A Popular History of the Mexican People

Preface

. This volume, abstracted from my larger work, is a narrative more particularly of what befell the Mexican people from first to last during their four centuries or so of recorded history, at the same time not omitting the mythological epoch preceding it. The drier details of pacification, occupation, war, government, colonial policy, an d# official bickerings, without which indeed it seems impossible for man to make much progress, have been for the most part omitted; nevertheless, sufficient of all these in their brighter phases has been given for the reader to form an adequate idea of the whole true history of Mexico. But it is the people, their origin and environment, their nature and development, their virtues and their shortcomings, their loves and hates, and the gross wrongs flung upon them by foreign foes, their long struggle for freedom, for physical and intellectual emancipation, — it is regarding these things that the pages of this book are chiefly occupied. And it is herein that the historian finds his most pleasing task. There arc no healthier or happier

PREFACE.

. IV thoughts regarding the human race, no more hopeful view to be taken of the subject, than that which finds in man inexorable progression, be he what we call civilized or savage., The mind of man is a planted germ, and must grow. Moreover, in this instance the struggle of self-development was fought out with such true nobility of spirit, such rare perseverance and loyalty, as to com niainl the admiration of all. Time was when it was deemed a disgrace for the offspring of European parents to be born in America; but now we have high in office, military and political, and high upon the honor-rolls of literature, art, and science, our lords aboriginal, who boast the purity of their American blood, uncontami nated by any European admixture. CONTENTS.

Part I

—ABORIGINAL. Chap. Page. I. Geography, Climate, and Rack 1 II. The Toltec and Chh'Himec Periods 10 III. The Aztecs 22 IV. Mythology and Tradition 30 V. Government, Royalty, and Royal Palaces 43 VI. Nobles and Slaves 5fi VII. Land Tenure, Taxation, and Laws G3 VIII. Industries and Commerce (58 IX. Food, Feasts, Amusements, and Dress 7!i X. Language, Hieroglyphics, Education, and Calendar 87 XI. War and Weapons 104 XII. Antiquities 109 XIII. Cities, Dwellings, and Tempt.es 122

Part II

— THE SPANISH CONQUEST XIV. Outline of Spanish History 133 XV. Early Discoveries and Conquests 137 XVI. The Hero oe the Conquest 148 XVII. The Expedition IK! XVIII. The Campaigns in Tlascala and Cholula 159 XIX. The Spaniards Enter the Capital 170 XX. La Noche Triste 177 XXI. Capture and Destruction of Mexico CONTENTS. VI

Part III

— VICEREGAL OR COLONIAL PERIOD. Chap. Page. XXII. The Last Days of Hernan Cortes 195 XXIII. Audiencias and Viceroyalty 202 XXIV. Spanish Cruelties and the New Laws 209 XXV. The Conquest of Yucatan 214 XXVI. The Sack ot Vera Cruz 224 XXVII. Flood, Famine, and Riot 234 XXVIII. Society during the Viceregal Period 246

Part IV

— THE REVOLUTION. XXIX. Outline tjf European History at the Close of the Viceregal Period 260 XXX. Causes of Dlsaffection in Mexico 268 XXXI. Opening of the War of Independence : 278 XXXII. Fall of C4uanajuato 287 XXXIII. Hidalgo's March toward Mexico 298 XXXIV. Progress of the Revolution 309 XXXV. Capture and Death of Hidalgo 324 XXXVI. Morelos and his Campaigns 333 XXXVII. Further Progress of the War 341 XXXVIII. Downfall and Death of Morelos 356 XXXIX. Close of the Revolutionary War 364

Part V

— UNITED STATES OP MEXICO. XL. Agustin de Iturbide 376 XLI. Dethronement and Death of Iturbide 3SS XLII. The United States of Mexico 400 XLIII. Foreign and Domestic Affairs 410 XLIV. Politics and the Pastry War 420 XLV. Misrule and Overthrow of Santa Anna 435 XL VI. War with the United States 444 XLVII. The Dictatorship and the Struggle for Liberty 451 XL VIII. Foreign Intervention 466 XLIX. The Emperor Maximilian 481 L. Downfall of the Empire CONTENTS VII

Part VI

— THE GROWTH AND CONDITION OF THE REPUBLIC. Chap. Page. LI. Administrations of Presidents Juarez, Lerdo, Diaz, Gonzalez, and Diaz again 507 LII. Institutional 52S LIII. Society and its Elements 536 LIV. ( IrnES and their Character 546 LV. Dress, Amusements, and Occupations 561 LVI. Church, Education, and Literature 5S3 LVII. Mining and Manufactures 590 LVIII. Agriculture and Stock-raising 599 LIX. Revenue, Commerce, and Communication A POPULAR HISTORY OF THE MEXICAN PEOPLE.

Chapter I. Geography, Climate, And Race

The portion of North America which, before the date of the Spanish conquest, was the home of civilization lay between latitudes 11° and 22°, extending from the north-west toward the south-east. On the Atlantic side it reached from the modern Mexican state of Tamaulipas to Honduras, and on the Pacific from the seaboard of Michoacan to Nicaragua. Few parts of the globe embrace, within equal limits, so great a variety of temperature, soil, and vegetation. In this region, which lies entirely within the northern tropic, are found all gradations of climate between the torrid and the temperate, the difference in the products of which the soil is capable being caused by altitude, and not as elsewhere by latitude. Thus on the lowlands, for instance, of Vera Cruz, tropical fruits, as the banana and date, are cultivated; on plateaux of moderate elevation, but in the same latitude, are produced the olive, orange, and grape; and on the higher plateaux, maize, wheat, and even the hardier kinds of grain.

The variations in the climate of this country are caused by its cordilleras, or mountain chains. The Sierra Madre enters it from the north in two principal ranges, one stretching along the coast of the Pacific, and the other trending toward the Atlantic, though they again unite before reaching the isthmus of Tehuantepec. Between latitudes 18° 40' and 20° 30, the eastern branch of the Sierra opens out into a table land, with an area of about 15,000 square miles, and an alti tude of from 6,000 to 8,000 feet above the level of the sea. Summit of Popocatepetl. This broad plateau, or rather series of plateaux, is known as the tierra fria, or land of cold, while the lower valleys, be tween the two branches, are termed the tierra templada, or temperate region. From the surface of the upper table-land rise several ridges and isolated peaks of volcanic origin, the latter being the highest in North America; and the perpetual snow which covers their summits tempers the climate of the fertile tracts that lie at their base.

Centrally located on this table-land, and surrounded by a wall of lofty volcanic ridges and peaks, is the valley of Mex ico, or, as it was called by the natives, Anahuac, that is to say, ' country by the waters,' the name being suggested by the lakes that formed one tenth of its area. With a circuit of more than 160 miles and an elevation of about 7,500 feet, the valley of Anahuac may be taken as fairly representing the tierra fria; and, as will presently appear, its inhabitants gradually overspread the entire series of plateaux between the branches of the Sierra Madre. Summit of Iztaccihuatl. This valley has a mean temperature of 62°, and a climate resembling that of southern Europe, though with a smaller rainfall. The term 'cold' can, therefore, only be applied to it by comparison with the lowlands of Mexico.

The soil was in former days fertile and productive, though now presenting a bare and parched aspect, its forests being destroyed and its surface exposed to the excessive evaporation caused by a tropical sun. Oak and pine are the most prominent trees of native growth, and wheat, barley, and all European grains and fruits grow side by side with maize, the maguey, and the cactus, the three last being indigenous. From May to Octo ber, or during the hot season, rains are frequent, but seldom occur in the remaining portion of the year. For ten months out of the twelve, deciduous trees retain their leaves, and are never entirely destitute of foliage. ' As we travel from the valley of Mexico toward the south, the vegetation becomes more dense, and the greater heat of the sun, as we approach nearer to the equator, causes a higher temperature at equal altitudes.

The same gradations Summit of Orizaba. of tierra fria and tierra tenrplada are, however, continued, blending into each other at an elevation of 5,000 to 6,000 feet. On the coast of the gulf of Mexico is a broad extent of level plain and marsh, and farther inland is a gradual ascent to the interior highlands, the former, in common with the lowlands on the Pacific coast, being called the tierra caliente or warm land. In the neighborhood of Vera Cruz are barren Culture Hero — Relief in Stucco — Palenque, Chiapas. and sandy tracts of desert land; but elsewhere the tierra caliente is covered with a dense tropical growth of trees, shrubs, vines, and flowers, forming in their natural growth an almost impenetrable thicket. The cocoa-palm, cotton plant, sugarcane, vanilla, and banana are among its flora, while the fauna includes birds with every variety of plumage, and myriads of insects and reptiles.

The climate is dangerous to all except natives, for the surface, covered with decayed vegetable sub stances, breathes forth a deadly malaria. Southern Vera Cruz and Tabasco, through which flow several large rivers, their sources being in the mountains of Guatemala, Chiapas, and Tehuantepec, exhibit the most luxuriant display of nature's prodigality. The river-banks are crowded w-ith forest trees, and in the broad savanas there is a net-work of canals and streams, serving not only for irrigation, but for the con veyance of the many native products, which form a considerable item in the commerce of the world. Notwithstanding the general similarity of the native Amer ican nations in form, feature, color, hair, and speech, they were widely separated in culture. On the table-lands of Mexico, Central America, and Peru lived nations which, as compared with the rest of the world, may be properly termed civilized.

North and south, and all around the border, the people were savages; while in New Mexico there was a class between the two. The civilized nations of Mexico may be called the Nahua family, the members of which were of good stature, well pro portioned, rather above medium size, of a light copper color, with long, black, obliquely pointed eyes, regular white teeth, glossy black hair, thin beard, prominent cheek-bones, thick lips, large aquiline nose, and retreating forehead. A gentle expression about the mouth was blended with severity and melancholy in the upper portion of the face. They were brave and intelligent, but blood-thirsty. The terms 'savage' and 'civilized,' as applied to races of men, are relative, and not absolute. At best they mark only broad and shifting stages in human progress; the one near the point of departure, the other approaching a distant and almost unattainable end.

There are degrees in savagism as there are degrees in civilization, and though usually placed in opposition, one is but a degree of the other. The Haidah, whom we call savage, was as much superior to the Shoshone, the lowest of the natives of America, as was the Aztec to the Haidah, the European to the Aztec, and the ancient Greek to the modern European. We all know what savages are: how, like wild animals, they depend for food and raiment on the spontaneous prod ucts of nature, migrating with the birds and the beasts, bur rowing beneath the ground, hiding in caves, or throwing-over themselves a shelter of bark, skins, branches, or boards, and eating or starving as food is abundant or scarce. Neverthe less, all of them have made some advancement from their original naked, helpless condition.

Primeval man, the only true savage, does not exist on the globe to-day. Be the man never so low, lower almost in skill and wisdom than the brute, less active in obtaining food, less ingenious in procur ing his abode, the first improvement on his houseless, com fortless condition, the first fashioning of a tool, the first attempt to cover his nakedness and wall out the wind, is the first step toward civilization. That which we call civilization is not an adjunct nor an acquirement of man, for no isolated man could by any possibility become civilized. It is rather the measure of the world's progress or progressional force, the general fund of the wealth, learning, and refinement us the nations of the earth, the storehouse of accumulated results, the essence of all that is best worth preserving from the distillations of good, not untinctured with the distilla tions of evil.

In the brute creation this element of progress is wanting. The bird builds its nest, the bee its cell, the beaver its dam, with no more skill or care to-day than did the bird or beast or beaver a thousand years ago. The savage nations of the Pacific states of North America may be divided into six distinct groups; namely, the Hyper boreans, living at the extreme north; the Columbians, whose lands are drained by the Columbia River; the Californians; the New Mexicans; the wild tribes of Mexico; and the wild tribes of Central America. The classification of man into species or races, so as to be able to designate by his organism — that is to say, form and features, size and shape of the skull, color of the skin and texture of the hair — the family to which he belongs, as well as the question of his origin, has been the subject of great diversity of opinion, from the fact that the various forms so graduate into each other that it is impossible to draw exact lines of partition.

One ethnologist divides the human family into two parts, according to the facial angle; others into three, four, five, and six parts, according to color; one makes three divisions according to hair, and others various divisions according to language. All nations may, however, be brought into one or another of the following geographical classes: American, European, African, and Asiatic; that is to say, the copper colored Indian, the white Caucasian, the black negro, and the dark and yellow Malay and Mongolian. From the time when the different parts of the world first became known to each other, men have never ceased to won der and try to tell where they all came from. The people of each part have a theory as to origin which they firmly believe to be true; but what is the origin of the others?

Some con tend that America was peopled from Europe, some from Africa, some from Asia; while others attempt to prove that Asia was settled by Americans, and Europe by Asiatics. Many believe that the Mexicans were originally Jews, de scendants of the ten lost tribes of Israel. It was obvious to the Europeans when they first beheld the natives of America, that these were unlike the intellectual white-skinned races of Europe, the barbarous blacks of Africa, or any nation or people which they had hitherto encountered; yet all except the Eskimos, at the extreme north, closely resembled each other. There is no doubt that the nations of America arc of a remote antiquity. This is proved by their traditions, their ruins, and their moral and physical uniformity. The action of a climate peculiar to America, and of natural surroundings common to all the people of the continent, could not fail to produce in time a similarity of body and mind.

Among the most advanced of these nations were the Aztecs or Nahuas of Mexico, the Mayas and Quiches of Central America, and the Peruvians of South America. These may be called the civilized nations of America, while nearly all the rest must be classed among the savage nations of the world. The Aztecs, who were also called Mexicans, lived upon the table-land, extending along the continent between the two great oceans, their territory being a portion of Ana huac. White Marble Vase Found Near Vera Cruz.

Chapter II. The Toltec And Chichimec Periods

During the sixth and seventh centuries of the Christian era we must imagine Anahuac and the adjoining territory on the north and west gradually occupied by many Nahua Basaltic Column — Tula. nations of varying numbers and various degrees of civilization. Some were wild hunting tribes, powerful but rude, and the terror of their neighbors ; others lived by agriculture, settling in the fertile valleys, and retaining much of their original culture. The three most powerful nations established themselves in and around the valley of Mexico, where their capitals soon became flourishing cities, and the people were called Toltecs, a word probably derived from toltecas, 'artifi cers,' but one which afterward became synonymous with all that is skilful and excellent in art. The first period of Nahua occupation was one of strife, during which the united bands became masters of the entire region south and east of the lakes.

THE TOLTEC AND CHICHIMEC PERIODS. 11 Meanwhile other bands of Toltecs, from the regions toward the north, settled, after a long pilgrimage, on the banks of the river Quetzalatl, founding there a city named Tollan, on the site of the present village of Tula, about thirty miles north-west of Mexico. During the first six years of their stay, these tribes gave their attention to the building of the new city and the cultivation of the surrounding lands, all acting under the guidance of their prophet Hueman, though each tribe was ruled by its own chieftain. But in the seventh year the chiefs convened an assembly of the leading men for the purpose of establishing a monarchy, offering to surrender their power in favor of the king whom the people might choose. It was finally decided to send an embassy with pres- Section of Column — Tula. ents to the king of the Chichimecs, asking that one of their sons or near relatives be allowed to rule over them.

The choice fell on the second son, whose name is unknown, but who was crowned at Tollan under the title of Chalchiuh Tlatonac, or 'shining precious stone.' After a prosperous reign of fifty-two years this monarch died, and was succeeded by his son, and he in turn by others. Of Quetzalcoatl, whose reign began in 873, mention is made elsewhere. In the year 994 Huemac II. ascended the throne of Tollan, the city being at this date still the foremost in the empire. At first the new monarch enjoyed, in a remarkable degree, the confidence of his people, ruling with great wisdom, and attending strictly to his religious duties, and to the adminis tration of justice. But soon he gave himself up to evil prac tices, indulging in the pleasures of the wine-cup, and dealing treacherously with his subjects.

Thus the lords of various provinces were incited to revolt ; and now disasters in quick succession befell the empire of the Toltecs. A sorcerer named Toveyo gathered a vast crowd near Tollan, and kept them dancing to the beat of his drum until midnight, when, by reason of the darkness and their intoxication, they crowded each other over a precipice into a deep ravine, where they were turned into stone. A stone bridge was also broken by the necromancer, and thousands precipitated into the river. From one of the neighboring volcanoes poured forth a flood of glowing lava, and in its lurid light appeared frightful spectres threatening the capital. In the hope of appeasing the angry gods, a sacrifice of captives was ordered ; but when a young boy, chosen by lot as the first victim, was placed upon the altar, and the knife plunged into his breast, there was found no heart in his body, and his veins were without blood.

The fetid odor exhaled from the corpse brought on a pestilence which caused the death of thousands. Then the Tlaloc deities appeared to Huemac, as he walked in the forest, and the monarch im plored them not to deprive him of his wealth and his royal splendor. But the gods were wroth at his petition, and also at his selfishness and impenitence, and they departed from him, declaring that they would bring plagues upon the proud Toltecs for six years. The winter of 1018 was so cold that all plants and seeds were killed by frost, and it was followed by a summer of in tense heat, which parched the entire surface of the country, dried up the streams, and melted the solid rocks. The plagues began with heavy storms of rain, which lasted a hun dred days, destroyed the ripening crops, flooded the streets and towns, and caused fear of a universal deluge.

Furious gales followed, and toads in immense numbers covered the ground, consuming every green thing, and squatting in the dwellings of the people. The next year there was a terrible drought, which put a stop to all agricultural labor, and thou sands died of starvation. The frosts of the following winter THE TOLTEC AND CHIC HI MEG PERIODS. 13 destroyed the little that the heat had spared, not even the hardy maguey surviving. And now there came upon the land great swarms of locusts and other destructive insects. Lightning and hail completed the work of devastation, and it is related that during these visitations nine tenths of the people perished. After the plagues had ceased, Huemac abandoned his evil ways, and gave his whole attention to promoting the welfare of his people ; but he was resolved to place on the throne an illegitimate son, named Acxitl, in whose favor he was about to abdicate.

The consequence was a new revolt under two leaders, who, after some negotiation, promised to support the royal cause, on condition of being raised to the highest rank, and allowed a share in the management of the kingdom. The new monarch ascended the throne in 1029, and for several years ruled wisely; but, like his father, he yielded to temptation, giving way to all manner of dissipation and riotous living. His example was followed both by the nobles and priests, and vice took possession of all classes of society. Public affairs were left to the management of the royal favor ites ; crime remained unpunished ; robbery and murder were of frequent occurrence ; and for all these iniquities the king was held responsible. In the midst of other troubles came the news that Hue huetzin, the ruler of one of the Atlantic provinces, in league with two other lords who had refused to acknowledge the power of Acxitl, was inarching toward Tollan, at the head of the rebel forces.

Unable to resist them, the Toltec monarch sent ambassadors with rich presents, suing for peace, ami thus a truce was obtained. Meanwhile many of the nations in and around Anahuac declared their independence, and numerous Chichimec tribes took advantage of the opportunity to secure a foothold in the lake region. It was evident that the gods were very angry, and to avert their wrath, a meeting was summoned at Teotihuacan, the sacred city of the Toltecs, of all the wise men, priests, and nobles. But while in the midst of their feasts and sacrifices, a demon of gigantic size, with long, bony arms and fingers, appeared, dancing in the court where the people were assembled. Whirling through the crowd in" every direction, he seized upon all who came in his way and dashed them lifeless to the ground.

Multitudes perished, for all were spellbound, and could not move from the spot. A second time the dread monster appeared, in a somewhat different form, and again the Toltecs fell by hundreds in his grasp. At his next appearance he took the form of a beautiful child, seated on a Monolith from a Teotihuacan Mound. rock, and gazing from a neighboring hill on the holy city. When the people rushed forth^ to observe this strange visitation, it was found that the child's head was a mass of corruption, exhaling a stench so fatal that all who approached were stricken with sudden death. Finally the demon appeared in a form not recorded, and warned the as sembly that the fate of the Toltecs was sealed, that the gods would no longer listen to their petitions, and that the people could only escape annihilation by flight.

Many of the Toltec nobles had already abandoned their country, to seek refuge in other provinces, and this movement was constantly on the increase. Meanwhile, in the year 1060, the forces of Huehuetzin were again threatening Tollan. By THE TOLTEC AND CHICHIMEC PERIODS. 15 great effort an army had been raised and equipped for the defence of the city, and the aged Huemac had come forth from his retirement, striving to ward off the threatened de struction. It is even related that the king's mother enrolled bands of Amazons from the women of Tollan, and placed her self at their head. Acxitl, who commanded the forces. formed his troops in two divisions, one of which, under his most able general, marched forth to meet the enemy, while The Fainting-Stone at Teotthuacan, the other, under the king in person, lay intrenched at Tulti tlan.

For three years the Toltec general, supported by the Amazon bands and a detachment under Huemac, waged a doubtful war with the Chichimecs, but was finally driven back on Tultitlan. Here a desperate stand was made, and for many days the battle raged, until the Toltecs, sorely weakened in numbers, were compelled to retreat on Tollan. After a final encounter, the remnant of their army was scattered among the mountains and the marshes of Lake Tezcuco. Otompan, Tezcuco, and Culhuacan, the other principal cities of the Toltecs, also fell before the invaders, and all of them were plundered and burned, with the exception of the last, which appears to have escaped destruction by admitting the conquerors within her gates, the inhabitants becoming their allies or vassals. Such is the story of the rise and fall of the Toltec empire, as related in the annals of this period.

According to some authorities, the population was reduced to a few thousands, most of whom abandoned the country, leaving only a few chiefs with a handful of followers in their desolate territory, Terra-Cotta Head — Teotihuacan. from which even the invading hordes were compelled to with draw. This theory cannot be accepted as the truth. Admit ting that their numbers were greatly diminished by war, pestilence, and famine, it is almost certain that the majority of the people remained in Anahuac, and became subject to their conquerors. Although the records speak of a large Toltec migration in various directions, it must be remem bered that the historic annals of the Nahuas deal only with the deeds and fortunes of priests, kings, and nobles, the masses being regarded as useful merely to fight and pay taxes, and altogether unworthy of a place in history.

It is indeed probable that the word 'Toltec,' which was a title of distinction rather than a national name, was never applied to Til E TOLTEC AND CHIC HI MFC PERIODS. 17 the common people, and that the downfall of the empire was the overthrow of a dynasty, and not the destruction of a nation. Many years before the downfall of Tollan, a border warfare had been carried on between the Toltecs and Chichimecs; but when the troubles of the former began, their troops were recalled from the frontier to defend the capital. Erelong the Chichimec monarchs, Acauhtzin and Xolotl, who, after the death of their father, had divided the kingdom between them, began to wonder at this sudden cessation of hostilities, and in order to ascertain its cause, sent forth spies into the ter ritory of the Toltecs. Soon these men returned with the startling news, that for a distance of 200 leagues from the Chichimec frontier the enemy's country was deserted, and the towns abandoned and in ruins.

Thereupon Xolotl summoned his vassals to Amaquemecan, the capital, told them what the spies reported, reminded them that more territory was needed for their increasing numbers, showed them how easy it would be to avenge on their fallen enemies the injuries of many years, and bade them prepare, within the space of six months, to join in an expedition against them. It is related that no less than 3,202,000 men and women, besides children, answered his summons, and thus the expe dition should be called rather a migration, for only 1,600,000 remained as the subjects of Acauhtz-n. Arriving, after frequent halts, at Tollan, Xolotl found the place deserted, its streets overgrown with vegetation, and its temples and palaces in ruins; but as the site was too important to be abandoned, some families were left there to form the nucleus of a future population.

The main body then continued its journey as far as Lake Xaltocan, where the people dwelt for a long time in the caves of that region, and afterward founded the town of Xoloc, or Xolotl, which in time became a prominent city of Anahuac. Parties were now sent forth to explore the country, and on their return it was decided that the neighborhood of Tultitlan was the best site for a capital. Xoloc was therefore left in charge of a governor, and opposite Tezcuco, on the other side of the lake, was founded in the year 1120 the town of Tenayocan. To Xolotl succeeded a chieftain named Amacui, or Amacui Xolotl, whom we will call Xolotl II., one of his first acts being to remove the capital from Tenayocan to the foot of the mountains of Tezcuco. Calling his chiefs together, he took formal possession of the country, and soon afterward made a partition of the lands.

To each lord was assigned a section of territory and a certain number of dependents, with instruc tions to build a town to be called after its founder. Toltec cities were to retain their original names, and orders were given that their inhabitants should not be molested by the Chichimecs. Settlements were also established on the coast, the entire extent of the lands thus appropriated being esti mated at more than 200 leagues in circumference, and Xolotl II., as supreme ruler, now assumed the title of Great Lord and King of the Chichimecs. Hitherto the invaders had met with no opposition from the Toltecs who remained in Anahuac. Favored by the peaceful policy of Xolotl I., the latter had increased rapidly in wealth and numbers, more especially at Culhuacan, where reigned a monarch named Nauhyotl.