L. FORMATION OF CORAL REEFS

L. FORMATION OF CORAL REEFS

Growth of coral chiefly confined to tropical regions--Principal genera of coral-building zoophytes--Their rate of growth--Seldom flourish at greater depths than twenty fathoms--Atolls or annular reefs with lagoons--Maldive Isles--Origin of the circular form--Coral reefs not based on submerged volcanic craters--Mr. Darwin's theory of subsidence in explanation of atolls, encircling and barrier reefs--Why the windward side of atolls highest--Subsidence explains why all atolls are nearly on one level--Alternate areas of elevation and subsidence--Origin of openings into the lagoons--Size of atolls and barrier reefs--Objection to the theory of subsidence considered--Composition, structure, and stratified arrangement of rocks now forming in coral reefs--Lime, whence derived--Supposed increase of calcareous matter in modern epochs controverted--Concluding remarks.

The powers of the organic creation in modifying the form and structure of the earth's crust, are most conspicuously displayed in the labors of the coral animals. We may compare the operation of these zoophytes in the ocean, to the effects produced on a smaller scale upon the land by the plants which generate peat. In the case of the Sphagnum, the upper part vegetates while the lower part is entering into a mineral mass, in which the traces of organization remain when life has entirely ceased. In corals, in like manner, the more durable materials of the generation that has passed away serve as the foundation on which the living animals continue to rear a similar structure.

The stony part of the lamelliform zoophyte may be likened to an internal skeleton; for it is always more or less surrounded by a soft animal substance capable of expanding itself; yet, when alarmed, it has the power of contracting and drawing itself almost entirely into the cells and hollows of the hard coral. Although oftentimes beautifully colored in their own element, the soft parts become when taken from the sea nothing more in appearance than a brown slime spread over the stony nucleus.[1111]

The growth of those corals which form reefs of solid stone is entirely confined to the warmer regions of the globe, rarely extending beyond the tropics above two or three degrees, except under peculiar circumstances, as in the Bermuda Islands, in lat. 32° N., where the Atlantic is warmed by the Gulf stream. The Pacific Ocean, throughout a space comprehended between the thirtieth parallels of latitude on each side of the equator, is extremely productive of coral; as also are the Arabian and Persian Gulfs. Coral is also abundant in the sea between the coast of Malabar and the island of Madagascar. Flinders describes a reef of coral on the east coast of New Holland as having a length of nearly 1000 miles, and as being in one part unbroken for a distance of 350 miles. Some groups of coral islands in the Pacific are from 1100 to 1200 miles in length, by 300 or 400 in breadth, as the Dangerous Archipelago, for example, and that called Radack by Kotzebue; but the islands within these spaces are always small points, and often very thinly sown.

Of the numerous species of zoophytes which are engaged in the production of coral banks, some of the most common belong to the Lamarckian genera Astrea, Porites, Madrepora, Millepora, Caryophyllia, and Meandrina.

Rate of the growth of Coral.--Very different opinions have been entertained in regard to the rate at which coral reefs increase. In Captain Beechey's late expedition to the Pacific, no positive information could be obtained of any channel having been filled up within a given period; and it seems established, that several reefs had remained for more than half a century, at about the same depth from the surface.

Ehrenberg also questions the fact of channels and harbors having been closed up in the Red Sea by the rapid increase of coral limestone. He supposes the notion to have arisen from the circumstance of havens having been occasionally filled up in some places with coral sand, in others with large quantities of ballast of coral rock thrown down from vessels.

The natives of the Bermuda Islands point out certain corals now growing in the sea, which, according to tradition, have been living in the same spots for centuries. It is supposed that some of them may vie in age with the most ancient trees of Europe. Ehrenberg also observed single corals of the genera Meandrina and Favia, having a globular form, from six to nine feet in diameter, "which must (he says) be of immense antiquity, probably several thousand years old, so that Pharaoh may have looked upon these same individuals in the Red Sea."[1112] They certainly imply, as he remarks, that the reef on which they grow has increased at a very slow rate. After collecting more than 100 species, he found none of them covered with parasitic zoophytes, nor any instance of a living coral growing on another living coral. To this repulsive power which they exert whilst living, against all others of their own class, we owe the beautiful symmetry of some large Meandrinæ, and other species which adorn our museums. Yet Balani and Serpulæ can attach themselves to living corals, and holes are excavated in them by saxicavous mollusca.

At the island called Taaopoto, in the South Pacific, the anchor of a ship, wrecked about 50 years before, was observed in seven fathoms water, still preserving its original form, but entirely incrusted by coral.[1113] This fact would seem to imply a slow rate of augmentation; but to form a correct estimate of the average rate must be very difficult, since it must vary not only according to the species of coral, but according to the circumstances under which each species may be placed; such, for example, as the depth from the surface, the quantity of light, the temperature of the water, its freedom from sand or mud, or the absence or presence of breakers, which is favorable to the growth of some kinds and is fatal to that of others. It should also be observed that the apparent stationary condition of some coral reefs, which according to Beechey have remained for centuries at the same depth under water, may be due to subsidence, the upward growth of the coral having been just sufficient to keep pace with the sinking of the solid foundation on which the zoophytes have built. We shall afterwards see how far this hypothesis is borne out by other evidence in the regions of annular reefs or atolls.

In one of the Maldive islands a coral reef, which, within a few years, existed on an islet bearing cocoa-nut trees, was found by Lieutenant Prentice, "entirely covered with live coral and madrepore." The natives stated that the islet had been washed away by a change in the currents, and it is clear that a coating of growing coral had been formed in a short time.[1114] Experiments, also, of Dr. Allan, on the east coast of Madagascar, prove the possibility of coral growing to a thickness of three feet in about half a year,[1115] so that the rate of increase may, under favorable circumstances, be very far from slow.

It must not be supposed that the calcareous masses termed coral reefs are exclusively the work of zoophytes: a great variety of shells, and, among them, some of the largest and heaviest of known species, contribute to augment the mass. In the South Pacific, great beds of oysters, mussels, Pinnæ marinæ, Chamoe (or Tridacnæ), and other shells, cover in profusion almost every reef; and on the beach of coral islands are seen the shells of echini and broken fragments of crustaceous animals. Large shoals of fish are also discernible through the clear blue water, and their teeth and hard palates cannot fail to be often preserved although their soft cartilaginous bones may decay.

It was the opinion of the German naturalist Forster, in 1780, after his voyage round the world with Captain Cook, that coral animals had the power of building up steep and almost perpendicular walls from great depths in the sea, a notion afterwards adopted by Captain Flinders and others; but it is now very generally believed that these zoophytes cannot live in water of great depths.

Mr. Darwin has come to the conclusion, that those species which are most effective in the construction of reefs, rarely flourish at a greater depth than 20 fathoms, or 120 feet. In some lagoons, however, where the water is but little agitated, there are, according to Kotzebue, beds of living coral in 25 fathoms of water, or 150 feet; but these may perhaps have begun to live in shallower water, and may have been carried downwards by the subsidence of the reef. There are also various species of zoophytes, and among them some which are provided with calcareous as well as horny stems, which live in much deeper water, even in some cases to a depth of 180 fathoms; but these do not appear to give origin to stony reefs.

There is every variety of form in coral reefs, but the most remarkable and numerous in the Pacific consist of circular or oval strips of dry land, enclosing a shallow lake or lagoon of still water, in which zoophytes and mollusca abound. These annular reefs just raise themselves above the level of the sea, and are surrounded by a deep and often unfathomable ocean.

In the annexed cut (fig. 114), one of these circular islands is represented, just rising above the waves, covered with the cocoa-nut and other trees, and inclosing within a lagoon of tranquil water.

The accompanying section will enable the reader to comprehend the usual form of such islands. (Fig. 115.)

The subjoined cut (fig. 116.) exhibits a small part of the section of a coral island on a larger scale.

Of thirty-two of these coral islands visited by Beechey in his voyage to the Pacific, twenty-nine had lagoons in their centres. The largest was 30 miles in diameter, and the smallest less than a mile. All were increasing their dimensions by the active operations of the lithophytes, which appeared to be gradually extending and bringing the immersed parts of their structure to the surface. The scene presented by these annular reefs is equally striking for its singularity and beauty. A strip of land a few hundred yards wide is covered by lofty cocoa-nut trees, above which is the blue vault of heaven. This band of verdure is bounded by a beach of glittering white sand, the outer margin of which is encircled with a ring of snow-white breakers, beyond which are the dark heaving waters of the ocean. The inner beach incloses the still clear water of the lagoon, resting in its greater part on white sand, and when illuminated by a vertical sun, of a most vivid green.[1117] Certain species of zoophytes abound most in the lagoon, others on the exterior margin, where there is a great surf. "The ocean," says Mr. Darwin, "throwing its breakers on these outer shores, appears an invincible enemy, yet we see it resisted and even conquered by means which at first seem most weak and inefficient. No periods of repose are granted, and the long swell caused by the steady action of the trade wind never ceases. The breakers exceed in violence those of our temperate regions, and it is impossible to behold them without feeling a conviction that rocks of granite or quartz would ultimately yield and be demolished by such irresistible forces. Yet these low insignificant coral islets stand and are victorious, for here another power, as antagonist to the former, takes part in the contest. The organic forces separate the atoms of carbonate of lime one by one from the foaming breakers, and unite them into a symmetrical structure; myriads of architects are at work night and day, month after month, and we see their soft and gelatinous bodies through the agency of the vital laws conquering the great mechanical power of the waves of an ocean, which neither the art of man, nor the inanimate works of nature could successfully resist."[1118]

As the coral animals require to be continually immersed in salt water, they cannot raise themselves by their own efforts, above the level of the lowest tides. The manner in which the reefs are converted into islands above the level of the sea is thus described by Chamisso, a naturalist, who accompanied Kotzebue in his voyages:--"When the reef," says he, "is of such a height that it remains almost dry at low water the corals leave off building. Above this line a continuous mass of solid stone is seen composed of the shells of mollusks and echini, with their broken-off prickles and fragments of coral, united by calcareous sand, produced by the pulverization of shells. The heat of the sun often penetrates the mass of stone when it is dry, so that it splits in many places, and the force of the waves is thereby enabled to separate and lift blocks of coral, frequently six feet long and three or four in thickness, and throw them upon the reef, by which means the ridge becomes at length so high that it is covered only during some seasons of the year by the spring tides. After this the calcareous sand lies undisturbed, and offers to the seeds of trees and plants cast upon it by the waves a soil upon which they rapidly grow, to overshadow its dazzling white surface. Entire trunks of trees, which are carried by the rivers from other countries and islands, find here, at length, a resting-place after their long wanderings: with these come some small animals such as insects and lizards, as the first inhabitants. Even before the trees form a wood, the sea-birds nestle here; stray land-birds take refuge in the bushes; and, at a much later period, when the work has been long since completed, man appears and builds his hut on the fruitful soil."[1119]

In the above description the solid stone is stated to consist of shell and coral, united by sand; but masses of very compact limestone are also found even in the uppermost and newest parts of the reef, such as could only have been produced by chemical precipitation. Professor Agassiz also informs me that his observations on the Florida reefs (which confirm Darwin's theory of atolls to be mentioned in the sequel) have convinced him, that large blocks are loosened, not by shrinkage in the sun's heat, as Chamisso imagined, but by innumerable perforations of lithodomi and other boring testacea.

The carbonate of lime may have been principally derived from the decomposition of corals and testacea; for when the animal matter undergoes putrefaction, the calcareous residuum must be set free under circumstances very favorable to precipitation, especially when there are other calcareous substances, such as shells and corals, on which it may be deposited. Thus organic bodies may be inclosed in a solid cement, and become portions of rocky masses.[1120]

The width of the circular strip of dead coral forming the islands explored by Captain Beechey, exceeded in no instance half a mile from the usual wash of the sea to the edge of the lagoon, and, in general, was only about three or four hundred yards.[1121] The depth of the lagoons is various; in some, entered by Captain Beechey, it was from twenty to thirty-eight fathoms.

The two other peculiarities which are most characteristic of the annular reef or atoll are first, that the strip of dead coral is invariably highest on the windward side, and secondly, that there is very generally an opening at some point in the reef affording a narrow passage, often of considerable depth, from the sea into the lagoon.

Maldive and Laccadive Isles.--The chain of reefs and islets called the Maldives (see fig. 117.), situated in the Indian Ocean, to the south-west of Malabar, forms a chain 470 geographical miles in length, running due north and south, with an average breadth of about 50 miles. It is composed throughout of a series of circular assemblages of islets, all formed of coral, the larger groups being from forty to ninety miles in their longest diameter. Captain Horsburgh, whose chart of these islands is subjoined, states, that outside of each circle or atoll, as it is termed, there are coral reefs sometimes extending to the distance of two or three miles, beyond which there are no soundings at immense depths. But in the centre of each atoll there is a lagoon from fifteen to forty-nine fathoms deep. In the channels between the atolls no soundings can usually be obtained at the depth of 150 or even 250 fathoms, but during Captain Moresby's survey, soundings were struck at 150 and 200 fathoms, the only instances as yet known of the bottom having been reached, either in the Indian or Pacific oceans, in a space intervening between two separate and well characterized atolls.

The singularity in the form of the atolls of this archipelago consists in their being made up, not of one continuous circular reef but of a ring of small coral islets sometimes more than a hundred in number, each of which is a miniature atoll in itself; in other words, a ring-shaped strip of coral surrounding a lagoon of salt water. To account for the origin of these, Mr. Darwin supposes the larger annular reef to have been broken up into a number of fragments, each of which acquired its peculiar configurations under the influence of causes similar to those to which the structure of the parent atoll has been due. Many of the minor rings are no less than three, and even five miles in diameter, and some are situated in the midst of the principal lagoon; but this happens only in cases where the sea can enter freely through breaches in the outer or marginal reef.

The rocks of the Maldives are composed of sandstone formed of broken shells and corals, such as may be obtained in a loose state from the beach, and which is seen when exposed for a few days to the air to become hardened. The sandstone is sometimes observed to be an aggregate of broken shells, corals, pieces of wood, and shells of the cocoa-nut.[1122]

The Laccadive islands run in the same line with the Maldives, on the north, as do the isles of the Chagos Archipelago, on the south; so that these may be continuations of the same chain of submerged mountains, crested in a similar manner by coral limestones.

Origin of the circular form--not volcanic.--The circular and oval shape of so many reefs, each having a lagoon in the centre, and being surrounded on all sides by a deep ocean, naturally suggested the idea that they were nothing more than the crests of submarine volcanic craters overgrown by coral; and this theory I myself advocated in the earlier editions of this work. Although I am now about to show that it must be abandoned, it may still be instructive to point out the grounds on which it was formerly embraced. In the first place, it had been remarked that there were many active volcanoes in the coral region of the Pacific, and that in some places, as in Gambier's group, rocks composed of porous lava rise up in a lagoon bordered by a circular reef, just as the two cones of eruption called the Kamenis have made their appearance in the times of history within the circular gulf of Santorin.[1123] It was also observed that, as in S. Shetland, Barren Island, and others of volcanic origin, there is one narrow breach in the walls of the outer cone by which ships may enter a circular gulf, so in like manner there is often a single deep passage leading into the lagoon of a coral island, the lagoon itself seeming to represent the hollow or gulf just as the ring of dry coral recalls to our minds the rim of a volcanic crater. More lately, indeed, Mr. Darwin has shown that the numerous volcanic craters of the Galapagos Archipelago in the Pacific have all of them their southern sides the lowest, or in many cases quite broken down, so that if they were submerged and incrusted with coral, they would resemble true atolls in shape.[1124]

Another argument which I adduced when formerly defending this doctrine was derived from Ehrenberg's statement, that some banks of coral in the Red Sea were square, while many others were ribbon-like strips, with flat tops, and without lagoons. Since, therefore, all the genera and many of the species of zoophytes in the Red Sea agreed with those which elsewhere construct lagoon islands, it followed that the stone-making zoophytes are not guided by their own instinct in the formation of annular reefs, but that this peculiar shape and the position of such reefs in the midst of a deep ocean must depend on the outline of the submarine bottom, which resembles nothing else in nature but the crater of a lofty submerged volcanic cone. The enormous size, it is true, of some atolls, made it necessary for me to ascribe to the craters of many submarine volcanoes a magnitude which was startling, and which had often been appealed to as a serious objection to the volcanic theory. That so many of them were of the same height, or just level with the water, did not present a difficulty so long as we remained ignorant of the fact that the reef-building species do not grow at greater depths than twenty-five fathoms.

May be explained by subsidence.--Mr. Darwin, after examining a variety of coral formations in different parts of the globe, was induced to reject the opinion that their shape represented the form of the original bottom. Instead of admitting that the ring of dead coral rested on a circular or oval ridge of rock, or that the lagoon corresponded to a preexisting cavity, he advanced a new opinion, which must, at first sight, seem paradoxical in the extreme; namely, that the lagoon is precisely in the place once occupied by the highest part of a mountainous island, or, in other cases, by the top of a shoal.

The following is a brief sketch of the facts and arguments in favor of this new view:--Besides those rings of dry coral which enclose lagoons, there are others having a similar form and structure which encircle lofty islands. Of the latter kind is Vanikoro, (see map, fig. 39, p. 351,) celebrated on account of the shipwreck of La Peyrouse, where the coral reef runs at the distance of two or three miles from the shore, the channel between it and the land having a general depth of between 200 and 300 feet. This channel, therefore, is analogous to a lagoon, but with an island standing in the middle like a picture in its frame. In like manner in Tahiti we see a mountainous land, with everywhere round its margin a lake or zone of smooth salt water, separated from the ocean by an encircling reef of coral, on which a line of breakers is always foaming. So also New Caledonia, a long narrow island east of New Holland, in which the rocks are granitic, is surrounded by a reef which runs for a length of 400 miles. This reef encompasses not only the island itself, but a ridge of rocks which are prolonged in the same direction beneath the sea. No one, therefore, will contend for a moment that in this case the corals are based upon the rim of a volcanic crater, in the middle of which stands a mountain or island of granite.

The great barrier reef, already mentioned as running parallel to the north-east coast of Australia for nearly 1000 miles, is another most remarkable example of a long strip of coral running parallel to a coast. Its distance from the mainland varies from twenty to seventy miles, and the depth of the great arm of the sea thus enclosed is usually between ten and twenty fathoms, but towards one end from forty to sixty. This great reef would extend much farther, according to Mr. Jukes, if the growth of coral were not prevented off the shores of New Guinea by a muddy bottom, caused by rivers charged with sediment which flow from the southern coast of that great island.[1125]

Two classes of reefs, therefore, have now been considered; first, the atoll, and, secondly, the encircling and barrier reef, all agreeing perfectly in structure, and the sole difference lying in the absence in the case of the atoll of all land, and in the others the presence of land bounded either by an encircling or a barrier reef. But there is still a third class of reefs, called by Mr. Darwin "fringing reefs," which approach much nearer the land than those of the encircling and barrier class, and which indeed so nearly touched the coast as to leave nothing in the intervening space resembling a lagoon. "That these reefs are not attached quite close to the shore appears to be the result of two causes; first, that the water immediately adjoining the beach is rendered turbid by the surf, and therefore injurious to all zoophytes; and, secondly, that the larger and efficient kinds only flourish on the outer edge amidst the breakers of the open sea."[1126]

It will at once be conceded that there is so much analogy between the form and position of the strip of coral in the atoll, and in the encircling and barrier reef, that no explanation can be satisfactory which does not include the whole. If we turn in the first place to the encircling and barrier reefs, and endeavor to explain how the zoophytes could have found a bottom on which to begin to build, we are met at once with a great difficulty. It is a general fact, long since remarked by Dampier, that high land and deep seas go together. In other words, steep mountains coming down abruptly to the sea-shore are generally continued with the same slope beneath the water. But where the reef, as at b and c (fig. 118), is distant several miles from a steep coast, a line drawn perpendicularly downwards from its outer edges b c to the fundamental rock d e, must descend to a depth exceeding by several thousand feet the limits at which the efficient stone-building corals can exist, for we have seen that they cease to grow in water which is more than 120 feet deep. That the original root immediately beneath the points b c is actually as far from the surface as d e, is not merely inferred from Dampier's rule, but confirmed by the fact, that, immediately outside the reef, soundings are either not met with at all, or only at enormous depths. In short, the ocean is as deep there as might have been anticipated in the neighborhood of a bold coast; and it is obviously the presence of the coral alone which has given rise to the anomalous existence of shallow water on the reef and between it and the land.

After studying in minute detail all the phenomena above described, Mr. Darwin has offered in explanation a theory now very generally adopted. The coral-forming polypi, he states, begin to build in water of a moderate depth, and while they are yet at work, the bottom of the sea subsides gradually, so that the foundation of their edifice is carried downwards at the same time that they are raising the superstructure. If, therefore, the rate of subsidence be not too rapid, the growing coral will continue to build up to the surface; the mass always gaining in height above its original base, but remaining in other respects in the same position. Not so with the land; each inch lost is irreclaimably gone; as it sinks, the water gains foot by foot on the shore, till in many cases the highest peak of the original island disappears. What was before land is then occupied by the lagoon, the position of the encircling coral remaining unaltered, with the exception of a slight contraction of its dimensions.

In this manner are encircling reefs and atolls produced; and in confirmation of his views Mr. Darwin has pointed out examples which illustrate every intermediate state, from that of lofty islands, such as Otaheite, encircled by coral, to that of Gambier's group, where a few peaks only of land rise out of a lagoon, and lastly, to the perfect atoll, having a lagoon several hundred feet deep, surrounded by a reef rising steeply from an unfathomed ocean.

If we embrace these views, it is clear, that in regions of growing coral a similar subsidence must give rise to barrier reefs along the shores of a continent. Thus suppose A (fig. 119), to represent the north-east portion of Australia, and b c the ancient level of the sea, when the coral reef d was formed. If the land sink so that it is submerged more and more, the sea must at length stand at the level e f, the reef in the mean time having been enlarged and raised to the point g. The distance between the shore f, and the barrier reef g, is now much greater than originally between the shore c and the reef d, and the longer the subsidence continues the farther will the coast of the mainland recede.

When the first edition of this work appeared in 1831, several years before Mr. Darwin had investigated the facts on which his theory is founded, I had come to the opinion that the land was subsiding at the bottom of those parts of the Pacific where atolls are numerous, although I failed to perceive that such a subsidence, if conceded, would equally solve the enigma as to the form both of annular and barrier reefs.

I shall cite the passage referred to, as published by me in 1831:--"It is a remarkable circumstance that there should be so vast an area in Eastern Oceanica, studded with minute islands, without one single spot where there is a wider extent of land than belongs to such islands as Otaheite, Owhyhee, and a few others, which either have been or are still the seats of active volcanoes. If an equilibrium only were maintained between the upheaving and depressing force of earthquakes, large islands would very soon be formed in the Pacific; for, in that case, the growth of limestone, the flowing of lava, and the ejection of volcanic ashes, would combine with the upheaving force to form new land.

"Suppose a shoal, 600 miles in length, to sink fifteen feet, and then to remain unmoved for a thousand years; during that interval the growing coral may again approach the surface. Then let the mass be re-elevated fifteen feet, so that the original reef is restored to its former position: in this case, the new coral formed since the first subsidence will constitute an island 600 miles long. An analogous result would have occurred if a lava-current fifteen feet thick had overflowed the submerged reef. The absence, therefore, of more extensive tracts of land in the Pacific, seems to show that the amount of subsidence by earthquakes exceeds, in that quarter of the globe, at present, the elevation due to the same cause."[1127]

Another proof also of subsidence derived from the structure of atolls, was pointed out by me in the following passage in all former editions. "The low coral islands of the Pacific," says Captain Beechey, "follow one general rule in having their windward side higher and more perfect than the other. At Gambia and Matilda islands this inequality is very conspicuous, the weather side of both being wooded, and of the former inhabited, while the other sides are from twenty to thirty feet under water; where, however, they may be perceived to be equally narrow and well defined. It is on the leeward side also that the entrances into the lagoons occur; and although they may sometimes be situated on a side that runs in the direction of the wind, as at Bow Island, yet there are none to windward." These observations of Captain Beechey accord with those which Captain Horsburgh and other hydrographers have made in regard to the coral islands of other seas. From this fortunate circumstance ships can enter and sail out with ease; whereas if the narrow inlets were to windward, vessels which once entered might not succeed for months in making their way out again. The well-known security of many of these harbors depends entirely on this fortunate peculiarity in their structure.

"In what manner is this singular conformation to be accounted for? The action of the waves is seen to be the cause of the superior elevation of some reefs on their windward sides, where sand and large masses of coral rock are thrown up by the breakers; but there is a variety of cases where this cause alone is inadequate to solve the problem; for reefs submerged at considerable depths, where the movements of the sea cannot exert much power, have, nevertheless, the same conformation, the leeward being much lower than the windward side.[1128]

"I am informed by Captain King, that, on examining the reefs called Rowley Shoals, which lie off the north-west coast of Australia, where the east and west monsoons prevail alternately, he found the open side of one crescent-shaped reef, the Impérieuse, turned to the east, and of another, the Mermaid, turned to the west; while a third oval reef, of the same group, was entirely submerged. This want of conformity is exactly what we should expect, where the winds vary periodically.

"It seems impossible to refer the phenomenon now under consideration to any original uniformity in the configuration of submarine volcanoes, on the summits of which we may suppose the coral reefs to grow; for although it is very common for craters to be broken down on one side only, we cannot imagine any cause that should breach them all in the same direction. But the difficulty will, perhaps, be removed, if we call in another part of the volcanic agency--subsidence by earthquakes. Suppose the windward barrier to have been raised by the mechanical action of the waves to the height of two or three yards above the wall on the leeward side, and then the whole island to sink down a few fathoms, the appearances described would then be presented by the submerged reef. A repetition of such operations, by the alternate elevation and depression of the same mass (an hypothesis strictly conformable to analogy), might produce still greater inequality in the two sides, especially as the violent efflux of the tide has probably a strong tendency to check the accumulation of the more tender corals on the leeward reef; while the action of the breakers contributes to raise the windward barrier."[1129]

Previously to my adverting to the signs above enumerated of a downward movement in the bed of the ocean, Dr. MacCulloch, Captain Beechey, and many other writers, had shown that masses of recent coral had been laid dry at various heights above the sea-level, both in the Red Sea, the islands of the Pacific, and in the East and West Indies. After describing thirty-two coral islands in the Pacific, Captain Beechey mentioned that they were all formed of living coral except one, which, although of coral formation, was raised about seventy or eighty feet above the level of the sea, and was encompassed by a reef of living coral. It is called Elizabeth or Henderson's Island, and is five miles in length by one in breadth. It has a flat surface, and, on all sides, except the north, is bounded by perpendicular cliffs about fifty feet high, composed entirely of dead coral, more or less porous, honey-combed at the surface, and hardening into a compact calcareous mass, which possesses the fracture of secondary limestone, and has a species of millepore interspersed through it. These cliffs are considerably undermined by the action of the waves, and some of them appear on the eve of precipitating their superincumbent weight into the sea. Those which are less injured in this way present no alternate ridges or indication of the different levels which the sea might have occupied at different periods; but a smooth surface, as if the island, which has probably been raised by volcanic agency, had been forced up by one great subterraneous convulsion.[1130] At the distance of a few hundred yards from this island, no bottom could be gained with 200 fathoms of line.

It will be seen, from the annexed sketch, communicated to me by Lieutenant Smith, of the Blossom, that the trees came down to the beach towards the centre of the island; a break at first sight resembling the openings which usually lead into lagoons; but the trees stand on a steep slope, and no hollow of an ancient lagoon was perceived.

Beechey also remarks, that the surface of Henderson's Island is flat, and that in Queen Charlotte's Island, one of the same group, but under water, there was no lagoon, the coral having grown up everywhere to one level. The probable cause of this obliteration of the central basin or lagoon will be considered in the sequel.

That the bed of the Pacific and Indian oceans, where atolls are frequent, must have been sinking for ages, might be inferred, says Mr. Darwin, from simply reflecting on two facts; first, that the efficient coral-building zoophytes do not flourish in the ocean at a greater depth than 120 feet; and, secondly, that there are spaces occupying areas of many hundred thousand square miles, where all the islands consist of coral, and yet none of which rise to a greater height than may be accounted for by the action of the winds and waves on broken and triturated coral. Were we to take for granted that the floor of the ocean had remained stationary from the time when the coral began to grow, we should be compelled to assume that an incredible number of submarine mountains of vast height (for the ocean is always deep, and often unfathomable between the different atolls) had all come to within 120 feet of the surface, and yet no one mountain had risen above water. But no sooner do we admit the theory of subsidence, than this great, difficulty vanishes. However varied may have been the altitude of different islands, or the separate peaks of particular mountain-chains, all may have been reduced to one uniform level by the gradual submergence of the loftiest points, and the additions made to the calcareous cappings of the less elevated summits as they subsided to great depths.

Openings into the lagoons.--In the general description of atolls and encircling reefs, it was mentioned that there is almost always a deep narrow passage opening into the lagoon, or into the still water between the reef and the shore, which is kept open by the efflux of the sea as the tide goes down.

The origin of this channel must, according to the theory of subsidence before explained, be traced back to causes which were in action during the existence of the encircling reef, and when an island or mountain-top rose within it, for such a reef precedes the atoll in the order of formation. Now in those islands in the Pacific, which are large enough to feed small rivers, there is generally an opening or channel in the surrounding coral reef at the point where the stream of fresh water enters the sea. The depth of these channels rarely exceeds twenty-five feet; and they may be attributed, says Captain Beechey, to the aversion of the lithophytes to fresh water, and to the probable absence of the mineral matter of which they construct their habitations.[1131]

Mr. Darwin, however, has shown, that mud at the bottom of river-courses is far more influential than the freshness of the water in preventing the growth of the polypi, for the walls which inclose the openings are perpendicular, and do not slant off gradually, as would be the case, if the nature of the element presented the only obstacle to the increase of the coral-building animals.

When a breach has thus been made in the reef, it will be prevented from closing up by the efflux of the sea at low tides; for it is sufficient that a reef should rise a few feet above low-water mark to cause the waters to collect in the lagoon at high tide, and when the sea falls, to rush out at one or more points where the reef happens to be lowest or weakest. This event is strictly analogous to that witnessed in our estuaries, where a body of salt water accumulated during the flow issues with great velocity at the ebb of the tide, and scours out or keeps open a deep passage through the bar, which is almost always formed at the mouth of a river. At first there are probably many openings, but the growth of the coral tends to obstruct all those which do not serve as the principal channels of discharge; so that their number is gradually reduced to a few, and often finally to one. The fact observed universally, that the principal opening fronts a considerable valley in the encircled island, between the shores of which and the outer reef there is often deep water, scarcely leaves any doubt as to the real origin of the channel in all those countless atolls where the nucleus of land has vanished.

Size of atolls and barrier reefs.--In regard to the dimensions of atolls, it was stated that some of the smallest observed by Beechey in the Pacific were only a mile in diameter. If their external slope under water equals upon an average an angle of 45°, then would such an atoll at the depth of half a mile, or 2640 feet, have a diameter of two miles. Hence it would appear that there must be a tendency in every atoll to grow smaller, except in those cases where oscillations of level enlarge the base on which the coral grows by throwing down a talus of detrital matter all round the original cone of limestone.

Bow Island is described by Captain Beechey as seventy miles in circumference, and thirty in its greatest diameter, but we have seen that some of the Maldives are much larger.

As the shore of an island or continent which is subsiding will recede from a coral reef at a slow or rapid rate according as the surface of the land has a steep or gentle slope, we cannot measure the thickness of the coral by its distance from the coast; yet, as a general rule, those reefs which are farthest from the land imply the greatest amount of subsidence. We learn from Flinders, that the barrier reef of north-eastern Australia is in some places seventy miles from the mainland, and it should seem that a calcareous formation is there in progress 1000 miles long from north to south, with a breadth varying from twenty to seventy miles. It may not, indeed, be continuous over this vast area, for doubtless innumerable islands have been submerged one after another between the reef and mainland, like some which still remain, as, for example, Murray's Islands, lat. 9° 54' S. We are also told that some parts of the gulf inclosed within a barrier are 400 feet deep, so that the efficient rock-building corals cannot be growing there, and in other parts of it islands appear encircled by reefs.

It will follow as one of the consequences of the theory already explained that, provided the bottom of the sea does not sink too fast to allow the zoophytes to build upwards at the same pace, the thickness of coral will be great in proportion to the rapidity of subsidence, so that if one area sinks two feet while another sinks one, the mass of coral in the first area will be double that in the second. But the downward movement must in general have been very slow and uniform, or where intermittent, must have consisted of a great number of depressions, each of slight amount, otherwise the bottom of the sea would have been carried down faster than the corals could build upwards, and the island or continent would be permanently submerged, having reached a depth of 120 or 150 feet, at which the effective reef-constructing zoophytes cease to live. If, then, the subsidence required to account for all the existing atolls must have amounted to three or four thousand feet, or even sometimes more, we are brought to the conclusion that there has been a slow and gradual sinking to this enormous extent. Such an inference is perfectly in harmony with views which the grand scale of denudation, everywhere observable in the older rocks, has led geologists to adopt in reference to upward movements. They must also have been gradual and continuous throughout indefinite ages to allow the waves and currents of the ocean to operate with adequate power.

The map constructed by Mr. Darwin to display at one view the geographical position of all the coral reefs throughout the globe is of the highest geological interest (see above, p. 351.), leading to splendid generalizations, when we have once embraced the theory that all atolls and barrier reefs indicate recent subsidence, while the presence of fringing reefs proves the land to be stationary or rising. These two classes of coral formations are depicted by different colors; and one of the striking facts brought to light by the same classification of coral formations is the absence of active volcanoes in the areas of subsidence, and their frequent presence in the areas of elevation. The only supposed exception to this remarkable coincidence at the time when Mr. Darwin wrote, in 1842, was the volcano of Torres Strait, at the northern point of Australia, placed on the borders of an area of subsidence; but it has been since proved that this volcano has no existence.

We see, therefore, an evident connection, first, between the bursting forth every now and then of volcanic matter through rents and fissures, and the expansion or forcing outwards of the earth's crust, and, secondly, between a dormant and less energetic development of subterranean heat, and an amount of subsidence sufficiently great to cause mountains to disappear over the broad face of the ocean, leaving only small and scattered lagoon islands, or groups of atolls, to indicate the spots where those mountains once stood.

On a review of the differently-colored reefs on the map alluded to, it will be seen that there are large spaces in which upheaval, and others in which depression prevails, and these are placed alternately, while there are a few smaller areas where movements of oscillation occur. Thus if we commence with the western shores of South America, between the summit of the Andes and the Pacific (a region of earthquakes and active volcanoes), we find signs of recent elevation, not attested indeed by coral formations, which are wanting there, but by upraised banks of marine shells. Then proceeding westward, we traverse a deep ocean without islands, until we come to a band of atolls and encircled islands, including the Dangerous and Society archipelagoes, and constituting an area of subsidence more than 4000 miles long and 600 broad. Still farther, in the same direction, we reach the chain of islands to which the New Hebrides, Salomon, and New Ireland belong, where fringing reefs and masses of elevated coral indicate another area of upheaval. Again, to the westward of the New Hebrides we meet with the encircling reef of New Caledonia and the great Australian barrier, implying a second area of subsidence.

The only objection deserving attention which has hitherto been advanced against the theory of atolls, as before explained (p. 759.), is that proposed by Mr. Maclaren.[1132] "On the outside," he observes, "of coral reefs very highly inclined, no bottom is sometimes found with a line of 2000 or 3000 feet, and this is by no means a rare case. It follows that the reef ought to have this thickness; and Mr. Darwin's diagrams show that he understood it so. Now, if such masses of coral exist under the sea, they ought somewhere to be found on terra firma; for there is evidence that all the lands yet visited by geologists, have been at one time submerged. But neither in the great volcanic chain, extending from Sumatra to Japan, nor in the West Indies, nor in any other region yet explored, has a bed or formation of coral even 500 feet thick been discovered, so far as we know."

When considering this objection, it is evident that the first question we have to deal with is, whether geologists have not already discovered calcareous masses of the required thickness and structure, or precisely such as the upheaval of atolls might be expected to expose to view? We are called upon, in short, to make up our minds both as to the internal composition of the rocks that must result from the growth of corals, whether in lagoon islands or barrier reefs, and the external shape which the reefs would retain when upraised gradually to a vast height,--a task by no means so easy as some may imagine. If the reader has pictured to himself large masses of entire corals, piled one upon another, for a thickness of several thousand feet, he unquestionably mistakes altogether the nature of the accumulations now in progress. In the first place, the strata at present forming very extensively over the bottom of the ocean, within such barrier reefs as those of Australia and New Caledonia, are known to consist chiefly of horizontal layers of calcareous sediment, while here and there an intermixture must occur of the detritus of granitic and other rocks brought down by rivers from the adjoining lands, or washed from sea-cliffs by the waves and currents. Secondly, in regard to atolls, the stone-making polypifers grow most luxuriantly on the outer edge of the island, to a thickness of a few feet only. Beyond this margin broken pieces of coral and calcareous sand are strewed by the breakers over a steep seaward slope, and as the subsidence continues the next coating of live coral does not grow vertically over the first layer, but on a narrow annular space within it, the reef, as was before stated (p. 761), constantly contracting its dimensions as it sinks. Thirdly, within the lagoon the accumulation of calcareous matter is chiefly sedimentary, a kind of chalky mud derived from the decay of the softer corallines, with a mixture of calcareous sand swept by the winds and waves from the surrounding circular reef. Here and there, but only in partial clumps, are found living corals, which grow in the middle of the lagoon, and mixed with fine mud and sand, a great variety of shells, and fragments of testacea and echinoderms.

We owe to Lieutenant Nelson the discovery that in the Bermudas the calcareous mud resulting from the decomposition of the softer corallines is absolutely undistinguishable when dried from the ordinary white chalk of Europe,[1133] and this mud is carried to great distances by currents, and spread far and wide over the floor of the ocean. We also have opportunities of seeing in upraised atolls, such as Elizabeth Island, Tonga, and Hapai, which rise above the level of the sea to heights varying from ten to eighty feet, that the rocks of which they consist do not differ in structure or in the state of preservation of their included zoophytes and shells from some of the oldest limestones known to the geologist. Captain Beechey remarks that the dead coral in Elizabeth Island is more or less porous and honeycombed at the surface, and hardening into a compact rock which has the fracture of secondary limestone.[1134]

The island of Pulo Nias, off Sumatra (see Map, fig. 39. p. 351), which is about 3000 feet high, is described by Dr. Jack as being overspread by coral and large shells of the Chama (Tridacna) gigas, which rest on quartzose and arenaceous rocks, at various levels from the sea-coast to the summit of the highest hills.

The cliffs of the island of Timor in the Indian Ocean are composed, says Mr. Jukes, of a raised coral reef abounding in Astræa, Meandrina, and Porites, with shells of Strombus, Conus, Nerita, Arca, Pecten, Venus, and Lucina. On a ledge about 150 feet above the sea, a Tridacna (or large clam shell), two feet across, was found bedded in the rock with closed valves, just as they are often seen in barrier reefs. This formation in the islands of Sandlewood, Sumbawa, Madura, and Java, where it is exposed in sea cliffs, was found to be from 200 to 300 feet thick, and is believed to ascend to much greater heights in the interior. It has usually the form of a "chalk-like" rock, white when broken, but in the weathered surface turning nearly black.[1135]

It appears, therefore, premature to assert that there are no recent coral formations uplifted to great heights, for we are only beginning to be acquainted with the geological structure of the rocks of equatorial regions. Some of the upraised islands, such as Elizabeth and Queen Charlotte, in the Pacific, although placed in regions of atolls, are described by Captain Beechey and others as flat-topped, and exhibiting no traces of lagoons. In explanation of the fact, we may presume that after they had been sinking for ages, the descending movement was relaxed; and while it was in the course of being converted into an ascending one, the ground remained for a long season almost stationary, in which case the corals within the lagoon would build up to the surface, and reach the level already attained by those on the margin of the reef. In this manner the lagoon would be effaced, and the island acquire a flat summit.

It may, however, be thought strange that many examples have not been noticed of fringing reefs uplifted above the level of the sea. Mr. Darwin, indeed, cites one instance where the reef preserved, on dry land in the Mauritius, its peculiar moat-like structure; but they ought, he says, to be of rare occurrence, for in the case of atolls or of barrier or fringing reefs, the characteristic outline must usually be destroyed by denudation as soon as a reef begins to rise; since it is immediately exposed to the action of the breakers, and the large and conspicuous corals on the outer rim of the atoll or barrier are the first to be destroyed and to fall to the bottom of vertical and undermined cliffs. After slow and continued upheaval a wreck alone can remain of the original reef. If, therefore, says Mr. Darwin, "at some period as far in futurity as the secondary rocks are in the past, the bed of the Pacific with its atolls and barrier reefs should be converted into a continent, we may conceive that scarcely any or none of the existing reefs would be preserved, but only widely spread strata of calcareous matter derived from their wear and tear."[1136]

When it is urged in support of the objection before stated (p. 767), that the theory of atolls by subsidence implies the accumulation of calcareous formations 2000 or 3000 feet thick, it must be conceded that this estimate of the minimum density of the deposits is by no means exaggerated. On the contrary, when we consider that the space over which atolls are scattered in Polynesia and the Indian oceans may be compared to the whole continent of Asia, we cannot but infer from analogy that the differences in level in so vast an area have amounted, antecedently to subsidence, to 5000 or even a greater number of feet. Whatever was the difference in height between the loftiest and lowest of the original mountains or mountainous islands on which the different atolls are based, that difference must represent the thickness of coral which has now reduced all of them to one level. Flinders, therefore, by no means exaggerated the volume of the limestone, which he conceived to have been the work of coral animals; he was merely mistaken as to the manner in which they were enabled to build reefs in an unfathomed ocean.

But is it reasonable to expect, after the waste caused by denudation, that calcareous masses, gradually upheaved in an open sea, should retain such vast thicknesses? Or may not the limestones of the cretaceous and oolitic epochs, which attain in the Alps and Pyrenees a density of 3000 or 4000 feet, and are in great part made up of coralline and shelly matter, present us with a true geological counterpart of the recent coral reefs of equatorial seas?

Before we attach serious importance to arguments founded on negative evidence, and opposed to a theory which so admirably explains a great variety of complicated phenomena, we ought to remember that the upheaval to the height of 4000 feet of atolls in which the coralline limestone would be 4000 feet thick, implies, first, a slow subsidence of 4000 feet, and, secondly, an elevation of the same amount. Even if the reverse or ascending movement began the instant the downward one ceased, we must allow a great lapse of ages for the accomplishment of the whole operation. We must also assume that at the commencement of the period in question, the equatorial regions were as fitted as now for the support of reef-building zoophytes. This postulate would demand the continuance of a complicated variety of conditions throughout a much longer period than they are usually persistent in one place.

To show the difficulty of speculating on the permanence of the geographical and climatal circumstances requisite for the growth of reef-building corals, we have only to state the fact that there are no reefs in the Atlantic, off the west coast of Africa, nor among the islands of the Gulf of Guinea, nor in St. Helena, Ascension, the Cape Verdes, or St. Paul's. With the exception of Bermuda, there is not a single coral reef in the central expanse of the Atlantic, although in some parts the waves, as at Ascension, are charged to excess with calcareous matter. This capricious distribution of coral reefs is probably owing to the absence of fit stations for the reef-building polypifers, other organic beings in those regions obtaining in the great struggle for existence a mastery over them. Their absence, in whatever manner it be accounted for, should put us on our guard against expecting upraised reefs at all former geological epochs, similar to those now in progress.

Lime, whence derived.--Dr. Maculloch, in his system of Geology, vol. i. p. 219, expressed himself in favor of the theory of some of the earlier geologists, that all limestones have originated in organized substances. If we examine, he says, the quantity of limestone in the primary strata, it will be found to bear a much smaller proportion to the siliceous and argillaceous rocks than in the secondary; and this may have some connexion with the rarity of testaceous animals in the ancient ocean. He farther infers, that in consequence of the operations of animals, "the quantity of calcareous earth deposited in the form of mud or stone is always increasing; and that as the secondary series far exceeds the primary in this respect, so a third series may hereafter arise from the depths of the sea, which may exceed the last in the proportion of its calcareous strata."

If these propositions went no farther than to suggest that every particle of lime that now enters into the crust of the globe, may possibly in its turn have been subservient to the purposes of life, by entering into the composition of organized bodies, I should not deem the speculation improbable; but, when it is hinted that lime may be an animal product combined by the powers of vitality from some simple elements, I can discover no sufficient grounds for such an hypothesis, and many facts militate against it.

If a large pond be made in almost any soil, and filled with rain water, it may usually become tenanted by testacea; for carbonate of lime is almost universally diffused in small quantities. But if no calcareous matter be supplied by waters flowing from the surrounding high grounds, or by springs, no tufa or shell-marl are formed. The thin shells of one generation of mollusks decompose, so that their elements afford nutriment to the succeeding races; and it is only where a stream enters a lake, which may introduce a fresh supply of calcareous matter, or where the lake is fed by springs, that shells accumulate and form marl.

All the lakes in Forfarshire which have produced deposits of shell-marl have been the sites of springs, which still evolve much carbonic acid, and a small quantity of carbonate of lime. But there is no marl in Loch Fithie, near Forfar, where there are no springs, although that lake is surrounded by these calcareous deposits, and although, in every other respect, the site is favorable to the accumulation of aquatic testacea.

We find those Charæ which secrete the largest quantity of calcareous matter in their stems to abound near springs impregnated with carbonate of lime. We know that, if the common hen be deprived altogether of calcareous nutriment, the shells of her eggs will become of too slight a consistency to protect the contents; and some birds eat chalk greedily during the breeding season.

If, on the other hand, we turn to the phenomena of inorganic nature, we observe that, in volcanic countries, there is an enormous evolution of carbonic acid, either free, in a gaseous form, or mixed with water; and the springs of such districts are usually impregnated with carbonate of lime in great abundance. No one who has travelled in Tuscany, through the region of extinct volcanos and its confines, or who has seen the map constructed by Targioni (1827), to show the principal sites of mineral springs, can doubt, for a moment, that if this territory was submerged beneath the sea, it might supply materials for the most extensive coral reefs. The importance of these springs is not to be estimated by the magnitude of the rocks which they have thrown down on the slanting sides of hills, although of these alone large cities might be built, nor by a coating of travertin that covers the soil in some districts for miles in length. The greater part of the calcareous matter passes down in a state of solution to the sea, and in all countries the rivers which flow from chalk and other marly and calcareous rocks carry down vast quantities of lime into the ocean. Lime is also one of the component parts of augite and other volcanic and hypogene minerals, and when these decompose is set free, and may then find its way in a state of solution to the sea.

The lime, therefore, contained generally in sea water, and secreted so plentifully by the testacea and corals of the Pacific, may have been derived either from springs rising up in the bed of the ocean, or from rivers fed by calcareous springs, or impregnated with lime derived from disintegrated rocks, both volcanic and hypogene. If this be admitted, the greater proportion of limestone in the more modern formations as compared to the most ancient, will be explained, for springs in general hold no argillaceous, and but a small quantity of siliceous matter in solution, but they are continually subtracting calcareous matter from the inferior rocks. The constant transfer, therefore, of carbonate of lime from the lower or older portions of the earth's crust to the surface, must cause at all periods and throughout an indefinite succession of geological epochs, a preponderance of calcareous matter in the newer as contrasted with the older formations.

THE END.

CONCLUDING REMARKS.

In the concluding chapters of the first book, I examined in detail a great variety of arguments which have been adduced to prove the distinctness of the state of the earth's crust at remote and recent epochs. Among other supposed proofs of this distinctness, the dearth of calcareous matter, in the ancient rocks above adverted to, might have been considered. But it would have been endless to enumerate all the objections urged against those geologists who represent the course of nature at the earliest periods as resembling in all essential circumstances the state of things now established. We have seen that, in opposition to this doctrine, a strong desire has been manifested to discover in the ancient rocks the signs of an epoch when the planet was uninhabited, and when its surface was in a chaotic condition and uninhabitable. The opposite opinion, indeed, that the oldest of the rocks now visible may be the last monuments of an antecedent era in which living beings may already have peopled the land and water, has been declared to be equivalent to the assumption that there never was a beginning to the present order of things.

With equal justice might an astronomer be accused of asserting that the works of creation extended throughout infinite space, because he refuses to take for granted that the remotest stars now seen in the heavens are on the utmost verge of the material universe. Every improvement of the telescope has brought thousands of new worlds into view; and it would, therefore, be rash and unphilosophical to imagine that we already survey the whole extent of the vast scheme, or that it will ever be brought within the sphere of human observation.

But no argument can be drawn from such premises in favor of the infinity of the space that has been filled with worlds; and if the material universe has any limits, it then follows, that it must occupy a minute and infinitesimal point in infinite space.

So if, in tracing back the earth's history, we arrive at the monuments of events which may have happened millions of ages before our times, and if we still find no decided evidence of a commencement, yet the arguments from analogy in support of the probability of a beginning remain unshaken; and if the past duration of the earth be finite, then the aggregate of geological epochs, however numerous, must constitute a mere moment of the past, a mere infinitesimal portion of eternity.

It has been argued, that, as the different states of the earth's surface, and the different species by which it has been inhabited have all had their origin, and many of them their termination, so the entire series may have commenced at a certain period. It has also been urged, that, as we admit the creation of man to have occurred at a comparatively modern epoch--as we concede the astonishing fact of the first introduction of a moral and intellectual being--so also we may conceive the first creation of the planet itself.

I am far from denying the weight of this reasoning from analogy; but, although it may strengthen our conviction, that the present system of change has not gone on from eternity, it cannot warrant us in presuming that we shall be permitted to behold the signs of the earth's origin, or the evidences of the first introduction into it of organic beings. We aspire in vain to assign limits to the works of creation in space, whether we examine the starry heavens, or that world of minute animalcules which is revealed to us by the microscope. We are prepared, therefore, to find that in time also the confines of the universe lie beyond the reach of mortal ken. But in whatever direction we pursue our researches, whether in time or space, we discover everywhere the clear proofs of a Creative Intelligence, and of His foresight, wisdom, and power.

As geologists, we learn that it is not only the present condition of the globe which has been suited to the accommodation of myriads of living creatures, but that many former states also have been adapted to the organization and habits of prior races of beings. The disposition of the seas, continents, and islands, and the climates, have varied; the species likewise have been changed; and yet they have all been so modelled, on types analogous to those of existing plants and animals, as to indicate, throughout, a perfect harmony of design and unity of purpose. To assume that the evidence of the beginning or end of so vast a scheme lies within the reach of our philosophical inquiries, or even of our speculations, appears to be inconsistent with a just estimate of the relations which subsist between the finite powers of man and the attributes of an Infinite and Eternal Being.

FOOTNOTES:

[1] Essays on the Philosophy of the Hindoos.

[2] Institutes of Hindoo Law, or the Ordinances of Menù, from the Sanscrit, translated by Sir William Jones, 1796.

[3] Menù, Inst. c. i. 66, and 67.

[4] Herodot. Euterpe, 12.

[5] A Persian MS. copy of the historian Ferishta, in the library of the East India Company, relating to the rise and progress of the Mahomedan empire in India, was procured by Colonel Briggs from the library of Tippoo Sultan in 1799; which has been referred to at some length by Dr. Buckland. (Geol. Trans. 2d Series, vol. ii. part iii. p. 389.)

[6] See Davis on "The Chinese," published by the Soc. for the Diffus. of Use. Know. vol. i. pp. 137, 147.

[7] Humboldt et Bonpland, Voy. Relat. Hist. vol. i. p. 30.

[8] Prichard's Egypt. Mythol. p. 177.

[9] Plut. de Defectu Oraculorum, cap. 12. Censorinus de Die Natali. See also Prichard's Egypt. Mythol. p. 182.

[10] Prichard's Egypt. Mythol. p. 182.

[11] Prichard's Egypt. Mythol. p. 193.

[12] Plato's Timæus.

[13] Ovid's Metamor. lib. 15.

[14] Eluvie mons est deductus in æquor, v. 267. The meaning of this last verse is somewhat obscure; but, taken with the context, may be supposed to allude to the abrading power of floods, torrents, and rivers.

[15] The impregnation from new mineral springs, caused by earthquakes in volcanic countries, is perhaps here alluded to.

[16] That is probably an allusion to the escape of inflammable gas, like that in the district of Baku, west of the Caspian; at Pietramala, in the Tuscan Apennines; and several other places.

[17] Many of those described seem fanciful fictions, like the virtue still so commonly attributed to mineral waters.

[18] Raspe, in a learned and judicious essay (De Novis Insulis, cap. 19), has made it appear extremely probable that all the traditions of certain islands in the Mediterranean having at some former time frequently shifted their positions, and at length become stationary, originated in the great change produced in their form by earthquakes and submarine eruptions, of which there have been modern examples in the new islands raised in the time of history. When the series of convulsions ended, the island was said to become fixed.

[19] It is not inconsistent with the Hindoo mythology to suppose that Pythagoras might have found in the East not only the system of universal and violent catastrophes and periods of repose in endless succession, but also that of periodical revolutions, effected by the continued agency of ordinary causes. For Brahma, Vishnu, and Siva, the first, second, and third persons of the Hindoo triad, severally represented the Creative, the Preserving, and the Destroying powers of the Deity. The coexistence of these three attributes, all in simultaneous operation, might well accord with the notion of perpetual but partial alterations finally bringing about a complete change. But the fiction expressed in the verses before quoted from Menù of eternal vicissitudes in the vigils and slumbers of Brahma seems accommodated to the system of great general catastrophes followed by new creations and periods of repose.

[20] Meteor. lib. i. cap. 12.

[21] De Die Nat.

[22] Lib. ii. cap. 14, 15, and 16.

[23] Lib. ii. cap. 14, 15, and 16.

[24] Omne ex integro animal generabitur, dabiturque terris homo inscius scelerum.--Quæst. Nat. iii. c. 29.

[25] This author was Regius Professor of Syriac and Arabic at Paris, where, in 1685, he published a Latin translation of many Arabian MSS. on different departments of philosophy. This work has always been considered of high authority.

[26] Gerbanitæ docebant singulos triginta sex mille annos quadringentos, viginti quinque bina ex singulis animalium speciebus produci, marem scilicet ac feminam ex quibus animalia propagantur, huncque inferiorem incolunt orbem. Absoluta autem coelestium orbium circulatione, quæ illo annorum conficitur spatio, iterum alia producuntur animalium genera et species, quemadmodum et plantarum aliarumque rerum, et primus destruitur ordo, sicque in infinitum producitur.--Histor. Orient Suppl. per Abrahamum Ecchellensem, Syrum Maronitam, cap. 7. et 8. ad calcem Chronici Orientali. Parisiis, e Typ. Regia. 1685, fol.

I have given the punctuation as in the Paris edition, there being no comma after quinque; but, at the suggestion of M. de Schlegel, I have referred the number twenty-five to the period of years, and not to the number of pairs of each species created at one time, as I had done in the two first editions. Fortis inferred that twenty-five new species only were created at a time; a construction which the passage will not admit. Mém. sur l'Hist. Nat. de l'Italie, vol. i. p. 202.

[27] "Quod enim hoc attollitur aut subsidit, et vel inundat quædam loca, vel ab iis recedit, ejus rei causa non est, quod alia aliis sola humiliora sint aut altiora; sed quod idem solum modò attollitur modò deprimitur, simulque etiam modò attollitur modò deprimitur, mare: itaque vel exundat vel in suum redit locum."

Posteà, p. 88. "Restat, ut causam adscribamus solo, sive quod mari subest sive quod inundatur; potiùs tamen ei quod mari subest. Hoc enim multò est mobilius, et quod ob humiditatem celeriùs multari possit."--Strabo, Geog. Edit. Almelov. Amst. 1707, lib. 1.

[28] Volcanic eruptions, eruptiones flatuum, in the Latin translations, and in the original Greek, αναφυσηματα, gaseous eruptions? or inflations of land?--Ibid. p. 93.

[29] Strabo, lib. vi. p. 396.

[30] Book iv.

[31] L. vi. ch. xiii.

[32] Mod. Univ. Hist. vol. ii. chap. iv. section iii.

[33] Montes quandóque fiunt ex causa essentiali, quandóque ex causa accidentali. Ex essentiali causa, ut ex vehementi motu terræ elevatur terra, et fit mons. Accidentali, &c.--De Congelatione Lapidum, ed. Gedani, 1682.

[34] Von Hoff, Geschichte der Veränderungen der Erdoberfläche, vol. i. p. 406, who cites Delisle, bey Hismann Welt- und Völkergeschichte. Alte Geschichte 1ᵗᵉʳ theil, s. 234.--The Arabian persecutions for heretical dogmas in theology were often very sanguinary. In the same ages wherein learning was most in esteem, the Mahometans were divided into two sects, one of whom maintained that the Koran was increate, and had subsisted in the very essence of God from all eternity; and the other, the Motazalites, who, admitting that the Koran was instituted by God, conceived it to have been first made when revealed to the Prophet at Mecca, and accused their opponents of believing in two eternal beings. The opinions of each of these sects were taken up by different caliphs in succession, and the followers of each sometimes submitted to be beheaded, or flogged till at the point of death, rather than renounce their creed.--Mod. Univ. Hist. vol. ii. ch. iv.

[35] Koran, chap. xli.

[36] Sale's Koran, chap. xi. see note.

[37] Ibid.

[38] Kossa, appointed master to the Caliph Al Mamûd, was author of a book entitled "The history of the Patriarchs and Prophets, from the Creation of the World."--Mod. Univ. Hist. vol. ii. ch. iv.

[39] Translated by MM. Chezy and De Sacy, and cited by M. Elie de Beaumont, Ann. des Sci. Nat. 1832.

[40] See Venturi's extracts from Da Vinci's MMS. now in Library of Institute of France. They are not mentioned by Brocchi, and my attention was first called to them by Mr. Hallam. L. da Vinci died A. D. 1519.

[41] Museum Calceol.--See Brocchi's Discourse on the Progress of the Study of Fossil Conchology in Italy, where some of the following notices on Italian writers will be found more at large.

[42] In Sicily, in particular, the title-deeds of many valuable grants of land to the monasteries are headed by such preambles, composed by the testators about the period when the good King Roger was expelling the Saracens from that island.

[43] De Fossilib. pp. 109, 176.

[44] Aristotle, On Animals, chaps. 1, 15.

[45] Brocchi, Con. Fos. Subap. Disc, sui Progressi. vol. i. p. 57.

[46] De Metallicis.

[47] Dies Caniculares.

[48] Storia Naturale.

[49] Osserv. sugli Animali aquat. e terrest. 1626.

[50] Sex itaque distinctas Etruriæ facies agnoscimus, dum bis fluida, bis plana, et sicca, bis aspera fuerit, &c.

[51] Scilla quotes the remark of Cicero on the story that a stone in Chios had been cleft open, and presented the head of Paniscus in relief:--"I believe," said the orator, "that the figure bore some resemblance to Paniscus, but not such that you would have deemed it sculptured by Scopas; for chance never perfectly imitates the truth."

[52] De Testaceis fossilibus Mus. Septaliani.

[53] The opinions of Boyle, alluded to by Quirini, were published a few years before, in a short article entitled "On the Bottom of the Sea." From observations collected from the divers of the pearl fishery, Boyle inferred that, when the waves were six or seven feet high above the surface of the water, there were no signs of agitation at the depth of fifteen fathoms; and that even during heavy gales of wind, the motion of the water was exceedingly diminished at the depth of twelve or fifteen feet. He had also learnt from some of his informants, that there were currents running in opposite directions at different depths.--Boyle's Works, vol. iii. p. 110. London, 1744.

[54] See Conybeare and Phillips, "Outlines of the Geology of England and Wales," p. 12.

[55] Unde jam duplex origo intelligitur primorum corporum, una, cum ab ignis fusione refrigescerent, altera, cum reconcrescerent ex solutione aquarum.

[56] Redeunte mox simili causâ strata subinde alia aliis imponerentur, et facies teneri adhuc orbis sæpius novata est. Donec quiescentibus causis, atque æquilibratis, consistentior emergeret rerum status.--For an able analysis of the views of Leibnitz, in his Protogoea, see Mr. Conybeare's Report to the Brit. Assoc. on the Progress of Geological Science, 1832.

[57] Between the year 1688 and his death, in 1703, he read several memoirs to the Royal Society, and delivered lectures on various subjects, relating to fossil remains and the effects of earthquakes.

[58] Posth. Works, Lecture, Feb. 29, 1688.

[59] Posth. Works, p. 327.

[60] Posth. Works, Lecture, Feb. 15, 1688. Hooke explained with considerable clearness the different modes wherein organic substances may become lapidified; and, among other illustrations, he mentions some silicified palm-wood brought from Africa, on which M. de la Hire had read a memoir to the Royal Academy of France (June, 1692), wherein he had pointed out, not only the tubes running the length of the trunk, but the roots at one extremity. De la Hire, says Hooke, also treated of certain trees found petrified in the "river that passes by Bakan, in the kingdom of Ava, and which has for the space of ten leagues the virtue of petrifying wood." It is an interesting fact that the silicified wood of the Irawadi should have attracted attention more than one hundred years ago. Remarkable discoveries have been made there in later times of fossil animals and vegetables, by Mr. Crawfurd and Dr. Wallich.--See Geol. Trans. vol. ii. part iii. p. 377, second series. De la Hire cites Father Duchatz, in the second volume of "Observations made in the Indies by the Jesuits."

[61] Posth. Works, Lecture, May 29, 1689.

[62] Posth. Works, p. 312.

[63] Posth. Works, p. 410.

[64] Ray's Physico-theological Discourses were of somewhat later date than Hooke's great work on earthquakes. He speaks of Hooke as one "whom for his learning and deep insight into the mysteries of nature he deservedly honored."--On the Deluge, chap. iv.

[65] Essay towards a Natural History of the Earth, 1695. Preface.

[66] Ibid.

[67] Consequences of the Deluge, p. 165.

[68] First published in Latin between the years 1680 and 1690.

[69] An Examination of Dr. Burnet's Theory, &c., 2d ed. 1734.

[70] Ramazzini even asserted, that the ideas of Burnet were mainly borrowed from a dialogue of one Patrizio; but Brocchi, after reading that dialogue, assures us that there was scarcely any other correspondence between these systems, except that both were equally whimsical.

[71] Dei Corpi Marini, Lettere critiche, &c. 1721.

[72] Brocchi, p. 28.

[73] Ibid. p. 33.

[74] Ibid.

[75] Sui Crostacei ed altri Corpi Marini che si trovano sui Monti.

[76] Moro does not cite the works of Hooke and Ray; and although so many of his views were in accordance with theirs, he was probably ignorant of their writings, for they had not been translated. As he always refers to the Latin edition of Burnet, and a French translation of Woodward, we may presume that he did not read English.

[77] Saggio fisico intorno alla Storia del Mare, part i. p. 24.

[78] "Abbomino al sommo qualsivoglia sistema, che sia di pianta fabbricato in aria; massime quando è tale, che non possa sostenersi senza un miracolo," &c.--De' Crostacei e di altre Produz. del Mare, &c. 1749.

[79] "Senza violenze, senza finzioni, senza supposti, senza miracoli." De' Crostacei e di altre Produz. del Mare, &c. 1749.

[80] Sui Testacei della Sicilia.

[81] Hist. Nat. tom. v. éd. de l'Imp. Royale, Paris, 1769.

[82] Essai d'une Hist. Nat. des Couches de la Terre, 1759.

[83] John Gesner published at Leyden, in Latin.

[84] Part ii. chap. 9.

[85] Giornale del Criselini, 1759.

[86] See a sketch of the History of English Geology, by Dr. Fitton, in Edinb. Rev. Feb. 1818, re-edited Lond. and Edinb. Phil. Mag. vols. i. and ii. 1832-3. Some of Michell's observations anticipate in so remarkable a manner the theories established forty years afterwards, that his writings would probably have formed an era in the science, if his researches had been uninterrupted. He held, however, his professorship only eight years, when his career was suddenly cut short by preferment to a benefice. From that time he appears to have been engaged in his clerical duties, and to have entirely discontinued his scientific pursuits, exemplifying the working of a system still in force at Oxford and Cambridge, where the chairs of mathematics, natural philosophy, chemistry, botany, astronomy, geology, mineralogy, and others, being frequently filled by clergymen, the reward of success disqualifies them, if they conscientiously discharge their new duties, from farther advancing the cause of science, and that, too, at the moment when their labors would naturally bear the richest fruits.

[87] Sui Corpi Marini del Feltrino, 1761.

[88] De Novis e Mari Natis Insulis. Raspe was also the editor of the "Philosophical Works of Leibnitz. Amst. et Leipzig, 1765;" also author of "Tassie's Gems," and "Baron Munchausen's Travels."

[89] Acta Academiæ Electoralis Maguntinæ, vol. ii. Erfurt.

[90] This account of Fuchsel is derived from an excellent analysis of his memoirs by M. Keferstein. Journ. de Géologie, tom. ii. Oct. 1830.

[91] Saggio orittografico, &c. 1780, and other Works.

[92] Lett. sui Pesci Fossili di Bolca. Milan, 1793.

[93] This argument of Testa has been strengthened of late years by the discovery that dealers in shells had long been in the habit of selling Mediterranean species as shells of more southern and distant latitudes, for the sake of enhancing their price. It appears, moreover, from several hundred experiments made by that distinguished hydrographer, Capt. Smith, on the water within eight fathoms of the surface, that the temperature of the Mediterranean is on an average 3½° of Fahrenheit higher than the western part of the Atlantic ocean; an important fact, which in some degree may help to explain why many species are common to tropical latitudes and to the Mediterranean.

[94] Inquiry into the Original State and Formation of the Earth, 1778.

[95] Observ. on the Formation of Mountains. Act Petrop. ann. 1778, part i.

[96] Nov. comm. Petr. XVII. Cuvier, Eloge de Pallas.

[97] Cuvier, Eloge de Werner.

[98] I am indebted for this information partly to Messrs. Sedgwick and Murchison, who have investigated the country, and partly to Dr. Charles Hartmann, the translator of this work into German.

[99] Cuvier, Eloge de Desmarest.

[100] Journ. de Phys. vol. xiii. p. 115; and Mém. de l'Inst., Sciences Mathémat. et. Phys. vol. vi. p. 219.

[101] Journ. de Phys. tom. xxxv. p. 191.

[102] Ib. tom. xxxvii. part ii. p. 200.

[103] Cuvier, Eloge de Desmarest.

[104] Ed. Phil. Trans. 1788.

[105] Playfair's Works, vol. iv. p. 75.

[106] "Before me things create were none, save things Eternal."--Dante's Inferno, canto iii. Cary's Translation.

[107] Playfair's Works, vol. iv. p. 55.

[108] In allusion to the theories of Burnet, Woodward, and other physico-theological writers, he declared that they were as fond of changes of scene on the face of the globe, as were the populace at a play. "Every one of them destroys and renovates the earth after his own fashion, as Descartes framed it: for philosophers put themselves without ceremony in the place of God, and think to create a universe with a word."--Dissertation envoyée a l'Academie de Boulogne, sur les Changemens arrivés dans notre Globe. Unfortunately, this and similar ridicule directed against the cosmogonists was too well deserved.

[109] See the chapter on "Des Pierres figurés."

[110] In that essay he lays it down, "that all naturalists are now agreed that deposits of shells in the midst of the continents are monuments of the continued occupation of these districts by the ocean." In another place also, when speaking of the fossil shells of Touraine, he admits their true origin.

[111] As an instance of his desire to throw doubt indiscriminately on all geological data, we may recall the passage where he says, that "the bones of a reindeer and hippopotamus discovered near Etempes did not prove, as some would have it, that Lapland and the Nile were once on a tour from Paris to Orleans, but merely that a lover of curiosities once preserved them in his cabinet."

[112] "Some drill and bore The solid earth, and from the strata there Extract a register, by which we learn That he who made it, and revealed its date To Moses, was mistaken in its age." The Task, book iii. "The Garden."

[113] P. 577.

[114] P. 59.

[115] Introd. p. 2.

[116] London, 1809.

[117] In a most able article, by Mr. Drinkwater, on the "Life of Galileo," published in the "Library of Useful Knowledge," it is stated that both Galileo's work, and the book of Copernicus, "Nisi corrigatur" (for, with the omission of certain passages, it was sanctioned), were still to be seen on the forbidden list of the Index at Rome, in 1828. I was, however, assured in the same year, by Professor Scarpellini, at Rome, that Pius VII., a pontiff distinguished for his love of science, had procured a repeal of the edicts against Galileo and the Copernican system. He had assembled the Congregation; and the late Cardinal Toriozzi, assessor of the Sacred Office, proposed that they should wipe off this scandal from the church." The repeal was carried, with the dissentient voice of one Dominican only. Long before that time the Newtonian theory had been taught in the Sapienza, and all Catholic universities in Europe (with the exception, I am told, of Salamanca); but it was always required of professors, in deference to the decrees of the church, to use the term hypothesis, instead of theory. They now speak of the Copernican theory.

[118] Elementary Treatise on Geology. London, 1809. Translated by De la Fite.

[119] See Dr. Fitton's Memoir, before cited, p. 57.

[120] Whewell, British Critic, No. xvii. p. 187, 1831.

[121] Discours sur les Révol. &c.

[122] Niebuhr's Hist. of Rome, vol. i. p. 5. Hare and Thirlwall's translation.

[123] Gibbon, Decline and Fall, chap. xxxiii.

[124] Id. Ibid.

[125] In the earlier editions of this work, a fourth book was added on Geology Proper, or Systematic Geology, containing an account of the former changes of the animate and inanimate creation, brought to light by an examination of the crust of the earth. This I afterwards (in 1838) expanded into a separate publication called the Elements of Manual Geology, of which a fourth edition appeared December, 1851.

[126] See two articles by the Rev. Dr. Fleming, in the Edinburgh New Phil. Journ. No. xii. p. 277, April, 1829; and No. xv. p. 65, Jan. 1830.

[127] Book iii. chaps. 46, 47, &c.

[128] Macacus pliocenus, Owen, Brit. Foss. Mam. Intr. p. 37, found with the extinct elephant, &c. in the modern freshwater beds at Grays Thurrock (Essex), in the valley of the Thames.

[129] Geol. Proceedings, No. xxxvi. June, 1834.

[130] Phil. Mag., Sept. 1829, and Jan. 1830.

[131] Fleming, Ed. New Phil. Journ., No. xii. p. 282, 1829. The zebra, however, inhabits chiefly the extra-tropical parts of Africa.

[132] Humboldt, Fragmens de Géologie, &c., tome ii. p. 388. Ehrenberg, Ann. des Sci. Nat., tome xxi. p. 387.

[133] Ehrenberg, ibid. p. 390.

[134] Journ. of Asiat. Soc., vol. i. p. 240.

[135] Rafinesque, Atlantic Journ., p. 18.

[136] Darwin's Journal of Travels in South America, &c., 1832 to 1836, in Voyage of H. M. S. Beagle, p. 159.

[137] Ehrenberg, ibid.

[138] The speculations which follow, on the ancient physical geography of Siberia, and its former fitness as a residence for the mammoth, were first given in their present form in my 4th edition, June, 1835. Recently Sir R. Murchison and his companions in their great work on the Geology of Russia, 1845 (vol. i. p. 497), have, in citing this chapter, declared that their investigations have led them to similar conclusions. Professor Owen, in his excellent History of British Fossil Mammalia, 1844, p. 261, et seq., observes that the teeth of the mammoth differ from those of the living Asiatic or African elephant in having a larger proportion of dense enamel, which may have enabled it to subsist on the coarser ligneous tissues of trees and shrubs. In short, he is of opinion, that the structure of its teeth, as well as the nature of its epidermis and coverings, may have made it "a meet companion for the reindeer."

[139] Pallas, Reise in Russ. Reiche, pp. 409, 410.

[140] Nov. Com. Petrop. vol. xvii. p. 584.

[141] Nov. Com. Petrop. vol. xvii. p. 591.

[142] Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. Lond. vol. iv. p. 10, Memoirs.

[143] Journal du Nord, St. Petersburg, 1807.

[144] Fleming, Ed. New Phil. Journ., No. xii. p. 285.

Bishop Heber informs us (Narr. of a Journey through the Upper Provinces of India, vol. ii. p. 166-219), that in the lower range of the Himalaya mountains, in the northeastern borders of the Delhi territory, between lat. 29° and 30°, he saw an Indian elephant of a small size, covered with shaggy hair. But this variety must be exceedingly rare; for Mr. Royle (late superintendent of the East India Company's Botanic Garden at Saharunpore) has assured me, that being in India when Heber's Journal appeared, and having never seen or heard of such elephants, he made the strictest inquiries respecting the fact, and was never able to obtain any evidence in corroboration. Mr. Royle resided at Saharunpore, lat. 30° N., upon the extreme northern limits of the range of the elephant. Mr. Everest also declares that he has been equally unsuccessful in finding any one aware of the existence of such a variety or breed of the animal, though one solitary individual was mentioned to him as having been seen at Delhi, with a good deal of long hair upon it. The greatest elevation, says Mr. E., at which the wild elephant is found in the mountains to the north of Bengal, is at a place called Nahun, about 4000 feet above the level of the sea, and in the 31st degree of N. lat., where the mean yearly temperature may be about 64° Fahrenheit, and the difference between winter and summer very great, equal to about 36° F., the month of January averaging 45°, and June, the hottest month, 81° F. (Everest on climate of Foss. Eleph., Journ. of Asiat. Soc., No. 25, p. 21.)

[145] See Dr. Buckland's description of these bones, Appen. to Beechy's Voy.

[146] Darwin, Journal of Travels in S. America, &c., 1832-36, in voyage of H. M. S. Beagle, p. 98. 2d Ed. London, 1845, p. 86.

[147] Darwin, Journal of Travels in S. America, &c., p. 99, 2d Ed. p. 85.

[148] Burchell, cited by Darwin, ibid. p. 101. 2d Ed. p. 87.

[149] Since the above passage was first printed in a former edition, June, 1835, it has been shown by the observations of Sir R. Murchison, M. de Verneuil, and Count Keyserling, and more recently by M. Middendorf (see above, p. 81), that the Lowland of Siberia has actually been extended, since the existing species of shells inhabited the northern seas.

[150] Humboldt, Fragmens Asiatiques, tom. ii. p. 393.

[151] Reboul. Geol. de la Période Quaternaire, who cites Observ. sur la Sibérie, Bibl. Univ., Juillet, 1832.

[152] Conjectured to be the wild stock of Bos grunniens.

[153] Recollections of a Journey through Tartary, Thibet, and China (ch. xv. p. 234), by M. Huc. Longman, 1852.

[154] For an account of the more modern changes of the tertiary fauna and flora of the British Isles and adjoining countries, and particularly those facts which relate to the "glacial epoch," see an admirable essay by Prof. E. Forbes. Memoirs of Geol. Survey of Great Brit. vol. i. p. 336. London, 1846. To this important memoir I shall have frequent occasion to refer in the sequel.

[155] See a paper by Charles J. F. Bunbury, Esq., Journ. of Geol. Soc., London, No. 6, p. 88. 1846.

[156] The Calamites were formerly regarded by Adolphe Brongniart as belonging to the tribe of Equisetaceæ; but he is now inclined to refer them to the class of gymnogens, or gymnospermous exogens, which includes the Coniferæ and Cycadeæ. Lepidodendron appears to have been either a gigantic form of the lycopodium tribe, or, as Dr. Lindley thinks, intermediate between the lycopodia and the fir tribe. The Sigillariæ were formerly supposed by Ad. Brongniart, to be arborescent ferns; but the discovery of their internal structure, and of their leaves, has since proved that they have no real affinity to ferns. According to the view now taken of their structure, their nearest allies in the recent world are the genera Cycas and Zamia; while Corda, on the other hand, maintains that they were closely related to the succulent euphorbias. Stigmaria is now generally admitted to have been merely the root of sigillaria. The scalariform vessels of these two genera are not conclusive in proving them to have a real affinity with ferns, as Mr. Brown has discovered the same structure of vessels in Myzodendron, a genus allied to the mistletoe; and Corda has lately shown that in two species of Stigmaria, hardly distinguishable by external characters, the vessels of the one are scalariform, and of the other dotted.

[157] Mr. Lindley endeavored formerly (1834) to show, in the "Fossil Flora," that Trigonocarpum Noeggerathii, a fruit found in the coal measures, has the true structure of a palm-fruit; but Ad. Brongniart has since inclined to regard it as cycadeous; nor is the French botanist satisfied that some specimens of supposed palm wood from the coal-mines of Radnitz in Bohemia, described by Corda, really belong to palms. On the other hand, Corda has proved Flabellaria borassifolia of Sternberg to be an exogenous plant, and Brongniart contends that it was allied to the Cycadeæ. See Tableau des Genres de Végétaux Fossiles. Paris, 1849.

[158] Prodrome d'une Hist. des Végét. Foss. p. 179. See also a late paper, Quart. Journ. of Geol. Soc. London, 1846, in which coal-plants of Alabama, lat. 33° N., collected by the author, are identified by Mr. Bunbury with British fossil species, showing the great southern extension of this flora.

[159] König, Journ. of Sci., vol. xv. p. 20. Mr. König informs me that he no longer believes any of these fossils to be tree ferns, as he at first stated, but that they agree generically with plants in our English coal-beds. The Melville Island specimens, now in the British Museum, are very obscure impressions.

[160] Fossil Flora of Great Britain, by John Lindley and William Hutton, Esqrs., No. IV.

[161] Fossil Flora of Great Britain, by John Lindley and William Hutton, Esqrs. No. IV.

[162] Fossil Flora, No. X.

[163] This has been proved by Mr. Lindley's experiments, ibid. No. XVII.

[164] I have treated of this subject in my Manual of Geology, and still more fully in my Travels in N. America, vol. ii. p. 178. For a full account of the facts at present known, and the theories entertained by the most eminent geologists and botanists on this subject, see Mr. Horner's Anniversary Address to the Geological Society of London, February, 1846. Consult also Sir H. de la Beche, on the formation of rocks in South Wales, Memoirs of Geol. Survey of Great Britain, 1846, p. 1 to 296.

[165] The theory proposed in this and the following chapters, to account for former fluctuations of climate at successive geological periods, agrees in every essential particular, and has indeed been reprinted almost verbatim from that published by me twenty years ago in the first edition of my Principles, 1830. It was referred to by Sir John F. W. Herschel in his Discourse on Natural Philosophy, published in 1830. In preceding works the gradual diminution of the earth's central heat was almost the only cause assigned for the acknowledged diminution of the superficial temperature of our planet.

[166] We are indebted to Baron Alex. von Humboldt for having first collected together the scattered data on which he founded an approximation to a true theory of the distribution of heat over the globe. Many of these data were derived from the author's own observations, and many from the works of M. Pierre Prevost, of Genera, on the radiation of heat, and from other writers.--See Humboldt on Isothermal Lines, Mémoires d'Arcueil, tom. iii. translated in the Edin. Phil. Journ. vol. iii. July, 1820.

The map of Isothermal Lines, recently published by Humboldt and Dove (1848), supplies a large body of well-established data for such investigations, of which Mr. Hopkins has most ably availed himself in an essay "On the Causes which may have produced Changes in the earth's Superficial Temperature."--Q. Journ. Geol. Soc. 1852, p. 56.

[167] Sir J. Richardson's Appendix to Sir G. Bach's Journal, 1843-1845, p. 478.

[168] Malte-Brun, Phys. Geol. book xvii.

[169] On Isothermal Lines, &c.

[170] Rennell on Currents, p. 96. London, 1832.

[171] Ibid. p. 153.

[172] Ibid. p. 25.

[173] Scoresby's Arctic Regions, vol. i. p. 208.--Dr. Latta's Observations on the Glaciers of Spitzbergen, &c. Edin. New Phil. Journ. vol. iii. p. 97.

[174] Rennell on Currents, p. 95.

[175] Humboldt on Isothermal Lines.

[176] Journ. of Travels in S. America, &c. p. 272.

[177] Darwin's travels in S. America, p. 271.

[178] Mr. Hopkins raises the question whether, in South Georgia, the descent of glaciers to the margin of the sea might not have been mistaken by Capt. Cook for the descent of the snow-line to the sea level. Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. p. 85, 1852. The great navigator is generally very accurate, and there seem to be no observations of more recent date either to confirm or invalidate his statements.

[179] After all these modern discoveries, the area still unexplored, within the antarctic circle, is more than double the area of Europe. The surface of the latter contains about 2,793,000 square geographical miles. The unexplored antarctic region, as calculated for me by Mr. Gardner, in 1840, equalled about 7,620,000 square miles.

[180] On icebergs in low latitudes, by Capt. Horsburgh, by whom the sketch was made. Phil. Trans. 1830.

[181] Scoresby's Arctic Regions, vol. i. p. 234.

[182] This follows, observes Herschel, from a very simple theorem, which may be thus stated:--"The amount of heat received by the earth from the sun, while describing any part of its orbit, is proportional to the angle described round the sun's centre." So that if the orbit be divided into two portions by a line drawn in any direction through the sun's centre, the heat received in describing the two unequal segments of the eclipse so produced will be equal. Geol. Trans. vol. iii. part. ii. p. 298; second series.

[183] On Isothermal Lines.

[184] A full consideration of the effect of changes in physical geography on the distribution and extinction of species is given in book iii.

[185] For calculations founded on astronomical data, see Young's Nat. Phil., Lect. xlvii.; Mrs. Somerville's Connex. of Phys. Sci., sect. 14, p. 110. Laplace, endeavoring to estimate the probable depth of the sea from some of the phenomena of the tides, says of the ocean generally, "que sa profondeur moyenne est du même ordre que la hauteur moyenne des continens et des isles au-dessus de son niveau, hauteur qui ne surpasse pas mille mètres (3280 ft.)" Mec. Céleste, tom. xi. et Syst. du Monde, p. 254. The expression "du même ordre" admits in mathematical language of considerable latitude of signification, and does not mean that the depth of the water below the level of the sea corresponds exactly to the height of the land above it.

It appeared from the observations of Sir James Ross, communicated to me in 1849, by himself, and his fellow voyager, Dr. Joseph Hooker, that in latitude 15° 3' S., longitude 23° 14' W. (the island of Trinidad, the nearest land, being 486 miles distant, and bearing S. 47 W.), they sounded with a weight of 76 lbs., and 4600 fathoms of line, which ran out to the very end, without finding bottom. Here therefore in mid-ocean the depth exceeded 27,600 feet. One of the shallowest soundings ever obtained in the open sea during the same survey, struck bottom with 2677 fathoms, or 16,062 feet, latitude 33° 21' S., longitude 9° 4' E. The surveyors arrived at the conclusion, that at a moderate distance from the shore, the depth of the great ocean always exceeds 4000 feet.

During the American survey in 1849, a much greater depth, or 5700 fathoms (34,200 feet), was sounded in the Atlantic by Lieut. Walsh, without reaching the bottom, in lat. 31° 59' N., long. 58° 43' W., or between the Bermudas and the Azores. But the deepest soundings yet published were taken Oct. 30th 1852, by Capt. Henry M. Denham, R. N., who reached bottom at 7706 fathoms (46,236 feet), lat. 36° 49' S., long. 37° 6' W., the nearest land being at the mouth of the River Plate. A weight of 9 lbs. was attached to the line, which was one-tenth of an inch in diameter; the day was calm, and the line took 9 hours 24 minutes to run out. When the bottom was struck the line was raised 50 fathoms, and then allowed to run out again. It struck at the same point as before, verifying the observations. Nevertheless some experienced surveyors have remarked that the experiment would have been more satisfactory had the weight been greater. The highest summits of the Himalaya are about 28,000 feet; the Pacific, according to this sounding, is probably at some points twice as deep as the Himalaya are high.

[186] Mr. Hopkins, reasoning on data furnished by Dove's Isothermal maps, has arrived at the very interesting conclusion, that both on Snowdon and the lower mountains of the West of Ireland the snow-line would descend to within 1000 feet of the sea level, and glaciers reach the sea, if we could simply assume the three following geographical changes:--

1st, The diversion of the Gulf stream from its present northerly course; 2dly, the depression of the existing land of Northern and Western Europe, to the amount of no more than 500 feet; and 3dly, a cold current from the North sweeping over the submerged area. Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. 1852, p. 85.

[187] Daniell's Meteorological Essays, p. 103.

[188] Observed by J. Crawfurd, Esq.

[189] In speaking of the circulation of air and water in this chapter, no allusion is made to the trade winds, or to irregularities in the direction of currents, caused by the rotary motion of the earth. These causes prevent the movements from being direct from north to south, or from south to north, but they do not affect the theory of a constant circulation.

[190] See Scoreby's Arctic Regions, vol. i. p. 378.

[191] Ibid. p. 320.

[192] This is shown by projecting a map on the horizon of London, that is to say, by supposing the eye of the observer to be placed above that city, and to see from thence one half of the globe. For it so happens that from that point, and no other, we should behold the greatest possible quantity of land; and if we are then transferred to the opposite or antipodal point, we should see the greatest possible quantity of water. (See figs. 3 and 4.) A singular fact, first pointed out by Mr. James Gardner, namely, that only one twenty-seventh part of the dry land has any land opposite to it, is intimately connected with this excess of land in one of the two hemispheres above alluded to. Thus, in fig. 3, the land shaded black in part of China answers to that portion of the extremity of South America and Tierra del Fuego which is opposite or antipodal to it, whilst the dark spots in the northern and central parts of South America represent Borneo, Sumatra, and other antipodal islands in the Eastern Archipelago. See Gardner, Geol. Soc. Proceedings, 1833, vol. i. p. 488.

[193] Humboldt on Isothermal Lines

[194] Humboldt, Tableaux de la Nature, tom. i. p. 112.

[195] Ad. Brongniart, Consid. Générales sur la Nat. de la Végét. &c. Ann. des Sciences Nat., Nov. 1828.

[196] Sir J. Richardson, Proceedings of Geol. Soc. No. 7, p. 68, March, 1828.

[197] Ad. Brongniart, Consid. Générales sur la Nat. de la Végét. &c., Ann. des Sci. Nat., Nov. 1828.

[198] See a Memoir on the Alps, by Professor Sedgwick and Sir Rod. Murchison, Trans. of Geol. Soc. second ser. vol. iii. accompanied by a map.

[199] See Proceedings of Geol. Soc. vol. ii. p. 334.

[200] It may be observed, that the facts and inferences exhibited in this map bear not merely on the theory of climate above proposed, but serve also to illustrate the views explained in the third book respecting the migration of animals and plants and the gradual extinction of species.

[201] See Sir R. Murchison's Paper on the Alps, Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. vol. v. and my Anniversary Address for 1850, ibid. vol. vi.

[202] Allgemeine Literatur Zeitung, No. cxxxix. July, 1833.

[203] In this estimate, the space within the antarctic circle is not taken into account: if included, it would probably add to the excess of dry land; for the late discoveries of Capt. Sir James Ross, who penetrated to lat. 78° 10' S., confirm the conjecture of Captain Cook that the accumulation of antarctic ice implies the presence of a certain quantity of terra firma. The number of square miles on the surface of the globe are 148,522,000, the part occupied by the sea being 110,849,000, and that by land, 37,673,000; so that the land is very nearly to the sea as 1 part in 4. I am informed by Mr. Gardner that, according to a rough approximation, the land between the 30° N. lat. and the pole occupies a space about equal to that of the sea, and the land between the 30° S. lat. and the antarctic circle about one-sixteenth of that zone.

[204] See papers by Mr. Smith of Jordanhill, F. G. S., and the author, Proceedings Geol. Soc. No. 63, 1839, also that of Prof. E. Forbes, before cited, p. 86, note.

[205] The theorem is thus stated:--"The eccentricity of the orbit varying, the total quantity of heat received by the earth from the sun in one revolution is inversely proportional to the minor axis of the orbit. The major axis is invariable, and therefore, of course, the absolute length of the year: hence it follows that the mean annual average of heat will also be in the same inverse ratio of the minor axis."--Geol. Trans. second series, vol. iii. p. 295.

[206] Ann. du Bur. des Long. 1834.

[207] Poisson, Théorie Mathémat. de la Chaleur, Comptes Rendus de l'Acad. des Sci., Jan. 30, 1837.

[208] Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. 1852, p. 62.

[209] Proceedings Roy. Astronom. Soc. No. iii. Jan. 1840.

[210] See a Memoir on the Temperature of the Terrestrial Globe, and the Planetary Spaces, Ann. de Chimie et Phys. tom. xxvii. p. 136. Oct. 1824.

[211] Sir H. Davy, Consolations in Travel: Dialogue III. "The Unknown."

[212] Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. 1852.

[213] Buckland's Bridgewater Treatise, p. 409.

[214] Owen's Report on "British Fossil Reptiles, to Brit. Soc." 1841, p. 200.

[215] Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. No. 6, p. 96.

[216] See Hitchcock's Report on Geol. of Massachusetts, and Lyell's Travels in North America, chap. 12.

[217] See Manual of Geol. by the Author, index Microlestes.

[218] This figure (No. 8) is from a drawing by Professor C. Prevost, published Ann. des Sci. Nat. Avril, 1825. The fossil is a lower jaw, adhering by its inner side to the slab of oolite, in which it is sunk. The form of the condyle, or posterior process of the jaw, is convex, agreeing with the mammiferous type, and is distinctly seen, an impression of it being left on the stone, although in this specimen the bone is wanting. The anterior part of the jaw has been partially broken away, so that the double fangs of the molar teeth are seen fixed in their sockets, the form of the fangs being characteristic of the mammalia. Ten molars are preserved, and the place of an eleventh is believed to be apparent. The enamel of some of the teeth is well preserved.

[219] A colored figure of this small and elegant quadruped is given in the Trans. Zool. Soc. vol. ii. pl. 28. It is insectivorous, and was taken in a hollow tree, in a country abounding in ant-hills, ninety miles to the southeast of the mouth of Swan River in Australia.--It is the first living marsupial species known to have nine molar teeth in the lower jaw, and some of the teeth are widely separated from others, one of the peculiarities in the thylacotherium of Stonesfield, which at first induced M. Blainville to refer that creature to the class of reptiles.

[220] This figure (No. 10) was taken from the original, formerly in Mr. Broderip's collection, and now in the British Museum. It consists of the right half of a lower jaw, of which the inner side is seen. The jaw contains seven molar teeth, one canine, and three incisors; but the end of the jaw is fractured, and traces of the alveolus of a fourth incisor are seen. With this addition, the number of teeth would agree exactly with those of a lower jaw of a didelphis. The fossil is well preserved in a slab of oolitic structure containing shells of trigoniæ and other marine remains. Two or three other similar jaws, besides those above represented, have been procured from the quarries of Stonesfield.--See Broderip, Zool. Journ. vol. ii. p. 408. Owen, Proceedings Geol. Soc., November, 1838.

[221] Darwin's Journal, chap. 19. Lyell's Manual of Geol. chap. 21, p. 279.

[222] Taylor's Annals of Nat. Hist. Nov. 1839.

[223] See notice by the Author, and Professor Owen, Taylor's Annals of Nat. Hist. Nov. 1839.

[224] See Principles of Geology, 1st ed. 1830, vol. i p. 152.

[225] The first quadrumanous fossils discovered in India were observed in 1836 in the Sewalik Hills, a lower range of the Himalayan Mountains, by Lieutenants Baker and Durond, by whom their osteological characters were determined (Journ. of Asiat. Soc. of Bengal, vol. v. p. 739), and in the year following, other fossils of the same class were brought to light and described by Capt. Cantley and Dr. Falconer. These were imbedded, like the former, in tertiary strata of conglomerate, sand, marl, and clay, in the Sub-Himalayan Mountains. (Ibid. vol. v. p. 379. Nov. 1836; and vol. vi. p. 354. May, 1837.)

The Brazilian quadrumane was found, with a great many other extinct species of animals, by a Danish naturalist, Dr. Lund, between the rivers Francisco and Velhas, in 1837.

The gibbon of the South of France was found by M. Lartet in the beginning of 1837, and determined by M. de Blainville. It occurred near Auch, in the department of Gers, about forty miles west of Toulouse, in freshwater marl, limestone, and sand. They were accompanied by the remains of the mastodon, dinotherium, palæotherium, rhinoceros, gigantic sloth, and other extinct quadrupeds. (Bulletin de la Soc. Geol. de France, tom. viii. p. 92.)

The British quadrumane was discovered in 1839, by Messrs. William Colchester and Searles Wood, at Kyson, near Woodbridge, in Suffolk, and was referred by Professor Owen to the genus Macacus. (Mag. of Nat. Hist. Sept. 1839. Taylor, Annals of Nat. Hist. No. xxiii. Nov. 1839.)

[226] Owen's Introduction to British Fossil Mammals, p. 46.

[227] Proceedings of Acad. Nat. Sci. Philad. Dec. 9, 1851.

[228] See ch. 48.

[229] Ibid.

[230] Ibid.

[231] Phys. Hist. of Mankind, vol. ii. p. 594.

[232] Virgil, Eclog. iv. For an account of these doctrines, see Dugald Stewart's Elements of the Philosophy of the Human Mind, vol. ii. chap. ii. sect. 4, and Prichard's Egypt. Mythol. p. 177.

[233] See ch. 41.

[234] See ch. 35.

[235] See ch. 37, 38, 39, 41.

[236] See also Manual of Geology, ch. 11, 12.

[237] It has been suspected ever since the middle of the last century, that the Caspian was lower than the ocean, it being known that in Astrakhan the mercury in the barometer generally stands above thirty inches. In 1811, MM. Engelhardt and Parrot attempted to determine the exact amount of difference by a series of levellings and barometrical measurements across the isthmus at two different places near the foot of Mount Caucasus. The result of their operations led them to the opinion that the Caspian was more than 300 feet below the Black Sea. But the correctness of the observations having afterwards been called in question, M. Parrot revisited the ground in 1829 and 1830, and inferred from new levellings, that the mouth of the Don was between three and four feet lower than that of the Wolga; in other words, that the sea of Azof, which communicates with the Black Sea, was actually lower than the Caspian! Other statements, no less contradictory, having been made by other observers, the Russian government at length directed the Academy of St. Petersburg to send an expedition, in 1836, to decide the point by a trigonometrical survey, from which it appeared that the Caspian is 101 Russian, or 108 English, feet lower than the Black Sea. (For authorities, see Journ. Roy. Geograph. Soc. vol. viii. p. 135). Sir R. Murchison, however, concludes, in 1845, from the best Russian authorities, that the depression of the Caspian is only 83 feet 6 inches.

The measurements of Major Anthony Symonds, since confirmed by French authorities, make the Dead Sea to be 1200 feet below the Mediterranean.

[238] See Lyell's Travels in N. America, ch. 2 and 25.

[239] See Manual of Geology, chap. 29 to 33, inclusive.

[240] See ch. 26, infrà.

[241] See ch. 27, infrà.

[242] Ann. des Sci. Nat., Septembre, Novembre, et Décembre, 1829. Revue Française, No. 15, May, 1830. Bulletin de la Société Géol. de France, p. 864, May, 1847. The latest edition of M. de Beaumont's theory will be found in the 12th vol. of the Dictionnaire Universel d'Hist. Nat. 1852, art. "Systèmes des Montagues;" also the same printed separately.

[243] Système de Mont. p. 762.

[244] Ibid. pp. 761 and 773.

[245] Phil. Mag. and Annals, No. 58. New Series, p. 242.

[246] Système de Montagnes, 1852, p. 429.

[247] Phil. Mag. and Annals, No. 58. New series, p. 243.

[248] Système de Montagnes, 1852, p. 429.

[249] For page, see Index, "Hopkins."

[250] Art. Système de Montagnes, p. 775.

[251] M. E de Beaumont in his later inquiries (Comptes rendus, Sept. 1850, and Systèmes des Montagnes) has come to the conclusion, that the principal mountain ranges, if prolonged, would intersect each other at certain angles, so as to produce a regular geometric arrangement, which he calls "a pentagonal network." This theory has been ably discussed and controverted by Mr. Hopkins, in his Anniversary Address as President of the Geol. Soc., Feb. 1853.

[252] Darwin's Geology of South America, p. 248. London, 1846.

[253] Système de Montagnes, p. 748.

[254] See Lyell's Manual of Elementary Geology, ch. 5.

[255] See the Author's Anniversary Address, Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. 1850, vol. vi. p. 46, from which some of the above passages are extracted.

[256] See Lyell's Manual of Elementary Geology.

[257] Reports to Brit. Assoc. 1842, 1843, and Introd. to Brit. Foss. Mamm. p. 31. The conchological evidence respecting the British Miocene, Pliocene, and Pleistocene fossils, examined by Mr. Forbes, in the paper before cited, p. 88, note, bear out some of the most important conclusions of M. Deshayes, quoted by me in the first edition of the Principles, 1831, and the recent observations of Philippi in regard to the passage of species from one formation to another. I refer to these authorities more especially because this doctrine of a gradual transition has been opposed by some living naturalists of high distinction, among whom I may mention M.A. d'Orbigny and M. Agassiz. I have long been convinced that we must abandon many of the identifications formerly made of Eocene with recent shells; but some errors of this kind do not affect the general reasoning on the subject. See a discussion on this question, Quarterly Journ. of Geog. Soc., No. 5, p. 47 Feb. 1846.

[258] Darwin's Journal, p. 163. 2d. ed. p. 139.

[259] Journ. Roy. Geograph. Soc. vol. iii. p. 142.

[260] Book iii. ch. 50.

[261] Darwin's S. America, pp. 136, 139.

[262] Miller, Phil. Trans. 1851, p. 155.

[263] Phil. Trans. 1850, p. 354.

[264] Hooker's Himalayan Journal, ined.

[265] Ibid.

[266] See Manual of Geology, Index, Rain-prints.

[267] See Lyell on recent and fossil rains. Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. 1851, vol. vii. p. 239.

[268] Lyell's Second Visit to the United States, 1846, vol. ii. p. 25.

[269] Encyc. Brit. art. Rivers.

[270] Sir T. D. Lauder's Account of the Great Floods in Morayshire, August, 1829.

[271] Quarterly Jour. of Sci. &c. No. xii. New Series, p. 331.

[272] Culley, Proceed. Geol. Soc. 1829.

[273] Silliman's Journal, vol. xv. No. 2, p. 216. Jan. 1829.

[274] Silliman's Journal, vol. xxxiv. p. 115.

[275] See Lyell's Second Visit to the U. S. vol. i. p. 69.

[276] This block was measured by Capt. B. Hall, R. N.

[277] Inundation of the Val de Bagnes, in 1818, Ed. Phil. Journ., vol. i. p. 187, from memoir of M. Escher.

[278] Lib. viii. Epist. 17.

[279] When at Tivoli, in 1829, I received this account from eye-witnesses of the event.

[280] Illustr. of Hutt. Theory, § 3, p. 147.

[281] Quadro Istorico dell' Etna, 1824.

[282] The reader will find in my Travels in North America, vol. i. ch. 2, a colored geological map and section of the Niagara district, also a bird's-eye view of the Falls and adjacent country, colored geologically, of which the first idea was suggested by the excellent original sketch given by Mr. Bakewell. I have referred more fully to these and to Mr. Hall's Report on the Geology of New York, as well as to the earlier writings of Hennepin and Kalm in the same work, and have speculated on the origin of the escarpment over which the Falls may have been originally precipitated. Vol. i. p. 32, and vol. ii. p. 93.

[283] Consid. sur les Blocs Errat. 1829.

[284] Capt. Bayfield, Geol. Soc. Proceedings, vol. ii. p. 223.

[285] M. Arago, Annuaire, &c. 1833; and Rev. J. Farquharson, Phil. Trans. 1835, p. 329.

[286] Journ. of Roy. Geograph. Soc. vol. vi. p. 416.

[287] See Système Glaciaire, by Agassiz, Guyot, and Desor, pp. 436, 437, 445. Mr. Agassiz, at p. 462, states that he published in the Deutsche Vierteljahrschrift for 1841, this result as to the central motion being greater than that of the sides, and was, therefore, the first to correct his own previous mistake.

[288] J. Forbes. 8th Letter on Glaciers, Aug. 1844.

[289] See Mr. Hopkins on Motion of Glaciers, Cambridge Phil. Trans. 1844, and Phil. Mag. 1845. Some of the late concessions of this author as to a certain plasticity in the mass, appear to me to make the difference between him and Professor Forbes little more than one of degree. (For the latest summary of Prof. Forbes' views, see Phil. Trans. 1846, pt. 2.)

[290] This experiment is cited by Mr. Forbes, Phil. Trans. 1846, p. 206; and I have conversed with Mr. Christie on the subject.

[291] Etudes sur les Glaciers, 1840.

[292] See Manual of Geol. ch. xi.

[293] Agassiz, Jam. Ed. New Phil. Journ. No. 54, p. 388.

[294] Charpentier, Ann. des Mines, tom. viii.; see also Papers by MM. Venetz and Agassiz.

[295] Voyage in 1822, p. 233.

[296] Travels in Norway.

[297] Darwin's Journal, p. 283.

[298] Journ. of Roy. Geograph. Soc. vol. ix. p. 526.

[299] Journ. of Roy. Geograph. Soc. vol. ix. p. 529.

[300] Ibid. vol. viii. p. 221.

[301] In my Travels in N. America, pp. 19, 23, &c., and Second Visit to the U. S., vol. i. ch. 2, also in my Manual of Geology, a more full account of the action of floating ice and coast-ice, and its bearing on geology, will be found.

[302] Jam. Ed. New Phil. Journ. No. xlviii. p. 439.

[303] Bulletin de la Soc. Géol. de France, 1847, tom. iv. pp. 1182, 1183.

[304] Consult J. Prestwich, Water-bearing Strata around London. 1851. (Van Voorst)

[305] Sabine, Journ. of Sci. No. xxxiii. p. 72. 1824.

[306] Héricart de Thury, "Puits Forés," p. 49.

[307] Prestwich, p. 69.

[308] Bull. de la Soc. Géol. de France, tom. iii. p. 194.

[309] Boué Résumé des Prog. de la Géol. en 1832, p. 184.

[310] Seventh Rep. Brit. Ass. 1837, p. 66.

[311] H. de Thury, p. 295.

[312] Bull. de la Soc. Géol de France, tom. i. p. 93.

[313] Bull. de la Soc. Géol. de France, tom. ii. p. 248.

[314] See Glossary, "Tufa," "Travertin."

[315] Dr. Grosse on the Baths of San Filippo, Ed. Phil. Journ. vol. ii p. 292.

[316] Consolations in Travel, pp. 123-125.

[317] Ibid. p. 127.

[318] C. Prevost, Essai sur la Constitution Physique du Bassin de Vienne, p. 10.

[319] Travels across the Andes, p. 240.

[320] Annalen der Chem. 1847.

[321] Daubeny on Volcanoes, p. 222.

[322] Dr. Webster on the Hot Springs of Furnas, Ed. Phil. Journ. vol. vi. p. 306.

[323] See a cut of the Icelandic geyser, chap. 32.

[324] M. Robert, Bullétin de la Soc. Géol. de France, tom. vii. p. 11.

[325] Barrow's Iceland, p. 209.

[326] See Lyell's Manual of Elementary Geology; and Dr. Turner, Jam. Ed. New Phil. Journ. No. xxx. p. 246.

[327] L. Horner, Geol. Trans, vol. ii. p. 94.

[328] Ann. de l'Auvergne, tome i. p. 234.

[329] Ann. Scient. de l'Auvergne, tome ii. June, 1829.

[330] Edinb. New Phil. Journ. Oct. 1839.

[331] See Lyell's Travels in N. America, vol. i p. 150.

[332] Symes, Embassy to Ava, vol. ii. Geol. Trans. second series, vol. ii. part iii. p. 388.

[333] Dr. Nugent, Geol. Trans. vol. i. p. 69.

[334] Ibid. p. 67.

[335] De la Beche, Ed. Phil. Journ. vol. ii. p. 107. Jan. 1820.

[336] De la Beche, MS.

[337] De la Beche, MS.

[338] Trans. of Lit. and Hist. Soc. of Quebec, vol. i. p. 5, 1829.

[339] Prony, see Cuvier, Disc. Prelim, p. 146.

[340] See De Beaumont, Géologie Pratique, vol. i. p. 323, 1844.

[341] Prony, cited by Cuvier, Discours Prélimin.

[342] Brocchi, Conch. Foss. Subap. vol. i. p. 118.

[343] Archiac, Histoire des Progrés de la Géol. 1848, vol. ii. p. 232.

[344] Brocchi, Conch. Foss. Subap. vol. i. p. 39.

[345] Ibid. vol. ii. p. 94.

[346] Mém. d'Astruc, cited by Von Hoff, vol. i. p. 288.

[347] Lib. ii. c. v.

[348] Bouche, Chorographie et Hist. de Provence, vol. i. p. 23, cited by Von Hoft, vol. i. p. 290.

[349] Hist. Phys. de la Mer.

[350] Karamania, or a brief Description of the Coast of Asia Minor, &c. London, 1817.

[351] Geog. Syst. of Herod, vol. ii. p. 107.

[352] Euterpe, XI.

[353] Journ. of Roy. Geograph. Soc. vol. ix. p. 432.

[354] Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. vol. v.; Memoirs, p. 20; and Lassaigue, Journ. Pharm. t. v. p. 468.

[355] Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. 1848, vol. iv. p. 342.

[356] Flint's Geography, vol. i. p. 142. Lyell's Second Visit to the United States, vol. ii chaps. 28 to 34.

[357] Geograph. Descrip. of Louisiana, by W. Darby, Philadelphia, 1816, p. 102.

[358] Flint's Geography, vol. i. p. 152.

[359] Travels in North America, vol. iii. p. 361.

[360] Travels in North America, vol. iii. p. 362.

[361] "The boats are fitted," says Captain Hall, "with what is called a snag-chamber;--a partition formed of stout planks, which is calked, and made so effectually water-tight that the foremost end of the vessel is cut off as entirely from the rest of the hold as if it belonged to another boat. If the steam-vessel happen to run against a snag, and that a hole is made in her bow, under the surface, this chamber merely fills with water."--Travels in North America, vol. iii. p. 363.

[362] Darby's Louisiana, p. 33.

[363] Featherstonhaugh, Geol. Report, Washington, 1835, p. 84.

[364] Trees submerged in an upright position have been observed in other parts of N. America. Thus Captains Clark and Lewis found, about the year 1807, a forest of pines standing erect under water in the body of the Columbia river, which they supposed, from the appearance of the trees, to have been submerged only about twenty years. (Travels, &c. vol. ii. p. 241.) More lately (1835), the Rev. Mr. Parker observed on the same river (lat. 45° N., long. 121° W.) trees standing in their natural position in spots where the water was more than twenty feet deep. The tops of the trees had disappeared; but between high and low water-mark the trunks were only partially decayed; and the roots were seen through the clear water, spreading as they had grown in their native forest. (Tour beyond the Rocky Mountains, p. 132.) Some have inferred from these facts that a tract of land, more than twenty miles in length, must have subsided vertically; but Capt. Fremont, Dec. 1845 (Rep. of Explor. Exped. p. 195), satisfied himself that the submerged forests have been formed by immense land-slides from the mountains, which here closely shut in the river.

[365] For an account of the "sunk country," shaken by the earthquake of 1811-12, see Lyell's Second Visit to the United States, ch. 33.

[366] Darby's Louisiana, p. 103.

[367] The calculations here given were communicated to the British Association, in a lecture which I delivered at Southampton in September, 1846. (See Athenæum Journal, Sept. 26, 1846, and Report of British Association, 1846, p. 117.) Dr. Riddell has since repeated his experiments on the quantity of sediment in the river at New Orleans without any material variation in the results.

Mr. Forshey, in a memoir on the Physics of the Mississippi, published in 1850, adopts Dr. Riddell's estimate for the quantity of mud, but takes 447,199 cubic feet per second as the average discharge of water for the year at Carrolton, nine miles above New Orleans, a result deduced from thirty years of observations. This being one-tenth more than I had assumed, would add a tenth to the sediment, and would diminish by one-eleventh the number of years required to accomplish the task above alluded to. "The cubic contents of sedimentary matter," says Forshey, "are equal to 4,083,333,333, and this sediment would annually cover twelve miles square one foot deep."

[368] The Mississippi is continually shifting its course in the great alluvial plain, cutting frequently to the depth of 100, and even sometimes to the depth of 250 feet. As the old channels become afterwards filled up, or in a great degree obliterated, this excavation alone must have given a considerable depth to the basin, which receives the alluvial deposit, and subsidences like those accompanying the earthquake of New Madrid in 1811-12 may have given still more depth.

[369] Account of the Ganges and Burrampooter rivers, by Major Rennell, Phil. Trans. 1781.

[370] Trans. of the Asiatic Society, vol. vii. p. 14.

[371] Cuvier referred the true crocodiles of the Ganges to a single species, C. biporcatus. But I learn from Dr. Falconer that there are three well-marked species, C. biporcatus, C. palustris, and C. bombifrons. C. bombifrons occurs in the northern branches of the Ganges, 1000 miles from Calcutta; C. biporcatus appears to be confined to the estuary; and C. palustris, to range from the estuary to the central parts of Bengal. The garial is found along with C. bombifrons in the north, and descends to the region of C. biporcatus in the estuary.

[372] See below, ch. 22 and 29.

[373] Second Visit to the United States, vol. ii. p. 145.

[374] Asiatic Researches, vol. xvii. p. 466.

[375] Lyell's Second Visit to the United States, vol. ii. chap. 34.

[376] See Manual of Geology by the Author.

[377] See p. 13.

[378] Geog. of Herod, vol ii. p. 331.

[379] Ibid. p. 328.

[380] Romme, Vents et Courans, vol. ii. p. 2. Rev. F. Fallows, Quart. Journ. of Science, March, 1829.

[381] The heights of these tides were given me by the late Captain Hewett, R. N.

[382] On the authority of Admiral Sir F. Beaufort, R. N.

[383] Consult the map of Currents by Capt. F. Beechy, R. N., Admiralty Manual, 1849, London.

[384] Rennell on Currents, p. 58.

[385] Rennell on the Channel current.

[386] An. du Bureau des Long. 1836.

[387] Second Parliamentary Report on Steam Communication with India, July, 1851.

[388] Phil. Trans. 1830, p. 59.

[389] See Capt. B. Hall, On Theory of Trade Winds, Fragments of Voy. second series, vol. i., and Appendix to Daniell's Meteorology.

[390] Treatise on Astronomy, chap. 3.

[391] Descrip. of Shetland Islands, p. 527, Edin. 1822, to which work I am indebted for the following representations of rocks in the Shetland Isles.

[392] Dr. Hibbert, from MSS. of Rev. George Low, of Fetlar.

[393] Hibbert, p. 528.

[394] Hibbert, p. 519.

[395] Account of Erection of Bell Rock Lighthouse, p. 163.

[396] Ed. Phil. Journ. vol. iii. p. 54, 1820.

[397] Quart. Journ. of Sci. &c., No. xiii. N. S. March, 1830.

[398] Buist, Quart. Journ. of Agricult., No. xlv. p. 34, June, 1839.

[399] Phillips's Geology of Yorkshire, p. 61.

[400] Rivers, Mountains, and Sea-coast of Yorkshire p. 122, 1853, London.

[401] Arctic Zoology, vol. i. p. 10, Introduction.

[402] Phillips's Geol. of York. p. 60.

[403] Arct. Zool. vol. i. p. 13, Introd.

[404] Taylor's Geology of East Norfolk, p. 32.

[405] Ibid.

[406] De Beaumont, Géologie Pratique, p. 218.

[407] Taylor's Geology of East Norfolk, p. 10.

[408] From Mr. R. C. Taylor's Mem., see Phil. Mag., Oct. 1827, p. 297.

[409] Consequences of the Deluge, Phys. Theol. Discourses.

[410] History of British Birds, vol. ii. p. 220 ed. 1821.

[411] Tidal Harbor Commissioners' First Report, 1845, p. 176.

[412] On authority of Dr. Mitchell, F. G. S.

[413] On the authority of W. Gunnell, Esq., and W. Richardson, Esq., F. G. S.

[414] Vol. ii. New Ser. 1809, p. 801.

[415] Geog. of Herod. vol. ii. p. 326.

[416] Dodsley's Ann. Regist. 1772.

[417] See J. B. Redman on Changes of S. E. Coast of England, Proceed. Instit. Civil Engin. vol. ii. 1851, 1852.

[418] Stevenson, Ed. Phil Journ. No. v. p. 45, and Dr. Fitton, Geol. Trans. 2d series, vol. iv. plate 9.

[419] On the authority of Mr. J. Meryon, of Rye.

[420] Redman, ibid, see p. 315.

[421] Edin. Journ. of Sci. No. xix. p. 56.

[422] Redman as cited, p. 315.

[423] Webster, Geol. Trans. vol. ii. p. 192, 1st series.

[424] Mantell, Geology of Sussex, p. 293.

[425] See Palmer on Shingle Beaches, Phil. Trans. 1834, p. 568.

[426] Groins are formed of piles and wooden planks, or of fagots staked down and are used either to break the force of the waves, or to retain the beach.

[427] Redman as cited, p. 315.

[428] Rob. A. C. Austen on the Valley of the English Channel, Quart. Journ. G. S. vol. vi. p. 72.

[429] See Palmer on Motion of Shingle Beaches, Phil. Trans. 1834, p. 568; and Col. Sir W. Reid, Papers of Royal Engineers, 1838, vol ii. p. 128.

[430] De la Beche, Geolog. Manual, p. 82.

[431] According to the measurement of Carpenter of Lyme.

[432] Rev. W. D. Conybeare, letter dated Axminster, Dec. 31, 1839.

[433] London, J. Murray, 1840.

[434] Boase, Trans. Royal Geol. Soc. of Cornwall, vol. ii. p. 129.

[435] Boase, ibid. vol. ii. p. 135.

[436] De la Beche's Report on the Geology of Devon, &c. chap. xiii.

[437] Geol. Trans. 1st series, vol. iii. p. 383.

[438] Boase, vol. ii. p. 130.

[439] Stevenson, Jameson's Ed. New Phil. Journ. No. 8, p. 386.

[440] Camden, who cites Gyraldus; also Ray, "On the Deluge," Phys. Theol. p. 228.

[441] Meyrick's Cardigan.

[442] Von Hoff, Geschichte, &c. vol. i. p. 49.

[443] E. de Beaumont, Géologie Pratique, vol. i. p. 316, and ibid. p. 260.

[444] Belpaire, Mém. de l'Acad. Roy. de Bruxelles, tom. x. 1837. Dumont, Bulletin of the same Soc. tom. v. p. 643.

[445] Von Hoff, vol. i. p. 364.

[446] Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. vol. iv. p. 32; Memoirs.

[447] See examples in Von Hoff; vol. i. p. 73, who cites Pisansky.

[448] Book vii. Cimbri.

[449] Lib. iii. cap 3.

[450] New Monthly Mag. vol. vi. p. 69.

[451] Von Hoff, vol. i. p. 96.

[452] Phil. Trans. 1833, p. 204.

[453] See Lyell's Travels in North America, in 1842, vol. ii. p. 166. London, 1845.

[454] Rennell, Phil. Trans. 1781.

[455] MS. of Capt. Bayfield, R. N.

[456] Silliman's Journ. vol. xxxiv. p. 349.

[457] Phil. Trans. 1829, part i. p. 29.

[458] Phil. Trans. 1724.

[459] Bull. de la Soc. Géol de France,--Résumé, p. 72, 1832.

[460] Clarke's Travels in Europe, Asia, and Africa, vol. iii. pp. 340 and 363, 4th edition.

[461] Nouvelle Chronique de la Ville de Bayonne, pp. 113, 139: 1827.

[462] Stevenson on bed of German Ocean, Ed. Phil. Journ. No. v. p. 44: 1820.

[463] Stevenson, ibid. p. 47: 1820.

[464] Robt. A. C. Austen, Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. vol. vi. p. 76.

[465] Experiments to determine the Figure of the Earth, &c. p. 445.

[466] Lochead on Nat. Hist. of Guiana, Edin. Trans. vol. iv.

[467] On the authority of Mr. Faraday.

[468] On the authority of Mr. R. Phillips.

[469] See Von Buch's Description of Canary Islands (Paris, ed. 1836) for a valuable sketch of the principal volcanoes of the globe.

[470] Darwin, Geol. Trans. 2d series, vol. v. p. 612.

[471] Ibid. p. 606.

[472] Bull. de la Soc. Géol. tom. vi. p. 55.

[473] Bull. de la Soc. Géol. de France, tom. vi. p. 56.

[474] Caldeleugh, Phil. Trans. 1836, p. 27.

[475] Comptes Rendus, 1849, vol. xxix. p. 531.

[476] See map of volcanic lines in Von Buch's work on the Canaries.

[477] Von Buch, ibid. p. 409.

[478] Darwin, Structure and Distrib. of Coral reefs, &c., London, 1842. In the subjoined map, fig. 39, I have copied with permission a small part of the valuable map accompanying this work.

[479] Von Buch, Descrip. des Iles Canar. p. 450, who cites Erman and others.

[480] Paper read at meeting of Brit. Assoc. Southampton, Sept. 1846.

[481] Macclelland, Report on Coal and Min. Resources of India. Calcutta, 1838.

[482] Geology of the American Exploring Expedition. See also Lyell's Manual, "Sandwich I. Volcanoes"--Index.

[483] Strabo, ed Fal., p. 900.

[484] Researches in Asia Minor, vol. ii. p. 39.

[485] Virlet, Bulletin de la Soc. Géol. de France, tom. iii. p. 109.

[486] Daubeny on Mount Vultur, Ashmolean Memoirs. Oxford, 1835.

[487] Book v. ch. xlvi.--See letter of M. Virlet, Bulletin de la Soc. Géol. de France, tom. ii. p. 341.

[488] See ch. 32, Cause of Volcanic Eruptions.

[489] Verneur, Journal des Voyages, tom. iv. p. 111. Von Hoff, vol. ii. p. 275.

[490] Lib. v.

[491] Nat. Hist. lib. iii. c. 6.

[492] See Poulett Scrope, Geol. Trans. 2d series, vol. ii. pl. 34.

[493] De Rerum Nat. vi. 740.--Forbes, on Bay of Naples, Edin. Journ. of Sci. No iii. new series, p. 87. Jan. 1830.

[494] Humboldt, Voy. p. 317.

[495] Von Buch, Ueber einen vulcanischen Ausbruch auf der Insel Lanzerote.

[496] Haustæ aut obrutæ urbes.--Hist. lib. i.

[497] Hist. Rom. lib. lxvi.

[498] The earliest authority, says Mr. Forbes, given for this fact, appears to be Capaccio, quoted in the Terra Tremante of Bonito.--Edin. Journ. of Sci. &c. No. i. new series, p. 127. July, 1829.

[499] Geol. Trans. second series, vol. ii. p. 346.

[500] Lib. vi. de Bello Neap. in Grævii Thesaur.

[501] Prodig. libel. c. cxiv.

[502] This representation of the Phlegræan Fields is reduced from part of Plate xxxi. of Sir William Hamilton's great work "Campi Phlegræi." The faithfulness of his colored delineations of the scenery of that country cannot be too highly praised.

[503] Campi Phlegræi, p. 70.

[504] Campi Phlegræi, p. 77.

[505] P. 347. Paris, 1836.

[506] "Magnus terræ tractus, qui inter radices montis, quem Barbarum incolæ appellant, et mare juxta Avernum jacet, sese erigere videbatur, et montis subitò nascentis figuram imitari. Eo ipso die horâ noctis II., iste terræ cumulus, aperto veluti ore, magno cum fremitu, magnos ignes evomuit; pumicesque, et lapides, cineresque."--Porzio, Opera Omnis, Medica, Phil., et Mathemat., in unum collecta, 1736, cited by Dufrénoy, Mém. pour servir à une Description Géologique de la France, tom. iv. p. 274.

[507] See Neues Jahr Buch for 1846, and a translation in the Quarterly Journ. of the Geol. Soc. for 1847, vol iii. p. 20, Memoirs.

[508] Mem. Roy. Acad. Nap. 1849.

[509] "Verum quod omnem superat admirationem, mons circum eam voraginem ex pummicibus et cincere plusquàm mille passuum altitudine unà nocte congestus aspicitur."

[510] Mém. de la Soc. Géol. de France, tom. ii. p. 91.

[511] Dufrénoy, Mem. pour servir, &c. p. 277.

[512] Darwin's Volcanic Islands, 106, note.

[513] Geology of the American Exploring Expedition, in 1838-1842, p. 354.

[514] Ibid. p. 328.

[515] See chap. 29.

[516] Hamilton (writing in 1770) says, "the new mountain produces as yet but a very slender vegetation."--Campi Phlegræi, p. 69. This remark was no longer applicable when I saw it, in 1828.

[517] Hamilton's Campi Phlegræi, folio, vol. i. p. 62; and Brieslak, Campanie, tome i. p. 186.

[518] Account of the Eruption of Vesuvius in October, 1822, by G. P. Scrope, Esq., Journ. of Sci. &c. vol. xv. p. 175.

[519] Mr. Forbes, Account of Mount Vesuvius, Edin. Journ. of Sci. No. xviii. p. 195. Oct. 1828.

[520] Ibid. p. 194.

[521] Monticelli and Covelli, Storia di Fenon. del Vesuv. en 1821-23.

[522] Campi Phlegræi.

[523] Otter's Life of Dr. Clarke.

[524] Phil. Trans. 1846, p. 154.

[525] Ibid. p. 148.

[526] Ibid. p. 241.

[527] Bulletin de la Soc. Géol. de France, tom. vii. p. 43; and Illustrations of Vesuvius and Etna, p. 3.

[528] Geognost. Beobachtungen, &c., p. 182. Berlin, 1839.

[529] Von Buch, Descrip. Phys. des Iles Canaries, p. 342. Paris, 1836.

[530] Vues Illust. de Phénom. Géol. Observ. sur le Vésuve et l'Etna. Berlin, 1837.

[531] Ibid. p. 2.

[532] 2d edit. 1848, p. 216.

[533] So called from travellers leaving their horses and mules there when they prepare to ascend the cone on foot.

[534] Dufrénoy, Mém. pour servir à une Descrip. Gèol. de la France, tom. iv. p. 294.

[535] Descrip. Phys. des Iles Canaries, p. 344.

[536] See Daubeny's Volcanoes, p. 400.

[537] Geol. of American Explor. Exped. p. 359, note. Mr. Dana informed me (Sept. 1852), that an angle of 60° instead of 30°, was given by mistake in his work.

[538] Ibid. p. 354.

[539] Geol. Trans. 2d series, vol. ii. p. 341.

[540] See a paper by the Author on "Craters of Denudation," Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. 1850.

[541] Dufrénoy, Mém. pour servir, &c. tom. iv. p. 285.

[542] Journal of Science, vol. xv. p. 177.

[543] Voy. dans la Campanie, tome i. p. 201.

[544] Mr. Forbes, Edin. Journ. of Sci. No. xviii. Oct. 1828.

[545] Daubeny on Volcanoes, p. 169.

[546] Scrope, Geol. Trans. second series, vol. ii. p. 346.

[547] Monticelli and Covelli, Prodrom. della Mineral. Vesuv.

[548] The great eruption, in 1822, caused a covering only a few inches thick on Pompeii. Several feet are mentioned by Prof. J. D. Forbes.--Ed. Journ. of Science, No. xix. p. 181, Jan. 1829. But he must have measured in spots where it had drifted. The dust and ashes were five feet thick at the top of the crater, and decreased gradually to ten inches at Torre del Annunziata. The size and weight of the ejected fragments diminished very regularly in the same continuous stratum, as the distance from the centre of projection was greater.

[549] Forbes, Ed. Journ. of Sci. No. xix. p. 130, Jan. 1829.

[550] Scrope, Geol. Trans. second series, vol. ii. p. 346.

[551] Napoli, 1816.

[552] Not a few of the organic bodies, called by Ehrenberg "infusoria," such as Galionella and Bacillaria, have been recently claimed by many botanists as belonging to the vegetable kingdom, and are referred to the classes called Diatomaceæ and Desmidiæ.

[553] See Ehrenberg, Proceedings (Berichte) of the Royal Acad. of Sci. Berlin, 1844, 1845, and an excellent abstract of his papers by Mr. Ansted in the Quart. Journ. of the Geol. Soc. London, No. 7, Aug. 1846. In regard to marine infusoria found in volcanic tuff; it is well known that on the shores of the island of Cephalonia in the Mediterranean (Proceedings, Geol. Soc. vol. ii. p. 220), there is a cavity in the rock, into which the sea has been flowing for ages, and many others doubtless exist in the leaky bottom of the ocean. The marine current has been rushing in for many years, and as the infusoria inhabiting the waters of the Mediterranean are exceedingly abundant, a vast store of their cases may accumulate in submarine caverns (the water, perhaps, being converted into steam, and so escaping upwards), and they may then be cast up again to furnish the materials of volcanic tuff, should an eruption occur like that which produced Graham Island, off the coast of Sicily, in 1831.

[554] Hamilton, Observ. on Mount Vesuvius, p. 94. London, 1774.

[555] Swinburne and Lalande. Paderni, Phil. Trans. 1758, vol. i. p. 619.

[556] Prof. J. D. Forbes, Edin. Journ. of Sci. No. xix. p. 130, Jan. 1829.

[557] In one of the manuscripts which was in the hands of the interpreters when I visited the museum in 1828, the author indulges in the speculation that all the Homeric personages were allegorical--that Agamemnon was the ether, Achilles the sun, Helen the earth, Paris the air, Hector the moon, &c.

[558] Sir H. Davy, Consolations in Travel, p. 66.

[559] Forsyth's Italy, vol. ii.

[560] In 1815, Captain Smyth ascertained, trigonometrically, that the height of Etna was 10,874 feet. The Catanians, disappointed that their mountain had lost nearly 2000 feet of the height assigned to it by Recupero, refused to acquiesce in the decision. Afterwards, in 1824, Sir J. Herschel, not being aware of Captain Smyth's conclusions, determined by careful barometrical measurement that the height was 10,872½ feet. This singular agreement of results so differently obtained was spoken of by Herschel as "a happy accident;" but Dr. Wollaston remarked that "it was one of those accidents which would not have happened to two fools."

[561] Book iii. at the end.

[562] The hill which I have here introduced was called by my guide Vampolara, but the name given in the text is the nearest to this which I find in Gemmellaro's Catalogue of Minor Cones.

[563] Mém. pour servir, &c. tom. iv. p. 116.

[564] See Prof. J. D. Forbes, Phil. Trans. 1846, p. 155, on Velocity of Lava.

[565] Ferrara, Descriz. dell' Etna, p. 108.

[566] Ferrara, Descriz. dell' Etna. Palermo, 1818.

[567] This view is taken from a sketch made by Mr. James Bridges, corrected after comparison with several sketches of my own.

[568] Scrope on Volcanoes, p. 153.

[569] This drawing is part of a panoramic sketch which I made from the summit of the cone, December 1, 1828, when every part of Etna was free from clouds except the Val del Bove. The small cone, and the crater nearest the foreground, were among those formed during the eruptions of 1810 and 1811.

[570] Scrope on Volcanoes, p. 102.

[571] Ferara, Descriz. dell' Etna, p. 116.

[572] Mr. Nasmyth, the inventor of the steam-hammer, has lately illustrated, by a very striking experiment, the non-conductibility of a thin layer of dry sand and clay. Into a caldron of iron one-fourth of an inch thick, lined with sand and clay five-eighths of an inch thick, he poured eight tons of melted iron at a white heat. After the fused metal had been twenty minutes in the caldron the palm of the hand could be applied to the outside without inconvenience, and after forty minutes there was not heat enough to singe writing-paper. This fact may help us to explain how strata in contact with dikes, or beds of fused matter, have sometimes escaped without perceptible alteration by heat.

[573] Journ. of Roy. Geograph. Soc. vol. i. p. 64.

[574] Hoffman, Geognost. Beobachtungen, p. 701. Berlin, 1839.

[575] Mém. pour servir, &c., tom. iv. Paris, 1838.

[576] Geognost. Beobachtungen, &c. Berlin, 1839.

[577] De Beaumont, Mém. pour servir, &c. tom. iv. pp. 187, 188.

[578] Mém. pour servir, tom. iv. p. 149.

[579] P. 62, supra.

[580] See p. 366.

[581] On the Longevity of Trees, Bibliot. Univ., May, 1831.

[582] Sedgwick, Anniv. Address to Geol. Soc. p. 35. Feb. 1831.

[583] Von Hoff, vol. ii. p. 393.

[584] The first narrative of the eruption was drawn up by Stephenson, then Chief Justice in Iceland, appointed Commissioner by the King of Denmark for estimating the damage done to the country, that relief might be afforded to the sufferers. Henderson was enabled to correct some of the measurements given by Stephenson, of the depth, width, and length of the lava currents, by reference to the MS. of Mr. Paulson, who visited the tract in 1794, and examined the lava with attention. (Journal of a Residence in Iceland, &c. p. 229.) Some of the principal facts are also corroborated by Sir William Hooker, in his "Tour in Iceland," vol. ii. p. 128.

[585] Henderson's Journal, &c. p. 228.

[586] Jameson's Phil. Journ. vol. xxvi. p. 291.

[587] Tableau des Terrains qui composent l'Ecorce du Globe, p. 52. Paris, 1829.

[588] Daubeny on Volcanoes, p. 337.

[589] See Scrope on Volcanoes, p. 267.

[590] Leonhard and Bronn's Neues Jahrbuch, 1835, p. 36.

[591] Van der Boon Mesch, de Incendiis Montium Javæ, &c. Lugd. Bat. 1826; and Official Report of the President, Baron Van der Capellen; also, Von Buch, Iles Canar. p. 424.

[592] Journ. de Géol. tome i.

[593] In a former edition, I selected the name of Sciacca out of seven which had been proposed; but the Royal and Geographical Societies have now adopted Graham Island; a name given by Capt. Senhouse, R. N., the first who succeeded in landing on it. The seven rival names are Nerita, Ferdinanda, Hotham, Graham, Corrao, Sciacca, Julia. As the isle was visible for only about three months, this is an instance of a wanton multiplication of synonyms which has scarcely ever been outdone even in the annals of zoology and botany.

[594] Phil. Trans. 1832, p. 255.

[595] Journ. of Roy. Geograph. Soc. 1830-31.

[596] Phil. Trans. part. ii. 1832, reduced from drawings by Capt. Wodehouse, R. N.

[597] In the annexed sketch (fig. 60), drawn by M. Joinville, who accompanied M. C. Prevost, the beds seem to slope towards the centre of the crater; but I am informed by M. Prevost that these lines were not intended by the artist to represent the dip of the beds.

[598] See Memoir by M. C. Prevost, Ann. des Sci. Nat. tom. xxiv.

[599] Geol. of Fife and the Lothians, p. 41. Edin. 1839.

[600] Phil. Trans. 1832, p. 243.

[601] Ibid. p. 249.

[602] Darwin's Volcanic Islands, p. 92.

[603] Ibid. p. 6.

[604] This account was principally derived by Von Buch from the MS. of Don Andrea Lorenzo Curbeto, curate of Yaira, the point where the eruption began.--Ueber einen vulcanischen Ausbruch auf der Insel Lanzerote.

[605] Férussac, Bulletin des Sci. Nat. tome v. p. 45: 1825.

[606] Comptes Rendus Acad. Sci. Paris, Juin, 1846.

[607] Virlet, Bull. de la Soc. Géol. de France, tom. iii. p. 103.

[608] Phil. Trans. No. 332.

[609] E. Forbes, Brit. Association, Report for 1843.

[610] See a paper read to the Geographical Society in 1849.

[611] Bull. de la Soc. Géol. de France, tome iii.

[612] Virlet, Bull. de la Soc. Géol. de France, tome iii. p. 103.

[613] Poggendorf's Annalen, 1836, p. 183.

[614] See Admiralty Chart, with views and sections, 1842.

[615] For height of cone and references, see Buist, Volcanoes of India, Trans. Bombay Geol. Soc. vol. x. p. 143.

[616] Humboldt's Cosmos.

[617] Daubeny, Volcanoes, p. 267.

[618] See Buist, Volcanoes of India, Trans. Bombay Geol. Soc. vol. x. p. 154, and Captain Robertson, Journ. of Roy. Asiat. Soc. 1850.

[619] See Glossary.

[620] Bunsen, Volcanic Rocks of Iceland.

[621] Bulletin de la Soc. Géol. de France, tom. ii. p. 206.

[622] Since the publication of the first edition of this work, numerous accounts of recent earthquakes have been published; but as they do not illustrate any new principle, I cannot insert them, as they would enlarge too much the size of my work. The late Von Hoff published from time to time, in Poggendorf's Annalen, lists of earthquakes which happened between 1821 and 1836; and, by consulting these, the reader will perceive that every month is signalized by one or many convulsions in some part of the globe. See also Mallet's Dynamics of Earthquakes, Trans. Roy. Irish Acad. 1846; and "Earthquakes," Admiralty Manual, 1849; also Hopkins' Report, Brit. Assoc. 1847-8.

[623] Darwin, Geol. Proceedings, vol. ii. p. 658.

[624] Dumoulin, Comptes Rendus de l'Acad. des Sci. Oct. 1838, p. 706.

[625] Phil. Trans. 1836, p. 21.

[626] Phil. Trans. 1826.

[627] Darwin's Journ. of Travels in South America, Voyage of Beagle, p. 372.

[628] Biblioth. Univ. Oct. 1828, p. 157.

[629] Phil. Mag. July 1828, p. 37.

[630] Geol. Trans. vol. i. 2d ser., and Journ. of Sci. 1824, vol. xvii. p. 40.

[631] Geol. Trans, vol. i. 2d ser. p. 415.

[632] Journ. of Sci. vol. xvii. p. 42.

[633] Reise um die Erde; and see Dr. Meyen's letter cited Foreign Quart. Rev. No. 33, p. 13, 1836.

[634] Geol. Soc. Proceedings, No. xl. p. 179, Feb. 1835.

[635] Proceed. Geol. Soc. vol. ii. p. 447.

[636] Geol. Trans. vol. i. 2d ser. p. 415.

[637] Journal of Science, vol. xvii. pp. 40, 45.

[638] See Asiatic Journal, vol. i.

[639] Macmurdo Ed. Phil. Journ. iv. 106.

[640] I was indebted to my friend the late Sir Alexander Burnes for the accompanying sketch (fig. 72) of the fort of Sindree, as it appeared eleven years before the earthquake.

[641] This Memoir is now in the Library of the Royal Asiatic Society of London.

[642] Several particulars not given in the earlier edition were afterwards obtained by me from personal communication with Sir A. Burnes in London.

[643] Capt. Burnes' Account.

[644] Capt. Macmurdo's Memoir, Ed. Phil. Journ. vol. iv. p. 106.

[645] Quart. Geol. Journ. vol. ii. p. 103.

[646] MS. of J. Crawfurd, Esq.

[647] Raffles' Java, vol. i. p. 28.

[648] Raffles' Hist, of Java, vol. i. p. 25. Ed. Phil Journ. vol. iii. p. 389.

[649] Life and Services of Sir Stamford Raffles, p. 241. London, 1830.

[650] Humboldt's Pers. Nar. vol. iv. p. 12; and Ed. Phil. Journ. vol. i. p. 272: 1819.

[651] Cramer's Navigator, p. 243. Pittsburgh, 1821.

[652] Long's Exped. to the Rocky Mountains, vol. iii. p. 184.

[653] Silliman's Journ. Jan. 1829.

[654] See Lyell's Second Visit to the United States, ch. xxxiii.

[655] Bemerkungen auf einer Reise um die Welt. bd. ii. s. 209.

[656] Neue Allgem. Geogr. Ephemer. bd. iii. s. 348.

[657] Cavanilles, Journ. de Phys. tome xlix. p. 230. Gilbert's Annalen, bd. vi. Humboldt's Voy. p. 317.

[658] Humboldt's Voy., Relat. Hist., part. i. p. 309.

[659] Macgregor's Travels in America.

[660] Humboldt's Voy., Relat. Hist., part. ii. p. 632.

[661] Ferrara, Camp. fl., p. 51.

[662] Batav. Trans, vol. viii. p. 141.

[663] Istoria de'Tremuoti della Calabria del 1783.

[664] Descriz de'Tremuoti Accad. nelle Calabria nel 1783. Napoli, 1784.

[665] Istoria de' Fenomeni del Tremoto, &c., nell' An. 1783, posta in luce dalla Real. Accad., &c. di Nap. Napoli, 1783, fol.

[666] Dissertation on the Calabrian Earthquake, &c., translated in Pinkerton's Voyages and Travels, vol. v.

[667] Proceed. Roy. Irish Acad. 1846, p. 26.

[668] Journal of a Naturalist, p. 376, and ii. ib. 308.

[669] Proceedings Roy. Irish Acad. 1846, pp. 14-16.

[670] See Mr. Mallet's attempt to controvert this view, p. 32 ibid.

[671] Phil. Trans. vol. lxxiii. p. 180.

[672] Pinkerton's Voyages and Travels, vol. v. as cited above, p. 455, note.

[673] Dolomieu, ibid.

[674] Sir H. Davy's Consolations in Travel, p. 246.

[675] Dr. Horsfield, Batav. Trans. vol. viii. p. 26. Dr. H. informs me that he has seen this truncated mountain; and, though he did not ascend it, he has conversed with those who have examined it. Raffles' account (History of Java, vol. i.) is derived from Horsfield.

[676] Essai sur l'Hist. Nat. de l'Isle de St. Domingue. Paris, 1776.

[677] Hist. de l'Acad. des Sciences. 1752, Paris.

[678] M'Clelland's Report on Min. Resources of India: 1838, Calcutta. For other particulars, see Phil. Trans. vol. liii.

[679] Journ. Asiat. Soc. Bengal, vol. x. pp. 351, 433.

[680] Hist, and Philos. of Earthquakes, p. 317.

[681] Cosmos, vol. i.

[682] Rev. C. Davy's Letters, vol. ii. Letter ii. p. 12, who was at Lisbon at the time, and ascertained that the boats and vessels said to have been swallowed were missing.

[683] On the Formation of the Earth, p. 55.

[684] Geol. Soc. Proceedings, No. 60, p. 36. 1838.

[685] Michell on Earthquakes, Phil. Trans. vol. li. p. 566. 1760.

[686] Michell, Phil. Trans. vol. li. p. 614.

[687] Quarterly Review, No. lxxxvi. p. 459.

[688] Darwin's Travels in South America, &c., 1832 to 1836. Voyage of H. M. S. Beagle, vol. iii. p. 377.

[689] Ann. de Ch. et de Ph., tom. xxii. p. 428.

[690] Mallet, Proceed. Roy. Irish Acad. 1846.

[691] See Father Acosta's work; and Sir Woodbine Parish, Geol Soc. Proceedings, vol. ii. p. 215.

[692] Molina, Hist. of Chili, vol. ii.

[693] Captain Belcher has shown me these shells, and the collection has been examined by Mr. Broderip.

[694] Ulloa's Voyage to South America, vol. ii. book viii. ch. vi.

[695] Ibid. vol. ii. book vii. ch. vii.

[696] Ulloa's Voyage, vol. ii. p. 82.

[697] Wafer, cited by Sir W. Parish, Geol. Soc. Proceedings, vol. ii. p. 215.

[698] Hist. of America, decad. iii. book xi. ch. i.

[699] Darwin's Journal, p. 451.

[700] Ibid. p. 413.

[701] Misspelt "Sales" in Hooke's Account.

[702] Hooke's Posthumous Works, p. 437. 1705.

[703] Phil. Trans. 1700.

[704] Humboldt, Atl. Pit. p. 106.

[705] Phil. Trans. 1693-4.

[706] Phil. Trans. 1693.

[707] Manual of Geol. p. 133, second edition.

[708] Vol. i. p. 235, 8vo ed. 3 vols. 1801.

[709] Letter to the Author, May, 1838.

[710] Phil. Trans. 1694.

[711] This view of the temple (substituted for one by A. de Jorio, given in the earlier editions) has been reduced from part of a beautiful colored drawing taken in 1836, with the aid of the camera lucida, by Mr. l'Anson to illustrate a paper by Mr. Babbage on the temple, read March, 1834, and published in the Quart. Journ. of the Geol. Soc. of London, vol. iii. 1847.

[712] Mr. Babbage examined this spot in company with Sir Edmund Head in June, 1828, and has shown me numerous specimens of the shells collected there, and in the Temple of Serapis.

[713] This view is taken from Sir W. Hamilton, Campi Phlegræi, plate 26.

[714] This spot here indicated on the summit of the cliff is that from which Hamilton's view, plate 26, Campi Phlegræi (reduced in fig. 88, p. 509) is taken, and on which, he says, Cicero's villa, called the Academia, anciently stood.

[715] On the authority of Captain W. H. Smyth, R. N.

[716] Dissertazione sulla Sagra Archittetura degli Antichi.

[717] This appears from the measurement of Captain Basil Hall, R. N., Proceedings of Geol. Soc., No. 38, p. 114; see also Patchwork, by the same author, vol. iii. p. 158. The fact of the three standing columns having been each formed out of a single stone was first pointed out to me by Mr. James Hall, and is important, as helping to explain why they were not shaken down.

[718] Modiola lithophaga, Lam. Mytilus lithophagus, Linn.

[719] Serpula contortuplicata, Linn., and _Vermilia triquetra_, Lam. These species, as well as the Lithodomus, are now inhabitants of the neighboring sea.

[720] Brieslak, Voy. dans la Campanie, tom. ii. p. 167.

[721] Ed. Journ. of Science, new series, No. II. p. 281.

[722] Sul Tempio di Serap. ch. viii.

[723] Tavola Metrica Chronologica, &c. Napoli, 1838. Mr. Smith, of Jordan Hill, writing in 1847, estimated the rate of subsidence, at that period, at one inch annually. Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. vol. iii. p. 237.

[724] Voy. dans la Campanie, tome ii. p. 162.

[725] Mr. Forbes, Physical Notices of the Bay of Naples. Ed. Journ. of Sci., No. II., new series, p. 280. October, 1829. When I visited Puzzuoli, and arrived at the above conclusions, I knew nothing of Mr. Forbes's observations, which I first saw on my return to England the year following.

[726] Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. 1847, vol. iii. p. 203.

[727] Nuove Ricerche sul Temp. di Serap.

[728] The Swedish measure scarcely differs from ours; the foot being divided into twelve inches, and being less than ours by three-eighths of an inch only.

[729] For a full account of the Celsian controversy, we may refer our readers to Von Hoff, Geschichte, &c. vol. i. p. 439.

[730] Piteo, Luleo, and Obo are spelt, in many English maps, Pitea, Lulea, Åbo; the a is not sounded in the Swedish diphthong ao or å.

[731] Sect. 393.

[732] Sect. 398.

[733] Transl. of his Travels, p. 387.

[734] In the earlier editions I expressed many doubts as to the validity of the proofs of a gradual rise of land in Sweden. A detailed statement of the observations which I made in 1834, and which led me to change my opinion, will be found in the Philosophical Transactions for 1835, part i.

[735] See Professor Johnston's Paper, Ed. New Phil. Journ. No. 29, July 1833; and my remarks, Phil. Trans. 1835, p. 12.

[736] See p. 522; also chap. 15, supra.

[737] See a paper by the Author, Phil. Trans. 1835, part i.

[738] See my paper before referred to, Phil. Trans. 1885, part i. p. 8, 9. Attempts have been since made to explain away the position of this hut, by conjecturing that a more recent trench had been previously dug here, which had become filled up in time by sand drifted by the wind. The engineers who superintended the works in 1819, and with whom I conversed, had considered every hypothesis of the kind, but could not so explain the facts.

[739] Quart. Journ. of Geol. Soc. No. 4, p. 534. M. Bravais' observations were verified in 1849 by Mr. R. Chambers in his "Tracings of N. of Europe," p. 208.

[740] See Proceedings of Geol. Soc. No. 42, p. 208. I also conversed with Dr. Pingel on the subject at Copenhagen in 1834.

[741] Keilhau, Bulletin de la Soc. Géol de France, tom. vii. p. 18.

[742] Illust. of Hutt. Theory, § 435-443.

[743] Herschel's Astronomy, chap. iii.

[744] See Hennessy, On Changes in Earth's Figure, &c. Journ. Geol. Soc. Dublin, 1849; and Proc. Roy. Irish Acad. vol. iv. p. 337.

[745] Young's Lectures, and Mrs. Somerville's Connection of the Physical Sciences, p. 90.

[746] Phil. Trans. 1839, and Researches in Physical Geology, 1st, 2d, and 3d series, London, 1839-1842; also on Phenomena and Theory of Volcanoes, Report Brit. Assoc. 1847.

[747] Ed. Journ. of Sci. April, 1832.

[748] Cordier, Mém. de l'Instit. tom. vii.

[749] Pog. Ann. tom. xv. p. 159.

[750] See M. Cordier's Memoir on the Temperature of the Interior of the Earth, read to the Academy of Sciences, 4th June, 1827.--Edin. New Phil. Journal, No. viii. p. 273.

[751] Cordier, Mém. de l'Instit. tom. vii.

[752] Phil. Mag. and Ann. Feb. 1830.

[753] The heat was measured in Wedgwood's pyrometer by the contraction of pure clay, which is reduced in volume when heated, first by the loss of its water of combination, and afterwards, on the application of more intense heat, by incipient vitrification. The expansion of platina is the test employed by Mr. Daniell in his pyrometer, and this has been found to yield uniform and constant results, such as are in perfect harmony with conclusions drawn from various other independent sources. The instrument for which the author received the Rumford Medal from the Royal Society, in 1833, is described in the Phil. Trans. 1830, part ii., and 1831, part ii.

[754] The above remarks are reprinted verbatim from my third edition, May, 1834. A memoir was afterwards communicated by M. Poisson to the Academy of Sciences, January, 1837, on the solid parts of the globe, containing an epitome of a work entitled "Théorie Mathématique de la Chaleur," published in 1835. In this memoir he controverts the doctrine of the high temperature of a central fluid on similar grounds to those above stated. He imagines, that if the globe ever passed from a liquid to a solid state by radiation of heat, the central nucleus must have begun to cool and consolidate first.

[755] Consolations in Travel, p. 271.

[756] Phil. Trans. 1830, p. 399.

[757] Biblioth. Univers. 1833, Electricité.

[758] Phil. Trans. 1832, p. 176; also pp. 172, 173, &c.

[759] Hist. Mundi, lib. ii. c. 107.

[760] Reduced, by permission, from a figure in plate 40 of Sir H. De la Beche's Geological Sections and Views.

[761] Phil. Trans. 1828, p. 250.

[762] Geology of American Exploring Expedition, p. 369.

[763] Davy, Phil. Trans. 1828, p. 244.

[764] Ann. de Chim. et de Phys. tom. iii. p. 181.

[765] Phil. Trans. 1832, p. 240.

[766] Ann. de Chim. et de Phys. tom. xxii.

[767] Quart. Journ. of Sci. 1823, p. 132, note by editor.

[768] Phenom. Géol. &c. p. 3.

[769] Phil. Trans. 1828.

[770] See Daubeny, Encyc. Metrop. part 40.

[771] Jam. Ed. New Phil. Journ. No. li. p. 31.

[772] See Daubeny's Reply to Bischoff, Jam. Ed. New Phil. Journ. No. lii. p. 291; and note in No. liii. p. 158.

[773] Poggend. Ann. 1851 translated, Sci. Mem. 1852.

[774] Proceed. Americ. Assoc. 1849.

[775] Reduced from a sketch given by Sir W. J. Hooker, in his Tour in Iceland, vol. i. p. 149.

[776] Journal of a Residence in Iceland, p. 74.

[777] Mackenzie's Iceland.

[778] MS. read to Geol. Soc. of London, Feb. 29, 1832.

[779] From Sir George Mackenzie's Iceland.

[780] See Mr. Horner's Anniversary Address, Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. 1847, liii.

[781] Liebig's Annalen der Chimie und Pharmacie, translated in "Reports and Memoirs" of Cavendish Soc. London, 1848.

[782] On the Cause and Phenomena of Earthquakes, Phil. Trans. vol. li. sec. 58, 1760.

[783] Trans. of Assoc. of American Geol. 1840-1842, p. 520.

[784] Mallet, p. 39.

[785] Scrope on Volcanoes, pp. 58-60.

[786] Archiac, Hist, des Progrés de la Géol, 1847, vol. i. pp. 605-610.

[787] Silliman's American Journ. vol. xxii. p. 136. The application of these results to the theory of earthquakes was first suggested to me by Mr. Babbage.

[788] Bulletin de la Soc. Géol. 2d series, vol. iv. p. 1312.

[789] See p. 468.

[790] Phil. Zool. tom. i. p. 84.

[791] Phil. Zool. tom. i. p. 62.

[792] Ibid.

[793] Phil. Zool. tom. i. p. 227.

[794] Ibid. p. 232.

[795] Phil. Zool. tom. i. p. 234.

[796] Phil. Zool. p. 64.

[797] Animaux sans Vert. tom. i. p. 56, Introduction.

[798] Lamarck's Phil. Zool. tom. i. p. 356.

[799] Ibid. p. 357.

[800] Genus omne est naturale, in primordio tale creatum, &c. Phil. Bot. § 159. See also ibid. § 162.

[801] Cuvier, Dîscours Prélimin. p. 128.

[802] Phil. Zool. tom. i. p. 266.

[803] Dureau de la Malle, An. des Sci. Nat. tom. xxi. p. 53. Sept. 1830.

[804] Disc. Prél. p. 139. sixth edition.

[805] Ibid.

[806] Güldenstädt, cited by Pritchard, Phys. Hist. of Mankind, vol. i. p. 96.

[807] History of British Quadrupeds, p. 200. 1837.

[808] Ann. du Muséum d'Hist. Nat. tom. i. p. 234. 1802. The reporters were MM. Cuvier, Lacépède, and Lamarck.

[809] I by no means wish to express an opinion that seeds cannot retain their vitality after an entombment of 3,000 years; but one of my botanical friends who entertained a philosophical doubt on this subject, being desirous of ascertaining the truth of three or four alleged instances of the germination of "mummy wheat," discovered, on communicating with several Egyptian travellers, that they had procured the grains in question, not directly from the catacombs, but from the Arabs, who are always ready to supply strangers with an article now very frequently in demand. The presence of an occasional grain of Indian corn or maize in several of the parcels of grain shown to my friend as coming from the catacombs confirmed his scepticism.

[810] Phil. Zool., tom. i. p. 227.

[811] L'Origine et la Patrie des Céréales, &c., Annales des Sciences Natur., tom. ix. p. 61.

[812] Smith's Introduction to Botany, p. 138, edit. 1807.

[813] See Mr. Knight's Observations, Hort Trans., vol. ii. p. 160.

[814] Hort. Trans. vol. iv. p. 19.

[815] Loudon's Mag. of Nat. Hist., Sept. 1830, vol. iii. p. 408.

[816] Hort. Trans. vol. iii. p. 173.

[817] M. Roulin, Ann. des Sci. Nat. tom. xvi. p. 16. 1829.

[818] Mem. du Mus. d'Hist. Nat.--Jameson, Ed. New Phil. Journ. Nos. 6, 7, 8.

[819] In the New Forest, near Ringwood, Hants, by Mr. Toomer, keeper of Broomy Lodge. I have conversed with witnesses of the fact.

[820] Mém. du Mus. d'Hist. Nat.

[821] Dureau de la Malle. Ann. des Sci. Nat., tom. xxi. p. 58.

[822] Darwin's Journ. in Voyage of H.M.S. Beagle, p. 475.

[823] Fauna Boreali-Americana, p. 273.

[824] Mr. Corse on the Habits, &c. of the Elephant, Phil. Trans., 1799.

[825] Linn. Trans. vol. xiii. p. 244.

[826] Pers. Narr. of Travels to the Equinoctial Regions of the New Continent in the years 1779-1804.

[827] Phil. Trans. 1787. Additional Remarks, Phil. Trans. 1789. See also Essays by the late Dr. Samuel G. Morton, on Prolific Hybrids, &c.; and on Hybridity as a Test of Species.--American Journ. of Science, vol. iii. 1847.

[828] Prichard, vol. i. p. 217.

[829] Ibid. p. 97.

[830] See Barton on the Geography of Plants, p. 67.

[831] Georg. lib. iii. 273.

[832] Hon. and Rev. W. Herbert, Hort. Trans., vol. iv. p. 41.

[833] Ibid.

[834] Essai Elémentaire, &c., 3me partie.

[835] Intr. to Entom. vol. ii. p. 504. ed. 1817.

[836] Prichard's Phys. Hist. of Mankind, vol. i. p. 159.

[837] Ch. White on the Regular Gradation in Man, &c. 1799.

[838] R. G. Latham, The Nat. Hist. of the Varieties of Man, 8vo. London, 1850.

[839] Lawrence, Lectures on Phys. Zool. and Nat. Hist. of Man, p. 190. Ed. 1823.

[840] E. R. A. Serres, Anatomie comparée du Cerveau, illustrated by numerous plates, tome i. 1824.

[841] Barton's Lectures on the Geography of Plants, p. 2. 1827.

[842] Pers. Nar., vol. v. p. 180.

[843] Ibid.

[844] Essai Elémentaire de Géographie Botanique. Extrait du 18me vol. du Dict. des Sci. Nat.

[845] Prichard, vol. i. p. 36. Brown, Appendix to Flinders.

[846] Foster, Observations, &c.

[847] Humboldt, Pers. Nar., vol. i. p. 270 of the translation. Prichard, Phys. Hist. of Mankind, vol. i. p. 37.

[848] Voyage of the Beagle, 2d edition, 1845, p. 377.

[849] See a farther subdivision, by which twenty-seven provinces are made, by M. Alph. De Candolle, son of De Candolle. Monogr. des Campanulées. Paris, 1830.

[850] De Candolle, Essai Elémen. de Géog. Botan., p. 45.

[851] I am indebted for the above sketch of distinct regions of algæ to my friend Dr. Joseph Hooker, who refers the botanical student to the labors of Dr. Harvey, of Trinity College, Dublin.

[852] Annuaire du Bureau des Longitudes.

[853] Linn., Tour in Lapland, vol. ii. p. 282.

[854] Fries, cited by Lindley, Introd. to Nat. Syst. of Botany.

[855] System of Physiological Botany, vol. ii. p. 405.

[856] Brown, Append. to Tuckey, No. v. p. 481.

[857] Phil. Trans. 1696.

[858] System of Physiological Botany, vol. ii. p. 403.

[859] Greville, Introduction to Algæ Britannicæ, p. 12.

[860] Linnæus, Amoen. Acad., vol. ii. p. 409.

[861] Amoen. Acad., vol. iv. Essay 75. § 8.

[862] Ibid., vol. vi. § 22.

[863] Smith's Introd. to Phys. and Syst. Botany, p. 304. 1807.

[864] This information was communicated to me by Professor Henslow, of Cambridge.

[865] Book iii. ch. iv.

[866] De Candolle, Essai Elémen. &c., p. 50.

[867] Quarterly Review, vol. xxx. p. 8.

[868] Essay on the Habitable Earth, Amoen. Acad., vol. ii. p. 409.

[869] Principles of Botany, p. 389.

[870] Ibid.

[871] Buffon, vol. v.--On the Virginian Opossum.

[872] Prichard's Phys. Hist. of Mankind, vol. i. p. 54.

[873] In the above enumeration of the leading zoological provinces of land quadrupeds I have been most kindly assisted by Mr. Waterhouse of the British Museum, author of a most able and comprehensive work on the "Natural History of the Mammalia," now in the course of publication. London, Bailliere, 1846.

[874] Pennant's Hist. of Quadrupeds, cited by Prichard, Phys. Hist. of Mankind, vol. i. p. 66.

[875] Natural History of the Mammalia, vol. i., on the Marsupials. London, Bailliere, 1846.

[876] Description of the Equatorial Regions.

[877] Prichard, Phys. Hist., of Mankind, vol. i. p. 75.

[878] Buffon, vol. v. p. 204.

[879] Sir T. D. Lauder, Bart., on the Floods in Morayshire, Aug. 1829, p. 302, second edition.

[880] Expedition from Pittsburg to the Rocky Mountains, vol. ii. p. 153.

[881] Richardson's Fauna Boreali-Americana, p. 16.

[882] Phil. Trans., vol. ii. p. 872.

[883] Wood's Zoography, vol. i. p. 11.

[884] On the authority of Mr. Campbell. Library of Entert. Know., Menageries. vol. i. p. 152.

[885] Cuvier's Animal Kingdom by Griffiths, vol. ii. p. 109. Library of Entertaining Knowledge, Menageries, vol. i. p. 366.

[886] Horsfield, Zoological Researches in Java, No. ii., from which the figure is taken.

[887] Append. to Parry's Second Voyage, years 1819-20.

[888] Account of the Arctic Regions, vol. i. p. 518.

[889] Turton in a note to Goldsmith's Nat. Hist., vol. iii. p. 43.

[890] Supplement to Parry's First Voyage of Discovery, p. 189.

[891] Goldman's American Nat. Hist., vol. i. p. 22.

[892] Dr. Richardson, Brit. Assoc. Report, vol. v. p. 161.

[893] System of Geography, vol. v. p. 157.

[894] Spix and Martius, Reise, &c., vol. iii. pp. 1011. 1013.

[895] Sir W. Parish's Buenos Ayres, p. 187., and Robertson's Letters on Paraguay, p. 220.

[896] United Service Journal, No. xxiv. p. 697.

[897] Krantz, vol. i. p. 129., cited by Goldsmith, Nat. Hist., vol. iii. p. 260.

[898] Darwin's Journal, &c., p. 461.

[899] Prichard, vol. i. p. 47.

[900] Bewick's Birds, vol. ii. p. 294., who cites Latham.

[901] Pisa, 1827 (not sold).

[902] Bachman, Silliman's Amer. Journ., No. 61, p. 92.

[903] Voyage aux Régions Equinoxiales, tome vii. p. 429.

[904] Fleming, Phil. Zool., vol. ii. p. 43.

[905] Silliman's Amer. Journ., No. 61. p. 83.

[906] Richardson, Brit. Assoc. Rep., vol. v. p. 202.

[907] Brit. Animals, p. 149., who cites Sibbald.

[908] Zool. Journ. vol iii. p. 406. Dec. 1827.

[909] Sur les Habitations des Animaux Marins.--Ann. du Mus., tome. xv., cited by Prichard, Phys. Hist. of Mankind, vol. i. p. 51.

[910] Brit. Assoc. Reports, vol. v. p. 203.

[911] Report to the Brit. Assoc., 1845, p. 192.

[912] Richardson, ibid. p. 190.

[913] Sir J. Richardson, ibid. p. 190.

[914] Phil. Trans. 1747, p. 395.

[915] Amoen. Acad., Essay 75.

[916] Report to the Brit Assoc. 1843, p. 130.

[917] Quart. Journ., Geol. Soc., 1846, vol. ii. p. 268.

[918] Four individuals of a large species of land shell (Bulimus), from Valparaiso, were brought to England by Lieutenant Graves, who accompanied Captain King in his expedition to the Straits of Magellan. They had been packed up in a box, and enveloped in cotton: two for a space of thirteen, one for seventeen, and a fourth for upwards of twenty months: but, on being exposed by Mr. Broderip to the warmth of a fire in London, and provided with tepid water and leaves, they revived, and lived for several months in Mr. Loddiges' palm-house, till accidentally drowned.

[919] Camb. Phil. Trans., vol. iv. 1831.

[920] Edin. New Phil. Journ., April 1844.

[921] Phil. Trans. 1835, p. 303.

[922] The specimen is preserved in the Museum of the Zool. Soc. of London.

[923] This specimen is in the collection of my friend Mr. Broderip, who observes, that this crab, which was apparently in perfect health, could not have cast her shell for six years, whereas some naturalists have stated that the species moults annually, without limiting the moulting period to the early stages of the growth of the animal.

[924] Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., vol. iv. p. 336.

[925] Voy. aux Terres Australes, tom. i. p. 492.

[926] Géographie Générale des Insectes et des Arachnides. Mém. du Mus. d'Hist. Nat., tom. iii.

[927] Kirby and Spence, vol. iv. p. 487; and other authors.

[928] Kirby and Spence, vol. iv. p. 497.

[929] Washington Irving's Tour in the Prairies, ch. ix.

[930] Malte-Brun, vol. v. p. 379.

[931] Kirby and Spence, vol. ii. p. 9. 1817.

[932] Kirby and Spence, vol. ii. p. 12. 1817.

[933] I am indebted to Lieutenant Graves, R.N., for this information.

[934] I state this fact on the authority of my friend, Mr. John Curtis.

[935] Brand's Select Dissert. from the Amoen. Acad., vol. i. p. 118.

[936] Ibid.

[937] Sir H. Davy, Consolations in Travel, p. 74.

[938] W. von Humboldt, "On the Kawi Language," &c. cited in Cosmos. Introduction.

[939] Egypten's Stelle, &c. Egypt restored to her Place in Universal History, by C. C. J. Bunsen. 1845.

[940] For Grecian and Asiatic deluges, see above, p. 356.; Cimbrian, p. 331., Chinese, p. 7. Peruvian, p. 502.; Chilian or Araucanian deluge, p. 500.

[941] See p. 615.

[942] Malte-Brun's Geography, vol. iii. p. 419.

[943] Chamisso states that the water which they brought up was cooler, and in their opinion, less salt. It is difficult to conceive its being fresher near the bottom, except where submarine springs may happen to rise.

[944] Kotzebue's Voyage, 1815-1818. Quarterly Review, vol. xxvi. p. 361.

[945] Narrative of a Voyage to the Pacific, &c., in the years 1825, 1826, 1827, 1828, p. 170.

[946] Gloger, Abänd. der Vögel, p. 103.; Pallas, Zoog. Rosso-Asiat., tom. ii. p. 197.

[947] Syst. of Geog., vol. viii. p. 169.

[948] De terrâ habitabili incremento; also Prichard, Phys. Hist, of Mankind, vol. i. p. 17., where the hypotheses of different naturalists are enumerated.

[949] Necker, Phytozool. Philosoph. p. 21.; Brocchi, Conch. Foss. Subap., tome i. p. 229.

[950] Amoen. Acad. vol. vi. p. 17. § 12.

[951] Ibid. vol. vii. p. 409.

[952] Amoen. Acad., vol. vi. p. 17. § 11, 12.

[953] Kirby and Spence, vol. i. p. 178.

[954] Amoen. Acad., vol. vi. p. 26. § 14.

[955] Kirby and Spence, vol. iv. p. 218.

[956] Kirby and Spence, vol. i. p. 250.

[957] Wilcke, Amoen. Acad. c. ii.

[958] Kirby and Spence, vol. i. p. 174.

[959] Trans. Linn. Soc., vol. vi.

[960] Lib. Ent. Know., Insect Trans., p. 203. See Haworth, Lep.

[961] Reaumur, ii. 337.

[962] Lib. Ent. Know., Insect Trans., p. 212.

[963] Kirby and Spence, vol. i. p. 183. Castle, Phil. Trans., xxx. 346.

[964] Travels in Africa, p. 257. Kirby and Spence, vol. i. p. 215.

[965] Journal of a Residence in Iceland, p. 276.

[966] Tour in Iceland, vol. i. p. 64, 2nd edit.

[967] Travels in Brazil, vol. i. p. 260.

[968] Ed. Phil. Journ., No. xxii p. 287. Oct. 1824.

[969] Ray. Syn. Quad., p. 214.

[970] Fleming, Ed. Phil. Journ., No. xxii. p. 295.

[971] Fleming, ibid., p. 292.

[972] Vol. iii. London, 1821.

[973] Land Birds, vol. i. p. 316. ed. 1821.

[974] Some have complained that inscriptions on tomb-stones convey no general information, except that individuals were born and died, accidents which must happen alike to all men. But the death of a species is so remarkable an event in natural history that it deserves commemoration, and it is with no small interest that we learn, from the archives of the University of Oxford, the exact day and year when the remains of the last specimen of the dodo, which had been permitted to rot in the Ashmolean Museum, were cast away. The relics, we are told, were "a musæo subducta, annuente vice-cancellario aliisque curatoribus, ad ea lustranda convocatis, die Januarii 8vo, A.D. 1755." Zool. Journ. No. 12. p. 559. 1828.

[975] Penny Cyclopædia, "Dodo." 1837.

[976] Messrs. Strickland and Melville on "the Dodo and its Kindred." London, 1848.

[977] Pers. Nar. vol. iv.

[978] Quarterly Review, vol. xxi. p. 335.

[979] Ibid.

[980] Ulloa's Voyage. Wood's Zoog. vol. i. p. 9.

[981] Buffon, vol. v. p. 100. Ulloa's Voyage, vol. ii. p. 220.

[982] Travels in Iceland in 1810, p. 342.

[983] Maclaren, art. America, Encyc. Brit.

[984] See a note on this subject, chap. x. p. 157.

[985] See above, p. 317.

[986] Darwin's Journal, p. 156., 2d ed. p. 133. Sir W. Parish, Buenos Ayres, &c. p. 371. and 151.

[987] See above, chap. vii. p. 112.

[988] See above, chaps. vi. vii. and viii.

[989] Journ. of Nat. Hist. &c. 2d edit., 1845, p. 175; also Lyell's 2d Visit to the United States, vol. i. p. 351.

[990] This and the preceding chapter, on the causes of extinction of species and their present geographical distribution, are reprinted almost verbatim from the original edition of the second volume of "The Principles," published in January, 1832. It was I believe the first attempt to point out how former changes in the geography and local climate of many parts of the globe must be taken into account when we endeavor to explain the actual provinces of plants and animals, the changes alluded to having been proved by geological evidence to be subsequent to the creation of a great proportion of the species now living, and these having been, according to the view which I advocated, introduced in succession, and not all at one geological epoch. In my third volume, published in May, 1833, I announced my conviction that the greater part of the existing Fauna and Flora of Sicily were older than the mountains, plains, and rivers, which the same species of animals and plants now inhabit. (Prin. of Geol., vol. iii. ch. ix.; repeated in Elements of Geol., 2d edit., vol. i. p. 297.) This line of reasoning has since been ably followed up and elucidated by Professor E. Forbes in an excellent paper (published in 1846) already alluded to. (See page 86.)

[991] Essai Elémentaire, &c. p. 46.

[992] Geog. des Plantes. Diet. des Sci.

[993] See Catalogue of Brit. Insects, by John Curtis, Esq.

[994] See some good remarks on the Formation of Soils, Bakewell's Geology, chap. xviii.

[995] See Professor Sedgwick's Anniversary Address to the Geological Society, Feb. 1831, p. 24.

[996] Treatise on Rivers and Torrents, p. 5. Garston's translation.

[997] De la Beche, Geol. Man., p. 184., 1st ed.

[998] Phil. Trans., vol. ii. p. 294.

[999] Maclaren, art. America, Encyc. Britannica.

[1000] Maclaren, art. America, Encyc. Britannica, where the position of the American forests, in accordance with this theory, is laid down in a map.

[1001] Annuaire du Bureau des Long. 1834.

[1002] Since this was written I have seen in New Brunswick (1852) a lake formed by beavers who had thrown a dam, consisting of stakes, stones, and mud, across the course of a small streamlet, between Dorchester and the Portage south of the Peticodiac river. The beavers have since been extirpated by man, but the lake remains, and musk rats have taken possession of the shallow parts of the lake to build their habitations in them.

[1003] For a catalogue of plants which form peat, see Rev. Dr. Rennie's Essays on Peat, p. 171; and Dr. MacCulloch's Western Isles, vol. i. p. 129.

[1004] Irish Bog Reports, p. 209.

[1005] System of Geology, vol. ii. p. 353.

[1006] Rev. Dr. Rennie on Peat, p. 260.

[1007] Darwin's Journal, p. 349.; 2d ed. p. 287.

[1008] Rennie's Essays on Peat, p. 65.

[1009] Ibid. p. 30.

[1010] Essays on Peat, &c., p. 74.

[1011] See above, p. 388, note.

[1012] Ehrenberg, Taylor's Scientific Mem. vol. i. part iii. p. 402.

[1013] Dr. Rennie, on Peat, p. 521; where several other instances are referred to.

[1014] Phil. Trans., vol. xxxviii. 1734.

[1015] Dr. Rennie, on Peat, &c., p. 521.

[1016] Syst. of Geol. vol. ii. pp. 340-346.

[1017] Ibid. p. 531.

[1018] Phil. Trans. vol. xv. p. 949.

[1019] Gilpin, Observ. on Picturesque Beauty, &c., 1772.

[1020] Travels, &c., in 1841, 1842, vol. i. p. 143.

[1021] Bulletin de la Soc. Géol. de France, tom. ii. p. 26.

[1022] Dr. Rennie, Essays on Peat Moss, p. 205.

[1023] M. G. A. De Luc, Mercure de France, Sept. 1809.

[1024] See p. 262.

[1025] Stratton, Ed. Phil. Journ., No. v. p. 62.

[1026] Travels in North Africa in the Years 1818, 1819, and 1820, p. 83.

[1027] Mém. de l'Acad. des Sci. de Paris, 1772. See also the case of the buried church of Eccles, above, p. 306.

[1028] Phil. Trans., vol. ii. p. 722.

[1029] Boase on Submersion of Part of the Mount's Bay, &c., Trans. Roy. Geol. Soc. of Cornwall, vol. ii. p. 140.

[1030] Narrative of Journey from Agra to Oujein, Asiatic Researches, vol. vi. p. 36.

[1031] Asiatic Journal, vol. ix. p. 35.

[1032] See above, p. 460.

[1033] Sir J. Malcolm's Central India. Appendix, No. 2. p. 324.

[1034] Sir T. D. Lauder, Bart., on Floods in Morayshire, Aug. 1839, p. 177.

[1035] Dodsley's Ann. Regist., 1788.

[1036] Edwards, Hist. of West Indies, vol. i. p. 235, ed. 1801.

[1037] Journ. of Asiat. Soc., Nos. xxv. and xxix., 1834.

[1038] Ann. des Sci. Nat. tom. xxii. p. 117, Feb. 1831.

[1039] Malte-Brun's Geog., vol. i. p. 435.

[1040] Bakewell, Travels in the Tarentaise, vol. i. p. 201.

[1041] Nahum Ward, Trans. of Antiq. Soc. of Massachusetts. Holmes's United States, p. 438.

[1042] Bull. de la Soc. Géol. de France, tom. ii. p. 329.

[1043] See above, p. 240.

[1044] See remarks by M. Boblaye, Ann. des Mines, 3me série, tom. iv.

[1045] Ann. des Mines, 3me série, tom. iv., 1833.

[1046] Bull. de la Soc. Géol. de France, tom. iii. p. 223.

[1047] Mém. de la Soc. d'Hist, Nat. de Paris, tom. iv.

[1048] Reliquiæ Diluvianæ, p. 108.

[1049] Journ. de Géol., tom. i. p. 286. July, 1830.

[1050] Reliquiæ Diluvianæ, p. 165.

[1051] M. Marcel de Serres, Géognosie des Terrains Tertiaires, p. 64. Introduction.

[1052] Bull. de la Soc. Géol. de France, tom. ii. pp. 56-63.

[1053] Desnoyers, Bull. de la Soc. Géol. de France, tom. ii. p. 252.

[1054] Hist. Rom. Epit., lib. iii. c. 10.

[1055] Buckland, Reliquiæ Diluvianæ, p. 25.

[1056] See above, pp. 730, 731.

[1057] On the Lake Mountains of North of England, Geol. Soc. Jan. 5, 1831.

[1058] Notes on Geol. of Cuba, 1836, Phil. Mag., July, 1837.

[1059] See above, p. 67.

[1060] Account of the Arctic Regions, vol. ii. p. 193.

[1061] Ibid. p. 202.

[1062] Dr. Richardson's Geognost Obs. on Capt. Franklin's Polar Expedition.

[1063] Malte-Brun, Geog., vol. v. part 1. p. 112.--Brantz, Hist. of Greenland, tom. 1. pp. 53, 54.

[1064] Olafsen, Voyage to Iceland, tom. i.--Malte-Brun's Geog., vol. v. part i. p. 112.

[1065] See above, pp. 303 and 323.

[1066] Geol. Trans., second series, vol. v. p. 212.

[1067] Göppert, Poggendorff's Annalen der Physik und Chemie, vol. xxxviii. part iv., Leipsic, 1836. See also Lyell's Manual of Geol., p. 40.

[1068] Trans. Geol. Soc., vol. iii. part i. p. 201, second series.

[1069] Sir T. D. Lauder's Account, 2d. ed., p. 312.

[1070] Treatise on Practical Store Farming, p. 25.

[1071] Sir T. D. Lauder's Floods in Morayshire, 1829; and above, p. 196.

[1072] Humboldt's Pers. Nar., vol. iv. p. 394.

[1073] Buenos Ayres and La Plata, p. 187.

[1074] Malte-Brun's Geog., vol. iii. p. 22.

[1075] This account I had from Mr. Baumhauer, Director-General of Finances in Java.

[1076] Tracts on India, p. 397.

[1077] Scots Mag., vol. xxxiii.

[1078] Darwin's Journal, p. 372. 2d ed., 1845, p. 304.

[1079] Narrative of Discovery in Egypt, &c., London, 1820.

[1080] Scots Mag., vol. xxxiii., 1771.

[1081] Quart. Journ. of Agricult., No. ix p. 433.

[1082] Cæsar Moreau's Tables of the Navigation of Great Britain.

[1083] I give these results on the authority of Captain W. H. Smyth, R. N.

[1084] Von Hoff, vol. i. p. 379.

[1085] This account I received from the Honorable and Rev. Charles Harris.

[1086] Von Hoff, vol. i. p. 368.

[1087] Lieut. Carless, Geograph. Journ., vol. viii. p. 338.

[1088] Silliman's Geol. Lectures, p. 78, who cites Penn.

[1089] Leigh's Lancashire, p. 17, A. D. 1700.

[1090] Geol. Trans., second series, vol. ii. p. 87.

[1091] Phil. Trans., 1799.

[1092] Phil. Trans., vol. lxix., 1779.

[1093] Phil. Trans., 1826, part. ii. p. 55.

[1094] See above, pp. 453. 457. 499. 501.

[1095] Thomson's Western Himalaya and Thibet, p. 292. London, 1852. Cunningham, vol. xvii. Journ. Asiat. Soc. Bengal, pp. 241, 277.

[1096] Alciphron, or the Minute Philosopher, vol. ii. pp. 84, 85, 1732.

[1097] Davy, Consolations in Travel, p. 276.

[1098] Essay on the Vicissitude of Things.

[1099] On Freshwater Marl, &c. By C. Lyell. Geol. Trans., vol. ii., second series, p. 73.

[1100] See Desmarest's Crustacea, pl. 55.

[1101] Dr. Bigsby, Journ. of Science, &c. No. xxxvii. pp. 262, 263.

[1102] Mantell, Geol. of Sussex, p. 285; also Catalogue of Org. Rem., Geol. Trans., vol. iii. part i p. 201., 2nd series.

[1103] Page 276.

[1104] Page 460.

[1105] Page 599.

[1106] Forchhammer, Report British Assoc. 1844.

[1107] Fleming's Brit. Animals, p. 37; in which work other cases are enumerated.

[1108] Quart. Journ. of Lit. Sci., &c., No. xv., p. 172. Oct. 1819.

[1109] This specimen has been presented by Mr. Lonsdale to the Geological Society of London.

[1110] The most conspicuous of the bones represented within the shell in fig. 107, appear to be the clavicle and coracoid bone. They are hollow; and for this reason resemble, at first sight, the bones of birds rather than of reptiles; for the latter have no medullary cavity. Prof. Owen, of the College of Surgeons, in order to elucidate this point, dissected for me a very young turtle, and found that the exterior portion only of the bones was ossified, the interior being still filled with cartilage. This cartilage soon dried up and shrank to a mere thread upon the evaporation of the spirits of wine in which the specimen had been preserved, so that in a short time the bones became as empty as those of birds.

[1111] Ehrenberg, Nat. und Bild. der Coralleninseln. &c., Berlin, 1834.

[1112] See Ehrenberg's work above cited, p. 751.

[1113] Stutchbury, West of England Journal, No. i. p. 49.

[1114] Darwin's Coral Reefs, p. 77.

[1115] Ibid. 78.

[1116] Voyage to the Pacific, &c. in 1825-28.

[1117] Darwin's Journal, &c., p. 540, and new edit., of 1845, p. 453.

[1118] Darwin's Journal, &c., pp. 547, 548., and 2d edit., of 1845, p. 460.

[1119] Kotzebue's Voy., 1815-18, vol. iii. pp. 331-333.

[1120] Stutchbury, West of Eng. Journ., No. i. p. 50.

[1121] Captain Beechey, part i. p. 188.

[1122] Captain Moresby on the Maldives, Journ. Roy. Geograph. Soc., vol. V. part ii. p. 400.

[1123] See above, p. 442.

[1124] Darwin, Volcanic Islands, p. 113.

[1125] Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. 4. XCIII.

[1126] Darwin's Journal, p. 557. 2d edit. chap. 20, and Coral Islands, chapters 1, 2, 3.

[1127] See Principles of Geology, 1st edit., vol. ii. p. 296.

[1128] Voyage to the Pacific, &c., p. 189.

[1129] See Principles of Geology, 1st ed., 1832, vol. ii. p. 293.

[1130] Beechey's Voyage to the Pacific, &c., p. 46.

[1131] Voyage to the Pacific, &c., p. 194.

[1132] Scotsman, Nov. 1842, and Jameson's Edin. Journ. of Science, 1843.

[1133] Trans. Geol. Soc., London, 2d series, vol. v.

[1134] Beechey's Voyage, vol. i. p. 45.

[1135] Paper read to Brit. Assoc., Southampton, 1846.

[1136] Letter to Mr. Maclaren, Scotsman, 1843.

GLOSSARY

OF GEOLOGICAL AND OTHER SCIENTIFIC TERMS USED IN THIS WORK.

ACEPHALOUS. The Acephala are that division of molluscous animals which, like the oyster and scallop, are without heads. The class Acephala of Cuvier comprehends many genera of animals with bivalve shells, and a few which are devoid of shells. Etym., α, a, without, and κεφαλη, cephale, the head.

ACIDULOUS. Slightly acid.

ACROGENS. One of five classes into which all plants may be divided; it includes such flowerless ones as grow from the top only, and whose stems consequently do not increase materially in bulk, as Mosses, Ferns, Lycopodiums, Equisetums, &c. The trunk of a tree fern is a good example. They are also called Acrobrya. Etym., ακρον, acron, the top, and γενεσις, genesis, increase.

ADIPOCIRE. A substance apparently intermediate between fat and wax, into which dead animal matter is converted when buried in the earth, and in a certain stage of decomposition. Etym., adeps, fat, and cera, wax.

ALBITE. See "Felspar."

ALEMBIO. An apparatus for distilling.

ALGÆ. An order or division of the cryptogamic class of plants. The whole of the sea-weeds are comprehended under this division, and the application of the term in this work is to marine plants. Etym., alga, sea-weed.

ALLUVIAL. The adjective of alluvium, which see.

ALLUVION. Synonymous with alluvium, which see.

ALLUVIUM. Earth, sand, gravel, stones, and other transported matter which has been washed away and thrown down by rivers, floods, or other causes upon land not permanently submerged beneath the waters of lakes or seas. Etym., alluo, to wash upon, or alluvio, an inundation.

ALUM-STONE, ALUMEN, ALUMINOUS. Alum is the base of pure clay, and strata of clay are often met with containing much iron pyrites. When the latter substance decomposes, sulphuric acid is produced, which unites with the aluminous earth of the clay to form sulphate of alumine, or common alum. Where manufactories are established for obtaining the alum, the indurated beds of clay employed are called Alum-stone.

AMMONITE. An extinct and very numerous genus of the order of molluscous animals called Cephalopoda, allied to the modern genus Nautilus, which inhabited a chambered shell, curved like a coiled snake. Species of it are found in all geological periods of the secondary strata; but they have not been seen in the tertiary beds. They are named from their resemblance to the horns on the statues of Jupiter Ammon.

AMORPHOUS. Bodies devoid of regular form. Etym., α, a, without, and μορφη, morphe, form.

AMYGDALOID. One of the forms of the Trap-rocks, in which agates and simple minerals appear to be scattered like almonds in a cake. Etym., αμυγδαλα, amygdala, an almond.

ANALCIME. A simple mineral of the Zeolite family, also called Cubizite, of frequent occurrence in the Trap-rocks.

ANALOGUE. A body that resembles or corresponds with another body. A recent shell of the same species as a fossil shell is the analogue of the latter.

ANGOIOSPERMS. A term applied to all flowering plants in which the ovules are inclosed in an ovary, and the seeds in a pericarp or covering, as in all flowering plants except those mentioned under gymnosperms and gymnogens, which see. Etym., αγγος, angos, a vessel, and περμα, a seed.

ANOPLOTHERIUM. A fossil extinct quadruped belonging to the order Pachydermata, resembling a pig. It has received its name because the animal must have been singularly wanting in means of defence, from the form of its teeth and the absence of claws, hoofs, and horns. Etym., ανοπλος, anoplos, unarmed, and θηριον, therion, a wild beast.

ANTAGONIST POWER. Two powers in nature, the action of the one counteracting that of the other, by which a kind of equilibrium or balance is maintained, and the destructive effect prevented that would be produced by one operating without a check.

ANTENNÆ. The articulated horns with which the heads of insects are invariably furnished.

ANTHRACITE. A shining substance like black-lead; a species of mineral charcoal. Etym., ανθραξ, anthrax, coal.

ANTHRACOTHERIUM. A name given to an extinct quadruped, supposed to belong to the Pachydermata, the bones of which were first found in lignite and coal of the tertiary strata. Etym., ανθραξ, anthrax, coal, and θηριον, therion, wild beast.

ANTHROPOMORPHOUS. Having a form resembling the human. Etym., ανθρωπος, anthropos, a man, and μορφη, morphe, form.

ANTISEPTIC. Substances which prevent corruption in animal and vegetable matter, as common salt does, are said to be antiseptic. Etym., αντι, anti, against, and σηπω, sepo, to putrefy.

ARENACEOUS. Sandy. Etym., arena, sand.

ARGILLACEOUS. Clayey, composed of clay. Etym., argilla, clay.

ARRAGONITE. A simple mineral, a variety of carbonate of lime, so called from having been first found in Aragon in Spain.

ATOLLS. Coral islands of an annular form, or consisting of a circular strip or ring of coral surrounding a central lagoon.

AUGITE. A simple mineral of a dark green, or black color, which forms a constituent part of many varieties of volcanic rocks. Name applied by Pliny to a particular mineral, from the Greek αυγη, auge, lustre.

AVALANCHES. Masses of snow which, being detached from great heights in the Alps, acquire enormous bulk by fresh accumulations as they descend; and when they fall into the valleys below often cause great destruction. They are also called lavanges and lavanches in the dialects of Switzerland.

BASALT. One of the most common varieties of the Trap-rocks. It is a dark green or black stone, composed of augite and felspar, very compact in texture, and of considerable hardness, often found in regular pillars of three or more sides called basaltic columns. Remarkable examples of this kind are seen at the Giant's Causeway, in Ireland, and at Fingal's Cave, in Staffa, one of the Hebrides. The term is used by Pliny, and is said to come from basal, an Æthiopian word signifying iron. The rock often contains much iron.

"BASIN" of Paris, "BASIN" of London. Deposits lying in a hollow or trough, formed of older rocks; sometimes used in geology almost synonymously with "formations," to express the deposits lying in a certain cavity or depression in older rocks.

BELEMNITE. An extinct genus of the order of molluscous animals called Cephalopoda, having a long, straight, and chambered conical shell. Etym., βελεμνον, belemnon, a dart.

BITUMEN. Mineral pitch, of which the tar-like substance which is often seen to ooze out of the Newcastle coal when on the fire, and which makes it cake, is a good example. Etym., bitumen, pitch.

BITUMINOUS SHALE. An argillaceous shale, much impregnated with bitumen, which is very common in the Coal Measures.

BLENDE. A metallic ore, a compound of the metal zinc with sulphur. It is often found in brown shining crystals; hence its name among the German miners, from the word blenden, to dazzle.

BLUFFS. High banks presenting a precipitous front to the sea or a river. A term used in the United States of North America.

BOTRYOIDAL. Resembling a bunch of Grapes. Etym., βοτρυς, botrys, a bunch of grapes, and ειδος, eidos, form.

BOULDERS. A provincial term for large rounded blocks of stone lying on the surface of the ground, or sometimes imbedded in loose soil, different in composition from the rocks in their vicinity, and which have been therefore transported from a distance.

BRECCIA. A rock composed of angular fragments connected together by lime or other mineral substance. An Italian term.

CALC SINTER. A German name for the deposits from springs holding carbonate of lime in solution--petrifying springs. Etym., kalk, lime, and sintern, to drop.

CALCAIRE GROSSIER. An extensive stratum, or rather series of strata, found in the Paris Basin, belonging to the Eocene tertiary period. Etym., calcaire, limestone, and grossier, coarse.

CALCAREOUS ROCK. Limestone. Etym., calx, lime.

CALCAREOUS SPAR. Crystallized carbonate of lime.

CARBON. An undecomposed inflammable substance, one of the simple elementary bodies. Charcoal is almost entirely composed of it. Etym., carbo, coal.

CARBONATE OF LIME. Lime combines with great avidity with carbonic acid, a gaseous acid only obtained fluid when united with water,--and all combinations of it with other substances are called Carbonates. All limestones are carbonates of lime, and quicklime is obtained by driving off the carbonic acid by heat.

CARBONATED SPRINGS. Springs of water, containing carbonic acid gas. They are very common, especially in volcanic countries; and sometimes contain so much gas, that if a little sugar be thrown into the water it effervesces like soda-water.

CARBONIC ACID GAS. A natural gas which often issues from the ground, especially in volcanic countries. Etym., carbo, coal; because the gas is obtained by the slow burning of charcoal.

CARBONIFEROUS. A term usually applied, in a technical sense, to an ancient group of secondary strata; but any bed containing coal may be said to be carboniferous. Etym., carbo, coal, and fero, to bear.

CATACLYSM. A deluge. Etym., κατακλυζω, catacluzo, to deluge.

CEPHALOPODA. A class of molluscous animals, having their organs of motion arranged round their head. Etym., κεφαλη, cephale, head, and ποδα, poda, feet.

CETACEA. An order of vertebrated mammiferous animals inhabiting the sea. The whale, dolphin, and narwal are examples. Etym., cete, whale.

CHALCEDONY. A siliceous simple mineral, uncrystallized. Agates are partly composed of chalcedony.

CHALK. A white earthy limestone, the uppermost of the secondary series of strata.

CHERT. A siliceous mineral, nearly allied to chalcedony and flint, but less homogeneous and simple in texture. A gradual passage from chert to limestone is not uncommon.

CHLORITIC SAND. Sand colored green by an admixture of the simple mineral chlorite. Etym., χλωρυς, chlorus, green.

CLEAVAGE. Certain rocks, usually called Slate-rocks, may be cleaved into an indefinite number of thin laminæ which are parallel to each other, but which are generally not parallel to the planes of the true strata or layers of deposition. The planes of cleavage, therefore, are distinguishable from those of stratification.

CLINKSTONE, called also phonolite, a felspathic rock of the trap family, usually fissile. It is sonorous when struck with a hammer, whence its name.

COAL FORMATION. This term is generally understood to mean the same as the Coal Measures, or Carboniferous group.

COLEOPTERA. An order of insects (Beetles) which have four wings, the upper pair being crustaceous and forming a shield. Etym., coleos, coleos, a sheath, and πτερον, pteron, a wing.

CONFORMABLE. When the planes of one set of strata are generally parallel to those of another set which are in contact, they are said to be conformable. Thus the set a, b, Fig. 98, rest conformably on the inferior set c, d; but c, d rest unconformably on E.

CONGENERS. Species which belong to the same genus.

CONGLOMERATE, or PUDDINGSTONE. Rounded water-worn fragments of rock or pebbles, cemented together by another mineral substance, which may be of a siliceous, calcareous, or argillaceous nature. Etym., con, together, glomero, to heap.

CONIFERÆ. An order of plants, all of which have disks in their wood fibres, by which they are recognized in a fossil state. Their ovules are naked (see GYMNOGENS). Most of the northern kinds bear the seeds in cones; but the yew does not, nor do a host of tropical and south temperate species. Etym., conus, a cone, and fero, to bear.

COSMOGONY, COSMOLOGY. Words synonymous in meaning, applied to speculations respecting the first origin or mode of creation of the earth. Etym., κοσμος, kosmos, the world, and γονη, gonee, generation, or λογος, logos, discourse.

CRAG. A provincial name in Norfolk and Suffolk for certain tertiary deposits usually composed of sand with shells, belonging to the Older Pliocene period.

CRATER. The circular cavity at the summit of a volcano, from which the volcanic matter is ejected. Etym., crater, a great cup or bowl.

CRETACEOUS. Belonging to chalk. Etym., creta, chalk.

CROP OUT. A miner's or mineral surveyor's term, to express the rising up or exposure at the surface of a stratum or series of strata.

CRUST OF THE EARTH. See "Earth's crust."

CRUSTACEOUS. Animals having a shelly coating or crust which they cast periodically. Crabs, shrimps, and lobsters are examples.

CRYPTOGAMIC. Asexual, flowerless, or Acotyledonous plants; a term applied to half the vegetable kingdom in contradistinction to Phænogamic, sexual, or flowering plants. It includes Fungi, Sea-weeds, Lichens, Mosses, Ferns, &c., which have no obvious flowers, and no cotyledons (seed-lobes) to their spores or seeds. Etym., κρυπτος, cruptos, concealed, and γαμος, gamos, marriage.

CRYSTALS. Simple minerals are frequently found in regular forms, with facets like the drops of cut glass of chandeliers. Quartz being often met with in rocks in such forms, and beautifully transparent like ice, was called rock-crystal, κρυσταλλος, crystallos, being Greek for ice. Hence the regular forms of other minerals are called crystals, whether they be clear or opake.

CRYSTALLIZED. A mineral which is found in regular forms or crystals is said to be crystallized.

CRYSTALLINE. The internal texture which regular crystals exhibit when broken, or a confused assemblage of ill-defined crystals. Loaf-sugar and statuary-marble have a crystalline texture. Sugar-candy and calcareous spar are crystallized.

CUPRIFEROUS. Copper-bearing. Etym., cuprum, copper, and fero, to bear.

CYCADEÆ. A small and very anomalous order of flowering plants, chiefly found in Mexico, the East Indian Islands, South Africa, and Australia. They are Gymnogens as to ovules, and neither Exogens nor Endogens in the wood of their short, simple, or branched trunks, and they have dicotyledonous seeds. The leaves are pinnated (like those of cocoa-nut palms), and when young are rolled inwards as in Ferns. The wood fibres are curiously perforated, and marked, by which they are recognized in a fossil state as well as by the trunk and foliage, and the cones, which contain the male flowers. The term is derived from κυκας, cycas, a name applied by the ancient Greek naturalist Threophrastus to a palm.

CYPERACEÆ. A tribe of plants answering to the English sedges; they are distinguished from grasses by their stems being solid, and generally triangular, instead of being hollow and round. Together with Gramineæ, they constitute what writers on botanical geography often call glumaceæ.

DEBACLE. A great rush of waters, which, breaking down all opposing barriers, carries forward the broken fragments of rocks, and spreads them in its course. Etym., débacler, French, to unbar, to break up as a river does at the cessation of a long-continued frost.

DELTA. When a great river, before it enters the sea, divides into separate streams, they often diverge and form two sides of a triangle, the sea being the base. The land included by the three lines, and which is invariably alluvial, was first called, in the case of the Nile a delta, from its resemblance to the letter of the Greek alphabet which goes by that name Δ. Geologists apply the term to alluvial land formed by a river at its mouth, without reference to its precise shape.

DENUDATION. The carrying away by the action of running water of a portion of the solid materials of the land, by which inferior rocks are laid bare. Etym., denudo, to lay bare.

DEOXIDIZED, DEOXIDATED. Deprived of oxygen. Disunited from oxygen.

DESICCATION. The art of drying up. Etym., desicco, to dry up.

DETRITUS. Matter worn or rubbed off from rocks. Etym., de, from, and tero, to rub.

DICOTYLEDONOUS. A grand division of the vegetable kingdom, founded on the plant having two cotyledons, or seed-lobes. Etym., δις, dis, double, and κοτυληδον, cotyledon.

DIKES. When a mass of the unstratified or igneous rocks, such as granite, trap, and lava, appears as if injected into a rent in the stratified rocks, cutting across the strata, it forms a dike. They are sometimes seen running along the ground, and projecting, like a wall, from the softer strata on both sides of them having wasted away; whence they were first called in the north of England and in Scotland dikes, a provincial name for wall. It is not easy to draw the line between dikes and veins. The former are generally of larger dimensions, and have their sides parallel for considerable distances; while veins have generally many ramifications, and these often thin away into slender threads.

DILUVIUM. Those accumulations of gravel and loose materials, which, by some geologists, are said to have been produced by the action of a diluvian wave or deluge sweeping over the surface of the earth. Etym., diluvium, deluge.

DIP. When a stratum does not lie horizontally, but is inclined, it is said to dip towards some point of the compass, and the angle it makes with the horizon is called the angle of dip or inclination.

DIPTERA. An order of insects, comprising those which have only two wings. Etym., δις, dis, double, and πτερον, pteron, wing.

DOLERITE. One of the varieties of the Trap-rocks, composed of augite and felspar.

DOLOMITE. A crystalline limestone, containing magnesia as a constituent part. Named after the French geologist Dolomieu.

DUNES. Low hills of blown sand that skirt the shores of Holland, England, Spain, and other countries.

EARTH'S CRUST. Such superficial parts of our planet as are accessible to human observation.

EOPYROSIS. A Greek term for a destruction by fire.

ELYTRA. The wing-sheaths, or upper crustaceous membranes, which form the superior wings in the tribe of beetles. They cover the body, and protect the true membranous wing. Etym., ελυτρον, elytron, a sheath.

ENDOGENS. A class of flowering plants, whose stems present no distinction of wood, pith, and bark. The wood is disposed in bundles, placed nearer the axis than those of the previous year, as in palm trunks. This class answers to the Monocotyledones of Jussieu. Etym., ενδον, endon, within, and γενεσις, genesis, increase.

ENTOMOSTRACA. Cuvier's second section of Crustacea; so called from their relationship to insects. Etym., εντομα, entoma, insects.

EOCENE. A name given to the lowest division of the tertiary strata, containing an extremely small percentage of living species amongst its fossil shells, which indicate the first commencement or dawn of the existing state of the animate creation. Etym., ηως, eos, aurora or the dawn, and καινος, kainos, recent.

ESCARPMENT. The abrupt face of a ridge of high land. Etym., escarper, French, to cut steep.

ESTUARIES. Inlets of the land, which are entered both by rivers and the tides of the sea. Thus we have the estuaries of the Thames, Severn, Tay, &c. Etym., æstus, the tide.

EXOGENS. A class of flowering plants whose stems have bark, wood, and pith. The bark is increased by layers deposited within the previously formed layers and the wood of layers or rings placed outside of those of the previous year. This class answers to the Dicotyledones of Jussieu, and includes all common English trees except pines, &c. (See GYMNOGENS.) Etym., εξο, exo, outside, γενεσις, genesis, increase.

EXPERIMENTUM CRUCIS. A decisive experiment, so called, because, like a cross or direction-post, it directs men to true knowledge; or, as some explain it, because it is a kind of torture whereby the nature of the thing is extorted, as it were, by violence.

EXUVIÆ. Properly speaking, the transient parts of certain animals which they put off or lay down to assume new ones, as serpents and caterpillars shift their skins; but in geology it refers not only to the cast-off coverings of animals, but to fossil shells and other remains which animals have left in the strata of the earth. Etym., exuere, to put off or divest.

FALUNS. A French provincial name for some tertiary strata abounding in shells in Touraine, which resemble in lithological characters the "Crag" of Norfolk and Suffolk.

FAULT, in the language of miners, is the sudden interruption of the continuity of strata in the same plane, accompanied by a crack or fissure, varying in width from a mere line to several feet, which is generally filled with broken stone, clay, &c.

The strata, a, b, c, &c., must at one time have been continuous; but a fracture having taken place at the fault F, either by the upheaving of the portion A, or the sinking of the portion B, the strata were so displaced that the bed a in B is many feet lower than the same bed a in the portion A.

FAUNA. The various kinds of animals peculiar to a country constitute its FAUNA, as the various kinds of plants constitute its FLORA. The term is derived from the FAUNI, or rural deities, in Roman Mythology.

FELSPAR. A simple mineral, which, next to quartz, constitutes the chief material of rocks. The white angular portions in granite are felspar. This mineral always contains some alkali in its composition. In common felspar the alkali is potash; in another variety, called Albite or Cleavlandite, it is soda. Glassy felspar is a term applied when the crystals have a considerable degree of transparency. Compact felspar is a name of more vague signification. The substance so called appears to contain both potash and soda.

FELSPATHIC. Of or belonging to felspar.

FERRUGINOUS. Any thing containing iron. Etym., ferrum, iron.

FISSILE, easily cleft, dividing readily into an indefinite number of parallel laminæ, like slates.

FLOETZ ROCKS. A German term applied to the secondary strata by the geologists of that country, because these rocks were supposed to occur most frequently in flat horizontal beds. Etym., flotz, a layer or stratum.

FLORA. The various kinds of trees and plants found in any country constitute the FLORA of that country in the language of botanists.

FLUVIATILE. Belonging to a river. Etym., fluvius, a river.

FORAMINIFERA. A name given by D'Orbigny to a family of microscopic shells. Their different chambers are united by a small perforation or foramen. Recent observation has shown that some at least are not Cephalopoda, as D'Orbigny supposed.

FORMATION. A group, whether of alluvial deposits, sedimentary strata, or igneous rocks, referred to a common origin or period.

FOSSIL. All minerals were once called fossils, but geologists now use the word only to express the remains of animals and plants found buried in the earth. Etym., fossilis, any thing that may be dug out of the earth.

FOSSILIFEROUS. Containing organic remains.

GALENA. A metallic ore, a compound of lead and sulphur. It has often the appearance of highly polished lead. Etym., γαλεω, galeo, to shine.

GARNET. A simple mineral, generally of a deep red color, crystallized; most commonly met with in mica slate, but also in granite and other igneous rocks.

GASTEROPODS. A division of the Testacea, in which, as in the limpet, the foot is attached to the body. Etym., γαστηρ, gaster, belly, and ποδα, poda, feet.

GAULT. A provincial name in the east of England for a series of beds of clay and marl, the geological position of which is between the Upper and Lower Greensand.

GAVIAL. A kind of crocodile found in India.

GEM, or GEMMULE, from the Latin gemma, a bud. The term, applied to zoophytes, means a young animal not confined within an envelope or egg.

GEOLOGY, GEOGNOSY. Both mean the same thing; but with an unnecessary degree of refinement in terms, it has been proposed to call our description of the structure of the earth geognosy (Etym., γεα, gea, earth, and γινωσcω, ginosco, to know), and our theoretical speculations as to its formation geology (Etym., γεα, and λογος, logos, a discourse).

GLACIER. Vast accumulations of ice and hardened snow in the Alps and other lofty mountains. Etym., glace, French for ice.

GLACIS. A term borrowed from the language of fortification, where it means an easy insensible slope or declivity, less steep than a talus, which see.

GNEISS. A stratified primary rock, composed of the same materials as granite, but having usually a larger proportion of mica and a laminated texture. The word is a German miner's term.

GRAMINEÆ. The order of plants to which grasses belong. Etym., gramen, grass.

GRANITE. An unstratified or igneous rock, generally found inferior to or associated with the oldest of the stratified rocks, and sometimes penetrating them in the form of dikes and veins. It is usually composed of three simple minerals, felspar, quartz, and mica, and derives its name from having a coarse granular structure; granum, Latin for grain. Waterloo bridge, and the paving-stones in the carriage-way of the London streets, afford good examples of the most common varieties of granite.

GREENSAND. Beds of sand, sandstone, limestone, belonging to the Cretaceous Period. The name is given to these beds because they often, but not always, contain an abundance of green earth or chlorite scattered through the substance of the sandstone, limestone, &c.

GREENSTONE. A variety of trap, composed of hornblende and felspar.

GREYWACKÉ. Grauwacke, a German name, generally adopted by geologists for some of the most ancient fossiliferous strata. The rock is very often of a gray color; hence the name, grau, being German for gray, and wacke, being a provincial miner's term.

GRIT. A provincial name for a coarse-grained sandstone.

GYMNOSPERMOUS. Etym., γυμνος, gymnos, naked, and σπερμα, sperma, a seed. (See GYMNOGENS.)

GYMNOGENS. A class of flowering plants, in which the ovules are not inclosed in an ovary. They are also called gymnosperms, the seeds in like manner not being inclosed in a pericarp. It includes all Coniferæ, as pine, fir, juniper, cypress, yew, cedar, &c., and Cycadeæ. All are Dicotyledonous (a few have many cotyledons), and all Exogenous, except Cycas, the growth of which is anomalous. The term is applied in contradistinction to Angiosperms, which see. Etym., γυμνος, naked, and γενεσις, increase.

GYPSUM. A mineral composed of lime and sulphuric acid, hence called also sulphate of lime. Plaster and stucco are obtained by exposing gypsum to a strong heat. It is found so abundantly near Paris, that plaster of Paris is a common term in this country for the white powder of which casts are made. The term is used by Pliny for a stone used for the same purposes by the ancients. The derivation is unknown.

GYPSEOUS, of or belonging to gypsum.

GYROGONITES. Bodies found in freshwater deposits, originally supposed to be microscopic shells, but subsequently discovered to be seed-vessels of freshwater plants of the genus Chara. See above p. 742. Etym., γυρος, gyros, curved, and γονος, gonos, seed, on account of their external structure.

HEMIPTERA. An order of insects, so called from a peculiarity in their wings, the superior being coriaceous at the base and membranous at the apex, ἡμισυ, hemisu, half, and πτερον, pteron, wing.

HORNBLENDE. A simple mineral of a dark green or black color, which enters largely into the composition of several varieties of the Trap-Rocks.

HORNSTONE. A siliceous mineral substance, sometimes approaching nearly to flint, or common quartz. It has a conchoidal fracture, and is infusible, which distinguishes it from compact felspar.

HUMERUS. The bone of the upper arm.

HYDROPHYTES. Plants which grow in water. Etym., ὑδωρ, hydor, water, and φυτον, phyton, plant.

HYPOGENE ROCKS. Those rocks which are nether-formed, or which have not assumed their present form and structure at the surface, such as granite, gneiss, &c. The term, which includes both the plutonic and metamorphic rocks, is substituted for primary, because some members of both these classes, such as granite and gneiss, are posterior to many secondary or fossiliferous rocks. Etym., ὑπο, hypo, under, and γινομαι, ginomai, to be formed or produced.

ICEBERG. Great masses of ice, often the size of hills, which float in the polar and adjacent seas. Etym., ice, and berg, German for hill.

ICHTHYOSAURUS. A gigantic fossil marine reptile, allied in part of its structure to a fish. Etym., ιχθυς, ichthus, a fish, and σαυρα, saura, a lizard.

IGNEOUS ROCKS. All rocks, such as lava, trap, and granite, known or supposed to have been melted by volcanic heat.

INCANDESCENT. White hot--having a more intense degree of heat than red heat.

INDUCTION. A consequence, inference, or general principle drawn from a number of particular facts or phenomena. The inductive philosophy, says Mr. Whewell, has been rightly described as a science which ascends from particular facts to general principles, and then descends again from these general principles to particular applications.

INFUSORY ANIMALCULES. Minute living creatures found in many infusions; and the term infusori has been given to all such animalcules, whether found in infusions or in stagnant water, vinegar, &c.

INSPISSATED. Thickened. Etym., spissus, thick.

INVERTEBRATED ANIMALS. Animals which are not furnished with a back-bone. For a further explanation, see "Vertebrated Animals."

ISOTHERMAL. Such zones or divisions of the land, ocean, or atmosphere, which have an equal degree of mean annual warmth, are said to be isothermal, from ισος, isos, equal, and θερμη, therme, heat.

IOINTS. Fissures or lines of parting in rocks, often at right angles to the planes of stratification. The partings which divide columnar basalt into prisms are joints.

IURA LIMESTONE. The limestones belonging to the Oolite Group constitute the chief part of the mountains of Jura between France and Switzerland; and hence the geologists of the Continent have given the name to the group.

KEUPER. A German name for a member of the Upper New Red Sandstone.

KIMMERIDGE CLAY. A thick bed of clay, constituting a member of the Oolite Group. So called because it is found well developed at Kimmeridge, in the Isle of Purbeck, Dorsetshire.

LACUSTRINE. Belonging to a lake. Etym., lacus, a lake.

LAMANTINE. A living species of the herbivorous Cetacea or whale tribe which inhabits the mouth of rivers on the coasts of Africa and South America: the sea-cow.

LAMELLIFEROUS. Having a structure consisting of thin plates or leaves like paper. Etym., lamella, the diminutive of lamina, plate, and fero, to bear.

LAMINÆ. Latin for plates; used in geology for the smaller layers of which a stratum is frequently composed.

LANDSLIP. A portion of land that has slid down in consequence of disturbance by an earthquake, or from being undermined by water washing away the lower beds which supported it.

LAPIDIFICATION. Lapidifying process. Conversion into stone. Etym., lapis, stone, and fio, to make.

LAPILLI. Small volcanic cinders. Lapillus, a little stone.

LAVA. The stone which flows in a melted state from a volcano.

LEPIDODENDRON, a genus of fossil plants of the Coal Measures, intermediate in character between the Lycopodiums and coniferous plants.

LEUCITE. A simple mineral found in volcanic rocks, crystallized, and of a white color. Etym., λευcος, leucos, white.

LIAS. A provincial name for an argillaceous limestone, characterized together with its associated beds by peculiar fossils, and forming a particular group of strata, interposed between the Oolite and the New Red Sandstone.

LIGNIPERDOUS. A term applied to insects which destroy wood. Etym., lignum, wood, and perdo, to destroy.

LIGNITE. Wood converted into a kind of coal. Etym., lignum, wood.

LITHODOMI. Molluscous animals which form holes in the solid rocks in which they lodge themselves. The holes are not perforated mechanically, but the rock appears to be dissolved. Etym., λιθος, lithos, stone, and δεμο, demo, to build.

LITHOGENOUS POLYPS. Animals which form coral.

LITHOGRAPHIC STONE. A slaty compact limestone, of a yellowish color and fine grain, used in lithography, which is the art of drawing upon and printing from stone Etym., λιθος, lithos, stone, and γραφο, grapho, to write.

LITHOIDAL. Having a stony structure.

LITHOLOGICAL. A term expressing the stony structure or character of a mineral mass. We speak of the lithological character of a stratum as distinguished from its zoological character. Etym., λιθος, lithos, stone, and λογος, logos, discourse.

LITHOPHAGI. Molluscous animals which form holes in solid stones. See "Lithodomi." Etym., λιθος, lithos, stone, and φαγειν, phagein, to eat.

LITHOPHITES. The animals which form Stone-coral.

LITTORAL. Belonging to the shore. Etym., littus, the shore.

LOAM. A mixture of sand and clay.

LOPHIODON. A genus of extinct quadrupeds, allied to the tapir, named from eminences on the teeth.

LYCOPODIACEÆ. Plants of an inferior degree of organization to Coniferæ, some of which they very much resemble in foliage, but all recent species are infinitely smaller. Many of the fossil species are as gigantic as recent Coniferæ. Their mode of reproduction is analogous to that of ferns. In English they are called club-mosses, generally found in mountainous heaths in the north of England.

LYDIAN STONE. Flinty slate; a kind of quartz or flint, allied to Hornstone, but of a grayish black color.

MACIGNO. In Italy this term has been applied to a siliceous sandstone sometimes containing calcareous grains, mica, &c.

MADREPORE. A genus of corals, but generally applied to all the corals distinguished by superficial star-shaped cavities. There are several fossil species.

MAGNESIAN LIMESTONE. An extensive series of beds, the geological position of which is immediately above the Coal Measures; so called, because the limestone, the principal member of the series, contains much of the earth magnesia as a constituent part.

MAMMIFEROUS. Mammifers. Animals which give suck to their young. To this class all the warm-blooded quadrupeds, and the Cetacea, or whales, belong. Etym., mamma, a breast, fero, to bear.

MAMMILLARY. A surface which is studded over with rounded projections. Etym., mammilla, a little breast or pap.

MAMMOTH. An extinct species of the elephant (E. primigenius), of which the fossil bones are frequently met with in various countries. The name is of Tartar origin, and is used in Siberia for animals that burrow under ground.

MANATI. One of the Cetacea, the sea-cow, or lamantine (Trichechus manatus, Lin.)

MARL. A mixture of clay and lime; usually soft, but sometimes hard, in which case it is called indurated marl.

MARSUPIAL ANIMALS. A tribe of quadrupeds having a sack or pouch under the belly, in which they carry their young. The kangaroo is a well-known example. Etym., marsupium, a purse.

MASTODON. A genus of fossil extinct quadrupeds allied to the elephants; so called from the form of the hind teeth or grinders, which have their surface covered with conical mammillary crests. Etym., μαστος, mastos, pap, and οδων, odon, tooth.

MATRIX. If a simple mineral or shell, in place of being detached, be still fixed in a portion of rock, it is said to be in its matrix. Matrix, womb.

MECHANICAL ORIGIN, ROCKS OF. Rocks composed of sand, pebbles, or fragments, are so called to distinguish them from those of a uniform crystalline texture, which are of chemical origin.

MEDUSÆ. A genus of marine radiated animals, without shells; so called, because their organs of motion spread out like the snaky hair of the fabulous Medusa.

MEGALOSAURUS. A fossil gigantic amphibious animal of the saurian or lizard and crocodile tribe. Etym., μεγαλη, megale, great, and σαυρα, saura, lizard.

MEGATHERIUM. A fossil extinct quadruped, resembling a gigantic sloth. Etym., μεγα, mega, great, and θηριον, therion, wild beast.

MELASTOMA. A genus of MELASTOMACEA, an order of exotic plants of the evergreen tree and shrubby kinds. Etym., μελας, melas, black, and στομα, stoma, mouth; because the fruit of one of these species stains the lips.

MESOTYPE. A simple mineral, white, and needle-shaped, one of the Zeolite family, frequently met with in the Trap-rocks.

METAMORPHIC ROCKS. A stratified division of hypogene rocks, highly crystalline, such as gneiss and mica-schist, and so named because they have been altered by plutonic action. Etym., μετα, meta, trans, and μορφη, morphe, form.

MICA. A simple mineral, having a shining silvery surface, and capable of being split into very thin elastic leaves or scales. It is often called talc in common life; but mineralogists apply the term talc to a different mineral. The brilliant scales in granite are mica. Etym., mico, to shine.

MICA-SLATE, MICA-SCHIST, MICACEOUS SCHISTUS. One of the metamorphic or crystalline stratified rocks of the hypogene class, which is characterized by being composed of a large proportion of mica united with quartz.

MIOCENE. A division of tertiary strata intervening between the Eocene and Pliocene formations; so called, because a minority of its fossil shells are referable to living species. Etym., μειων, meion, less, and καινος, kainos, recent.

MOLASSE. A provincial name for a soft green sandstone, associated with marl and conglomerates, belonging to the Miocene Tertiary Period, extensively developed in the lower country of Switzerland. Etym., French, molle, soft.

MOLLUSCA, MOLLUSCOUS ANIMALS. Animals, such as shell-fish, which, being devoid of bones, have soft bodies. Etym., mollis, soft.

MONAD. The smallest of visible animalcules, spoken of by Buffon and his followers as constituting the elementary molecules of organic beings.

MONITOR. An animal of the saurian or lizard tribe, species of which are found in both the fossil and recent state.

MONOCOTYLEDONOUS. A grand division of the vegetable kingdom (including palms, grasses, Lilaceæ, &c.), founded on the plant having only one cotyledon, or seed-lobe. Etym., μονος, monos, single.

MORAINE, a Swiss term for the débris of rocks brought into valleys by glaciers. See p. 228.

MOSCHUS. A quadruped resembling the chamois or mountain goat, from which the perfume musk is obtained.

MOUNTAIN LIMESTONE, OR CARBONIFEROUS LIMESTONE. A series of limestone strata of marine origin, usually forming the lowest member of the Coal Measures.

MOYA. A term applied in South America to mud poured out from volcanoes during eruptions.

MULTILOCULAR. Many-chambered; a term applied to those shells which, like the nautilus, ammonite, and others, are divided into many compartments. Etym., multus, many, and loculus, a partition.

MURIATE OF SODA. The scientific name for common culinary salt, because it is composed of muriatic acid and the alkali soda.

MUSACEÆ. A family of tropical monocotyledonous plants, including the banana and plantains.

MUSCHELKALK. A limestone, belonging to the Upper New Red Sandstone group. Its position is between the Magnesian Limestone and the Lias. This formation has not yet been found in England, and the German name is adopted by English geologists. The word means shell limestone. Etym., muschel, shell, and kalkstein, limestone.

NAPHTHA. A very thin, volatile, inflammable, and fluid mineral substance, of which there are springs in many countries, particularly in volcanic districts.

NENUPHAR. A yellow water-lily. P. 618.

NEW RED SANDSTONE. A formation so named, because it consists chiefly of sandy and argillaceous strata, the predominant color of which is brick-red, but containing portions which are of a greenish-gray. These occur often in spots and stripes, so that the series has sometimes been called the variegated sandstone. This formation is divided into the Upper New Red in which the Muschelkalk is included, and the Lower New Red, of which the Magnesian Limestone is a member.

NODULE. A rounded irregular-shaped lump or mass. Etym., diminutive of nodus, knot.

NORMAL GROUPS. Groups of certain rocks taken as a rule or standard. Etym., norma, rule or pattern.

NUCLEUS. A solid central piece, around which other matter is collected. The word is Latin for kernel.

NUMMULITES. An extinct genus of the order of molluscous animals, called Cephalopoda, of a thin lenticular shape, internally divided into small chambers. Etym., nummus, Latin for money, and λιθος, lithos, stone, from its resemblance to a coin.

OBSIDIAN. A volcanic product, or species of lava, very like common green bottle glass, which is almost black in large masses, but semi-transparent in thin fragments. Pumice-stone is obsidian in a frothy state; produced, most probably, by water that was contained in or had access to the melted stone, and converted into steam. There are very often portions in masses of solid obsidian, which are partially converted into pumice.

OCHRE. A yellow powder, a combination of some earth with oxide of iron.

OGYGIAN DELUGE. A great inundation mentioned in fabulous history, supposed to have taken place in the reign of Ogyges in Attica, whose death is fixed in Blair's Chronological Tables in the year 1764 before Christ. See p. 341.

OLD RED SANDSTONE. A formation immediately below the Carboniferous Group. The term Devonian has been recently proposed for strata of this age, because in Devonshire they are largely developed, and contain many organic remains.

OLIGOCLASE. A mineral of the felspar family.

OLIVINE. An olive-colored, semi-transparent, simple mineral, very often occurring in the form of grains and of crystals in basalt and lava.

OOLITE, OOLITIC. A limestone; so named because it is composed of rounded particles like the roe or eggs of a fish. The name is also applied to a large group of strata, characterized by peculiar fossils, in which limestone of this texture occurs. Etym., ωον, oon, egg, and λιθος, lithos, stone.

OPALIZED WOOD. Wood petrified by siliceous earth, and acquiring a structure similar to the simple mineral called opal.

OPHIDIOUS REPTILES. Vertebrated animals, such as snakes and serpents. Etym., οφις, ophis, a serpent.

ORGANIC REMAINS. The remains of animals and plants (organized bodies) found in a fossil state.

ORTHOCERATA OR OHTHOCERÆ. An extinct genus of the order of molluscous animals, called Cephalopoda, that inhabited a long-chambered conical shell, like a straight horn. Etym., ορθος, orthos], orthos, straight, and κερας, ceras, horn.

OSSEOUS BRECCIA. The cemented mass of fragments of bones of extinct animals found in caverns and fissures. Osseous is a Latin adjective, signifying bony.

OSTEOLOGY. That division of anatomy which treats of the bones; from οστεον, osteon, bone, and λογος, logos, a discourse.

OUTLIERS. When a portion of a stratum occurs at some distance, detached from the general mass of the formation to which it belongs, some practical mineral surveyors call it an outlier, and the term is adopted in geological language.

OVATE. The shape of an egg. Etym., ovum, egg.

OVIPOSITING. The laying of eggs.

OXIDE. The combination of a metal with oxygen; rust is oxide of iron.

OXYGEN. One of the constituent parts of the air of the atmosphere; that part which supports life. For a farther explanation of the word, consult elementary works on chemistry.

PACHYDERMATA. An order of quadrupeds, including the elephant, rhinoceros, horse, pig, &c., distinguished by having thick skins. Etym., παχυς, pachus, thick, and δερμα, derma, skin, or hide.

PACHYDERMATOUS. Belonging to Pachydermata.

PALÆOTHERIUM, PALEOTHERE. A fossil extinct quadruped, belonging to the order Pachydermata, resembling a pig, or tapir, but of great size. Etym., παλαιος, palaios, ancient, and θηριον, therion, wild beast.

PALEONTOLOGY. The science which treats of fossil remains, both animal and vegetable. Etym., παλαιος, palaios, ancient, οντα, onta, beings, and λογος, logos, a discourse.

PELAGIAN, PELAGIC. Belonging to the deep sea. Etym., pelagus, sea.

PEPERINO. An Italian name for a particular kind of volcanic rock, formed like tuff, by the cementing together of volcanic sand, cinders, or scoriæ, &c.

PETROLEUM. A liquid mineral pitch, so called because it is seen to ooze like oil out of the rock. Etym., petra, rock, and oleum, oil.

PHÆNOGAMOUS or PHANEROGAMIC PLANTS. A name given by Linnæus to those plants in which the reproductive organs are apparent. Etym., φανερος, phaneros, evident, or φαινω, phaino, to show, and γαμος, gamos, marriage.

PHLEGRÆAN FIELDS. Campi Phlegræi, or "the Burnt Fields." The country around Naples, so named by the Greeks, from the traces of igneous action everywhere visible.

PHONOLITE. See "Clinkstone."

PHRYGANEA. A genus of four-winged insects, the larvæ of which, called caddis-worms, are used by anglers as a bait.

PHYSICS. The department of science which treats of the properties of natural bodies, laws of motion, &c.; sometimes called natural philosophy and mechanical philosophy. Etym., φυσις, physis, nature.

PHYTOLOGY, PHYTOLOGICAL. The department of science which relates to plants--synonymous with, botany and botanical. Etym., φυτον, phyton, plant, and λογος, logos, discourse.

PHYTOPHAGOUS. Plant-eating. Etym., φυτον, phyton, plant, and φαγειν, phagein, to eat.

PISOLITE. A stone possessing a structure like an agglutination of peas. Etym., πισον, pison, pea, and λιθος, lithos, stone.

PISTIA. P. 618. The plant mentioned by Malte-Brun is probably the Pistia Stratiotes, a floating plant, related to English duckweed, but very much larger.

PIT COAL. Ordinary coal; called so, because it is obtained by sinking pits in the ground.

PITCHSTONE. A rock of a uniform texture, belonging to the unstratified and volcanic classes, which has an unctuous appearance like indurated pitch.

PLASTIC CLAY. One of the beds of the Eocene Tertiary Period; so called, because it is used for making pottery. The formation to which this name is applied is a series of beds chiefly sands, with which the clay is associated. Etym., πλασσω, plasso, to form or fashion.

PLESIOSAURUS. A fossil extinct amphibious animal, resembling the saurian, or lizard and crocodile tribe. Etym., πλησιον, plesion, near to, and σαυρα, saura, a lizard.

PLIOCENE, OLDER and NEWER. Two divisions of the Tertiary Period which are the most modern, and of which the largest part of the fossil shells are of recent species. Etym., πλειων, pleion, more, and καινος, kainos, recent.

PLUTONIC ACTION. The influence of volcanic heat and other subterranean causes under pressure.

PLUTONIC ROCKS. Granite, porphyry, and other igneous rocks supposed to have consolidated from a melted state at a great depth from the surface.

POLIPARIA. CORALS. A numerous class of invertehrated animals, belonging to the great division called Radiata.

PORPHYRY. An unstratified or igneous rock. The term is as old as the time of Pliny, and was applied to a red rock with small, angular, white bodies diffused through it, which are crystallized felspar, brought from Egypt. The term is hence applied to every species of unstratifled rock in which detached crystals or felspar or some other mineral are diffused through a base of other mineral composition. Etym., πορφυρα, porphyra, purple.

PORTLAND LIMESTONE, PORTLAND BEDS. A series of limestone strata, belonging to the upper part of the Oolite Group, found chiefly in England in the Island of Portland on the coast of Dorsetshire. The great supply of the building-stone used in London is from these quarries.

POZZUOLANA. Volcanic ashes, largely used as mortar for buildings, similar in nature to what is called in this country Roman cement. It gets its name from Puzzuoli, a town in the Bay of Naples, from which it is shipped in large quantities to all parts of the Mediterranean.

PRECIPITATE. Substances which, having been dissolved in a fluid, are separated from it by combining chemically and forming a solid, which falls to the bottom of the fluid. This process is the opposite to that of chemical solution.

PRODUCTA. An extinct genus of fossil bivalve shells occurring only in the older secondary rocks. It is closely allied to the living genus Terebratula.

PTERODACTYL. A flying reptile: species of this genus have been found in the Oolite and Muschelkalk. Some of the finger-joints are lengthened, so as to serve as the expansors of a membranous wing. Hence the name wing-fingered. Etym., πτερον, pteron, a wing, and δακτυλος, dactylos, a finger.

PUBESCENCE. The soft hairy down on insects. Etym., pubesco, the first growth of the beard.

PUDDINGSTONE. See "Conglomerate."

PUMICE. A light spongy lava, chiefly felspathic, of a white color, produced by gases or watery vapor getting access to the particular kind of glassy lava called obsidian, when in a state of fusion; it may be called the froth of melted volcanic glass. The word comes from the Latin name of the stone, pumex.

PURBECK LIMESTONE, PURBECK BEDS. Limestone strata, belonging to the Wealden Group, which intervenes between the Greensand and the Oolite.

PYRITES. (Iron.) A compound of sulphur and iron, found usually in yellow shining-crystals like brass, and in almost every rock, stratified and uustratifled. The shining metallic bodies so often seen in common roofing slate are a familiar example of the mineral. The word is Greek, and comes from πυρ, pyr, fire; because tinder particular circumstances, the stone produces spontaneous heat, and even inflammation.

PYROMETER. An instrument for measuring intense degrees of heat.

QUADRUMANA. The order of mammiferous animals to which apes belong. Etym., quadrus, a derivative of the Latin word for the number four, and manus, hand, the four feet of those animals being in some degree usable as hands.

QUA-QUA-VERSAL DIP. The dip of beds to all points of the compass around a centre, as in the case of beds of lava round the crater of a volcano. Etym., quâ-quâ-versum, on every side.

QUARTZ. A German provincial term, universally adopted in scientific language for a simple mineral composed of pure silex, or earth of flints: rock-crystal is an example.

QUARTZITE or QUARTZ ROCK. An aggregate of grains of quartz, sometimes passing into compact quartz.

RED MARL. A term often applied to the New Red Sandstone.

RETICULATE. A structure of cross lines, like a net, is said to be reticulated, from rete, a net.

ROCK SALT. Common culinary salt, or muriate of soda, found in vast solid masses or beds, in different formations, extensively in the New Red Sandstone formation, as in Cheshire; and it is then called rock-salt.

RUBBLE. A term applied by quarry-men to the upper fragmentary and decomposed portion of a mass of stone.

RUMINANTIA. Animals which ruminate or chew the cud, such as the ox, deer, &c. Etym., the Latin verb rumino, meaning the same thing.

SACCHAROID, SACCHARINE. When a stone has a texture resembling that of loaf-sugar. Etym., σακχαρ, sacchar, sugar, and ειδος, eidos, form.

SALIENT ANGLE. In a zigzag line a a are the salient angles, b b the re-entering angles. Etym., salire, to leap or bound forward.

SALT SPRINGS. Springs of water containing a large quantity of common salt. They are very abundant in Cheshire and Worcestershire, and culinary salt is obtained from them by mere evaporation.

SANDSTONE. Any stone which is composed of an agglutination of grains of sand, whether calcareous, siliceous, or of any other mineral nature.

SAURIAN. Any animal belonging to the lizard tribe. Etym., σαυρα, saura, a lizard.

SAXICAVOUS. Hollowing out stone.

SCHIST is often used as synonymous with slate; but it may be very useful to distinguish between a schistose and a slaty structure. The hypogene or primary schists, as they are termed, such as gneiss, mica-schist, and others, cannot be split into an indefinite number of parallel laminæ like rocks which have a true slaty cleavage. The uneven schistose layers of mica-schist and gneiss are probably layers of deposition, which have assumed a crystalline texture. See "Cleavage." Etym., schistus, adj. Latin, that which may be split.

SCHISTOSE ROCKS. See "Schist."

SCORIÆ. Volcanic cinders. The word is Latin for cinders.

SEAMS. Thin layers which separate two strata of greater magnitude.

SECONDARY STRATA. An extensive series of the stratified rocks which compose the crust of the globe, with certain characters in common, which distinguish them from another series below them called primary, and from a third series above them called tertiary.

SECULAR REFRIGERATION. The periodical cooling and consolidation of the globe from a supposed original state of fluidity from heat. Sæculum, age or period.

SEDIMENTARY ROCKS are those which have been formed by their materials having been thrown down from a state of suspension or solution in water.

SELENITE. Crystallized gypsum, or sulphate of lime--a simple mineral.

SEPTARIA. Flattened balls of stone, generally a kind of iron-stone, which, on being split, are seen to be separated in their interior into irregular masses. Etym., septa, inclosures.

SERPENTINE. A rock usually containing much magnesian earth, for the most part unstratified, but sometimes appearing to be an altered or metamorphic stratified rock. Its name is derived from frequently presenting contrasts of color, like the skin of some serpents.

SHALE. A provincial term, adopted by geologists, to express an indurated slaty clay. Etym., German schalen, to peel, to split.

SHELL MARL. A deposit of clay, peat, and other substances mixed with shells, which collects at the bottom of lakes.

SHINGLE. The loose and completely water-worn gravel on the sea-shore.

SILEX. The name of one of the pure earths, being the Latin word for flint, which is wholly composed of that earth. French geologists have applied it as a generic name for all minerals composed entirely of that earth, of which there are many of different external forms.

SILICA. One of the pure earths. Etym., silex, flint, because found in that mineral.

SILICATE. A chemical compound of silica and another substance, such as silicate of iron. Consult elementary works on chemistry.

SILICEOUS. Of or belonging to the earth of flint. Etym., silex, which see. A siliceous rock is one mainly composed of silex.

SILICIFIED. Any substance that is petrified or mineralized by siliceous earth.

SILT. The more comminuted sand, clay, and earth, which is transported by running water. It is often accumulated by currents in banks. Thus the mouth of a river is silted up when its entrance into the sea is impeded by such accumulation of loose materials.

SIMPLE MINERAL. Individual mineral substances, as distinguished from rocks, which last are usually an aggregation of simple minerals. They are not simple in regard to their nature; for when subjected to chemical analysis, they are found to consist of a variety of different substances. Pyrites is a simple mineral in the sense we use the term, but it is a chemical compound of sulphur and iron.

SINTER, CALCAREOUS OR SILICEOUS. A German name for a rock precipitated from mineral waters. Etym., sintern, to drop.

SLATE. See "Cleavage" and "Schist."

SOLFATARA. A volcanic vent from which sulphur, sulphureous, watery, and acid vapors and gases are emitted.

SPORULES. The reproductory corpuscula (minute bodies) of cryptogamic plants. Etym., σπορα, spora, a seed.

STALACTITE. When water holding lime in solution deposits it as it drops from the roof of a cavern, long rods of stone hang down like icicles, and these are called stalactites. Etym., σταλαζω, stalazo, to drop.

STALAGMITE. When water holding lime in solution drops on the floor of a cavern, the water evaporating leaves a crust composed of layers of limestone: such a crust is called stalagmite, from σταλαγμα, stalagma, a drop, in opposition to stalactite, which see.

STATICAL FIGURE. The figure which results from the equilibrium of forces. From στατος, statos, stable, or standing still.

STERNUM. The breast-bone, or the flat bone occupying the front of the chest.

STILBITE. A crystallized simple mineral, usually white, one of the Zeolite family, frequently included in the mass of the Trap-rocks.

STRATIFIED. Rocks arranged in the form of strata, which see.

STRATIFICATION. An arrangement of rocks in strata, which see.

STRATA, STRATUM. The term stratum, derived from the Latin verb struo, to strew or lay out, means a bed or mass of matter spread out over a certain surface by the action of water, or in some cases by wind. The deposition of successive layers of sand and gravel in the bed of a river, or in a canal, affords a perfect illustration both of the form and origin of stratification. A large portion of the masses constituting the earth's crust are thus stratified, the successive strata of a given rock preserving a general parallelism to each other; but the planes of stratification not being perfectly parallel throughout a great extent like the planes of cleavage, which see.

STRIKE. The direction or line of bearing of strata, which is always at right angles to their prevailing dip.

STUFAS. Jets of steam issuing from fissures in volcanic regions at a temperature often above the boiling point.

SUBAPENNINES. Low hills which skirt or lie at the foot of the great chain of the Apennines in Italy. The term. Subapennine is applied geologically to a series of strata of the Older Pliocene Period.

SYENITE. A kind of granite; so called, because it was brought from Syene in Egypt.

TALUS. When fragments are broken off by the action of the weather from the face of a steep rock, as they accumulate at its foot, they form a sloping heap, called a talus. The term is borrowed from the language of fortification, where talus means the outside of a wall of which the thickness is diminished by degrees, as it rises in height, to make it the firmer.

TARSI. The feet in insects, which are articulated, and formed of five or a less number of joints.

TERTIARY STRATA. A series of sedimentary rocks, with characters which distinguish them from two other great series of strata--the secondary and primary--which lie beneath them.

TESTACEA. Molluscous animals, having a shelly covering. Etym., testa, a shell, such as snails, whelks, oysters, &c.

THALLOGENS. A class of flowerless plants including all those that have no defined axis, stem, or leaves; as Lichens, Seaweeds, and Fungi. Etym., θαλλος, thallos, a branch, and γενεσις, genesis, increase.

THERMAL. Hot. Etym., θερμος, thermos, hot.

THERMO-ELECTRICITY. Electricity developed by heat.

THIN OUT. When a stratum, in the course of its prolongation in any direction, becomes gradually less in thickness, the two surfaces approach nearer and nearer; and when at last they meet, the stratum is said to thin out or disappear.

TRACHYTE. A variety of lava essentially composed of glassy felspar, and frequently having detached crystals of felspar in the base or body of the stone, giving it the structure of porphyry. It sometimes contains hornblende and augite; and when these last predominate, the trachyte passes into the varieties of trap, called Greenstone, Basalt, Dolorite, &c. The term is derived from τραχυς, trachus, rough, because the rock has a peculiar rough feel.

TRAP and TRAPPEAN ROCKS. Volcanic rocks composed of felspar, augite, and hornblende. The various proportions and state of aggregation of these simple minerals, and differences in external forms, give rise to varieties, which have received distinct appellations, such as Basalt, Amygdaloid, Dolorite, Greenstone, and others. The term is derived from trappa, a Swedish word for stair, because the rocks of this class sometimes occur in large tabular masses, rising one above another like steps.

TRAVERTIN. A white concretionary limestone, usually hard and semi-crystalline, deposited from the water of springs holding lime in solution.--Etym. This stone was called by the ancients Lapis Tiburtinus, the stone being formed in great quantity by the river Anio, at Tibur, near Rome. Some suppose travertin to be an abbreviation of trasterverino from transtiburtinus.

TRIPOLI. The name of a powder used for polishing metals and stones, first imported from Tripoli, which, as well as a certain kind of siliceous stone of the same name, has been lately found to be composed of the flinty cases of Infusoria.

TROPHI, of Insects. Organs which form the mouth, consisting of an upper and under lip, and comprising the parts called mandibles, maxillæ, and palpi.

TUFA, CALCAREOUS. A porous rock deposited by calcareous waters on their exposure to the air, and usually containing portions of plants and other organic substances incrusted with carbonate of lime. The more solid form of the same deposit is called "travertin," into which it passes.

TUFA, VOLCANIC. See "Tuff."

TUFACEOUS. A rock with the texture of tuff, or tufa, which see.

TUFF, or TUFA VOLCANIC. An Italian name for a variety of volcanic rock of an earthy texture, seldom very compact, and composed of an agglutination of fragments of scoriæ and loose materials ejected from a volcano.

TURBINATED. Shells which have a spiral or screw-form structure. Etym., turbinatus, made like a top.

TURRILITE. An extinct genus of chambered shells, allied to the Ammonites, having the siphuncle near the dorsal margin.

UNCONFORMABLE. See "Conformable."

UNOXIDIZED, UNOXIDATED. Not combined with oxygen.

VEINS, MINERAL. Cracks in rocks filled up by substances different from the rock, which may either be earthy or metallic. Veins are sometimes many yards wide; and they ramify or branch off into innumerable smaller parts, often as slender as threads, like the veins in an animal, hence their name.

VERTEBRATED ANIMALS. A great division of the animal kingdom, including all those which are furnished with a back-bone, as the mammalia, birds, reptiles, and fishes. The separate joints of the back-bone are called vertebræ, from the Latin verb verto, to turn.

VESICLE. A small, circular, inclosed space, like a little bladder. Etym., diminutive of vesica, Latin for a bladder.

VITRIFICATION. The conversion of a body into glass by heat.

VOLCANIC BOMBS. Volcanoes throw out sometimes detached masses of melted lava, which, as they fall, assume rounded forms (like bomb-shells), and are often elongated into a pear-shape.

VOLCANIC FOCI. The subterranean centres of action in volcanoes, where the heat is supposed to be in the highest degree of energy.

WACKE. A rock nearly allied to basalt, of which it may be regarded as a soft and earthy variety.

WARP. The deposit of muddy waters, artificially introduced into low lands. See p. 326.

ZEOLITE. A family of simple minerals, including stilbite, mesotype, analcime, and some others, usually found in the trap or volcanic rocks. Some of the most common varieties swell or boil up when exposed to the blow-pipe, and hence the name of ζεο, zeô, to boil, and λιθος, lithos, stone.

ZOOPHITES. Corals, sponges, and other aquatic animals allied to them; so called because, while they are the habitation of animals, they are fixed to the ground, and have the form of plants. Etym., ζωον, zoon, animal, and φυτον, phyton, plant.

INDEX.

A.

Abich, M., on eruption of Vesuvius in 1834, 378, 380, 550.

Abo, 522, 523.

Acosta cited, 499, 502.

Adams, Mr., on fossil elephant, 80.

Adanson on age of the baobab tree, 422.

Addison on Burnet's theory, 32.

Adige, embankment of the, 255. ----, delta of the, 257.

Adour, R., new passage formed by, 338.

Adria, formerly a seaport, 256.

Adriatic, deposits in, 36, 88, 71, 257, 774.

Ægean Sea, Prof. E. Forbes dredging in, 649.

Africa, fossil shells of, mentioned by ancients, 15. ----, indigenous quadrupeds of, 82. ----, heat radiated by, 94. ----, currents on coast of, 292, 342. ----, drift sands of deserts, 726. ----, devastations of locusts in, 674. ----, strata forming off tropical coast of, 774. ----, desert of its area, 694.

Agassiz, M., on fish of coal formation, 136. ----, on abrupt transition from one fossil fauna to another, 184. ----, on motion, &c., of glaciers, 224, 226.

Agricola on fossil remains, 21.

Airthrey, fossil whale found at, 771.

Alabama, coal plants, 88.

Alaska, volcanoes in, 352.

Aldborough, incursions of sea at, 311.

Alderney, race of, 293.

Aleutian Isles, eruptions, &c., in, 352, 468.

Alexandria, temple of Serapis at, 512.

Algæ, known provinces of, 617.

Allan, Dr., on coral in Madagascar, 778.

Alloa, whale cast ashore at, 771.

Alluvium, imbedding of organic remains in, 780. ----, volcanic, 386. ----, stalagmite, alternating with, in caves, 736.

Alps, Saussure on the, 45. ----, tertiary rocks of the, 119. ----, greatly raised during tertiary epoch, 124. ----, signs of lateral pressure in the, 171.

Altered rocks, 177.

Amazon, R., land formed by its deposits, 342. ----, animals floated down on drift-wood by, 640.

America, its coast undermined, 331. ----, recent strata in lakes of, 254, 768. ----, specific distinctness of animals of, 612, 629. ----, domesticated animals run wild in, 585, 685. ----, N., continuous beds of coal in, 115. ----, N., deposit "New red" like English, 158. ----, N. and S., mammiferous fauna of, 633.

Ammonia in lavas, 550.

Amonoosuck, flood in valley of, 209.

Ampère, M., on electric currents in the earth, 543.

Amphitherium, in oolite of Stonesfleld, 138.

Andes, changes of level in, 762. ----, height of perpetual snow on, 112. ----, volcanoes of, 346. ----, sudden upheaval of, 170. ----, signs of lateral pressure in, 171.

Andesite, rock described, 347.

Angiospermous plants wanting in older rocks, 133.

Animals, extinction of, 700. ----, quantity of food required by large, 82. ----, Lamarck on production of new organs in, 568. ----, imported into America have ran wild, 585, 685. ----, aptitude of some kinds to domestication, 593, 598. ----, hereditary instincts of, 593. ----, domestic qualities of, 592, 595. ----, their acquired habits rarely transmissible, 595, 600. ----, changes in brain of foetus in, 609. ----, plants diffused by, 623. ----, their geographical distribution, 76, 77. ----, migrations of, 685. ----, causes which determine the stations of, 669, 676. ----, influence of man on their distribution, 682. ----, fossil, in peat caves, &c., 722, 725, 730, 732, 749, 752.

Anio, R., flood of the, 212. ----, travertin formed by, 244.

Anoplotherium, fossil of Isle of Wight, 142.

Antarctic circle, area still unexplored, 99.

Antwerp, sunk region near, 327.

Apennines, their relative age, 119, 124.

Aphides, account of a shower of, 656. ----, their multiplication, 673.

Aqueous causes, supposed former intensity of, 153. ----, their action described, 198.

Aqueous lavas, description of, 374, 385, 728.

Arabian Gulf filling with coral, 776.

Arabian writers, 17.

Arago, M., on influence of forests on climate, 715. ----, on solar radiation, 127. ----, on level of Mediterranean and Red Sea, 294. ----, on formation of ground ice, 221.

Araucanian tradition of a flood, 499.

Araucaria, fir in coal, 88.

Arbroath, houses, &c., swept away by sea at, 302.

Archiac, M., 257.

Arctic fauna extended farther south than now, 125.

Arduino, memoirs of, 41. ----, on submarine volcanoes, 41, 71.

Areas of elevation and subsidence proved by coral islands, 792.

Aristarchus, 212.

Aristotle, opinions of, 12. ----, on spontaneous generation, 22. ----, on deluge of Deucalion, 356.

Arkansas, R., 264. ----, floods of, 270.

Arso, volcanic eruption of, in Ischia, 365.

Artesian well at Paris, temperature of water, 234. ----, well, at Fort William, near Calcutta, 280. ----, well in delta of Po, 257.

Artesian wells near London, 234. ----, wells, phenomena brought to light by, 233, 538.

Arve, sediment transported by the, 258. ----, section of débris deposited by, 289.

Ascension, Island of, bounded by lofty shores, 622. ----, fossil eggs of turtle from, 771.

Ashes, volcanic, transported to great distances, 106, 349, 464.

Asia, subject to earthquakes, 9. ----, coast of, changed, 18. ----, causes of extreme cold of part of, 94. ----, Minor, gain of land on coast of, 260. ----, Western, great cavity in, 692.

Ass, wild, 638, 686.

Astruc, on Delta of Rhone, 258.

Atchafalaya, R., 264. ----, drift-wood in, 267.

Atlantic, mean depth of, 104. ----, its relative level, 294. ----, rise of the tide in, 295. ----, absence of coral reefs in, 796.

Atlantis, submersion of, 9.

Atolls described, 782, 786. ----, theory of, Mr. Maclaren's objections to, 792.

Atrio del Cavallo, 381.

Aubenas, fissures filled with breccia near, 741.

Austen, Mr. R. A. C., on shores of English Channel, 319. ----, on new strata formed in, 341.

Australia, animals of, 139, 143, 684. ----, coral reefs of, 776, 784. ----, land quadrupeds of, 633.

Auvergne, salt springs in, 248. ----, carbonic acid gas disengaged in, 248. ----, state of in tertiary period, 122. ----, fossils in volcanic ashes of, 349. ----, volcanic rocks of, 48. ----, tertiary red marl and sandstone of, 158.

Ava, fossils of, 28.

Avantipura, in Cashmere, 763.

Avernus lake, 368.

Avicenna on cause of mountains, 17.

Axmouth, great landslip near, 321.

Azores, icebergs drifted to, 99. ----, volcanic line from, to central Asia, 354. ----, siliceous springs of, 246.

B.

Babbage, Mr., on the coast near Puzzuoli, 507. ----, on Temple of Serapis, 517. ----, on expansion of rocks by heat, 562.

Bachman, Mr., on birds, 643, 644.

Bacon, Lord, cited, 765.

Baden, gypseous springs of, 245.

Baffin's Bay, icebergs in, 96.

Bagnes, valley of, bursting of a lake in the, 210.

Baiæ, changes on coast of the bay of, 507. ----, ground plan of the coast of, 507. ----, sections in bay of, 508, 510.

Baker, on Caspian, mud volcanoes at, 448.

Baker, Lieut., on fossil quadrumana, 144.

Bakewell, Mr., on formation of soils, 709. ----, on fall of Mount Grenier, 782.

Bakewell, Mr. jun., on Falls of Niagara, 217.

Bakie loch, charæ fossil in, 767.

Baku, inflammable gas of, 11, 355.

Balaruc, thermal waters of, 259.

Baldassari, on Sienese fossils, 39.

Balize, mouth of Mississippi, 263, 272.

Baltic Sea, lowering of level of, 520. ----, drifting of rocks by ice in, 219, 231. ----, currents on its shores, 330.

Banks of Mississippi higher than alluvial plain, 266.

Baobab tree, its size, probable age, &c., 422.

Barbadoes, rain diminished by felling of forests in, 713.

Barren Island described, 447.

Barrow, Mr., on a bank formed in sea by locusts, 675.

Barrow, Mr. jun., on the Geysers of Iceland, 247.

Barton, Mr., on geography of plants, 612.

Basalt, opinions of the early writers on, 48, 71.

Batavia, effects of earthquake at, 502.

Baton Rouge, in Louisiana, 265.

Bay of Bengal, its depth, recent deposits in, &c., 279.

Bayfield, Capt., on geology of Lake Superior, 254. ----, on drifting of rock by ice, 221, 230. ----, on bursting of a peninsula by Lake Erie, 333. ----, on earthquakes in Canada, 470.

Beaches, raised, 184.

Beachey Head, 317.

Bears, once numerous in Wales, 683. ----, black, migrations of, 637. ----, drifted on ice, 679.

Beaufort, Sir F., on gain of land in Asia Minor, 260. ----, on rise of tides, 291.

Beaumont, M. Elie de, geological map of France, 122. ----, on pentagonal network of mountain chains, 170. ----, his theory of contemporaneous origin of parallel mountain chains considered, 163. ----, on structure and origin of Etna, 400, 416. ----, on sand-dunes, 307. ----, on inroads of sea in Holland, 327.

Beaver once inhabited Scotland and Wales, 683. ----, fossil in Perthshire, 752. ----, lake formed by, in New Brunswick, 716.

Beche, Sir H. de la. See De la Beche.

Bee, migrations of the, 655.

Beechey, Capt., upheaval of Bay of Conception, 500. ----, on drifting of canoes, 662. ----, on temple of Ipsambul, 727. ----, on coral islands, 780, 782, 787. ----, on changes of level in Pacific, 788. ----, on dead coral in Elizabeth Island, 794.

Beila, in India, mud volcanoes, 449.

Belcher, Sir E., on upheaval of Conception, 500. ----, on strata forming off coast of Africa, 774.

Bell, Mr., on the Dog, 585.

Bell rock, stones thrown up by storms on, 302.

Belzoni, on temple of Ipsambul, 726. ----, on a flood of the Nile, 753.

Benin, currents in Bay of, 292.

Bérard, M., on depth and temperature of Mediterranean, 296, 336.

Berkeley, on recent origin of man, 764.

Bermudas, only coral reef far out in Atlantic, 796. ----, coral reefs of the, 776, 778.

Bewick cited, 310, 643, 683.

Bhooj, in Cutch, destroyed by earthquake, 459. ----, volcanic eruption at, 460, 729.

Bies Bosch formed, 328.

Bigsby, Dr., on North American lakes, 768.

Birds, diffusion of plants by, 624. ----, geographical distribution of, 642, 663. ----, fossils in secondary rocks, 137. ----, tameness of, in uninhabited Islands, 597. ----, rate of flight of, 644. ----, migrations of, 643. ----, recent extermination of some species of, 683. ----, bones of, in Gibraltar breccia, 741. ----, rarity of their remains in new strata, 748. ----, rare in deposits of all ages, 137.

Bischoff, Professor, on volcanoes, 551. ----, on carbonic acid in extinct craters on Rhine, 248.

Biscoe, Capt., discoveries in south Polar Seas, 99.

Bison, fossil, in Yorkshire, 76.

Bisons, in Mississippi valley, 636.

Bistineau lake, 269.

Bitumen, oozing from bottom of sea, near Trinidad, 250.

Bituminous springs, 250.

Black Sea, salt by evaporation in, 335. ----, See Euxine.

Blue mountains in Jamaica, 505.

Bluffs of Mississippi described, 264.

Boa constrictor, migration of, 646.

Boase, Mr., on inroads of sea in Cornwall, 323. ----, on drift-sand in Cornwall, 728.

Boblaye, M., on ceramique, in Morea, 731. ----, on engulfed rivers and caves in Morea, 734. ----, on earthquakes in Greece, 736.

Bog iron-ore, whence derived, 722.

Bogota, earthquake of, 457.

Bonpland, on plants common to Old and New World, 614.

Bore, a tidal wave frequent in Bristol Channel and Ganges, 332.

Bory de St. Vincent, M., on isle of Santorin, 445.

Bosphorus, 334. ----, traditions of deluges on shores of the, 356.

Botanical evidence bearing on theory of progressive development, 133. ----, geography, 613. ----, provinces, their number, 616, 666, 668.

Bothnia, Gulf, gradual elevation of coast of, 520.

Bourbon, island, volcanic, 546.

Bournmouth, submarine forest at, 746.

Boussingault. M., on volcanoes in Andes, 348. ----, on gases evolved by volcanoes, 549.

Bowen, Lieut., on drifting of rocks by ice, 220, 230.

Boyle, on bottom of the sea, 26.

Bracini, on Vesuvius before 1631, 374.

Brahmapootra, delta of, 275, 278.

Brahmins, their doctrines, 4.

Brander, on fossils of Hampshire, 46.

Brandt, Professor, cited, 80. ----, on Wilui rhinoceros, 80.

Bravais, M., on upraised sea-coast in Finmark, 530.

Breccias, in Val del Bove, 411. ----, in caves now forming in the Morea, 734.

Brenta, delta of the, 256.

Brieslak, on temple of Serapis, 517. ----, on Vesuvius, 381, 384.

Briggs, Mr., his discovery of water in African desert, 235.

Brighton, waste of cliffs of, 317.

Brine springs, 247.

Bristol Channel, currents in, 293.

Brittany, village, buried under blown sand, 727. ----, marine tertiary strata of, 122. ----, waste of coast of, 324.

Brocchi, on fossil conchology, 20. ----, on Burnet's theory, 34. ----, on delta of Po, 257. ----, on extinction of species, 668. ----, on the Subapennines, 118.

Broderip, Mr., on opossum of Stonesfield, 139. ----, on shells from Conception Bay, 500. ----, on bulimi revived, 650. ----, on moulting of crabs, 653. ----, on naturalization of a foreign landshell, 664. ----, on the Dodo, 684.

Brongniart, M. Adolphe, 87. ----, on fossil plants of coal, 88, 117, 133. ----, on plants in islands, 112.

Brongniart, M. Alex., on modern lava streams, 427. ----, on elevated beaches in Sweden, 527.

Brown, Mr. R., on structure of vessels in myzodendron, 88. ----, on plants common to Africa, Guiana, and

Brazil, 621. ----, on wheat in Egyptian tombs, 587.

Buch. See Von Buch.

Buckland, Rev. Dr., on landslip near Axmouth, 321. ----, on fossil elephants, &c., in India, 7. ----, on fossils from Eschscholtz's Bay, 82. ----, on fossils in caves and fissures, 739, 740. ----, on Val del Bove, 402.

Buffon, his theory of the earth, 39. ----, reproved by the Sorbonne, 39. ----, on geographical distribution of animals, 590, 612, 629. ----, on extinction of species, 701.

Buist, Mr., on submarine forests in the estuary of Tay, 303. ----, on mud volcanoes in India, 448.

Bunbury, Mr., on coal plants of Alabama, 88. ----, on ferns in carboniferous era, 87.

Bunsen, Chevalier, on Ancient Egypt, 659.

Bunsen, Professor, on Geysers of Iceland, 558. ----, on mineral springs in Iceland, 246. ----, on mud volcanoes of Iceland, 447. ----, on solfataras of Iceland, 551.

Bunter Sandstein, fossils of, 193.

Bura, submerged Grecian town, 15, 762.

Buried cones on Etna, section of, 397. ----, temples of Cashmere, 762.

Burnes, Sir A., on Cutch, earthquake of, 461, 464.

Burnet, his theory of the earth, 31.

Burntisland, whale cast ashore near, 771.

Burrampooter, R., delta of the, 275. See Brahmapootra. ----, bodies of men, deer, &c. floated off by, 751.

Bustards recently extirpated in England, 688.

C.

Calabria, geological description of, 474. ----, earthquake of 1783 in, 471. ----, tertiary strata of, 74.

Calanna, lava of Etna turned from its course by hill of, 409, 410. ----, valley of, 402, 404.

Calcareous springs, 239.

Calcutta, artesian well at, 280.

Caldcleugh, Mr., on earthquake in Chili, 1835, 453. ----, on eruption of Coseguina, 349.

California, volcanoes in, 349.

Callao town destroyed by sea, 502. ----, changes caused by earthquakes at, 501, 761.

Camels, carcasses of, imbedded in drift sand, 727.

Campagna di Roma, calcareous deposits of, 242.

Campania, aqueous lavas in, 728.

Camper, on facial angle, 608.

Canada, earthquakes frequent in, 470. ----, climate of, 582. ----, probably colder in newest tertiary period, 125.

Canary Islands, eruptions in, 436.

Cannon in calcareous rock, 759. ----, account of one taken up near the Downs, 726.

Canoes drifted to great distances, 661. ----, fossil, 759.

Cape May, encroachment of sea at, 332. ----, of Good Hope, icebergs seen off, 100.

Capocci, M., on temple of Serapis, 518.

Caraccas, earthquakes in, 465, 470.

Carang Assam volcano, 465.

Carbonated springs, 248.

Carbonic acid, supposed atmosphere of, 248. ----, gas, its effects on rocks, 249.

Carboniferous series, 115, 137. ----, era, predominance of ferns in, 87. ----, era, climate in, 87. ----, flora, knowledge of, recently acquired, 126. ----, period, vast duration of, 249. ----, See Coal.

Cardiganshire, tradition of loss of land in, 324.

Cardium, locomotive powers when young, 652.

Caribbean Sea, tides in, 342.

Carpenter, Dr., observations on Mississippi R., 272. ----, on encroachment of sea at Lyme Regis, 321.

Carrara marble, 177.

Cashmere, temples buried in freshwater strata, 762.

Caspian, Pallas on former extent of, 45. ----, evaporation of the, 260. ----, its level, 156, 692.

Catalonia, devastation of torrents in, 713.

Catania, in part overwhelmed by lava, 400, 728. ----, destroyed by earthquakes, 503. ----, tools discovered in digging a well at, 753.

Catastrophes, theories respecting, 7.

Catcott, on deluges in different countries, 42.

Cattegat, devastations caused by current in the, 331.

Cautley, Capt., on buried Hindoo town, 731. ----, on fossil quadrumana, 144. ----, on bones in ancient wells, 740.

Caves, organic remains in, 732. ----, alternations of, and stalagmite in, 736. ----, on Etna, 401.

Celestial Mountains, 77, 355.

Celsius, on diminution of Baltic, 33, 521.

Central America, volcanoes of, 349. ----, Asia, volcanic line from, to the Azores, 354. ----, France, lavas excavated in, 213. ----, France, comparison between the lavas of Iceland and, 426, 427.

Centres, specific doctrine of, 630.

Centrifugal force, 534, 544.

Cephalonia, earthquakes in, 474. ----, infusoria in submarine caverns in, 389.

Cesalpino, on organic remains, 22.

Cetacea, geographical range of, 635. ----, migrations of the, 642. ----, imbedding of, in recent strata, 770. ----, fossil, absence of in secondary rocks, 145. ----, fossil in New Jersey chalk, 145. ----, rarity of in secondary rocks, 145.

Chagos coral isles, 783.

Chaluzet, calcareous spring at, 239. ----, volcanic cone of, 248.

Chambers, Robert, cited, 530.

Chamisso, M., on coral islands, 781.

Chamouni, glaciers of, 223.

Chara, growing in lakes of N. America, 768.

Charæ, fossilized, 767.

Charlevoix, chart of coast of Gulf of Mexico, 272.

Charpentier, M., on glaciers, 223, 227.

Cheirotherium, in old red sandstone and coal, 136.

Chemical theory of volcanoes, 542, 546.

Chepstow, rise of the tides at, 291.

Cheshire, brine springs of, 247. ----, waste of coast of, 324.

Chesil bank, 320.

Chesilton, overwhelmed by sea, 320.

Chili, earthquakes in, 65, 347, 357, 453, 457. ----, numerous volcanoes in, 346. ----, coast of, upheaved, 170, 172, 347, 455, 457.

Chiloe, 349.

Chimborazo, height of, 102.

China, climate of, 95. ----, earthquakes in, 355.

Chinese deluge, 7.

Chines, or narrow ravines, described, 319.

Chittagong, earthquakes at, 476.

Chockier, cave at, 736.

Chonos archipelago, rise of land in, 453.

Christchurch Head promontory, 319.

Christie, Mr., on plasticity of ice, 226.

Christol, M. de, on fossils in caves, 738, 739.

Chronology of Hebrew Scriptures, 659. ----, of Dr. Hales, 659.

Cimbrian deluge, 331.

Cisterna on Etna, how formed, 414.

Cities engulfed, 173.

Civita Vecchia, springs at, 243.

Clarke, Dr., on lava in motion, 377.

Cleavage, or slaty structure, 176.

Clermont, calcareous springs at, 239.

Climate of Europe, Raspe on former, 43. ----, changes of 75, 86. ----, change of, in northern hemisphere, 73, 123. ----, on causes of vicissitudes in, 92. ----, astronomical causes of fluctuations in, 126. ----, its influence on distribution of plants, 613. ----, effect of changes in, on range of species, 696. ----, influence of vegetation on, 713.

Climates, insular and excessive, 94.

Coal, modern, at mouths of Mackenzie, 743. ----, ancient beds, formed of plants, 90. ----, ancient, formed in deltas, 116. ----, fields, American, 115. ----, formed by plants which grow on the spot, 115. ----, period, warmth, moisture, &c. of climate, 126. ----, formation, fossil plants of the, 88, 115, 133. ----, climate indicated by, 91. ----, reptilian fossils in, 136. ----, See Carboniferous.

Colchester, Mr. W., on fossil quadrumana, 144.

Colebrooke, Mr. H. T., on age of Vedas, 4. ----, on crocodiles of the Ganges, 277. ----, Major R. H., on the Ganges, 277.

Colle, travertin of, 240.

Colombia, earthquakes in, 456.

Colonna, on organic remains, 23.

Columbia, R., submerged forest in, 270.

Conception, earthquakes at, 453, 456, 499, 761.

Conglomerates, now formed by rivers, &c., 289. ----, volcanic, 411, 438.

Coniferæ of coal, 133. ----, Araucarian, in coal, 88.

Consolidation of strata, 175.

Conybeare, Rev. W. D., on Lister, 26. ----, on landslip near Axmouth, 321, 322.

Cook, Captain, on drifting of canoes far, 661. ----, on highland near the South Pole, 98, 99.

Copaic lake, 735.

Copernican theory, edicts against, repealed at Rome, 56.

Copiapo, earthquakes at, 347. ----, raised banks of shells at, 458.

Coral islands, 775, 776, 793. ----, origin of their circular form, 783. ----, linear direction of, 782. ----, rate of growth, 776. ----, downward movement slow and uniform, 791. ----, absence of, in Atlantic, &c., 796.

Coralline crag fossils, 142.

Corda, on palm wood in Bohemian coal, 88. ----, cited, 133.

Cordier, M., on rate of increase of heat in mines, 538, 539. ----, his theory on central heat and fluidity, 540. ----, on tides in the internal melted ocean, 541.

Cordilleras shaken by earthquakes, 457, 466. ----, parallel ridges successively upheaved, 170.

Corinth, decomposition of rocks in, 733.

Cornwall, waste of cliffs of, 323. ----, land inundated by drift-sand in, 727. ----, temperature of mines in, 538.

Coromandel, inundations of sea on coast of, 730.

Coseguina volcano, great eruption of, 347.

Cosmogony distinct from geology, 3. ----, of the Hindoos, 4. ----, Egyptian, 8. ----, of the Koran, 18.

Cosmopolite shells, 650.

Coste, Capt., on elevation caused by earthquakes, 453.

Cotopaxi, 348, 560.

Covelli, M., on hot spring in Ischia, 456. ----, on Vesuvian minerals, 385.

Cowper, the poet, on age of earth, 55.

Crag strata, fossils of the, 142.

Craters of elevation, theory of, 371, 380, 415.

Crawfurd, Mr., his discovery of fossils in Ava, 28. ----, on eruption in Sumbawa, 106, 464, 465. ----, on drifting of canoes, 662.

Creation, supposed centres or foci of, 667. ----, epoch of, difference of opinion on, 660.

Cremona, lakes filled up near, 255.

Crocodiles imbedded by a river inundation in Java, 503, 748.

Cromer, waste of cliffs of, 306.

Cropthorn, fossils found at, 76.

Cruickshanks, Mr. A., on Chilian earthquake, 457.

Cuba, fossils in caves of, 741.

Culver, cliff, 318.

Cumana, earthquake of, 470.

Cunningham, Major, on buried temples of Cashmere, 764.

Cupressus thyoides, 725.

Currents from equatorial regions, 96. ----, from the pole to the equator, 107. ----, causes and velocity of, 293. ----, polar and tropical, direction of, 295. ----, destroying and transporting power of, 297, 340. ----, in estuaries, their power, 337. ----, in the Straits of Gibraltar, 333.

Currents, reproductive effects of, 337. ----, on the British shores, 339. ----, convey species from Antarctic to Arctic Ocean, 622.

Curtis, Mr., on ravages caused by aphides, 674. ----, on power of the Tipulæ to cross the sea, 657. ----, on number of British insects, 705. ----, on fossil insects, 748.

Curves of the Mississippi, 265.

Cutch, changes caused by earthquake of 1819 in, 469, 761.

Cuvier on durability of bones of men, 147, 757. ----, on crocodiles of Ganges, 277. ----, on variability in species, 583, 584. ----, on fish not crossing the Atlantic, 647. ----, on identity of Egyptian mummies with living species, 586. ----, on number of fishes, 705.

Cuvier, M. F., on aptitude of some animals to domestication, 593. ----, on influence of domestication, 595.

Cypris, fossil and living, 768.

D.

Dana, Mr., on Sandwich Islands, 354, 372, 383, 548. ----, on fragments of recent coral thrown up by Polynesian volcanoes, 372. ----, on Mount Loa, volcano, 552. ----, on "volcanoes no safety-valves," 552.

Dangerfield, Capt F., on buried cities In India, 729. ----, on Onjein, 729.

Daniell, Professor, on the trade winds, 106. ----, on melting point of iron, 539.

Dante cited, 52, 256.

Dantzic, waste of land near, 331.

Darby, on lakes formed by Red River, 269. ----, on delta of Mississippi, 272.

Darwin, Mr. C., on distribution of animals and plants, 77, 98, 141. ----, on vegetation required for support of large quadrupeds, 82. ----, Mr. C., on drifting of rocks by ice, 228. ----, on earthquakes, 347, 458, 456, 476, 753. ----, on earthquake waves, 497. ----, on rise of land, 458, 502. ----, on oolitic travertin, 439. ----, on great droughts in S. America, 696. ----, on peat of S. America, 719. ----, on coral islands, 779, 780, 782, 785, 789. ----, geology of S. America, 170. ----, on recent shells in Chili, 190. ----, on shingle on coast of S. America, 342. ----, map of coral reefs, 352, 791, 794. ----, on crateriform hills of Galapagos, 372. ----, infusoria brought home by, 388. ----, on new islands forming in Atlantic, 436. ----, on nat. hist. of Galapagos, 141, 597, 615, 616, 642. ----, on extinction of animals, 700.

Daubeny, Dr., on springs, 237. ----, on Mount Vultur, 356. ----, on Vesuvius, 380. ----, on decomposition of trachyte, 385. ----, on flowing of lava under water, 383. ----, on volcanoes, 548, 549, 550, 551.

D'Aubuisson cited, 58, 411.

Davis, Mr., on Chinese deluge, 7.

Davy, Sir H., on lake of the Solfatara, 243. ----, on formation of travertin, 243. ----, on theory of progressive development, 131. ----, on eruption of Vesuvius, 378. ----, on chemical agency of electricity, 542. ----, his theory of unoxidated metallic nucleus, 546. ----, on agency of air and water in volcanoes, 548, 550. ----, his analysis of peat, 718.

Davy, Dr., on Graham Island, 436, 549. ----, on helmet taken from sea near Corfu, 760.

De Beaumont. See Beaumont, De.

Debey, Dr., of Aix, on cretaceous dicotyledons, 133.

De Candolle, on hybrid plants, 605. ----, on distribution of plants, 613, 616. ----, on agency of man in dispersion of plants, 625. ----, on stations of plants, 670. ----, on barriers separating botanical provinces, 703. ----, on number of land plants, 705. ----, on longevity of trees, 422.

Dechen, Von, map of Germany, &c., 123.

Dee, R., bridge over, swept away by floods, 208.

Deer, their powers of swimming, 636. ----, diminished number in Great Britain, 683. ----, remains of, in marl lakes, 752.

De la Beche, Sir H., on rocks in S. Wales, 91. ----, on delta of Rhone in Lake of Geneva, 253. ----, on storm of Nov., 1824, 321. ----, on submarine forests, 323. ----, on earthquake of Jamaica, 1692, 504. ----, on action of rain in the tropics, 713.

De la Hire, on fossil wood from Ava, 1692, 28.

Delhi territory, elephants in, 81.

Delta of the Adige and Brenta, 256. ----, of the Brahmapootra or Burrampooter, 275. ----, of the Ganges, 275 to 284. ----, of the Mississippi, 263 to 275. ----, of the Mississippi, antiquity of. 271. ----, of the Nile, 261. ----, of the Po, 256. ----, of Rhone, in Lake of Geneva, 252. ----, of Rhone, in Mediterranean, 258.

Deltas, chronological computations of age of, 253, 285. ----, of Lake Superior, 253. ----, grouping of strata in, 286.

De Luc, his treatise on Geology, 56. ----, on conversion of forests into peat mosses, 721.

De Luc, M. G. A., his natural chronometers, 726.

Deluge, ancient theories on, 18, 23, 25, 31, 42, 155. ----, fossil shells referred to the, 20.

Deluges, local, how caused, 7, 269. ----, traditions of different, 7, 11, 42, 331, 356, 500, 501.

Demaillet, speculative views of, 572.

Denudation can only keep pace with deposition, 154. ----, effects of, 708.

Deposition of sediment, shifting of the area of, 188. ----, and denudation parts of the same process, 154.

Deshayes, M., on fossils of tertiary, 184.

Desmarest, his definition of geology, 3. ----, on Auvergne, 49.

Desnoyers, M., on human remains in caves, 739.

Desor, M., on glacier motion, 224.

Deucalion's deluge, 12.

Deville, M., on contraction of granite, 173. ----, on trachytes, 440.

Devonian strata formed in deep seas, 117.

Diatomaceæ, 388.

Dikes, composition and position of, 379. ----, how caused, 379.

Diluvial waves, no signs of on Etna, 423. ----, theory of earlier geologists, 25.

Diodorus Siculus cited, 357.

Dion Cassius cited, 364.

Dodo, recent extinction of the, 684.

Dog, varieties of the, 570, 584. ----, hybrids between wolf and, 601. ----, acquired instincts hereditary in, 593. ----, has run wild in America, 686.

Doggerbank, 340.

Dollart, formation of estuary of the, 329.

Dolomieu on Val di Noto, Vicentin, and Tyrol, 49. ----, on lavas of Etna, 49. ----, on decomposition of granite, 249. ----, on earthquake of 1783 in Calabria, 473, 475, 478, 480.

Domestication, aptitude of some animals for, 593, 599. ----, influence of, 595.

Don, river, rocks transported by, 208.

Donati on bed of Adriatic, 38, 71, 774.

Donny, Mr., cited, 557.

D'Orbigny, M. A., on abrupt transition from one fossil fauna to another, 184.

Dorsetshire, landslip in, 321. ----, waste of cliffs of, 319.

Dove, Mr., map of isothermal lines, 93.

Dover, waste of chalk cliffs of, 314. ----, depth of sea near, 315. ----, formation of Straits of, 315. ----, strata at foot of cliffs of, 314.

Downham buried by blown sand, 727.

Dranse, R., 210.

Drift, northern, fossil marine shells in, 186.

Drift-sand, fossils in, 727.

Drift-wood of Mississippi, 268. ----, abundant in North Sea, 744.

Drontheim, 529.

Droughts in S. America, animals destroyed by, 696.

Druids, their doctrines, 16.

Dufresnoy, M., geological map of France, 122. ----, on formation of Monte Nuovo, 371, 372. ----, on tuffs of Somma, 382. ----, on lavas of Vesuvius, 384.

Dujardin, M., on shells, &c., brought up by artesian well at Tours, 236.

Dumont, M., cited, 120, 328.

Dumoulin, M.. on earthquakes in Chili, 453.

Dunes, hills of blown sand, 305, 307.

Dunwich destroyed by the sea, 310.

Durand, Lieut., on fossil quadrumana, 144.

Dureau de la Malle, M., cited, 584, 593.

Durham, waste of coast of, 303.

D'Urville, Capt, on temperature of Mediterranean, 296.

E.

Earth, antiquity of the, 21. ----, on changes in its axis, 80. ----, proportion of land and sea on surface, 125. ----, spheroidal form of the, 534. ----, mean density of the, 535. ----, attempt to calculate thickness of its crust, 536.

Earth, electric currents in the, 543. ----, sections of the (see figs. 70, 71), 539. ----, effects produced by powers of vitality on surface, 708.

Earthquakes, chronologically described, 458, et seq. ----, energy of, probably uniform, 58. ----, earth's surface continually remodelled by, 102. ----, recurrence of, at stated periods, accidental, 345. ----, felt at sea, 358. ----, land elevated by, 458, 455, 457, 462. ----, all countries liable to slight shocks of, 358. ----, phenomena attending, 452. ----, in Cutch, 1819 (see Map), 460. ----, in Calabria, 1783, 471. ----, difficulty of measuring the effects of, 477. ----, chasms formed by, 479. ----, excavation of valleys aided by, 488. ----, renovating effects of, 565. ----, cause of the wave-like motion of, 475, 558. ----, cause of great waves and retreat of sea during, 496, 498. ----, ravages caused by sea during, 499, 501, 730. ----, connection between state of atmosphere and, 561. ----, people entombed in caverns during, 736. ----, causes of volcanoes and, 533. ----, recurrence of, in certain zones of country, 172. ----, of Lisbon, area over which it extended, 496. ----, more frequent in winter, 561.

Eccles, old church of, buried under blown sand, 306.

Edmonstone Island, 279.

Eels, migration of, 647.

Egypt nearly exempt from earthquakes, 9, 358.

Egypt, towns buried under drift-sand in, 726. ----, date of civilization of, according to Bunsen, 636.

Egyptian cosmogony, 8. ----, mummies identical with living species, 585.

Ehrenberg, on Bengal tiger in Siberia, 77. ----, on origin of bog-iron ore, 722. ----, on corals of Red Sea, 777. ----, on ashes enveloping Pompeii, 388. ----, on infusoria in volcanic tuff, 389.

Electricity, a source of volcanic heat, 542. ----, whence derived, 543.

Elephant, fossil, in ice, 45, 80. ----, covered with hair in Delhi, 81. ----, sagacity of, not attributable to intercourse with man, 598. ----, their powers of swimming, 636.

Elevation of land, how caused, 29, 448, 444, 453, 455, 457. ----, proofs of, slow and gradual, 170, 184, 518, 563.

Elevation and subsidence, proportion of, 564. ----, alternate areas of, in Pacific, 790.

Elevation crater theory, 371, 380, 420.

Elevation, valleys of, 420.

Elizabeth or Henderson's Island, upraised atoll of, 788, 794.

Elsa, travertin formed by the, 239.

Embankment, system of, in Italy, 255.

Emu in Australia will become exterminated, 684.

Englehardt on the Caspian Sea, 157.

England, waste of cliffs on coast of, 303. ----, slight earthquakes felt in, 358. ----, height of tides on coast of, 291, 308. ----, tertiary strata of, 76.

Eocene period, fossils of the, 142, 144, 183.

Epomeo, Mount, in Ischia, 362.

Equatorial current, 95.

Equinoxes, precession of the, 100, 537.

Erebus, Mount, the active volcano of, 99.

Erie, Lake, peninsula cut through by, 333. ----, waste of cliffs in, 333.

Erman, M., on eruptions in Kamschatka, 353.

Erratic blocks, 122, 154, 220. ----, icebergs charged with, 86.

Erratic blocks, submarine, laid dry by upheaval, 229.

Eruptions, volcanic, number of per year, 450. ----, cause of, 533.

Erzgebirge, mica slate of the, 48.

Escher, M., on flood in valley of Bagnes, 211.

Eschscholtz Bay, fossils of, 82.

Essex, tertiary strata of, 76. ----, inroads of sea on coast of, 311.

Estuaries, how formed, 327, 337. ----, imbedding of freshwater species in, 768.

Etna, description of and its eruptions, 396 to 424. ----, towns overflowed by lava of, 400, 728. ----, subterranean caverns on, 401. ----, a glacier under lava on, 412. ----, marine formations at its base, 401. ----, antiquity of cone of, 422.

Euganean Hills, lavas of, 359.

Euphrates, delta of advancing rapidly, 284.

Euxine burst its barrier, according to Strabo, 14. ----, gradually filling up, 14. ----, See Black Sea.

Evaporation, water carried off by, 260, 294, 334. ----, currents caused by, 294.

Everest, Rev. E., on climate of fossil elephant, 81. ----, on sediment of Ganges, 282.

Excavation of valleys, 488.

Expansion of rocks by heat, 560.

Extinction of species, 697, 701. ----, of animals, 700, 702.

F.

Fabio Colonna, 23.

Facial angle, 608.

Fair Island, action of the sea on, 301.

Falconer, Dr., on fossil quadrumana, 144. ----, on crocodiles of Ganges, 277.

Falconer, Dr., on peat near Calcutta, 280.

Falconi on elevation of coast of Baiæ, 367.

Falkland Islands, quadrupeds of, 141, 635.

Falloppio on fossils, 21.

Falls of Niagara, 214. ----, of St. Mary, 254.

Faluns of Touraine, 142.

Faraday, Mr., on water of the Geysers, 246. ----, on slow deposition of sulphate of baryta, 343. ----, on electric currents In the earth, 543. ----, on metallic reduction by voltaic agency, 548. ----, on liquefaction of gases, 560.

Faroe Islands, deposits forming near the, 774.

Farquharson, Rev. J., on floods in Scotland, 208. ----, on formation of ground ice, 222.

Faujas, on Velay and Vivarais, 1779, 49.

Faults, 162.

Fauna formerly as diversified as now, 160. ----, arctic, described by Sir J. Richardson, 634.

Felspar, decomposition of, 247.

Ferrara on lavas of Etna, 283. ----, on floods on Etna, 412. ----, on earthquake in Sicily, 471.

Ferruginous springs, 247.

Fez, earthquakes in, 358.

Fife, trap rocks of, 160. ----, coast of, submarine forests on, 303. ----, encroachments of sea on, 203.

Findhorn town swept away by sea, 302.

Fish, their distribution, and migrations, 646. ----, fossil, 745. ----, fossil of coal formation, 136.

Fissures, sulphur, &c., ejected by, 470. ----, caused by Calabrian earthquake, 479, 480, 481. ----, caused by earthquake near New Madrid, 468. ----, preservation of organic remains in, 732.

Fitton, Dr., on history of English geology, 51.

Fitzroy, Capt., on earthquake in Chili, 1835, 453, 455.

Flamborough Head, waste of, 303.

Fleming, Dr., on uniformity in climate, 74. ----, on fossil elephant, 76. ----, on submarine forests, 303. ----, on rapid flight of birds, 646. ----, on turtles taken on coast of England, 645. ----, on changes in the animal kingdom caused by man, 683. ----, on stranding of cetacea, 771.

Flinders on coral reefs, 776, 791.

Flint on course of Mississippi, &c., 264, 265. ----, on earthquakes in Mississippi valley, 466.

Floods, by bursting of lakes, 269. ----, in North America, 209. ----, in valley of Bagnes, 210. ----, in Scotland, 207, 750. ----, traditions of, 499, 501. ----, causes which may give rise to, 156. ----, at Tivoli, 211. ----, caused by melting of snow by lava, 348, 411. ----, See Deluge.

Flysch, of the Alps, eocene, 124.

Folkstone, subsidence of land at, 316.

Fontenelle, his eulogy on Palissy, 23.

Foot-marks, fossil, in North America, 136.

Forbes, Prof. E., on glacial epoch, 86. ----, on fossils of tertiary, 184. ----, on new island in Gulf of Santorin, 443. ----, on regions of depth in Ægean Sea, 649. ----, on migration of mollusca, 651. ----, cited, 703.

Forbes, Prof. J. D., on glacier motion, 224. ----, on rate of flowing of lava, 378, 400. ----, on temple of Serapis, 515, 517.

Forchhammer, Dr., on boulders drifted by ice, 231. ----, on peat, 719.

Forests, influence of, 712, 713, 715. ----, sites of, now covered by peat, 720. ----, destroyed by insects, 717. ----, submarine, 303, 323, 746.

Forests, submerged. In Colombia R. by landslides, 215.

Forfarshire, waste of coast of, 302. ----, marl lakes of, 766, 796.

Forshey, Mr., on Mississippi, 264, 271.

Forster, Mr., on coral reefs, 778.

Forsyth on climate of Italy, 395.

Fortis cited, 42. ----, views of Arduino confirmed by, 48. ----, and Testa on fossil fish, 44.

Fort William, near Calcutta, artesian well, 280.

Fossiliferous formations, breaks in the series, 180.

Fossilization of organic remains on emerged land, 718, 775. ----, in peat mosses, 722. ----, In caves and fissures, 732. ----, in alluvium and landslips, 730. ----, in volcanic formations on land, 349, 728. ----, in subaqueous deposits, 742, 753. ----, in marl lakes, 752.

Fossils, early speculations concerning their nature, 19, 24 to 27. ----, distinctness of secondary and tertiary, 119. ----, mammiferous of tertiary eras, 137, 140. ----, why distinct in successive groups, 190. ----, See Organic Remains.

Fossil trees, upright position of some, 91.

Fourier, Baron, on temperature of spaces surrounding our atmosphere, 108. ----, on central heat, 127. ----, on radiation of heat, 127.

Fox, Mr., on heat in mines, 538. ----, on electric currents in the earth, 543.

France, waste of coast of, 324. ----, caves of, 737.

Franconia, caves of, 736.

Franklin, on a whirlwind in Maryland, 619.

Fremont, Capt., on submerged forests in Columbia, 270.

Freshwater plants and animals fossilized, 766, 768. ----, strata in Cashmere, 762.

Freyberg, school at, 46, 52.

Fries, on dispersion of cryptogamic plants, 620.

Fringing reef, nature and origin of, 785. ----, upraised, 794.

Fuchsel, opinions of, 1762, 43.

Funchal. rise of sea at, during earthquake, 496.

Fundy, Bay of, wave called the "bore" in, 332.

G.

Gaillonella ferruginea, 722.

Galapagos, peculiar character of the fauna of 139, 635, 643. ----, island, tameness of birds in, 597. ----, Archipelago, craters form hills in, 372.

Galongoon, great eruption of, 353, 430.

Gambier coral island, 783, 787.

Ganges, delta of, and Brahmapootra, 275 to 284. ----, antiquity of delta of, 281. ----, quantity of sediment in waters of, 278. ----, islands formed by the, 276. ----, bones of men found in delta of. 757. ----, artesian borings in delta of, 268.

Gardner, Mr., on unexplored Antarctic land, 99.

Gases, liquefaction of, 560. ----, evolved by volcanoes, 549.

Gefle, upraised shelly deposits near, 526, 528.

Gemmellaro on Etna, 408. ----, on ice under lava, 412.

Generation, spontaneous, theory of, 22.

Generelli. on state of geology in Europe in middle of eighteenth century, 35, 53.

Geneva, lake of, delta of Rhone in, 252.

Geognosy of Werner, 46.

Geographical distribution of plants, 613. ----, of animals, 629. ----, of birds, 642. ----, of reptiles, 644. ----, of fishes, 646. ----, of testacea. 649. ----, of zoophytes, 653.

Geographical distribution of insects, 654. ----, of man, 659.

Geography, proofs of former changes in physical, 114,121. ----, effect of changes in, on species, 690.

Geological society of London, 59. ----, theories, causes of error in, 61.

Geology defined, 1. ----, distinct from cosmogony, 3. ----, causes of its retardation, 24, 55, 61. ----, state of, before eighteenth century, 86. ----, modern progress of, 58.

Georgia, Island of, snow to level of sea in, 99, 108. ----, U. S., new ravines formed in, 205.

Gerbanites, an Arabian sect, their doctrines, 14.

German Ocean, filling up, 340.

Gesner, John, on organic remains, 41.

Geysers of Iceland, 533, 553. ----, cause of their intermittent action, 555.

Gibraltar, birds' bones in breccia at, 740. ----, Straits of, 383.

Gironde, tides in its estuary, 338.

Glacial epoch, 75.

Glacier under lava, on Etna, 412. ----, moraines of, 223. ----, view of, 223.

Glaciers, formation of, 222 to 227. ----, motion of, 228. ----, of Spitzbergen, 96. ----, transportation of rocks by, 155.

Glen Tilt, granite veins of, 51.

Gloucestershire, gain of land in, 324.

Gmelin on distribution of fish, 648.

Goats, multiplication of, in South America, 686.

Goeppert, Prof., 87. ----, on fossilization of plants, 747.

Golden age, doctrine whence derived, 9.

Goodwin Sands, 814.

Gothenburg, rise of land near, 526.

Graab, Capt., on subsidence of Greenland, 530.

Graham, Mrs., on earthquake of Chili in 1822, 459.

Graham Island, newly formed in 1831, 432. ----, supposed section of, 435.

Granite of the Hartz, Werner on, 47. ----, disintegration of, 221, 346. ----, formed at different periods, 177. ----, veins observed by Hutton in Glen Tilt, 51.

Grant, Capt., on Chilian earthquake, 462.

Graves, Capt., on diffusion of insects by winds, 656. ----, survey of Santorin by, 441.

Gray, Mr., on Mytilus polymorphus, 658.

Great Dismal Swamp, Virginia, 724.

Grecian Archipelago, new isles of the, 43. ----, volcanoes of the, 355, 442, 450.

Greece, earthquakes in, 355. ----, traditions of deluges in, 356.

Greeks, geology of, 13.

Greenland, why colder than Lapland, 94. ----, gradual subsidence of, 530, 562. ----, timber drifted to shores of, 745.

Grevllle, Dr., on drift sea-weed, 623.

Groins described, 818.

Grooves in rocks formed by glaciers, 155, 227, 228.

Grotto del Cane, 248.

Ground ice, 221. ----, transporting rocks in Baltic, 231.

Guadalonpe, human skeletons of 757.

Guatemala, active volcanoes in, 349.

Gulana, partly formed by sediment of Amazon, 342.

Guilding, Rev. L., on migration of Boa Constrictor, 646.

Guinea current, 296.

Guinea, New, mammalia of, 682.

Gulf stream, 96, 292, 294. 621. ----, stream aids migration of fish, 648.

Guyot, M., on glacier motion, 224.

Gyrogonite described, 766.

H.

Habitations of plants described, 614.

Hales, Dr., on epoch of the creation, 659.

Hall, Sir J., his experiments on rocks, 51. ----, Captain B., on flood in valley of Bagnes, 211. ----, on the trade-winds, 295. ----, on temple of Serapis, 512. ----, Mr., State Geologist of New York, 216, 218. ----, Mr. J., on temple of Serapis, 512.

Hamilton, Mr. W. J., on volcanoes near Smyrna, 355. ----, Sir W., on Herculaneum, 389. ----, on earthquake in Calabria, 473, 483, 485. ----, Sir W., on formation of Monte Nuovo, 367. ----, on eruption of Vesuvius in 1779, 377.

Hamilton, Sir C., on submerged houses in Port Royal, 504.

Hampshire, Brander on fossils of, 44. ----, submarine forest on coast of, 746.

Harcourt, Rev. W. V. V., on bones of mammoth, &c., in Yorkshire, 76.

Harris, Hon. C., on sunk vessel near Poole, 758. ----, on submarine forest, Hampshire, 746.

Hartmann, Dr., on fossils of Hartz, 48.

Hartz mountains, 48.

Harwich, waste of cliffs at, 811.

Hatfleld moss, trees found in, 721.

Head, Sir Edmund, on temple of Serapis, 512.

Heat, laws which govern the diffusion of, 93.

Heat, whether gradual decline of, in globe, 129. ----, expansion of rocks by, 561.

Heber, Bishop, on animals of Himalaya, 81.

Hecla, columnar basalt of, 48. ----, eruptions of, 424.

Helena, St, bounded by lofty shores, 622.

Heligoland, inroads of sea on, 329.

Helix, range of species of, 650.

Henderson on eruption of Skaptar Jokul, 1783, 425.

Henderson's Island described, 788.

Henslow, Rev. Prof., on the cowslip, 590. ----, on diffusion of plants, 624.

Herbert, Hon. Mr., on varieties and hybrids in plants, 590, 605.

Herculaneum, 385, 389.

Herne Bay, waste of cliffs in, 312.

Herodotus cited, 8, 261.

Herschel, Sir J. F. W, on varying heat received by the two hemispheres, 100. ----, on astronomical causes of changes in climate, 126. ----, on variable splendor of stars, 128. ----, on the trade-winds, 297. ----, on height of Etna, 396. ----, on form of the earth, 534. ----, on Geysers of Iceland, 555. ----, on the effects of heat on seeds, 621. ----, on the author's theory of climate, 92.

Herschel, Sir W., on the elementary matter of the earth, 533.

Hewett, Capt, on rise of tides, 291. ----, on currents, 293. ----, on banks in North Sea, 808, 840.

Hibbert, Dr., on the Shetland Islands, 299, 300.

Hilaire, M. Geof. St., on animal kingdom, 567.

Himalaya mountains, animals inhabiting the, 81. ----, height of perpetual snow on, 112.

Hindoo cosmogony, 4. ----, town buried, 731.

Hindostan, earthquakes in, 494.

Hippopotamus indicates warmth of river, 75.

Hitchcock, Report on Geol. of Massachusetts, 137.

Hoff, Von, on level of Caspian, 18. ----, on encroachments of sea, 331, 332. ----, on earthquakes, 359. ----, on human remains in delta of Ganges, 757. ----, on a buried vessel, 758.

Hoffmann, M., on lavas of Vesuvius, 379. ----, on Etna, 415, 416.

Holland, gradual sinking of coast, 327. ----, inroads of sea in, 328. ----, submarine peat in, 770.

Hooke on duration of species, 27, 28. ----, on earthquakes, 27, 29, 503.

Hooker, Dr. J., on Icebergs in antarctic seas, 229. ----, on tropical plants, 614. ----, floras of islands in Southern Ocean, 615. ----, on flora of Galapagos Islands, 616. ----, on wide range of certain plants, 618, 621, 623. ----, on delta of Ganges, 280. ----, on rain in India, 200.

Hocker, Sir W., on eruption of Skaptar Jokul, 425. ----, his view of the crater of the great Geyser, 554. ----, on drifting of a fox on ice, 680.

Hopkins, Mr., on glacier motion, 224, 225. ----, on thickness of earth's crust, 536.

Hopkins, Mr., on astronomical causes of change of climate, 128. ----, on changes of climate, 93. ----, on earthquakes, 453. ----, on M. E. de Beaumont's theory of mountain chains, 170.

Hordwell, loss of land at, 318.

Horner, Mr., on brine springs, 247. ----, on submarine forest in Somersetshire, 323. ----, dissertation on coal, 91.

Horsburgh, Capt, on icebergs in low latitudes, 99.

Horsburgh on coral islands, 782, 787.

Horses drowned in rivers in South America, 750.

Horsfield, Dr., on earthquakes in Java, 471, 494. ----, on distribution of Mydaus meliceps in Java, 639.

Hubbard, Prof., cited, 210.

Huc, on Yaks frozen in ice in Thibet, 85.

Human race geologically modern, 660.

Human remains in peat mosses, 722. ----, in caves, 735, 736, 739. ----, their durability, 147, 757. ----, in delta of Ganges, 757. ----, in calcareous rock at Guadaloupe, 757. ----, in breccias in the Morea, 735.

Humber, warp of the, 288. ----, encroachment of sea in its estuary, 304.

Humboldt on laws regulating diffusion of heat, 93. ----, on preservation of animals in frozen mud, 85. ----, on distribution of land and sea, 109. ----, on transportation of sediment by currents, 342. ----, his definition of volcanic action, 345. ----, on mud eruptions in the Andes, 348. ----, on volcanic eruptions in Tartary, 355. ----, on eruption of Jorullo, 428. ----, on earthquakes, 466, 470. ----, on distribution of species, 613, 614. ----, on migrations of animals, 644, 656, 685. ----, cited, 8, 77, 84. ----, on earthquake in New Madrid, 466. ----, on earthquake of Lisbon, 495. ----, on mud volcanoes, 448.

Humboldt, W. von, on dawn of oriental civilization, 659.

Humming-birds, distribution, &c., 97, 643.

Hunter, John, on mule animals, 601.

Huron, Lake, recent strata of, 768.

Hurricanes connected with earthquakes, 731. ----, plants drifted to sea by, 745.

Hurst Castle shingle bank, 318.

Hutchinson, John, his "Moses's Principia," 33.

Hutton, distinguished geology from cosmogony, 3. ----, on igneous rocks and granite, 51. ----, represented oldest rock as derivatives, 52.

Huttonian theory, 51, 57.

Hybrid races, Lamarck on, 572. ----, animals, 600. ----, plants, 602.

Hydrogen, deoxidating power of, 547. ----, flame of; seen in eruption of Vesuvius, 378. ----, why not found in a separate form among volcanic gases, 548.

Hydrophytes, distribution of, 617, 623.

Hydrostatic pressure of ascending lava, 416, 553.

Hypogene rocks, 178.

Hyracotherium, Eocene mammifer, 142.

Hythe, encroachments of sea at, 316.

I.

Ianthina fragilis, its range, &c., 650.

Ice, animals imbedded in, 83.

Ice of rivers, transporting power of, 219. ----, drift, influence of, on temperature, 95. ----, predominance of, in antarctic circle, 98. ----, formation of field, 107. ----, transportation of rocks by, 155, 219, 521.

Icebergs, formation of, 96, 97. ----, distance to which they float, 100, 227. ----, limits of glaciers and, 228. ----, plants and animals transported by, 622, 639. ----, action of, when stranded, 228. ----, rocks transported by. See Ice. ----, floating in Northern hemisphere, 86. ----, not all formed by glaciers, 228.

Iceland, icebergs stranded on, 97. ----, geysers of, 246, 553, 555.

Iceland, volcanic eruptions in, 424. ----, comparison between the lavas of Central France and, 426. ----, new island near, 425. ----, polar bear drifted to, 679.

Igneous action. See Volcanic.

Igneous causes. See Book II. ----, the antagonist power to action of running water, 198, 563, 711.

Ilford, tertiary strata at, 76.

Imbedding of organic remains. See Fossilization.

India, buried cities in, 729, 731. ----, terrestrial mammalia of, 632.

Indo-pacific province of mollusca, 649.

Indus, delta of. recent changes in, 459, 769. ----, buried ships in, 758.

Infusoria in bog iron-ore, 722. ----, in volcanic rocks in Mexico, Peru, &c., 388.

Infusorial tuff, Pompeii, 388.

Inland cliffs, no proof of sudden elevation, 531. ----, seas, deltas of, 255.

Insects, geographical distribution of, 654. ----, certain types of, distinguish particular countries, 655. ----, their agency in preserving an equilibrium of species, 671. ----, fossil, 748.

Instincts, migratory, occasional development of, in animals, 642. ----, hereditary, 593, 596. ----, modified by domestication, 595.

Insular climates, description of, 94.

Inverness-shire, inroads of sea on coast of, 302.

Irawadi, R., silicified wood of, noticed in 1692, 28.

Ireland, raised beaches on coast of, 122. ----, reptiles of, 645. ----, peat of, and fossils in, 719, 720, 724. ----, deposits in progress off coast of, 774.

Iron, melting point of, 539. ----, in wood, peat, &c., 722. ----, instruments taken up from sea, 760.

Ischia, hot springs of, 247, 456. ----, eruptions and earthquakes in, 360, 365, 456.

Islands, vegetation of small, 112, 615, 667. ----, animals in, 635. ----, formed by the Ganges, 276. ----, migrations of plants aided by, 622. ----, new volcanic, 43, 425, 432, 468. ----, coral, 775. ----, of driftwood, 640.

Isle of Purbeck, vertical chalk in, 318.

Isle of Wight, mammiferous fossils of, 142. ----, waste of its shores, 317.

Isothermal lines, Humboldt on, 95.

Italian geologists, their priority, 19, 23. ----, of the 18th century, 33.

Italy, tertiary strata of, 64, 74.

J.

Jack, Dr., on island of Pulo Nias, 794.

Jamaica, earthquakes in, 350, 504, 517. ----, subsidence in, 504, 517. ----, rain diminished in, by felling of forests, 713. ----, a town swept away by sea in, 731.

Java, volcanoes and earthquakes in, 354, 464, 498, 502. ----, valley of poison in, 353. ----, subsidence of volcano of Papandayang in, 493. ----, river-floods in, 503, 748, 751.

Jones, Sir W., on Institutes of Hindoo law, 5.

Jorullo, eruption of, 349, 428.

Juan Fernandez, 357, 453, 499, 686.

Jukes, Mr., on cliffs in Island of Timor, 794. ----, on volcanic islands near Java, 354. ----, on coral reef, 784.

Jura, Saussure on the, 45.

Jutland, inroads of sea in, 330.

K.

Kamtschatka, volcanoes in, 353. ----, new island near, 468.

Kangaroo, extirpation of; to Australia, 684.

Kashmir. See Cashmere.

Katavothrons of Greece, breccias formed in, 734.

Kazwini on changes in position of land and sea, 19.

Keilhan, Prof., of Christiana, on changes of level in Norway, 529, 531.

Keith on dispersion of plants, 620.

Kent, loss of land on coast of, 312.

Kentucky, caves in limestone, 733.

Keyserling, Count, on lowland of Siberia, 84.

Kincardineshire, village in, washed away by sea, 302.

King, Captain P., on humming birds in Tierra del Fuego, 97, 643. ----, on currents in Straits of Magellan, 293. ----, on coral reefs, 788.

King, Mr., on cattle lost in bogs in Ireland, 723. ----, on submerged cannon, 759.

Kinnordy, Loch of, insects in marl in, 748. ----, canoe in peat of, 759.

Kirby, Rev. Mr., on insects, 606, 655, 673, 674.

Kirwan, his geological Essays, 56. ----, on connection of geology and religion, 56.

Knight, Mr., on varieties of fruit trees, 589.

König, Mr., on Guadaloupe human skeleton, 757. ----, on fossils from Melville Island, 88.

Koran, cosmogony of the, 17.

Kotzebue on drifted canoe, 662.

Kunker, concretionary limestone of Ganges, 280.

Kurile Isles, active volcanoes in, 353.

L.

Labrador, drift-timber of, 745. ----, rocks drifted by ice on coast of, 230.

Laccadive Islands, 782.

Lagoons, or salt lakes, in delta of Rhone, 259. ----, of coral islands, 780.

Lagullas current, 95.

Lagunes on coast of Adriatic, 256.

Lake Erie. See Erie, Lake. ----, of Geneva. See Geneva, Lake of. ----, Maeler, 524, 528. ----, Superior. See Superior, Lake.

Lakes, filling up of 252. ----, formation of; in basin of Mississippi, 466, 269. ----, formed by earthquakes, 466, 481, 505. ----, crescent-shaped, in plain of Mississippi, 266. ----, Canadian, strata forming in, 768.

Lamarck, his definition of species, 567. ----, on transmutation of species, 567, 587, 696, 699. ----, on conversion of orang into man, 575. ----, on numbers of polyps, 706.

Lancashire, fossil canoes in, 759.

Lancerote, eruptions in, 436, 439.

Land, quantity of, in northern and southern hemispheres, 102, 109, 110. ----, upraised at successive periods, 118, 119. ----, proofs of existence of, at all periods, 188. ----, proportion of sea and, 124. ----, elevation of, how caused, 171, 453, 457, 459, 562.

Landslips, 319, 321, 485, 505. ----, imbedding of organic remains by, 732.

Languedoc, deposits on coast of, 260.

Laplace on change in the earth's axis, 32. ----, on mean depth of Atlantic and Pacific, 104. ----, on no contraction of globe, 129. ----, on mean density of the earth, 536.

Lapland, why milder than Greenland, 94. ----, migrations of animals in, 637.

Lateral pressure caused by landslips, 322. ----, pressure in Andes and Alps, 171.

Latham, Dr. R. G., on Natural History of Man, 609.

Lauder, Sir T. D., on floods in Scotland, 208, 686, 730, 748.

Lava excavated by rivers, 213. ----, effects of decomposition on, 385. ----, flowing of, under water, 383. ----, hydrostatic pressure of ascending, 552. ----, of Iceland and Central France, 426, 427. ----, comparative volume of ancient and modern, 161, 427. ----, pretended distinction between ancient and modern, 438. ----, mineral composition of, 449, 551. ----, rate of flowing, 378, 400.

Lazzaro Moro, See Moro.

Lehman, treatise of, 1759, 40.

Leibnitz, theory of, 26.

Leidy, Dr., on Priscodelphinus, 145.

Lemings, migrations of, 637.

Lena, R., fossil bones on banks of, 78, 80.

Leonardo da Vinci, 19.

Lewes, human bones in tumulus near, 739. ----, estuary recently filled up near, 748, 768.

Liege, caves near, 737.

Light, influence of, on plants, 89.

Lightning, effect of, in Shetland Islands, 299.

Lignite, conversion of wood into, 759.

Lima destroyed by earthquake, 501. ----, elevated recent marine strata at, 502.

Lime, whence derived, 796.

Lincolnshire, inroads of sea on coast of, 304.

Lindley, Dr., on fossil plants of Melville Islands, 88. ----, on number of plants, 705. ----, on dispersion of plants, 620. ----, on fossil plants of coal, 88, 133. ----, cited, 133.

Linnæus on filling up of Gulf of Bothnia, 521. ----, on subsidence of Scania, 530. ----, on constancy of species, 568. ----, on real existence of genera, 578. ----, on diffusion of plants, 624, 626. ----, on introduction of species, 665. ----, cited, 671.

Lionnesse tradition in Cornwall, 324.

Lippi on Herculaneum and Pompeii, 387.

Lipsius, 12.

Lisbon, earthquakes at, 358, 495.

Lister, first proposed geological maps, 26. ----, on fossil shells, 26.

Lloyd, Mr., on levels of Atlantic and Pacific, 294.

Loa, Mount, volcano of Sandwich Isles, 552.

Locusts, devastations of, 674. ----, bank formed in sea by, 675.

Loess of the Rhine, 185. ----, of the Mississippi valley, 265.

Loire, tertiary strata of the, 142.

London, artesian wells near, 234.

London basin, tertiary deposits of, 121. ----, clay, its fossils, 142, 144.

Lowestoff Ness described, 309. ----, cliffs undermined near, 309.

Lowland of Siberia, 78, 80, 83, 85.

Luckipour, on the Ganges, 276, 277. ----, new islands formed near, 276.

Luckput, subsidence near, 460.

Lund, Dr., on fossil quadrumana, 144.

Lybian sands, caravans overwhelmed by, 727.

Lyme Regis, waste of cliffs at, 321.

Lym-Fiord, breaches made by the sea in, 330.

M.

MacClelland, Dr., on earthquakes In Chittagong, 494. ----, on volcanic line In Bay of Bengal, 354.

MacCulloch, Dr., on gradation from peat to coal, 719. ----, on origin of limestones, 796.

Macacus pliocenus of Owen, fossil in valley of Thames, 144. ----, Suffolk Eocene species, 144.

Macaluba, in Sicily, mud volcanoes, 447.

Mackenzie, Sir G., his section of geyser, 556. ----, on reindeer in Iceland, 686.

Mackenzie River, driftwood of, 90, 743. ----, floods of, 84.

Maclaren, Mr. C., on Graham Island, 435. ----, on quantity of useful soil in America, 687. ----, on position of American forests, 714. ----, remarks, theory of atolls, 792.

Macmurdo, Captain, on earthquake of Cutch, 460.

Madagascar, extent of coral near, 776. ----, assemblage of quadrupeds in, 632.

Madrid, New, great earthquake at, 466. ----, sunk country near it, 270.

Maeler, lake, 524, 528.

Magellan, Straits of, tides in, 291, 293.

Magnesia deposited by springs, 283.

Magnesian limestone and travertin compared, 240.

Magnetism, terrestrial, phenomena of, 543. ----, solar, 129.

Mahomet, his cosmogony, 18.

Malabar, coral near, 776.

Maldive Islands, coral reefs of, 778, 782.

Mallet, Captain, on petroleum of Trinidad, 250.

Mallet, Mr., on the dynamics of earthquakes, 453, 475. ----, on whirling motion during earthquakes, 476. ----, cited, 560. ----, on transit of the earth-wave, 483. ----, on theory of waves, 498.

Mammalia, different regions of indigenous, 629. ----, fossil, of successive tertiary periods. 138, 139. ----, imbedding of, in subaqueous strata, 749, 753.

Mammifer, fossil of trias, 137.

Mammoth, Siberian, 75. ----, bones of, in Yorkshire, 76.

Man, recent origin of, 147, 182, 687, 764. ----, why able to live in all climates, 609. ----, diffusion of, 657. ----, changes caused by, 150, 182, 630, 663, 681, 713. ----, durability of the bones of, 147, 757. ----, remains of, in osseous breccias of Morea, 735. ----, his remains and works fossil, 753.

Manetho, 63.

Mantell, Dr., on bones from Saxon tumulus, 788. ----, on Lewes levels, 748, 768.

Map of Siberia, 79. ----, of World, showing present unequal distribution of land and sea, 110. ----, showing position of land and sea, which might produce extremes of heat and cold, 111. ----, of Europe, showing extent of land covered by sea since commencement of tertiary period (Pl. I.), 121.

Map of coast from Nieuport to mouth of Elbe, 326. ----, of volcanoes from Philippine Islands to Bengal, 351. ----, of volcanic district of Naples, 361. ----, of Gulf of Santorin, 442. ----, of Chili, 454, 455. ----, of Cutch, 460. ----, of Calabria, 472. ----, of Sweden, 522.

Maracaybo, Lake, 466.

Marine deposits, imbedding of land quadrupeds in, 749, 752. ----, of human remains and works of art in, 756. ----, of freshwater species in, 768. ----, plants and animals imbedded in, 770.

Marine vegetation. 617, 622.

Marl lakes of Scotland, animals and plants fossilized in, 752, 766.

Marsili, on arrangement of shells in Adriatic, 36, 38, 40. ----, on deposits of coasts of Languedoc, 260.

Marsupial animals, distribution of, 633. ----, fossil, 138.

Martigny destroyed by floods, 211.

Martius, on drifting of animals by the Amazon, 641. ----, on Brazil, 682.

Maryland, whirlwind in, 619.

Mattani on fossils of Volterra, 34.

Mattioli on organic remains, 21.

Mauritius, reef uplifted above level of sea, 794.

Mediterranean, microscopic testacea of, 44. ----, deposition of salt in the, 334. ----, new island in, 432. ----, its temperature, depth, level, &c., 45, 294, 334, 510. ----, same level as Red Sea, 294.

Megna, R., arm of Brahmapootra, 279.

Melville Island, fossils of, 90. ----, migrations of animals into, 640.

Melville, Dr., on dodo, 684.

Memphis, in delta of Nile, 261.

Mendip Hills, caves of, 737.

Menu's Institutes, 4, 5.

Mercati on organic remains, 22.

Mersey, vessel in bed of, 758.

Messina, tide in Straits of, 290. ----, earthquakes at, 477, 488, 490.

Metallic nucleus, theory of an unoxidated, 545.

Metallic substances changed by submersion, 759.

Metamorphic rocks, how formed, 177. ----, of the Alps, 178. ----, why those visible to us must be very ancient, 178.

Mexico, Gulf of, tides in, 295. ----, currents in, 96, 292. ----, volcanoes of, 349, 546.

Meyen, Dr., on earthquake in Chili, 1822, 458.

Michell on phenomena of earthquakes, 41. ----, on the geology of Yorkshire, 42. ----, on earthquake at Lisbon, 358, 497. ----, on retreat of the sea during earthquakes, 498. ----, on wave-like motion of earthquakes, 558. ----, on earthquakes cited, 499.

Microlestes, triassic mammifer, 138, 145.

Middendorf, Mr., on Siberian mammoth, 81.

Migrations of plants, 618. ----, of animals, 635, 636. ----, of cetacea, 642. ----, of birds, 642. ----, of fish, 646. ----, of zoophytes, 653. ----, of insects, 655.

Migratory powers indispensable to animals, 689.

Milford Haven, rise of tides at, 291.

Millennium, 20, 32.

Mineral waters, their connection with volcanoes, 237. ----, ingredients most common in. See Springs, 237.

Mineralization of plants, 747.

Mines, heat in, augments with the depth, 538.

Miocene strata of Suffolk, fossils of, 142. ----, proportion of living species in fossil shells of the, 183.

Mississippi, its course, delta, &c., 268, 275. ----, drift-wood of the, 261. ----, earthquakes in valley of, 270, 350. ----, antiquity of delta of, 272. ----, earthquake region of, 467. ----, banks higher than swamps, 266.

Missouri, R., 264.

Mitchell, Dr., on waste of cliffs, 311.

Moel Tryfane, recent marine shells on, 122.

Mollusca. See Testacea. ----, provinces of, 649.

Molluscous animals, longevity of species of, 76.

Moluccas, eruptions in the, 504.

Monkeys, fossil, 144.

Monte Barbaro, description of, 373. ----, Bolca, fossil fish of, 44. ----, Nuovo, formation of, 369, 518. ----, Somma, structure of, 382.

Monti Rossi on Etna described, 397, 399, 422.

Montlosier, on Auvergne, 49.

Moraines of glaciers, 223, 226, 228.

Morayshire, town in, destroyed by sea, 302. ----, effect of floods in, 208, 730.

Morea, Céramiqne of, 731. ----, osseous breccias now forming in the, 734. ----, human remains imbedded in, 735.

Moriot, on subsidence in Adriatic, 257.

Moro, Lazzaro, his geological views, 34. ----, on primary rocks, 52.

Morocco, earthquakes at, 358.

Morton, Dr. S. G., on hybrids and species, 601.

Mountain chains, on the elevation of, 65. ----, theory of sudden rise of, 163.

Moya of the Andes described, 348, 470.

Mud eruptions in Quito, 1797, 348. ----, volcanoes, 447.

Mules sometimes prolific, 601.

Murchison, Sir R., on the Hartz mountains, 48. ----, on tertiary deposits of the Alps, 119. ----, on geography of Siberia, 78, 84, 124. ----, map of Russia, 123. ----, on depression of Caspian, 157. ----, on travertin of Tivoli, 245. ----, on tertiary deposits of Alps, 124.

Muschelkalk, 193.

Mydaus meliceps, 639.

Myrmecobius, fasciatus, 138.

Mytilus polymorphus, 652.

N.

Nantucket, banks of, 293.

Naples, volcanic district round, 361. ----, recent tertiary strata near, 74.

Narwal stranded near Boston, 771. ----, fossil near Lewes, 769.

Nasmyth, Mr., on non-conductibility of dry sand and clay, 418.

Needles of Isle of Wight, 318.

Negro physiognomy traced back 3000 years, 660.

Neill on whales stranded, 771.

Nelson, Lieut, on coral reefs, 798.

Neptune, temple of, under water, 516.

Neptunists and Vulcanists, rival factions of, 50, 55.

Nerbuddah, river, 705.

Newbold, Lieut., on mud of Nile, 262.

Newfoundland cattle mired in bogs of, 723.

Newhaven, its cliffs undermined, 317.

New Holland, plants of, 112, 614. ----, animals of, 630. ----, coral reefs of, 776, 791.

New Kameni, formation of, 443.

New Madrid, U. S., earthquakes at, 350, 466.

New Zealand, animals in, 635. ----, tree ferns in, 89.

Niagara, Falls of, 214. ----, their recession, 217, 218. ----, height of, 216.

Niccolini, M., on Temple of Serapis, 518.

Nicolosi destroyed by earthquake, 399.

Nile, R., delta of the, 261. ----, cities buried under blown sand near the, 726. ----, swept away by flood of, 753.

Nilson, M., on subsidence of Scania, 530. ----, on migrations of eels, 648.

Nitrogen in springs, 710.

Nomenclature of geology, remarks on, 158.

Norfolk, waste of cliffs of, 305. ----, gain of land on coast of, 308.

North Cape, drift-wood on, 745.

Northumberland, land destroyed by sea in, 303.

Norway free from earthquakes, 531. ----, rise of land in, 192, 527, 529.

Norwich once situated on an arm of the sea, 307.

Norwich Crag, fossils of, 142.

Nova Scotia, rise of tides in, 332.

Nummulitic limestone, 124.

Nymphs, temple of, under water, 516.

Nyoe, a new island formed in 1783, 425, 432.

O.

Obi, E., fossils on shores of, 81.

Ocean, permanency of its level, 518.

Odoardi on tertiary strata of Italy, 42.

Oersted, discoveries of, 543.

Ogygian deluge, 349, 356.

Ohio, junction of, with Mississippi, 264.

Oldham, Mr., on raised sea beaches in Ireland, 122.

Old red sandstone formation, fossils of, 135, 193.

Old red sandstone, reptile in, 135.

Olivi on fossil remains, 22.

Omar, an Arabian writer, 17.

Ontario, Lake, distance from Niagara, 216.

Oolite, fossils of the, 137.

Oolitic structure, recent, in Lancerote, &c., 439.

Orang-outang, change of, to man, 575.

Orbigny, M. A. de, on Pampean mud, 170.

Organic remains, controversy as to real nature of, 19. ----, imbedding of. See Fossillzation. ----, importance of the study of, 60. ----, abrupt transition from those of the secondary to those of the tertiary rocks, 120. ----, See also Fossils.

Oriental philosophers, 10.

Oriental cosmogony, 7.

Orkney Islands, waste of, 301.

Orleans, New, ground sinking, 268. ----, trunks of trees in soil of delta, 268.

Osseous breccias, 735, 736, 741.

Otaheite, coral reefs of, 784, 786.

Oujein, buried Indian city, 729.

Ouse, R., has filled up an arm of the Sea, 744.

Ovid cited, 10, 345.

Owen, Prof., on bones of turtles, 772. ----, on the dog and wolf, 584. ----, on tertiary mammalia, 142, 144. ----, quoted, 184. ----, teeth of mammoth, 78. ----, on British fossil mammalia and birds, 137.

Owhyhee, 787.

Oysters, &c., thrown ashore alive by storm, 773. ----, migrations of, 652.

P.

Pacific Ocean, depth of, 104. ----, its height above the Atlantic, 294. ----, subsidence greater than elevation in, 787. ----, coral and volcanic islands of, 354, 776, 780, 787.

Palæotherium of Isle of Wight, 142.

Palestine shaken by earthquakes, 355.

Palissy on organic remains, 23.

Pallas on mountains of Siberia, 45. ----, on Caspian Sea, 45. ----, on fossil bones of Siberia, 45, 78, 80. ----, cited, 333.

Palmer, Mr., on shingle beaches, 313, 320.

Palms, rare in carboniferous group, 88.

Pampas, gradual rise of, 170.

Panama, tides in Bay of, 295.

Papandayang, eruption of, 493. ----, its cone truncated, 493.

Papyrus rolls in Herculaneum, 392.

Paradise, Burnet on seat of, 32.

Parana, R., animals drifted down on rafts by, 641. ----, animals drowned in, 696.

Paris basin, formations of the, 121. ----, fossils of the, 142.

Parish, Sir W., on inroads of sea during earthquakes, 499, 502. ----, on drifting of animals on floating rafts, 641. ----, on great droughts in S. America, 696. ----, on floods of Parana R., 751.

Parma, tertiary strata near, 74.

Paroxysmal energy of ancient causes controverted, 174.

Parrot, on Caspian Sea, 157.

Parrots near Cape Horn, 97.

Parry, Captain, highest northern latitude reached by, 98. ----, on migration of polar bear, 640. ----, on animals of Melville Island, 640.

Patagonia, tides on coast of, 291.

Paviland cave, 737.

Peat in delta of Ganges, 280. ----, on preservation of fossils in, 711, 718, 722. ----, distribution of, 719. ----, bogs, bursting of, 724. ----, submarine, 725.

Peat of Great Dismal Swamp, Virginia, 724.

Pembrokeshire, loss of land in, 324.

Penco destroyed by earthquake, 499. ----, elevation near, 500.

Pennant on waste of Yorkshire coast, 304. ----, on migration of animals, 77, 631, 637.

Pentagonal network of mountain chains, M. E. de Beaumont on, 170.

Penzance, loss of land near, 323.

Permian rocks, reptiles in, 136.

Péron on distribution of species, 647.

Perrey, M. Alexis, on frequency of earthquakes in winter, 561.

Persian Gulf, coral in, 776.

Peru, volcanoes in, 347. ----, earthquakes in, 347, 501.

Peruvian tradition of a great flood, 8, 502.

Peterhead, whale stranded near, 771.

Phascolotherium Bucklandi, 139.

Philippi, Dr. A., on fossil tertiary shells of Sicily, 183.

Phillips, Mr. J., on waste of Yorkshire coast, 304.

Phlegræan fields, volcanoes of, 373.

Physical Geography. See Geography.

Pietra Mala, inflammable gas of, 11.

Pigs, instincts of, 595. ----, swim to great distances, 635. ----, fossil, 723.

Pilla, M., on Monte Somma, 382.

Pindar cited, 398.

Pingel, Dr., on subsidence of Greenland, 530.

Pisolitic limestone of France, 120.

Pitch lake of Trinidad, 250.

Plants, carboniferous, wide geographical range, 160. ----, varieties in, produced by horticulture, 588. ----, extent of variation in, 589. ----, their geographical distribution, 97, 112, 613. ----, dispersion of, 618. ----, stations of, 614, 669. ----, equilibrium among, kept up by insects, 672. ----, number of terrestrial, 705. ----, imbedding of, in subaqueous deposits, 742, 765, 770. ----, on number which are now becoming fossil, 745. ----, mineralization of, 747.

Plants, fossil, of the coal strata, 87, 115, 133.

Plastic clay fossils, 142.

Plastic force, fossil shell ascribed to, 20.

Playfair on Huttonian theory, 53, 57. ----, on instability of the earth's surface, 212. ----, on gradual rise of Sweden, 523. ----, on form of the earth, 534.

Plieninger, Professor, on triassic mammifer, 137.

Pliny the Elder, 16. ----, on delta of Rhone, 258. ----, on Islands at the mouth of the Texel, 329.. ----, killed by eruption of Vesuvius, A. D. 79, 364.

Pliny the Younger, on Vesuvius, 364.

Pliocene strata, fossils of, 143.

Plot on organic remains, 26.

Pluche, theory of, 1732, 83.

Plutonic rocks, how formed, 161. ----, action, changes produced by, 176, 178.

Po, R., 207. ----, frequently shifts to course, 255. ----, embankment of the, 256. ----, delta of the, 256, 284. ----, subsidence in delta of, 257.

Poisson, M., on astronomical causes of changes in climate, 127.

Polyps. See Zoophytes.

Pomerania, fossil ships in, 758.

Pompeii, how destroyed, 365, 385, 387. ----, section of the mass enveloping, 386. ----, objects preserved in, 390. ----, infusorial beds covering it, 388.

Pont Gibaud, gneiss decomposed at, 248. ----, calcareous springs near, 239.

Poole Bay cut into by sea, 319.

Popayan, volcanoes and earthquakes in, 349.

Portland, fossil ammonites of, 28. ----, its peninsula wasting. 319.

Port Royal, subsidence of, 504, 517, 691, 762.

Porto Praya, Azores, calcareous stratum, 436.

Portugal, earthquakes in, 358.

Porzio on formation of Monte Nuovo, 369, 371.

Post-tertiary formations, 184.

Precession of the equinoxes, 100, 537.

Prentice, Lieut, on coral reef in Maldives, 778.

Pressure, effects of, 171.

Prestwich, Mr., on artesian wells, 234.

Prevost Const., on Stonefield fossil mammalia, 138. ----, Const., on gypseous springs, 245. ----, on rents formed by upheaval, 371. ----, on new island in Mediterranean, 433. ----, on geological causes, 718. ----, on osseous breccias of caves, 736.

Prevost, Pierre, on radiation of heat, 93.

Prevost, Mr. J. L., on number of wrecked vessels, 756.

Primary fossiliferous rocks, fossils of, 114.

Priscodelphinus, cetacean, of chalk, 145.

Pritchard, Dr., on Egyptian cosmogony, 8. ----, on recent origin of man, 147. ----, on hybrid races, 602. ----, on facial angle, 608. ----, on distribution of animals, 629, 631.

Procida, island of, ancient writers on, 360.

Progressive development, theory of, 130-153. ----, in animals, Lamarck's theory of, 567.

Provinces, geographical, of Testacea, 649.

Provinces, zoological and land quadrupeds, 631.

Pterodactyles, 137.

Pulo Nias, upraised coral in, 794.

Purbeck, its peninsula wasting, 319.

Pursh on plants of United States, 614.

Puzzuoli, Temple of Serapis near, 507. ----, inland cliffs near, 508, 510. ----, date of re-elevation of coast of, 515, 518. ----, encroachment of sea near, 515. ----, coast near, now subsiding, 516.

Pyrenees, their relative age, height, &c., 120, 166.

Pythagoras, system of, 10. ----, on Etna, 345.

Q.

Quadrumana, fossil, 144.

Quadrupeds, domestic, multiply in America, 584, 685. ----, regions of indigenous, 630, 636. ----, imbedding of terrestrial, 749.

Quaggas, migrations of, 638.

Quebec, climate of, 95. ----, earthquakes in, 470.

Queenstown, Canada, table land terminates at, 216.

Quintero elevated by earthquake of 1822, 457.

Quiriui, theory of, 25.

Quito, earthquakes and volcanoes in, 346, 348, 469.

R.

Rabenstein cave, 736.

Race of Alderney, its velocity, 293.

"Races," tidal currents so called, 341.

Raffles, Sir S., cited, 465, 599.

Rafts, drift-timber in Mississippi, &c., 267.

Rain, action of, 713. ----, diminished by felling of forests, 713. ----, fall of, in basin of Ganges, 278. ----, Huttonian theory of, 199. ----, fall of, varying with latitude, 199. ----, fall of, in Eastern Bengal, 200.

Rain-prints, recent, on mud in Nova Scotia, 202.

Raised beaches, 184.

Ramree, volcanic island, 354.

Raspe on islands shifting their position (note), 11. ----, his theory, 1763, 42, 43, 48.

Rats, migrations of, 637. ----, introduced by man into America, 663, 686.

Rawlinson, Col., on delta of Tigris, 285.

Ray, his physico-theology, &c., 30, 31. ----, cited, 645, 683.

Reaumur on insects, 674.

Reculver cliff; action of sea on, 312.

Rocupero on flowing of lava, 401.

Red Crag, fossils of, 142.

Redman, J. B., on changes of English coast, 315, 316, 319.

Red marl, supposed universality of, 158.

Red River, new lakes formed by, 269. ----, drift-wood in, 267. ----, and Mississippi, their junction recent, 264, 284.

Red Sea, level of, and of Mediterranean, 294. ----, coral reefs of, 777, 784.

Reefs, coral, outline destroyed by denudation, 795.

Refrigeration, Leibnitz's theory of, 26. ----, causes which might produce the extreme of, 106.

Reid, Col., on motion of shingle beaches, 320.

Rein-deer, geographical range of, 637. ----, migrations of, 640. ----, imported into Iceland, 686.

Rennel, Major, on delta of Ganges, 275. ----, on delta of Nile, 261. ----, on currents, 95, 97, 291, 292, 293. ----, on the tide-wave called "the Bore," 333.

Rennel, Mr., on delta of Ganges, 275.

Rennie, Rev. Dr., on peat, and fossils in peat, 718, 719, 720, 722.

Reptiles, their geographical distribution, 645. ----, their powers of diffusion, 645. ----, in carboniferous epoch, 136. ----, in Ireland, 645. ----, imbedded in subaqueous strata, 748, 771. ----, fossil, in old red sandstone, 135. ----, in coal, 136.

Rhine, R., description, of its course, 325. ----, its delta, 326. ----, tuff made of siliceous cases of infusoria, 388.

Rhinoceros, fossil, food of, 80.

Rhone, delta of, in Mediterranean, 258. ----, delta of, in Lake of Geneva, 189, 252, 286. ----, deposits at its confluence with the Arve, 288.

Rhone, a cannon in calcareous rock in its delta, 759.

Richardson, Sir J., on rocks near Mackenzie River, 115. ----, on sheep of Rocky Mountains, 598. ----, on distribution of animals, 640, 645. ----, on drift timber, in Slave Lake, 743. ----, on arctic fauna, 634. ----, on diffusion of fish, 647. ----, on isothermal lines, 94.

Richardson, Mr. W., on Herne Bay, 312.

Riddell, Dr., on sediment of Mississippi, 273.

Rive, M. de la, on terrestrial magnetism, 543.

River-ice, carrying power of, 219.

Rivers, difference in the sediment of, 189, 258. ----, sinuosities of, 205. ----, submarine, in Thessaly, &c., 357. ----, when confluent, do not occupy bed of proportionally larger surface, 207.

Robert, M., on geysers of Iceland, 246.

Robertson, Capt., on mud volcanoes, 449.

Rockhall bank, recent deposits on, 778.

Rocks, specific gravity of, 206. ----, difference in texture of older and newer, 175. ----, altered by subterranean gases, 248. ----, origin of the primary, 176. ----, persistency of mineral character in, 157. ----, older, why most solid and disturbed, 162. ----, action of frost on, 221, 231. ----, transportation of, by ice, 155, 219. ----, grooved by glacial action, 155, 227, 229.

Rogers, Prof., on Appalachian chain, 559.

Roman roads under water in Bay of Baiæ, 517.

Romney Marsh, gained from sea, 316.

Rose, M. G., on hornblende and augite, 449.

Ross, Sir J., on cold of antarctic regions, 99. ----, obtained soundings at depth of 27,600 feet, 104. ----, confirms Cook as to antarctic ice, 125. ----, on icebergs, 98, 229.

Rossberg, slide of the, 732.

Rotation of the earth, currents caused by, 296. ----, of crops, 670, 720.

Rother, River, vessel found in its old bed, 316, 758.

Royle, Mr., 81.

Runn of Cutch described, 463.

Rye formerly destroyed by sea, 316.

S.

Saarbuck, reptiles in coal strata at, 136.

Sabine, Capt., on well at Chiswick, 234. ----, on waters of Amazon discoloring the sea, 342.

Sabine, Col., on solar magnetic period, 129, 544.

Sabrina, island of, 432.

Saco, R., flood on, 209.

Sahrunpore, buried town near, 731.

St. Andrew's, loss of land at, 303. ----, gun-barrel, fossil, near, 760.

St. Domingo, hot springs caused by earthquake in, 494. ----, fossil human skeleton in, 758.

St. Helena, tides at, 291.

St. Jago, earthquake at, 457.

St. Katherine's Docks, a fossil vessel found in, 758.

St. Lawrence, Gulf of, earthquakes in, 470. ----, rocks drifted by ice in the, 220.

St. Maura, earthquakes in, 474.

St. Michael, siliceous springs of, 246.

St. Michael's Mount, 323.

St. Paul, volcanic island, 446.

St. Vincent's, volcanoes of, 466. ----, counter-currents in the air proved by eruption in, 106. ----, boa constrictor conveyed on drift-wood to, 646.

Salt, on its deposition in the Mediterranean, 334.

Salt springs 18, 247.

Saltholm, island of, 520.

Samothracian deluge, 356.

Sand bars along western coast of Adriatic, 257. ----, drift, estuaries blocked up by, 307.

Sand, imbedding of towns, &c. in, 726. ----, cones of thrown up during earthquake, 483.

Sandown Bay, excavated by sea, 318.

Sandwich Islands volcanoes, 354, 372, 383, 429, 548, 552.

Sandwich Land, perpetual snow to level of sea-beach in, 99.

San Filippo, travertin of, 241.

San Lio, on Etna, fissures in plain of, 399.

Santa Maria, island of, raised 10 feet, 455.

Santorin, geological structure of, 445. ----, chart and section of, 442. ----, new islands in Gulf of, 441.

Saracens, learning of the, 17.

Saussure on the Alps and Jura, 45. ----, on glaciers in Alps, 223.

Savanna la Mar, swept away by sea, 731.

Saxicava rugosa, cosmopolite shell, 650.

Scandinavia called an island by the ancients, 520. ----, gradual rise of, 520, 563. ----, See Sweden.

Scania, gradual subsidence of, 530.

Scacchi, Sig., on temple of Serapis, 516. ----, on origin of Monte Nuovo, 371.

Scheuchzer, his theory, 1708, 33.

Schmerling, Dr., on fossils in caves, 737.

Schwabe, M., on spots in the sun, 129, 544.

Sciacca, island of. See Graham Island.

Scilla on organic remains, 1670, 24.

Scilla, rock of, 488.

Scoresby, Capt, on the Gulf stream, 96. ----, on formation of field ice, 108. ----, on weight of rocks transported by icebergs, 227. ----, cited, 640, 743.

Scotland, floods in, 207, 750. ----, colder climate indicated by newest tertiary strata of, 125. ----, waste of islands and coast of, 298. ----, slight earthquakes felt in, 358. ----, peat-mosses of, 720, 723. ----, marl lakes of, 752, 766, 770.

Scrope, Mr. G. P., on eruption of Vesuvius in 1822, 375. ----, on columnar basalts of Vesuvius, 385. ----, on pisolitic globules at Pompeii, 387. ----, on eruptions of Etna, 408, 410. ----, on cause of convexity of plain of Malpais, 429. ----, on connection between state of atmosphere and earthquakes, 561.

Sea does not change its level, but land, 15. ----, its influence on climate, 97. ----, area covered by, 124. ----, its encroachments on coasts, 298, 302, 324. ----, its rise and retreat during earthquakes, 407.

Sea-beaches, raised, in Ireland, 122. ----, progressive motion of, 316.

Seals, migration of, 642.

Sea-weed, banks formed by drift, 622, 770.

Secondary rocks, fossils of the, 86. ----, origin of the, 117.

Sedgwick, Professor, on the Hartz mountains, 48. ----, on tertiary deposits of the Alps, 119. ----, on the antagonist power of vegetation, 711. ----, on organic remains in fissures, 740. ----, on diluvial waves, 423.

Sediment of the Mississippi, 272. ----, laws governing deposition o£ 188, 842. ----, in river water, 270. ----, of Ganges compared to lavas of Etna, 283. ----, rate of subsidence of some kinds of, 342. ----, area over which it may be transported by currents, 343.

Sedimentary deposition, causes which occasion a shifting of the areas of, 189.

Seeds, vitality of, 587. ----, of Leguminosæ adapted for water-carriage, 622.

Serapis, temple of, 507. ----, ground-plan of environs of, 507. ----, date of its re-elevation, 512. ----, now again subsiding, 516. ----, worship of, in Italy, 512.

Serres, E. R. A., on changes in brain of foetus, 609.

Serres, E. Marcel de, on fossil human remains, 738.

Severn, tides in estuary of, 291. ----, gain of land in its estuary, 324.

Shakspeare's cliff, waste of, 314.

"Shambles," a shoal off Portland Bill, 32.

Sharpe, Mr. D., on earthquake of Lisbon, 496.

Sheep, multiplication of, in South America, 686.

Shell marl, fossils in, 752, 766, 769.

Shells, fossil of older strata buried in newer or recent beds, 775. See Testacea.

Sheppey, waste of cliffs, 312.

Shetland Islands, action of the sea on, 298. ----, rock masses drifted by sea in, 298. ----, effect of lightning on rocks in, 299. ----, formation in progress near, 774.

Shingle beaches, 318, 320.

Ships, number of British, wrecked annually, 754, 755. ----, fossil, 316, 725, 758.

Siberia, rhinoceros entire in frozen soil of, 45, 82. ----, map of, 79. ----, the Bengal tiger found in, 78. ----, lowland of, 78, 83, 85. ----, drift timber on coast of, 745.

Siberian lowlands, climate of, 83. ----, mammoths, 80.

Sicily, earthquakes in, 357, 470, 477, 479, 503, 736. ----, geological structure of, 74, 167, 183. ----, mud volcanoes of, 447.

Sienna, fossil shells of, 39, 74.

Sigillariæ, structure of, 88.

Silex, deposited by springs, 246.

Silliman, Professor, cited, 759.

Silurian rocks, wide range of the fossils, 160. ----, fauna, no land or freshwater plants in, 134. ----, horizontal, 187. ----, altered, 177. ----, strata formed in deep seas, 117.

Simeto, R., lava excavated by, 213.

Sindree, changes caused by earthquakes of 1819, near, 461, 464, 761. ----, view of the fort of, before the earthquake (see Pl. xi.), 461. ----, its appearance in 1838, 463.

Skaptâr Jokul, eruption of, 425.

Slave Lake, drift timber in, 743.

Sleswick, waste of coast of, 330, 694.

Sligo, bursting of a peat-moss in, 724.

Sloane, Sir H., on earthquake in Jamaica, 505. ----, on dispersion of plants, 621.

Smith, William, agreement of his system with Werner's, 48. ----, his "Tabular View of the British Strata," 1790, 58. ----, his map of England, 58. ----, priority of his arrangement, 58.

Smith, Mr., of Jordan Hill, on the colder climate of newest tertiary period, 126. ----, on temple of Serapis, 516.

Smyrna, volcanic country round, 355.

Smyth, Capt. W. H., on the Mediterranean, 45, 259, 296, 511. ----, on height Of Etna, 396. ----, on Straits of Gibraltar, 333, 336. ----, on depth of sea from which Graham Island rose, 432. ----, on floating islands of drift-wood, 641. ----, on drifting of birds by the wind, 645. ----, on diffusion of insects, 657. ----, on average number of British ships lost, from 1793 to 1829, 755. ----, found shells at great depths between Gibraltar and Ceuta, 773.

Snow, height of perpetual, in the Andes, 112. ----, in Himalaya mountains, 112. ----, lowest limits of perpetual, at equator, 222. ----, lowest limits of perpetual, at Swiss Alps, 222.

Sodertelje, buried hut in canal of, 524, 528.

Soil, its influence on plants, 590.

Soils, on formation of, 709. ----, influence of plants on, 670.

Soldani, on microscopic shells of Mediterranean, 44. ----, on the Paris basin, 44.

Solent, its channel widening, 318.

Solfatara, lake of, 243. ----, volcano, 358, 363, 367, 385.

Solitaire, recently extinct bird, 684.

Solway Moss, 723.

Solway Firth, animals washed by river floods into, 760.

Somersetshire, land gained in, 324. ----, submarine forest on coast of, 323.

Somerville, Mrs., on depth of ocean, 104.

Somma, escarpment of, 381. ----, dikes of, 382. ----, supposed section of Vesuvius and, 381.

Sorbonne, College of the, 39.

Sorting power of water, 287.

South Carolina, earthquake in, 466.

South Downs, waste of plastic clay on, 317.

Spain, earthquakes in, 358.

Spallanzani on effects of heat on seeds, 621. ----, on flight of birds, 644.

Species, definition of the term, 567. ----, Linnæus on constancy of, 568. ----, Lamarck's theory of transmutation of, 567, 580, 699. ----, reality of, in nature, 583, 591, 592, 611. ----, geographical distribution of, 612. ----, theories respecting their origin, 666, 703. ----, Brocchi on extinction of, 668. ----, reciprocal influence of aquatic and terrestrial, 676. ----, their successive creation and extinction, 678, 689, 707. ----, effect of changes in geography, climate, &c., on their distribution, 105, 690, 697. ----, superior longevity of molluscous, 76.

Specific centres, doctrine of, 630.

Spence, Mr., on insects, cited, 606, 655, 673.

Spitzbergen, glaciers of, 96.

Spix, M., on animals drifted by Amazon, 641. ----, on Brazil, 682.

Spontaneous generation, theory of, 22.

Springs, origin of, 232. ----, the theory of, illustrated by bored wells, 233. ----, most abundant in volcanic regions, 237. ----, affected by earthquake, 237, 453, 456, 483, 494. ----, transporting power of, 238. ----, calcareous, 239. ----, sulphureous and gypseous, 245. ----, siliceous, 246. ----, ferruginous, 249. ----, brine, 247. ----, carbonated, 248. ----, petroleum, 250.

Squirrels, migrations of, 637.

Stabiæ, buried city of, 394.

Stalagmite alternating with alluvium in caves, 737.

Stars, variable splendor of, 128.

Statical figure of the earth, 534, 544.

Stations of plants, description of, 614. ----, of animals, 677.

Stelluti on organic remains, 23.

Steno, opinions of, 23.

Stephenson on eruption in Iceland, 425.

Stephenson, Mr. R., on level of Red Sea and Mediterranean, 294.

Stevenson, Mr., on drift stones on Bell-Rock, 302. ----, on the German Ocean, 315, 340. ----, on waste of cliffs, 324.

Stockholm, rise of land near, 526, 527.

Stokes, Mr., on mineralization of plants, 747.

Stonesfleld, fossils of, 138, 145.

Storm of November, 1824, effect of, 317, 318, 320.

Strabo cited, 14, 260, 355, 361. ----, geology of, 14.

Strachey, Capt, R., on delta of Ganges, 283.

Straits of Dover, formation of, 315. ----, their depth, 315.

Straits of Gibraltar, currents in, &c., 333, 335.

Strata, laws governing deposition of, 188. ----, slow deposition of, proved by fossils, 154. ----, on consolidation of, 175.

Stratifications in deltas, causes of, 287. ----, of debris deposited by currents, 288. ----, unconformable, inferences derived from, 187.

Strabo, hypothesis of, 14.

Strickland, Mr., on tertiary strata, Cropthorn, 76. ----, on dodo, 684.

Stromboli, its appearance during Calabrlan earthquakes, 488. ----, constancy in eruption, 546, 561.

Stufas, jets of steam in volcanic regions, 237, 546.

Stutchbury, Mr., on coral islands, 778, 782.

Subapennine strata, 74. ----, early Italian geologists on, 42, 71.

Submarine forests, 303, 323, 746. ----, peat, 724, 770. ----, rivers, 357. ----, volcanoes, 431, 454. ----, eruptions in mid Atlantic, 436.

Subsidence of land, 460, 465, 470, 477, 495, 503, 504, 507, 691, 761, 762. ----, great areas of, 170, 790. ----, greater than elevation, 563, 787. ----, simultaneous in Miocene epoch, 192. ----, of land, delta of Mississippi, 271. ----, of coral islands, slow and uniform, 791.

Subterranean movements, uniformity of, 186. ----, movements near New Madrid, 1811-12, 270.

Suffolk, cliffs undermined, 309. ----, tertiary strata of, 142.

Sulphuric acid, lake of, in Java, 353.

Sulphureous springs, 245.

Sumatra, volcanoes in, 354. ----, animals destroyed by river floods in, 751.

Sumbawa, subsidence in island of, 1815, 464, 762. ----, ashes, transported to great distances by eruptions of, 106.

Sun, variations in spots of, 129.

Sunda, Isles of, volcanic region of, 350.

Sunderbunds, part of delta of Ganges, 276.

"Sunk country," west of New Madrid in U. S., 467.

Superior, Lake, deltas of, 254. ----, recent deposits in, 254, 768. ----, its depth, extent, &c., 254. ----, bursting of, would cause a flood, 156.

Sussex, waste of its coast, 317.

Sutlej, R., fossils near, 6.

Swanage Bay, excavated by sea, 318.

Sweden, gradual rise of, 520, 563. ----, gradual subsidence of south of, 530. ----, earthquakes in, 531. ----, land rising, 192. ----, See also Scandinavia.

Switzerland, towns destroyed by landslips in, 732.

Syria, earthquakes in, 355, 453.

T.

Tacitus cited, 364.

Tagliamento, R., delta of the, 258.

Targioni, on geology of Tuscany, 40.

Tartary, volcanoes in, 355.

Taxodium distichum in Great Dismal Swamp, 725.

Tay, estuary of, encroachment of sea in, 302. ----, submarine forests in, 303.

Taylor, Mr. R. C., on waste of cliff's, 306. ----, on gain of land on coast of Norfolk, 308. ----, on caves in isle of Cuba, 741.

Tchihatchoff, M., map of Italy, 123.

Teissier, M., on human bones in caves, &c., 739.

Temperature, great changes in, 92. ----, difference of, in places in same latitudes, 95. ----, warmer in tertiary periods, 75. ----, oscillation of, 125. ----, See Climate.

Temples, buried, in Egypt, 726. ----, under water in Bay of Baiæ, 518. ----, buried in Cashmere, 762.

Teneriffe, volcanic eruptions in, 439.

Terra del Fuego, fauna of, 141.

Terranuova, subsidence near, 470. ----, fault in the tower of, 478. ----, landslips near, 485.

Tertiary formations, general remarks on, 141, 182, 183. ----, geographical changes implied by, 118. ----, glacial in Scotland, 126. ----, origin of successive periods, 182. ----, circumstances under which these and the secondary formations may have originated, 117, 118. ----, fossils of the newest, 183. ----, fossil mammals of successive, 142. ----, formations of England, 76, 142. ----, of the Paris basin, 142. ----, deposits, climate of warmer, 86.

Testacea, their geographical distribution, 649. ----, fossil, importance of, 183. ----, marine, imbedding of, 768. ----, freshwater, 770. ----, burrowing, 773. ----, longevity of species of, 76. ----, number of recent, in different tertiary periods, 142, 183.

Texel, waste of islands near the, 328.

Thames, valley of, tertiary strata in, 76. ----, gain and loss of land in its estuary, 312. ----, tide in its estuary, 338. ----, buried vessels in alluvial plain of the, 758.

Thanet, Isle of, loss of land in, 313.

Thermo-electricity, 543.

Thibet, yak or wild ox of, in ice, 85.

Thomson, Dr. T., on Western Himalaya and Thibet, 763. ----, on buried temples in Cashmere, 763.

Thrace subject to earthquakes, 355.

Thury, M. Hericart de, on artesian wells, 234, 236.

Thylacotherium Prevostii, 138.

Tiber, growth of its delta, 243.

Tide wave of the Atlantic, 308.

Tides, height to which they rise, 279, 290. ----, effect of winds on the, 295. ----, effects of, on wells near London, 233. ----, their destroying and transporting power, 291. ----, their reproductive effects, 337. ----, and currents, drifting remains of animals by, 753.

Tiedemann on changes in brain of foetus, 609.

Tiger of Bengal found in Siberia, 77.

Tigris and Euphrates, their union a modern event, 284.

Tigris, river, delta of, advancing, 284.

Tilesius on Siberian mammoth, 81.

Time, prepossessions in regard to the duration of past, 62.

Tivoli, flood at, 211. ----, travertin of, 244.

Tomboro, volcano, eruption of, 465. ----, town of, submerged, 465.

Torre del Greco overflowed by lava, 394. ----, columnar lavas of, 384.

Torrents, action of, in widening valleys, 204.

Torres' Strait, volcano of, 792.

Totten, Col., on expansion of rocks by heat, 562.

Tournal, M., on French caves, 738, 739.

Towns destroyed by landslips, 732.

Trade-winds, 106, 295.

Traditions of losses of land, 324, 327. ----, of floods, 500, 501.

Transition texture, 176. ----, formations, 177.

Trap rocks of many different ages, 160.

Travertin of the Elsa, 239. ----, of San Vignone, 240. ----, of San Filippo, 241. ----, spheroidal structure of, 242. ----, compared to English magnesian limestone, 243. ----, of Tivoli, 244.

Travertin politic, recent, in Lancerote, 439.

Tree-ferns, distribution of, 88.

Tree-ferns, extend more south than north of equator, 86.

Trees, longevity of, 422.

Trias, fossil mammifer of, 137.

Trimmer, Mr., on recent marine shells in Wales, 122.

Trinidad, subsidence in, 250. ----, pitch lake of, 250.

Tripergola, 370, 371, 395.

Tripolitza, plain of, breccias in, 734.

Trollhattan, 527.

Truncation of volcanic cones, 352, 493.

Tufa. See Travertin.

Tuff, infusorial, 388.

Turner, Dr., on decomposition of felspar, 247.

Turtles, migrations of, 645. ----, eggs of, fossil, 771.

Turton cited, 646.

Tuscany, geology of, 23, 40. ----, calcareous springs of, 239.

Tyrol, Dolomieu on the, 49.

U.

Uddevalla, upraised deposits at, 184, 527.

Uliah Bund, formation of the, 462.

Ulloa cited, 501, 502, 685.

Unconformable strata, inferences derived from, 187.

Uniformity of laws of nature, 71, 149, 373. ----, of system of past changes in animate and inanimate world, 181.

Universal formations, theory of, 49, 154.

Universal ocean, theory of, 26, 34. ----, disproved by organic remains, 191.

Upsala, strata near, 528.

V.

Val d'Arno, Upper, effect of destruction of forests in, 712.

Val del Bove on Etna described, 403. ----, form, composition, and origin of dikes in, 406. ----, lavas and breccias of the, 411. ----, origin of the, 413. ----, floods in, 411.

Val di Calanna, 405, 407, 410.

Val di Noto, Dolomieu on the, 49.

Valdivia, earthquake at, 453.

Valenciennes, M., on fish not crossing the Atlantic, 647.

Valley, newly formed in Georgia, U. S., 205.

Valleys, Targioni on origin of, 40. ----, excavation of, in Central France, 213. ----, of elevation, section of, 420. ----, on Etna, account of, 404. ----, the excavation of, assisted by earthquakes, 484.

Vallisneri on the origin of springs, 33. ----, on marine deposits of Italy, 34. ----, cited, 34, 35, 52.

Valparaiso, changes caused by earthquakes at, 457, 517, 761.

Van Dieman's Land, climate of, 97.

Vedas, sacred hymns of, 4.

Vegetable soil, why it does not increase, 709. ----, how formed, 710.

Vegetation, luxuriant, not required to support large animals, 82. ----, centres of, 703. ----, its conservative influence, 710, 711. ----, its influence on climate, 713.

Veins, mineral, on their formation, 484. ----, of lava. See Dikes.

Verneuil, M. de, on lowland of Siberia, 84.

Verona, fossils of, 20, 22, 34. ----, Arduino on mountains of, 41.

Verstegan, on separation of England from France, 315, 642.

Vertebrated animals in oldest strata, 135.

Vessels, fossil. See Ships.

Vesta, temple of, 212.

Vesuvius, excavation of tuff on, 213. ----, history of, 263, 374. ----, eruptions of, 364, 374. ----, dikes of, 379. ----, lava of, 384. ----, structure and origin of the cone of, 383. ----, and Somma, probable section of, 381. ----, volcanic alluvium on, 728.

Vicentin, Dolomieu on the, 49. ----, submarine lavas of the, 71.

Victoria land, skirted by ice, 99.

Vidal, Capt., on Rockhall bank, 773.

Villages buried by landslips, 732.

Virlet, M., on Samothracian deluge, 356. ----, on volcanoes of Greece, 355. ----, on Santorin, 443, 445, 446. ----, on corrosion of rocks by gases, 733. ----, on human bones imbedded in Morea, 735.

Vivarais, basalts of the, 48.

Volcanic action, defined, 345. ----, power adequate to effect lateral pressure, 172. ----, lines, 169, 352. ----, craters in Galapagos with southern side lowest, 783. ----, action, uniformity of, 162, 711. ----, cones, truncation of, 352, 493. ----, their perfect state no proof of relative age, 712. ----, conglomerates, 438. ----, dikes. See Dikes. ----, eruptions, causes of, 542. ----, average number of, per annum, 450. ----, formations, fossils in, 349, 728. ----, products, mineral composition of, 449. ----, regions, their geographical boundaries, 346. ----, map showing extent of, 351. ----, rocks, subterranean, 178, 450. ----, of all geological periods, 160.

Volcanoes, safety-valves according to Strabo, 15. ----, remarks on their position, 346, 355. ----, and earthquakes, effects of same causes, 345. ----, agency of water in, 545. ----, mode of computing the age of, 420. ----, sometimes inactive for centuries, 346, 421. ----, of Sandwich Islands, 354, 372, 548, 383, 429. ----, chemical theory of, 546. ----, mud, 447. ----, "no safety-valves," Dana on, 553.

Voltaire on systems of geology, 54.

Volterra, Mattani, on fossils of, 34.

Von Baer, Prof., on frozen soil of Siberia, 84. ----, on ice-drifted rocks, 231.

Von Buch on rise of land in Sweden, 523, 526. ----, on volcanic lines, 352. ----, on volcanoes of Greece, 355. ----, on formation of Monte Nuovo, 369. ----, on Vesuvius and Somma, 367, 380, 382, 384. ----, on eruption in Lancerote, 436. ----, on glaciers, 228. ----, on new islands, 468. ----, on volcanic regions, 346.

Von Hoff. See Hoff.

Vulcanists and Neptunists, factions of, 50, 55.

Vultur, Mount, 356.

Vultures, range of, 643.

W.

Wallerius, theory of, 45.

Wallich, Dr., on Ava fossils, 28. ----, on wood in peat near Calcutta, 280.

Warping, land gained by, 288, 339.

Water, action of running, 204. ----, its power on freezing, 204. ----, excavating power of, 204. ----, transporting power of, 204. ----, sorting power of, 286. ----, agency of, in volcanoes, 548.

Waterhouse, Mr., of British Museum, on provinces of indigenous land quadrupeds, 631.

Wealden strata, fossils of, 117, 137, 140.

Webster, Dr., of Nova Scotia, on rain-prints, 202.

Wells, artesian, 233.

Wener, Lake, strata near, 527.

Werner, Professor of Mineralogy at Freyberg, 1775, 46. ----, his lecture, 47. ----, on granite of the Hartz, 47. ----, principal merit of his system, 48. ----, technical terms of, 58. ----, on transition rocks, 176.

West Indian land quadrupeds, 634.

West Indies, earthquakes in, 29, 350, 505. ----, active volcanoes in, 350.

Whales stranded, 771.

Whewell, Rev. Dr., on modern progress of geology, 59. ----, on the tides, 332.

Whirlwinds, violent, during eruption in Sumbawa, 465.

Whirlwind, dispersion of seeds by, 619.

Whiston, his theory of the earth, 32.

White Mountains, landslips in the, 209.

Whitehurst, theory of, 1778, 45. ----, on subsidence at Lisbon, 495.

Wildenow on diffusion of plants by man, 626. ----, on centres of vegetable creation, 703.

Wilkinson, Sir J. G., on deposits of Nile, 262. ----, on sand drift in Egypt, 726.

Wilson, Prof., on cosmogony of Vedas, 4.

Winds, trade, 106, 295. ----, currents caused by the, 293. ----, sand drifted by the, 307, 726.

Wolf, and dog, distinct species, 585. ----, hybrids between the, 601. ----, drifted to sea on ice, 640. ----, extirpated in Great Britain, 683.

Wollaston, Dr., on water of Mediterranean, 334.

Wood, Mr. S., on fossil quadrumana, 144.

Wood impregnated with salt water when sunk to great depths, 743. ----, drift, 90, 268, 640, 743. ----, converted into lignite, 759.

Woodward, theory of, 31, 84, 54, 66.

Wrecks, number of, annually, 754, 755.

X.

Xanthus, the Lydian, his theory, 14.

Y.

Yak, wild ox of Thibet, frozen in ice, 85.

Yakutzt, frozen soil of, 84.

Yaou, flood of, 7.

Yarmouth, estuary silted up at, 307. ----, rise of the tide at, 291, 307.

Yenesei, R., fossils on banks of, 79.

Yorkshire, bones of mammoth in, 76. ----, waste of its coasts, 303.

Young, Dr., on effects of compression at earth's centre, 536.

Z.

Zante, earthquakes in island of, 474.

Zealand, New, number of ferns, 116. ----, resemblance of plants with ancient carboniferous flora, 116. ----, length and breadth of, 116.

Zeuglodon, eocene cetacea, 145.

Zoological provinces how formed, 666. ----, why not more blended together, 668.

Zoophytes, their geographical distribution, 651. ----, their powers of diffusion, 654. ----, abundance of, 706. ----, which form coral reefs, 776.

Zuyder Zee, formation, 328. ----, great mosses on the site of, 327.

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