

Third, Although the periodical times of Venus and Mercury are so ex actly equal to the tropical year, yet if we look at those periodical times of Venus, which are from one situation of the sun to the same again, they will be found much longer than the periodical times of Mercury. Fourth, Each of these planets, as it occupies differ ent positions with regard to the sun exhibits a variety of phases resembling those of the moon : this variety of appearances must necessarily result from that side which is op posed to the sun, and enlightened by his rays, being sometimes more and sometimes less turned towards us. Fifth, Their apparent diameter varies according to their different aspects with the sun, decreasing as they depart from him to the east, or are returning to wards him, till they have arrived at their superior conjunction, and afterwards increasing continually as they depart from him to the west, and as they are again returning towards him, till they arrive at their inferior conjunction : this change is more observable in Ve nus than in Mercury.

Sixth, The bodies of each of these planets are sometimes, though very seldom, observed to be interposed betwixt the sun and the earth in the form of dark spots in the sun. From these phenomena we may safely conclude that Mercury and Ve- ASTRONOMY. 9 ujs are situated between us and the sun, that they have each of them a distinct and pro per motion round that luminary, and lastly, that the orbit of Mercury is of narrower dimensions than that of Venus, and consequently inclosed within the limits of the latter. Thus we have discovered the centre of at least one part of the planetary system. Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn have the following remarkable phenomesa : First, They have all possible aspects with the sun, and are frequently seen in opposition to him. Second, Mars performs his circuit round the heavens a great deal sooner than Jupiter, and Jupiter a great deal sooner than Saturn.

Third, They do not in their different as pects with the sun exhibit the same variety of phases as the moon, but only appear a little gibbous at the time of quartile. Fourth, They seem far greater in their opposition than in their conjunction with the sun. Fifth, Each of the two last mentioned changes are more observable in Mars than in Jupiter, and in Jupiter than in Saturn. From an at tention to these circumstances, with the addition of the most exact observations on the curviture of the orbits of the superior planets, it has been concluded by philosophers that Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn arc situated at a greater distance than we are from the sun, that each of them has a proper motion round that luminary; and lastly, that the orbit of Jupiter encircles that of Mars, but is itself encircled by the orbit of Saturn.

As it now appears that the sun is the centre of the planet's circuits, and their inhabitants perceive the sun to be carried round them in the same manner as he appears to journey round us, it does not seem to be a very hazardous conjecture that this earth should be added to the number of the planets, and supposed the agent of the annual re volution. It is not, however, necessary to content ourselves with this analogical reason ing when a variety of arguments stand ready for our assistance. We shall choose a middle path, and that we may neither leave the reader dissatisfied with the scarcity of our proofs, nor weary his attention by too great a number of them, select one more which we think of a convincing nature, and then pass on to the consideration of the mighty laws by which the universe is regulated.