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Introduction

Research among the North American Indians, in obedience to acts of Congress, was continued during the fiscal year 1888-’89.

The explanation presented in several former annual reports of the general plan upon which the work of the Bureau has been performed renders a detailed repetition superfluous. The lines of investigation which from time to time have appeared to be the most useful or the most pressing have been confided to persons trained in or known to be specially adapted to their pursuit. The results of their labors are presented in the three series of publications of the Bureau which are provided for by law. A brief statement of the work upon which each one of the special students was actively engaged during the fiscal year is furnished below; but it should be noted that this statement does not specify all the studies made or services rendered by them.

The assistance of explorers, writers, and students who are not and may not desire to be officially connected with the Bureau is again invited. Their contributions, whether in suggestions or extended communications, will always be gratefully acknowledged and will receive proper credit. They may be published as Congress will allow, either in the series of annual reports or in monographs or bulletins. Several valuable papers of this class have already been contributed and published.

The report now submitted consists of three principal divisions. The first relates to the publications made during the fiscal year; the second, to the work prosecuted in the field; the third, to the office work, which chiefly consists of the preparation for publication of the results of field work, with the corrections and additions obtained from exhaustive researches into the literature of the subjects discussed and by correspondence relative to them.

PUBLICATIONS.

The publications actually issued and distributed during the year were as follows, all octavo:

Bibliography of the Iroquoian Languages, by James C. Pilling; pages i-vi + 1-208. Facsimile reproductions, at pages 44 and 56, of title pages of early publications relating to Indian languages, and, at page 72, of the Cherokee alphabet.

Textile Fabrics of Ancient Peru, by William H. Holmes; pages 1-17, Figs. 1-11.

The Problem of the Ohio Mounds, by Cyrus Thomas; pages 1-54, Figs. 1-8.

FIELD WORK.

The field work of the year is divided into (1) mound explorations and (2) general field studies, the latter being directed chiefly to archeology, linguistics, and pictography.

MOUND EXPLORATIONS.

WORK OF MR. CYRUS THOMAS.

The work of exploring the mounds of the eastern United States was, as in former years, under the superintendence of Mr. Cyrus Thomas. The efforts of the division were chiefly confined to the examination of material already collected and to the arrangement and preparation for publication of the data on hand. Field work received less attention, therefore, than in previous years, and was mainly directed to such investigations as were necessary to elucidate doubtful points and to the examination and surveys of important works which had not before received adequate attention.

The only assistants to Mr. Thomas whose engagements embraced the entire year were Mr. James D. Middleton and Mr. Henry L. Reynolds. Mr. Gerard Fowke, one of the assistants, ceased his connection with the Bureau at the end of the second month. Mr. John W. Emmert was engaged as a temporary assistant for a few months.

WORK OF MR. GERARD FOWKE.

During the short time in which he remained with the division, Mr. Fowke was engaged in exploring certain mounds in the Sciota valley, Ohio, a field to which Messrs. Squier and Davis had devoted much attention. Its reexamination was for the purpose of investigating certain typical mounds which had not been thoroughly examined by those explorers.

WORK OF MR. J. D. MIDDLETON.

Mr. Middleton was employed from July to the latter part of October in the exploration of mounds and other ancient works in Calhoun county, Illinois, a territory to which special interest attaches because it seems to be on the border line of different archeologic districts. From October until December he was engaged at Washington in preparing plats of Ohio earthworks. During the next month he made resurveys of some of the more important inclosures in Ohio, after which he resumed work in the office at Washington until the latter part of March, when he was sent to Tennessee to examine several mound groups and to determine, so far as possible, the exact locations of the old Cherokee “over-hill towns.” The result of the last-mentioned investigation was valuable, as it indicated that each of these “over-hill towns” was, with possibly one unimportant exception, in the locality of a mound group.

WORK OF MR. H. L. REYNOLDS.

Near the close of October Mr. Reynolds, having already examined the inclosures of the northern, eastern, and western sections of the mound region, went to Ohio and West Virginia to study the different types found there, with reference to the chapters he was preparing on the various forms of ancient inclosures in the United States. While thus engaged he explored a large mound connected with one of the typical works in Paint creek valley, obtaining unexpected and important results. The construction of this tumulus was found to be quite different from most of those in the same section examined by Messrs. Squier and Davis.

WORK OF MR. J. W. EMMERT.

Mr. Emmert devoted the few months in which he was employed to the successful exploration of mounds in eastern Tennessee. Some important discoveries were made and additional interesting facts were ascertained in regard to the mounds of that section.

GENERAL FIELD STUDIES.

WORK OF COL. GARRICK MALLERY.

Early in the month of July Col. Garrick Mallery proceeded to Maine, Nova Scotia and New Brunswick to continue investigation into the pictographs of the Abnaki and Micmac Indians, which had been commenced in 1887. He first visited rocks in Maine, on the shore near Machiasport, and on Hog island, in Holmes bay, a part of Machias bay. In both localities pecked petroglyphs were found, accurate copies of which were taken. Some of them had not before been reported. They are probably of Abnaki origin, of either the Penobscot or the Passamaquoddy division, the rocks lying on the line of water communication between the territories of those divisions. From Maine he proceeded to Kejemkoojik lake, on the border of Queens and Annapolis counties, Nova Scotia, and resumed the work of drawing and tracing the large number of petroglyphs found during the previous summer. Perfect copies were obtained of so many of them as to be amply sufficient for study and comparison. These are incised petroglyphs, and were made by Micmacs. The country of the Malecites, on the St. Johns river, New Brunswick, was next visited. No petroglyphs were discovered, but a considerable amount of information was obtained upon the old system of pictographs on birch bark and its use. Illustrative specimens were gathered, together with myths and legends, which assisted in the elucidation of some of the pictographs observed elsewhere.

WORK OF MR. W. J. HOFFMAN.

Mr. W. J. Hoffman proceeded in July to visit the Red Lake and White Earth Indian reservations in Minnesota. At Red lake he obtained copies of birch bark records pertaining to the Midē'wiwin or Grand Medicine Society of the Ojibwa, an order of shamans professing the power to prophesy, to cure disease, and to confer success in the chase. The introductory portion of the ritual of this society pertains particularly to the Ojibwa cosmogony. At the same place he secured several birch bark records of hunting expeditions, battles with neighboring tribes of Indians, maps, and songs. He also investigated the former and present practice of tattooing, and the Ojibwa works of art in colors, beads, and quills.

At White Earth Reservation two distinct charts of the Grand Medicine Society were obtained, together with full explanations by two of the chief midé or shamans, one of whom was the only fourth-degree priest in either of the reservations. Although a considerable difference between these three charts is apparent, their principles and the general course of the initiation of the candidates are similar. The survival of archaic forms in the charts and ritual indicates a considerable antiquity. Some mnemonic songs were also obtained at this reservation. In addition to the ritual, secured directly from the priests, in the Ojibwa language, translations of the songs were also recorded, with musical notation. On leaving the above reservations, Mr. Hoffman proceeded to Pipestone, Minnesota, to copy the petroglyphs upon the cliffs of that historic quarry.

He then returned to St. Paul, Minnesota, to search the records of the library of the Minnesota Historical Society for copies of pictographs reported to have been made near La Pointe, Wisconsin. Little information was obtained, although it is known that such pictographs, now nearly obliterated, existed upon conspicuous cliffs and rocks near Lake Superior, at and in the vicinity of Bayfield and Ashland.

Mr. Hoffman afterward made an examination of the “pictured cave,” eight miles northeast of La Crosse, Wisconsin, to obtain copies of the characters appearing there. These are rapidly being destroyed by the disintegration of the rock. The colors employed in delineating the various figures were dark red and black. The figures represent human beings, deer, and other forms not now distinguishable.

WORK OF MR. H. W. HENSHAW.

Mr. H. W. Henshaw spent the months of August, September, and October on the Pacific coast, engaged in the collection of vocabularies of several Indian languages, with a view to their study and classification. The Umatilla Reservation in Oregon was first visited with the object of obtaining a comprehensive vocabulary of the Cayuse. Though there are about four hundred of these Indians on the reservation, probably not more than six speak the Cayuse tongue. The Cayuse have extensively intermarried with the Umatilla, and now speak the language of the latter, or that of the Nez Percé. An excellent Cayuse vocabulary was obtained, and at the same time the opportunity was embraced to secure vocabularies of the Umatilla and the Nez Percé languages. His next objective point was the neighborhood of the San Rafael Mission, Marin county, California, the hope being entertained that some of the Indians formerly gathered at the mission would be found there. He learned that there were no Indians at or near San Rafael, but subsequently found a few on the shores of Tomales bay, to the north. A good vocabulary was collected from one of these, which, as was expected, was subsequently found to be related to the Moquelumnan family of the interior, to the southeast of San Francisco bay. Later the missions of Santa Cruz and Monterey were visited. At these points there still remain a few old Indians who retain a certain command of their own language, though Spanish forms their ordinary means of intercourse. The vocabularies obtained are sufficient to prove, beyond any reasonable doubt, that there are two linguistic families instead of one, as had been formerly supposed, in the country above referred to. A still more important discovery was made by Mr. Henshaw at Monterey, where an old woman was found who succeeded in calling to mind more than one hundred words and short phrases of the Esselen language, formerly spoken near Monterey, but less than forty words of which had been previously known. Near the town of Cayucas, to the south, an aged and blind Indian was visited who was able to add somewhat to the stock of Esselen words obtained at Monterey, and to give valuable information concerning the original home of that tribe. As a result of the study of this material Mr. Henshaw determines the Esselen to be a distinct linguistic family, a conclusion first drawn by Mr. Curtin from a study of the vocabularies collected by Galiano and Lamanon in the eighteenth century. The territory occupied by the tribe and linguistic family lies coastwise, south of Monterey bay, as far as the Santa Lucia mountains.

WORK OF MR. JAMES MOONEY.

On July 5 Mr. James Mooney started on a second trip to the territory of the Cherokee in North Carolina, returning after an absence of about four months. During this time he made considerable additions to the linguistic material already obtained by him, and was able to demonstrate the former existence of a fourth, and perhaps even of a fifth, well-marked Cherokee dialect in addition to the upper, lower, and middle dialects already known. The invention of a Cherokee syllabary which was adapted to the sounds of the upper dialect has tended to make that dialect universal. A number of myths were collected, together with a large amount of miscellaneous material relating to the Cherokee tribe, and the great tribal game of ball play, with its attendant ceremonies of dancing, conjuring, scratching the bodies of the players, and going to water, was witnessed. A camera was utilized to secure characteristic pictures of the players. Special attention was given to the subject of Indian medicine, theoretic, ceremonial, and therapeutic. The most noted doctors of the tribe were employed as informants, and nearly five hundred specimens of medicinal and food plants were collected and their Indian names and uses ascertained. The general result of this investigation shows that the medical and botanical knowledge of the Indians has been greatly overrated. A study was made of Cherokee personal names, about five hundred of which were translated, being all the names of Indian origin now remaining in that region. The most important results of Mr. Mooney’s investigations were the discovery of a large number of manuscripts containing the sacred formulas of the tribe, written in Cherokee characters by the shamans for their own secret use, and jealously guarded from the knowledge of all but the initiated. The existence of such manuscripts had been ascertained during a visit in 1887, and several of them had been procured. This discovery of genuine aboriginal material, written in an Indian language by shamans for their own use, is believed to be unique in the history of aboriginal investigation, and was only made possible through the invention of the Cherokee syllabary by Sequoia in 1821. Every effort was made by Mr. Mooney to obtain all the existing manuscripts, with the result of securing all of that material which was in the possession of the tribe. The whole number of formulas obtained is about six hundred. They consist of prayers and sacred songs, explanations of ceremonies, directions for medical treatment, and underlying theories. They relate to medicine, love, war, hunting, fishing, self-protection, witchcraft, agriculture, the ball play, and other similar subjects, thus forming a complete exposition of an aboriginal religion as set forth by its priests in their own language.

WORK OF MR. JEREMIAH CURTIN.

Early in October Mr. Jeremiah Curtin left Washington for the Pacific coast. During the remainder of the year he was occupied in Shasta and Humboldt counties, California, in collecting vocabularies and data connected with the Indian system of medicine. This work was continued in different parts of Humboldt and Siskiyou counties until June 30, 1889. Large collections of linguistic and other data were gathered and myths were secured which show that the whole system of medicine of these Indians and the ministration of remedies originated in and are limited to sorcery practices.

WORK OF MR. A. S. GATSCHET.

The field work of Mr. Albert S. Gatschet during the year was short. It had been ascertained that Mrs. Alice M. Oliver, now in Lynn, Massachusetts, formerly lived on Trespalacios bay, Texas, near the homes of the Karánkawa, and Mr. Gatschet visited Lynn with a view of securing as complete a vocabulary as possible of their extinct language. Mrs. Oliver was able to recall about one hundred and sixty terms of the language, together with some phrases and sentences. She also furnished many valuable details regarding the ethnography of the tribe. Ten days were spent in this work.

WORK OF MR. J. N. B. HEWITT.

Mr. J. N. B. Hewitt was occupied in field work from August 1 to November 8, as follows: From the first of August to September 20 he was on the Tuscarora reserve, in Niagara county, New York, in which locality fifty-five legends and myths were collected. A Penobscot vocabulary was also obtained here, together with other linguistic material. From September 20 to November 8 Mr. Hewitt visited the Grand River reserve, Canada, where a large amount of text was obtained, together with notes and other linguistic material.

WORK OF MR. VICTOR MINDELEFF.

Mr. Victor Mindeleff left Washington on October 23 for St. John’s, Arizona, where he examined the Hubbell collection of ancient pottery and secured a series of photographs and colored drawings of the more important specimens. Thence he went to Zuñi and obtained drawings of interior details of dwellings and other data necessary for the completion of his studies of the architecture of this pueblo. He returned to Washington December 7.

WORK OF MR. A. M. STEPHEN.

Mr. A. M. Stephen continued work among the Tusayan pueblos under the direction of Mr. Victor Mindeleff. He added much to the knowledge of the traditionary history of Tusayan, and made an extensive study of the house lore and records of house-building ceremonials. He also reported a full nomenclature of Tusayan architectural terms as applied to the various details of terraced-house construction, with etymologies. He secured from the Navajo much useful information of the ceremonial connected with the construction of their conical lodges or “hogans,” supplementing the more purely architectural records of their construction previously collected by Mr. Mindeleff. As opportunity occurred he gathered typical collections of baskets and other textile fabrics illustrative of the successive stages of their manufacture, including specimens of raw materials and detailed descriptions of the dyes used. These collections are intended to include also the principal patterns in use at the present time, with the Indian explanations of their significance.

OFFICE WORK.

Major J. W. POWELL, the Director, devoted much time during the year to the preparation of the paper to accompany a map of the linguistic families of America north of Mexico, the scope of which has been alluded to in previous reports. This report and map appear in the Seventh Annual Report of the Bureau.

Mr. HENSHAW was chiefly occupied with the administrative duties of the office, which have been placed in his charge by the Director, and with the completion of the linguistic map.

Col. MALLERY, after his return from the field work elsewhere mentioned, was engaged in the elaboration of the new information obtained and in further continued study of and correspondence relating to sign language and pictography. In this work he was assisted by Mr. HOFFMAN, particularly in the sketches made by the latter during previous field seasons, and in preparing a large number of the illustrations for the paper on Picture-writing of the American Indians which appears in the present volume.

Mr. J. OWEN DORSEY did no field work during the year, but devoted much of the time to original investigations. Samuel Fremont, an Omaha Indian, came to Washington in October, 1888, and until February, 1889, assisted Mr. Dorsey in the revision of the entries for the Ȼegiha-English Dictionary. Similar assistance was rendered by Little Standing Buffalo, a Ponka Indian from the Indian Territory, in April and May, 1889. Mr. Dorsey also completed the entries for the Ȼegiha-English Dictionary, and a list of Ponka, Omaha, and Winnebago personal names. He translated from the Teton dialect of the Dakota all the material of the Bushotter collection in the Bureau of Ethnology, and prepared therefrom a paper on Teton folklore. He also prepared a brief paper on the camping circles of Siouan tribes, and in addition furnished an article on the modes of predication in the Athapascan dialects of Oregon and in several dialects of the Siouan family. He also edited the manuscript of the Dakota grammar, texts, and ethnography, written by the late Rev. Dr. S. R. Riggs, which has been published as Volume VII, Contributions to North American Ethnology. In May, 1889, he began an extensive paper on Indian personal names, based on material obtained by himself in the field, to contain names of the following tribes, viz: Omaha and Ponka, Kansa, Osage, Kwapa, Iowa, Oto and Missouri, and Winnebago.

Mr. ALBERT S. GATSCHET’S office work was almost entirely restricted to the composition and completion of his Ethnographic Sketch, Grammar, and Dictionary of the Klamath Language of Oregon, with the necessary appendices. These works have been published as Parts 1 and 2, Vol. II, of Contributions to North American Ethnology.

Mr. JEREMIAH CURTIN during the year arranged and copied myths of various Indian families, and also transcribed Wasco, Sahaptin, and Yanan vocabularies previously collected.

Mr. JAMES MOONEY, on his return from the Cherokee reservation in 1888, began at once to translate a number of the prayers and sacred songs obtained from the shamans during his visit. The result of this work has appeared in a paper in the Seventh Annual Report of the Bureau entitled “Sacred formulas of the Cherokees.” Considerable time was devoted also to the elaboration of the botanic and linguistic notes obtained in the field. In the spring of 1889 he began the collection of material for a monograph on the aborigines of the Middle Atlantic slope, with special reference to the Powhatan tribes of Virginia. As a preliminary, about one thousand circulars, requesting information in regard to local names, antiquities, and surviving Indians, were distributed throughout Maryland, Delaware, Virginia, and northeastern Carolina. Sufficient information was obtained in responses to afford an excellent basis for future work in this direction.

Mr. JOHN N. B. HEWITT, from July 1 to August 1, was engaged in arranging alphabetically the recorded words of the Tuscarora-English dictionary mentioned in former reports, and in the study of adjective word forms to determine the variety and kind of the Tuscarora moods and tenses. After his return from the field Mr. Hewitt classified and tabulated all the forms of the personal pronouns employed in the Tuscarora language. Studies were also prosecuted to develop the predicative function in the Tuscarora speech. All the terms of consanguinity and affinity as now used among the Tuscarora were recorded and tabulated. Literal translations of many myths collected in the field were made, and free translations added to four of them. In all appropriate instances linguistic notes were added relating to etymology, phonesis, and verbal change.

Mr. JAMES C. PILLING gave much time to bibliographies of North American languages. The bibliography of the Iroquoian languages was completed early in the fiscal year, and the edition was issued in February. In the meantime a bibliography of the Muskhogean languages was compiled, the manuscript of which was sent to the Public Printer in January, 1889, though the edition was not delivered during the fiscal year. Early in March, 1889, Mr. Pilling went to Philadelphia to inspect the manuscripts belonging to the American Philosophical Society, the authorities of which gave him every facility, and much new material was secured. In June he visited the Astor, Lenox, and Historical Society libraries in New York; the libraries of the Boston Athenæum, Massachusetts Historical Society, American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions, and the Boston Public Library, in Boston; that of Harvard University, in Cambridge; of the American Antiquarian Society, in Worcester; and the private library of Dr. J. Hammond Trumbull, in Hartford. In Canada he visited the library of Laval University, and the private library of Mr. P. Gagnon, in Quebec, of St. Mary’s College and Jacques Cartier School in Montreal, and various missions along the St. Lawrence river, to inspect the manuscripts left by the early missionaries. The result was the accumulation of much new material for insertion in the Algonquian bibliography.

Mr. WILLIAM H. HOLMES continued to edit the illustrations for the publications of the Bureau, and besides was engaged actively in his studies of aboriginal archeology. He completed papers upon the pottery of the Potomac valley, and upon the objects of shell collected by the Bureau during the last eight years, and he has others in preparation. As curator of Bureau collections he makes the following statement of accessions for the year: From Mr. Thomas and his immediate assistants, working in the mound region of the Mississippi valley and contiguous portions of the Atlantic slope, the Bureau has received one hundred and forty-six specimens, including articles of clay, stone, shell, and bone. Mr. Victor Mindeleff obtained sixteen specimens of pottery from the Pueblo country. Other collections by members of the Bureau and the U. S. Geological Survey are as follows: Shell beads and pendants (modern) from San Buenaventura, California, by Mr. Henshaw; fragments of pottery and other articles from the vicinity of the Cheroki agency, North Carolina, by Mr. Mooney; a large grooved hammer from the bluff at Three Forks, Montana, by Mr. A. C. Peale; a large series of rude stone implements from the District of Columbia, by Mr. De Lancey W. Gill. Donations have been received as follows: An important series of earthen vases from a mound on Perdido bay, Alabama, given by F. H. Parsons; ancient pueblo vases from southwestern Colorado, by William M. Davidson; a series of spurious earthen vessels, manufactured by unknown persons in eastern Iowa, from C. C. Jones, of Augusta, Georgia; fragments of pottery, etc., from Romney, West Virginia, given by G. H. Johnson; fragments of a steatite pot from Ledyard, Connecticut, by G. L. Fancher; an interesting series of stone tools, earthen vessels, etc., from a mound on Lake Apopka, Florida, by Thomas Featherstonhaugh; fragments of gilded earthenware and photographs of antiquities from Mexico, by F. Plancarte; fragments of gold ornaments from Costa Rica, by Anastasio Alfaro. Important specimens have been received as follows: Articles of clay from a mound on Perdido bay, Alabama, loaned by Mrs. A. T. Mosman; articles of clay from the last mentioned locality, by A. B. Simons; pottery from the Potomac valley, by W. Hallett Phillips, by S. V. Proudfit, and by H. L. Reynolds; articles of gold and gold-copper alloy from Costa Rica, by Anastasio Alfaro, Secretary of the National Museum at San Jose.

Mr. THOMAS was chiefly occupied during the year in the preparation of the second and third volumes of his reports upon the mounds. He also prepared a bulletin on the Circular, Square, and Octagonal Earthworks of Ohio, with a view of giving a summary of the recent survey by the mound division of the principal works of the above character in southern Ohio. A second bulletin was completed, entitled “The Problem of the Ohio Mounds,” in which he presented evidence to show that the ancient works of the state are due to Indians of several different tribes, and that some, at least, of the typical works were built by the ancestors of the modern Cherokees.

Mr. REYNOLDS after his return from the field was engaged in the preparation of a general map of the United States, showing the area of the mounds and the relative frequency of their occurrence. He also assisted Mr. Thomas in the preparation of the monograph upon the inclosures.

Mr. VICTOR MINDELEFF, assisted by Mr. Cosmos Mindeleff, was engaged in preparing for publication a “Study of Pueblo Architecture” as illustrated in the provinces of Tusayan and Cibola, material for which he had been collecting for a number of years. This report has appeared in the Eighth Annual Report of the Bureau.

Mr. COSMOS MINDELEFF with the force of the modeling room at the beginning of the fiscal year completed the exhibit of the Bureau for the Cincinnati Exposition, and during the early part of the year he was at Cincinnati in charge of that exhibit. Owing to restricted space it was limited to the Pueblo culture group, but this was illustrated as fully as the time would permit. The exhibit covered about 1,200 feet of floor space, as well as a large amount of wall space, and consisted of models of pueblo and cliff ruins, models of inhabited pueblos, ancient and modern pottery, examples of weaving, basketry, etc.; a representative series of implements of war, the chase, agriculture, and the household; manikins illustrating costumes, and a series of large photographs illustrative of aboriginal architecture of the pueblo region, and of many phases of pueblo life. Upon Mr. Mindeleff’s return from Cincinnati he resumed assistance to Mr. Victor Mindeleff upon the report on pueblo architecture, and by the close of the fiscal year the two chapters which had been assigned to him were completed. They consist of a review of the literature on the pueblo region and a summary of the traditions of the Tusayan group from material collected by Mr. A. M. Stephen. Work was also continued on the duplicate series of models, and twelve were advanced to various stages of completion. Some time was devoted to repairing original models which had been exhibited at Cincinnati and other exhibitions, and also to experiments in casting in paper, in order in find a suitable paper for use in large models. The experiments were successful.

Mr. J. K. HILLERS has continued the collection of photographs of prominent Indians in both full-face and profile, by which method all the facial characteristics are exhibited to the best advantage. In nearly every instance a record has been preserved of the sitter’s status in the tribe, his age, biographic notes of interest, and in cases of mixed bloods, the degree of intermixture of blood. The total number of photographs obtained during the year is 27, distributed among the following tribes, viz: Sac and Fox, 5; Dakota, 6; Omaha, 6, and mixed bloods (Creeks), 10.

Mr. FRANZ BOAS was employed from February to April in preparing for convenient use a series of vocabularies of the several Salish divisions, previously collected by him in British Columbia.

Mr. LUCIEN M. TURNER was for two years stationed at the Hudson Bay Company’s post, Fort Chimo, near the northern end of the peninsula of Labrador, as a civilian observer in the employ of the Signal Service, U. S. Army. He was appointed to that position at the request of the late Prof. Baird, Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, in order that his skill might be made available in a complete investigation of the ethnology and natural history of the region. Mr. Turner left Washington in June, 1882, and returned in the autumn of 1884. During the last year he was engaged in the preparation of a report which will appear in one of the forthcoming annual reports of the Bureau.

NECROLOGY.

MR. JAMES STEVENSON.

The officers of the Bureau of Ethnology and all persons interested in researches concerning the North American Indians were this year called to lament the death of Mr. James Stevenson, who had made regular and valuable contributions to the publications and collections of the Bureau.

Mr. Stevenson was born in Maysville, Kentucky, on the 24th of December, 1840. When but a boy of 16 he became associated with Prof. F. V. Hayden, and accompanied him upon expeditions into the regions of the upper Missouri and Yellowstone rivers. Although the main objects of these expeditions were geological, his tastes led him chiefly to the observation of the customs and dialects of the Indians, and the facilities for such study afforded him by the winters spent among the Blackfoot and Dakota Indians excited and confirmed the anthropologic zeal which absorbed the greater part of his life.

After military service during the civil war he resumed, in 1866, the studies which had been interrupted by it, and accompanied Prof. Hayden to the Bad Lands of Dakota. From this expedition and the action of the Congress of the United States in 1866-’67, sprang the Hayden survey, and during its existence Mr. Stevenson was its executive officer. In one of the explorations from 1868 to 1878, which are too many to be here enumerated, he climbed the Great Teton, and was the first white man known to have reached the ancient Indian altar on its summit.

In 1879 the Hayden survey was discontinued, the Bureau of Ethnology was organized, and the U. S. Geological Survey was established. Mr. Stevenson, in addition to his duties as the executive officer of the new survey, was detailed for research in connection with the Bureau of Ethnology. In the subsequent years he devoted the winters--from the incoming of the field parties to their outgoing in the spring--chiefly to business of the survey; his summers to his favorite researches. He explored the cliff and cave dwellings of Arizona and New Mexico; he unearthed in the Canyon de Chelly two perfect skeletons of its prehistoric inhabitants; he investigated the religious mythology of the Zuñi, and secured a complete collection of fetich-gods, never before allowed out of their possession; he studied the history and religions of the Navajo and the Tusayan, and made an invaluable collection of pottery, costumes, and ceremonial objects, which are now prominent in the U. S. National Museum. But in the high mesas which were the field of his explorations in 1885 he was attacked by the “mountain fever” in its worst form. It was his first serious illness, and his regular and temperate life saved him for the time. But a visit to the same region in 1887 brought on a second attack of this peculiar and distressing disease. He came home prostrated, with symptoms of serious heart failure.

He died at the Gilsey House, in New York city, on the 25th of July, 1888, and was buried in the cemetery of Rock Creek church, near Washington.

ACCOMPANYING PAPER.

For the first time in the series of the Annual Reports of this Bureau a single paper is submitted to exhibit the character of the investigations undertaken and the facts collected by its officers, with the results of their studies upon such collections. But while the paper is single in form and in title, it includes, in its illustrations and the text relating to them, nearly all topics into which anthropology can properly be divided, and therefore shows more diversity than would often be contained in a volume composed of separate papers by several authors. Its subject-matter being essentially pictorial, it required a large number of illustrations, twelve hundred and ninety-five figures being furnished in the text, besides fifty-four full-page plates, which, with their explanation and discussion, expanded the volume to such size as to exclude other papers.

PICTURE-WRITING OF THE AMERICAN INDIANS, BY GARRICK MALLERY.

The papers accompanying the Fourth Annual Report of this Bureau, which was for the fiscal year 1882-’83, included one under the title “Pictographs of the North American Indians, a Preliminary Paper, by Garrick Mallery.” Although that work was of considerable length and the result of much research and study, it was in fact as well as in title preliminary. The substance and general character of the information obtained at that time on the subject was published not only for the benefit of students already interested in it, but also to excite interest in that branch of study among active explorers in the field and, indeed, among all persons engaged in anthropologic researches. For the convenience of such workers as were invited in general terms to become collaborators, suggestions were offered for the examination, description, and study of the objects connected with this branch of investigation which might be noticed or discovered by them. The result of this preliminary publication has shown the wisdom of the plan adopted. Since the distribution of the Fourth Annual Report pictography in its various branches has become, far more than ever before, a prominent feature in the publications of learned societies, in the separate works of anthropologists, and in the notes of scientific explorers. The present paper includes, with proper credit to the authors quoted or cited, many contributions to this branch of study which obviously have been induced by the preliminary paper before mentioned.

The interest thus excited has continued to be manifested by the publication of new information of importance, in diverse shapes and in many languages, some of which has been received too late for proper attention in this paper.

Col. Mallery’s studies in pictography commenced in the field. He was stationed with his military command at Fort Rice, on the upper Missouri river, in the autumn of 1876, and obtained a copy of the remarkable pictograph which he then called “A Calendar of the Dakota Nation,” and published under that title, with interpretation and explanation, in Vol. III, No. 1, of the series of bulletins of the U. S. Geological and Geographical Survey of the Territories, issued April 9, 1877. This work attracted attention, and at the request of the Secretary of the Interior he was ordered by the Secretary of War, on June 13, 1877, to report for duty, in connection with the ethnology of the North American Indians, to the present Director of this Bureau, then in charge of the Geographical and Geological Survey of the Rocky Mountain Region. Upon the organization of the Bureau of Ethnology, in 1879, Col. Mallery was appointed ethnologist, and has continued in that duty without intermission, supplementing field explorations by study of all accessible anthropologic literature and by extensive correspondence. His attention has been steadily directed to pictography and to sign-language, which branches of study are so closely connected that neither can be successfully pursued to the exclusion of the other, but his researches have by no means been confined to those related subjects.

The plan and scope of the present work may be very briefly stated as follows:

After some introductory definitions and explanations general remarks are submitted upon the grand division of petroglyphs or pictures upon rocks as distinct from other exhibitions of pictography. This division is less susceptible of interpretation than others, but it claims special interest and attention because the locality of production is fixed, and also because the antiquity of workmanship may often be determined with more certainty than can that of pictures on less enduring and readily transportable objects. Descriptions, with illustrations, are presented of petroglyphs in North America, including those in several provinces of Canada, in many of the states and territories of the United States, in Mexico, and in the West Indies. A large number from Central and South America also appear, followed by examples from Australia, Oceanica, Europe, Africa, and Asia, inserted chiefly for comparison with the picture-writings in America, to which the work is specially devoted, and therefore styled extra-limital petroglyphs. The curious forms called cup sculptures are next discussed, followed by a chapter on pictographs considered generally, which condenses the results of much thought. The substances, apart from rocks, on which picture-writing is found are next considered, and afterwards the instruments and materials by which they are made. The subjects of pictography and the practices which elucidate it are classified under several headings, viz: Mnemonic, subdivided into (1) Knotted cords and objects tied, (2) Notched or marked sticks, (3) Wampum, (4) Order of songs, (5) Traditions, (6) Treaties, (7) Appointment, (8) Numeration, (9) Accounting; Chronology, in which the charts at first called calendars, but now, in correct translation of the Indian terms, styled winter-counts, are discussed and illustrated with the care required by their remarkable characteristics; Notices, which chapter embraces (1) Notice of visit, departure, and direction, (2) Direction by drawing topographic features, (3) Notice of condition, (4) Warning and guidance; Communications, including (1) Declaration of war, (2) Profession of peace and friendship, (3) Challenge, (4) Social and religious missives, (5) Claim or demand; Totems, titles, and names, divided into (1) Pictorial tribal designations, (2) Gentile and clan designation, (3) Significance of tattoo marks, which topic is discussed at length, with ample illustration, and (4) Designations of individuals, subdivided into insignia or tokens of authority, signs of individual achievements, property marks, and personal names. Some of the facts presented are to be correlated with the antique forms of heraldry and others with proper names in modern civilization.

The topic Religion, considered in the popular significance of that term, is divided into (1) Symbols of the supernatural, (2) Myths and mythic animals, (3) Shamanism, (4) Charms and amulets, (5) Religious ceremonies, and (6) Mortuary practices. Customs are divided into (1) Cult associations, (2) Daily life and habits, (3) Games. The chapter entitled Historic presents (1) Record of expeditions, (2) Record of battle, which includes a highly interesting Indian pictured account of the battle of the Little Big Horn, commonly called the “Custer massacre,” (3) Record of migration, (4) Record of notable events. The Biographic chapter gives too many minutiæ for particularization here, but is divided into (1) Continuous record of events in life and (2) Particular exploits or events. Ideography permeates and infuses all the matter under the other headings, but is discussed distinctively and with evidential illustrations in the sections of (1) abstract ideas expressed objectively, and (2) symbols and emblems. In the latter section the author suggests that the proper mode of interpretation of pictographs whose origin and significance are unknown is that they are to be primarily supposed to be objective representations, but may be, and often are, ideographic, and in a limited number of cases may have become symbolic, but that the strong presumption without extrinsic evidence is against the occult or esoteric symbolism often attributed to the markings under discussion. The significance of colors is connected with ideography and examples are given of the colors used in many parts of the world for mere decoration, in ceremonies, for death and mourning, for war and peace, and to designate social status. The depiction of gesture and posture signs is next discussed, showing the intimate relation between a thought as expressed without words by signs, and a thought expressed without words by pictures corresponding to those signs.

Conventionalizing is divided into conventional devices, which were the precursors of writing, and the syllabaries and alphabets evolved. The pictographic origin of all the current alphabets of the world, often before discussed, receives further explanation.

While comparison by the reader between all the illustrations and the facts recorded and the suggestions submitted about them is essential to the utility of the work, the author gives, as representing his own mode of study, found to be advantageous in use, a chapter on Special Comparison, divided into (1) Typical style, (2) Homomorphs and symmorphs, (3) Composite forms, (4) Artistic skill and methods. This chapter is followed by one with which it is closely connected, styled Means of Interpretation, divided into (1) Marked characters of known significance, (2) Distinctive costumes, weapons, and ornaments, (3) Ambiguous characters with known meanings, the latter being chiefly a collection of separate figures which would not be readily recognized without labels, but which are understood through reliable authority. Finally, under the rather noncommittal title of Controverted Pictographs, the subjects of fraud and error are discussed with striking examples and useful cautions.

From this brief paraphrase of the table of contents, it is obvious that nearly all branches of anthropology are touched upon. It is also to be remarked that the work is unique because it presents the several anthropologic topics recorded by the Indians themselves according to their unbiased conceptions, and in their own mode of writing. From this point of view the anonymous and generally unknown pictographers may be considered to be the primary authors of the treatise and Col. Mallery a discoverer, compiler, and editor. But such depreciative limitation of his functions would ignore the originality of treatment pervading the work and the systematic classification and skillful analysis shown in it which enhance its value and interest.

FINANCIAL STATEMENT.

Classification of expenditures made from the appropriation for North American ethnology for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1889.

Amount of appropriation 1888-’89 $40,000.00 =========== EXPENSES.

Services $29,546.20 Traveling expenses 3,243.45 Transportation of property 128.05 Field supplies 47.00 Instruments 16.00 Laboratory material 95.60 Photographic material 44.20 Books for library 202.39 Stationery and drawing material 59.36 Illustrations for report 114.00 Office furniture 92.50 Office supplies and repairs 218.75 Correspondence 4.17 Specimens 500.00 Bonded railroad accounts forwarded to Treasury for settlement 61.19 Balance on hand to meet outstanding liabilities 5,627.14 ----------- Total 40,000.00

ACCOMPANYING PAPER.

SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION--BUREAU OF ETHNOLOGY.

PICTURE-WRITING OF THE AMERICAN INDIANS.

BY

GARRICK MALLERY.

CONTENTS.

Page.

Introduction 25 Chapter I. Petroglyphs 31 Chapter II. Petroglyphs in North America 37 Section 1. Petroglyphs in Canada 37 Nova Scotia 37 Ontario 42 Manitoba 43 British Columbia 44 Section 2. Petroglyphs in the United States 45 Alaska 47 Arizona 48 California 52 Owens Valley 56 Colorado 72 Connecticut 75 Georgia 76 Idaho 77 Illinois 77 Iowa 80 Kansas 80 Kentucky 81 Maine 81 Maryland 83 Massachusetts 86 Minnesota 87 Montana 90 Nebraska 90 Nevada 92 New Mexico 96 New York 98 North Carolina 99 Ohio 101 Oregon 104 Pennsylvania 106 Rhode Island 113 South Dakota 114 Tennessee 114 Texas 115 Utah 116 Virginia 121 Washington 122 West Virginia 124 Wisconsin 126 Wyoming 128 Section 3. Petroglyphs in Mexico 131 Section 4. Petroglyphs in the West Indies 136 Puerto Rico 136 The Bahama islands 137 Guadeloupe 139 Aruba 139 Chapter III. Petroglyphs in Central and South America 141 Section 1. Petroglyphs in Central America 141 Nicaragua 141 Guatemala 142 Section 2. Petroglyphs in South America 142 United States of Colombia 143 Guiana 144 Venezuela 147 Brazil 150 Argentine Republic 157 Peru 157 Chile 159 Chapter IV. Extra-limital petroglyphs 161 Section 1. Petroglyphs in Australia 161 Section 2. Petroglyphs in Oceanica 165 New Zealand 165 Kei islands 167 Easter island 169 Section 3. Petroglyphs in Europe 171 Great Britain and Ireland 171 Sweden 173 France 175 Spain 177 Italy 178 Section 4. Petroglyphs in Africa 178 Algeria 178 Egypt 179 South Africa 180 Canary islands 183 Section 5. Petroglyphs in Asia 185 China 185 Japan 185 India 186 Siberia 186 Chapter V. Cup sculptures 189 Chapter VI. Pictographs generally 201 Chapter VII. Substances on which pictographs are made 205 Section 1. The human body 205 Section 2. Natural objects other than the human body 205 Stone 205 Bone 206 Skins 206 Feathers and quills 207 Gourds 208 Shells 209 Earth and sand 210 Copper 212 Wood 213 Section 3. Artificial objects 215 Fictile fabrics 215 Textile fabrics 215 Chapter VIII. Instruments and materials by which pictographs are made 218 Section 1. Instruments for carving 218 Section 2. Instruments for drawing 219 Section 3. Coloring matter and its application 219 Chapter IX. Mnemonic 223 Section 1. Knotted cords and objects tied 223 Section 2. Notched or marked sticks 227 Section 3. Wampum 228 Section 4. Order of songs 231 Section 5. Traditions 250 The origin of the Indians 255 Section 6. Treaties 256 Section 7. Appointment 257 Section 8. Numeration 258 Section 9. Accounting 259 Chapter X. Chronology 265 Section 1. Time 265 Section 2. Winter counts 266 Lone-Dog’s winter count 273 Battiste Good’s winter count 287 Chapter XI. Notices 329 Section 1. Notice of visit, departure and direction 329 Section 2. Direction by drawing topographic features 341 Section 3. Notice of condition 347 Section 4. Warning and guidance 353 Chapter XII. Communications 358 Section 1. Declaration of war 358 Section 2. Profession of peace and friendship 359 Section 3. Challenge 362 Section 4. Social and religious missives 362 Australian message sticks 369 West African aroko 371 Section 5. Claim or demand 374 Chapter XIII. Totems, titles, and names 376 Section 1. Pictorial tribal designations 377 Iroquoian 377 Eastern Algonquian 378 Siouan and other designations 379 Absaroka, or Crow 380 Arapaho 381 Arikara, or Ree 381 Assiniboin 381 Brulé 382 Cheyenne 382 Dakota, or Sioux 383 Hidatsa, Gros Ventre or Minitari 384 Kaiowa 384 Mandan 385 Mandan and Arikara 385 Ojibwa 385 Omaha 385 Pawnee 386 Ponka 386 Shoshoni 387 Section 2. Gentile and clan designations 388 Section 3. Significance of tattoo 391 Tattoo in North America 392 On the Pacific coast 396 Tattoo in South America 407 Extra-limital tattoo 407 Scarification 416 Summary of studies on tattooing 418 Section 4. Designations of individuals 419 Insignia, or tokens of authority 419 Signs of individual achievements 433 Property marks 441 Personal names 442 Objective 447 Metaphoric 453 Animal 455 Vegetable 458 Chapter XIV. Religion 461 Section 1. Symbols of the supernatural 462 Section 2. Myths and mythic animals 468 Thunder birds 483 Section 3. Shamanism 490 Section 4. Charms and amulets 501 Section 5. Religious ceremonies 505 Section 6. Mortuary practices 517 Chapter XV. Customs 528 Section 1. Cult societies 528 Section 2. Daily life and habits 530 Section 3. Games 547 Chapter XVI. History 551 Section 1. Record of expedition 552 Section 2. Record of battle 554 Battle of the Little Bighorn 563 Section 3. Record of migration 566 Section 4. Record of notable events 567 Chapter XVII. Biography 571 Section 1. Continuous record of events in life 571 Section 2. Particular exploits or events 575 Chapter XVIII. Ideography 583 Section 1. Abstract ideas expressed pictorially 584 After; age--old and young; bad; before; big; center; deaf; direction; disease; fast; fear; freshet; good; high; lean; little; lone; many, much; obscure; opposition; possession; prisoner; short; sight; slow; tall; trade; union; whirlwind; winter, cold, snow 585-606 Section 2. Signs, symbols, and emblems 607 Section 3. Significance of colors 618 Decorative use of color 619 Ideocrasy of colors 622 Color in ceremonies 623 Color relative to death and mourning 629 Colors for war and peace 631 Color designating social status 633 Section 4. Gesture and posture signs depicted 637 Water 642 Child 643 Negation 644 Chapter XIX. Conventionalizing 649 Section 1. Conventional devices 650 Peace; war; chief; council; plenty of food; famine; starvation; horses; horse stealing; kill and death; shot; coming rain 650-662 Hittite emblems 662 Section 2. Syllabaries and alphabets 664 The Micmac “hieroglyphics” 666 Pictographs in alphabets 674 Chapter XX. Special comparison 676 Section 1. Typical style 676 Section 2. Homomorphs and symmorphs 692 Sky; sun and light; moon; day; night; cloud; rain; lightning; human form; human head and face; hand; feet and tracks; broken leg; voice and speech; dwellings; eclipse of the sun; meteors; the cross 694-733 Section 3. Composite forms 735 Section 4. Artistic skill and methods 738 Chapter XXI. Means of interpretation 745 Section 1. Marked characters of known significance 745 Section 2. Distinctive costumes, weapons, and ornaments 749 Section 3. Ambiguous characters with ascertained meaning 755 Chapter XXII. Controverted pictographs 759 Section 1. The Grave creek stone 761 Section 2. The Dighton rock 762 Section 3. Imitations and forced interpretations 764 Chapter XXIII. General conclusions 768 List of works and authors cited 777

ILLUSTRATIONS.

Page.

PL. I-XI. Petroglyphs in Owens Valley, California 56-76 XII. Petroglyph in Maine 82 XIII. Petroglyphs in Nebraska 92 XIV. The Stone of the Giants. Mexico 134 XV. Powhatan’s mantle 210 XVI. Peruvian quipu and birch-bark drawings 226 XVII. Order of songs. Ojibwa 232 XVIII. Mnemonic songs. Ojibwa 236 XIX. Mnemonic songs. Ojibwa 244 XX. Lone-Dog’s winter count 266 XXI. Battiste Good’s cycles. A. D. 901-1000 290 XXII. Battiste Good’s cycles. A. D. 1141-1280 292 XXIII. Battiste Good’s cycles. A. D. 1421-1700 294 XXIV. Haida double thunder-bird 400 XXV. Haida dog-fish 402 XXVI. Oglala chiefs 420 XXVII. Oglala subchiefs 422 XXVIII. Mexican military insignia 432 XXIX. Mexican military insignia 434 XXX. Hidatsa dancers, bearing exploit marks 440 XXXI. Petroglyph in rock shelter, West Virginia 476 XXXII. Wasko and mythic raven, Haida 480 XXXIII. Mantle of invisibility 504 XXXIV. Mexican treatment of new-born children 542 XXXV. Education of Mexican children. Three to six years 544 XXXVI. Education of Mexican children. Seven to ten years 546 XXXVII. Education of Mexican children. Eleven to fourteen years 548 XXXVIII. Adoption of profession and marriage. Mexican 550 XXXIX. Map of Little Bighorn battlefield 564 XL. Battle of Little Bighorn. Indian camp 566 XLI. Battle of Little Bighorn. Soldiers charging Indian camp 568 XLII. Battle of Little Bighorn. Sioux charging soldiers 570 XLIII. Battle of Little Bighorn. Sioux fighting Custer’s battalion 572 XLIV. Battle of Little Bighorn. The dead Sioux 574 XLV. Battle of Little Bighorn. The dead Sioux 576 XLVI. Battle of Little Bighorn. Custer’s dead cavalry 578 XLVII. Battle of Little Bighorn. Indians leaving battle-ground 580 XLVIII. Battle of Little Bighorn. Indians leaving battle-ground 582 XLIX. Mexican symbols 614 L. Tablets at Ancon, Peru 706 LI. Thruston tablet, Tennessee 734 LII. Pictures on Dōtaku, Japan 736 LIII. German knights and Apache warriors 740 LIV. Dighton rock 762 FIG. 1-2. Palimpsests on Fairy rocks, Nova Scotia 40-41 3. Petroglyph on Vancouver island 44 4. Petroglyphs in Alaska 47 5-8. Petroglyphs in Arizona 48-50 9. Petroglyph in Shinumo canyon, Arizona 51 10. Petroglyph in Mound canyon, Arizona 52 11. Petroglyphs near Visalia, California 53 12-16. Petroglyphs at Tule river, California 54-57 17. View of Chalk grade petroglyphs, Owens valley, California 59 18. Petroglyphs in Death valley, California 60 19. Rattlesnake rock, Mojave desert, California 61 20. Petroglyph near San Marcos pass, California 62 21-22. Petroglyphs near San Marcos pass, California 62-63 23-28. Petroglyphs in Najowe valley, California 63-67 29-30. Petroglyphs near Santa Barbara, California 67-68 31. Petroglyphs in Azuza canyon, California 69 32-33. Petroglyphs in Santa Barbara county, California 70-71 34-35. Petroglyphs on the Rio Mancos, Colorado 73 36-37. Petroglyphs on the Rio San Juan 74-75 38. Petroglyphs in Georgia 76 39. Petroglyphs in Idaho, Shoshonean 77 40-41. The Piasa Petroglyph 78-79 42. Petroglyph on the Illinois river 79 43. Petroglyph near Alton, Illinois 80 44. Petroglyphs in Kansas 81 45. Bald Friar rock, Maryland 84 46. Slab from Bald Friar rock 85 47. Top of Bald Friar rock 85 48. Characters from Bald Friar rock 86 49. Dighton rock, Massachusetts 86 50. Petroglyphs at Pipestone, Minnesota 88 51. Petroglyphs in Brown’s valley, Minnesota 89 52-53. Characters from Nebraska petroglyphs 91-92 54. Petroglyphs on Carson river, Nevada 92 55. Petroglyphs at Reveillé, Nevada 94 56. Petroglyphs at Dead mountain, Nevada 95 57. Inscription rock, New Mexico 96 58-59. Petroglyphs at Ojo de Benado, New Mexico 97-98 60. Petroglyph at Esopus, New York 98 61. Paint rock, North Carolina 100 62. Petroglyphs on Paint rock, North Carolina 100 63. Newark Track rock, Ohio 101 64. Independence stone, Ohio 102 65. Barnesville Track rock, Ohio 103 66. Characters from Barnesville Track rock 103 67. Barnesville Track rock, No. 2 104 68. Petroglyphs, Wellsville, Ohio 104 69. Petroglyphs in Lake county, Oregon 106 70. Big Indian rock, Pennsylvania 107 71. Little Indian rock, Pennsylvania 108 72. Petroglyph at McCalls ferry, Pennsylvania 108 73. Petroglyph near Washington, Pennsylvania 109 74. Petroglyphs on “Indian God Rock,” Pennsylvania 110 75. Petroglyph at Millsboro, Pennsylvania 111 76. Petroglyphs near Layton, Pennsylvania 112 77-78. Glyphs in Fayette county, Pennsylvania 112-113 79. Petroglyphs in Roberts county, South Dakota 114 80. Petroglyphs near El Paso, Texas 116 81. Petroglyphs near Manti, Utah 118 82-85. Petroglyphs on Colorado river, Utah 118-120 86. Petroglyphs at Pipe Spring, Utah 120 87-88. Petroglyphs on Colorado river, Utah 120 89. Petroglyphs in Shinumo canyon, Utah 121 90. Petroglyphs in Tazewell county, Virginia 121 91. Petroglyphs in Browns cave, Wisconsin 126 92. Petroglyphs at Trempealeau, Wisconsin 127 93-95. Petroglyphs in Wind river valley, Wyoming 128-129 96-97. Petroglyphs near Sage creek, Wyoming 130 98. Petroglyphs in Mexico 132 99. The emperor Ahuitzotzin 134 100-102. Petroglyphs in the Bahamas 138-139 103. Petroglyph in Guadeloupe 140 104. Petroglyphs in Nicaragua 141 105. Petroglyphs in Colombia 144 106. Shallow carvings in Guiana 145 107. Sculptured rock in Venezuela 147 108. Rock near Caïcara, Venezuela 148 109. Petroglyphs of Chicagua rapids, Venezuela 149 110. Petroglyphs on the Cachoeira do Ribeirão, Brazil 151 111. The rock Itamaraca, Brazil 151 112. Petroglyphs on the Rio Negro, Brazil 152 113. Petroglyphs at Caldierão do Inferno, Brazil 152 114. Petroglyphs at the falls of Girão, Brazil 153 115. Petroglyphs at Pederneira, Brazil 153 116. Petroglyphs at Araras rapids, Brazil 154 117. Petroglyphs at Ribeirão, Brazil 154 118. Character at Madeira rapid, Brazil 155 119. Petroglyphs at Pao Grande, Brazil 155 120. Petroglyph in Ceará, Brazil 156 121-122. Petroglyphs in Morcego, Brazil 156 123. Petroglyphs in Inhamun, Brazil 157 124. Petroglyphs Pedra Lavrada, Brazil 158 125. Inscribed rock at Bajo de Canota, Argentine Republic 158 126. Petroglyphs near Araquipa, Peru 159 127. Petroglyph in Huaytara, Peru 159 128. Sculptured boulder in Chile 160 129. Petroglyph in Cajon de los Cipreses, Chile 160 130. Petroglyph on Finke river, Australia 162 131. Petroglyph in Depuch island, Australia 163 132. Petroglyph at Bantry bay, Australia 164 133. Petroglyph in New Zealand 166 134. Petroglyphs in Kei islands 168 135. Petroglyphs in Easter island 169 136. Tablet from Easter island 170 137-138. Petroglyph in Bohuslän, Sweden 174-175 139. Petroglyph in Épone, France 176 140. Petroglyphs at Tyout, Algeria 179 141. Petroglyphs at Moghar, Algeria 180 142. Petroglyph in Léribé, South Africa 182 143. Petroglyphs in Basutoland, South Africa 183 144-145. Petroglyphs in the Canary islands 183-184 145_a_. Petroglyph in Yezo, Japan 185 146. Petroglyphs at Chandeshwar, India 187 147. Types of cup sculptures 190 148. Variants of cup sculptures 191 149. Cup sculptures at Auchnabreach, Scotland 192 150. Cup sculptures at Ballymenach, Scotland 193 151. Cup sculptures in Chiriqui 194 152-153. Cup sculptures in Venezuela 195 154-155. Cup sculptures in Brazil 195-196 156. Cup sculptures in India 197 157. Comanche drawing on shoulder blade 206 158. Quill pictograph 208 159. Pictograph on gourd 208 160. Pictographs on wood, Washington 214 161. Haida basketry hat 216 162. Tshimshian blanket 217 163. Wampum strings 228 164. Penn wampum belt 230 165. Song for medicine hunting 247 166. Song for beaver hunting 249 167. Osage chart 251 168. Midē' record 252 169. Midē' records 253 170. Minabō'zho 254 171. Midē' practicing incantation 254 172. Jĕssakkī'd curing a woman 254 173. The origin of the Indians 256 174. Record of treaty 257 175-177. Shop account 259-261 178-180. Book account 262 181. Notched sticks 263 182. Device denoting the succession of time. Dakota 265 183-196. Lone-Dog’s Winter Count 273-276 197. Whooping-cough. The-Flame’s Winter Count, 1813-’14 276 198. Whooping-cough. The-Swan’s Winter Count, 1813-’14 276 199-255. Lone-Dog’s Winter Count 276-286 256. Battiste Good’s Revelation 289 257-436. Battiste Good’s Winter Count 293-328 437. Petroglyphs at Oakley Springs, Arizona 329 438. Hunting notices 331 439. Alaskan notice of hunt 332 440. Alaskan notice of departure 332 441. Alaskan notice of hunt 333 442-444. Alaskan notice of direction 333-334 445. Abnaki notice of direction 335 446. Amalecite notice of trip 336 447-448. Ojibwa notice of direction 337-338 449. Penobscot notice of direction 338 450. Passamaquoddy notice of direction 339 451. Micmac notice of direction 341 452. Lean-Wolf’s map. Hidatsa 342 453. Chart of battlefield 343 454. Topographic features 344 455. Greenland map 345 456-458. Passamaquoddy wikhegan 348-350 459. Alaskan notice of distress 351 460. Alaskan notice of departure and refuge 351 461. Alaskan notice of departure to relieve distress 351 462. Ammunition wanted. Alaskan 352 463. Assistance wanted in the hunt. Alaskan 352 464-465. Starving hunters. Alaskan 352-353 466. No thoroughfare 354 467. Rock paintings in Azuza canyon, California 354 468. Site of paintings in Azuza canyon, California 355 469. Sketches from Azuza canyon 355 470. West African message 361 471. Ojibwa love letter 363 472. Cheyenne letter 364 473. Ojibwa invitations 365 474. Ojibwa invitation sticks 366 475. Summons to Midé ceremony 367 476. Passamaquoddy wikhegan 367 477. Australian message sticks 370 478-479. West African aroko 371 480-481. Jebu complaint 375 482. Samoyed requisition 375 483. Eastern Algonquian tribal designations 379 484-487. Absaroka tribal designations 380-381 488. Arapaho tribal designation 381 489-490. Arikara tribal designations 381 491. Assiniboin tribal designation 381 492-493. Brulé tribal designations 382 494-497. Cheyenne tribal designations 382-383 498. Dakota tribal designation 383 499. Hidatsa tribal designation 384 500-501. Kaiowa tribal designations 384 502. Mandan tribal designation 385 503. Mandan and Arikara tribal designations 385 504-506. Omaha tribal designations 385 507-509. Pawnee tribal designations 386 510-512. Ponka tribal designations 386-387 513. Tamga of Kirghise tribes 387 514. Dakota gentile designations 389 515. Kwakiutl carvings 390 516. Virginia tattoo designs 393 517. Haida tattooing. Sculpin and dragon-fly 397 518. Haida tattooing. Thunder-bird 398 519. Haida tattooing. Thunder-bird and tshimos 399 520. Haida tattooing. Bear 399 521. Haida tattooing. Mountain goat 400 522. Haida tattooing. Double thunder-bird 401 523. Haida tattooing. Double raven 401 524. Haida tattooing. Dog-fish 400 525-526. Tattooed Haidas 402-403 527. Two forms of skulpin. Haida 404 528. Frog. Haida 405 529. Cod. Haida 405 530. Squid. Haida 405 531. Wolf. Haida 405 532. Australian grave and carved trees 408 533. New Zealand tattooed head and chin mark 409 534. Tattoo design on bone. New Zealand 409 535. Tattooed woman. New Zealand 410 536. Tattoo on Papuan chief 411 537. Tattooed Papuan woman 412 538. Badaga tattoo marks 413 539. Chukchi tattoo marks 414 540. Big-Road 421 541. Charging-Hawk 422 542. Feather-on-his-head 422 543. White-Tail 423 544. White-Bear 423 545. Standing-Bear 423 546. Four horn calumet 424 547. Two-Strike as partisan 424 548. Lean-Wolf as partisan 425 549. Micmac headdress in pictograph 425 550. Micmac chieftainess in pictograph 426 551. Insignia traced on rocks, Nova Scotia 427 552. Chilkat ceremonial shirt 428 553. Chilkat ceremonial cloak 429 554. Chilkat ceremonial blanket 430 555. Chilkat ceremonial coat 430 556. Bella Coola Indians 431 557. Guatemala priest 431 558. Mark of exploit. Dakota 433 559. Killed with fist. Dakota 433 560. Killed an enemy. Dakota 434 561. Cut throat and scalped. Dakota 434 562. Cut enemy’s throat. Dakota 434 563. Third to strike. Dakota 434 564. Fourth to strike. Dakota 434 565. Fifth to strike. Dakota 434 566. Many wounds. Dakota 434 567-568. Marks of exploits. Hidatsa 437 569. Successful defense. Hidatsa 438 570. Two successful defenses. Hidatsa 438 571. Captured a horse. Hidatsa 438 572. Exploit marks. Hidatsa 438 573. Record of exploits 439 574. Record of exploits 439 575. Exploit marks as worn 439 576. Scalp taken 440 577. Scalp and gun taken 440 578. Boat paddle. Arikara 442 579. African property mark 442 580. Owner’s marks. Slesvick 442 581. Signature of Running Antelope. Dakota 445 582. Solinger sword makers’ marks 445 583-613. Personal names. Objective 447-453 614-621. Personal names. Metaphoric 453-454 622-634. Personal names. Animal 455-458 635-637. Personal names. Vegetable 458 638. Loud-Talker 459 639. Mexican names 460 640-651. Symbols of the supernatural 462-466 652. Dream. Ojibwa 466 653. Religious symbols 467 654. Myth of Pokinsquss 469 655. Myth of Atosis 470 656. Myth of the Weasel girls 471 657. The giant bird Kaloo 472 658. Kiwach, the strong blower 473 659. Story of Glooscap 474 660. Ojibwa shamanistic symbols 474 661. Baho-li-kong-ya. Arizona 476 662. Mythic serpents. Innuit 476 663. Haida wind-spirit 477 664. Orca. Haida 477 665. Bear mother. Haida 478 666. Thunder-bird grasping whale 479 667. Haokah. Dakota giant 480 668. Ojibwa mánidō 480 669. Menomoni white bear mánidō 481 670. Mythic wild cats. Ojibwa 482 671. Winnebago magic animal 482 672. Mythic buffalo 482 673-674. Thunder-birds. Dakota 483 675. Wingless thunder-bird. Dakota 483 676-677. Thunder-birds. Dakota 484 678. Thunder-bird. Haida 485 679. Thunder-bird. Twana 485 680. Medicine-bird. Dakota 486 681. Five-Thunders. Dakota 486 682. Thunder-pipe. Dakota 486 683. Micmac thunder-bird 487 684. Venezuelan thunder-bird 487 685. Ojibwa thunder-birds 487 686. Moki rain-bird 488 687. Ahuitzotl 488 688. Peruvian fabulous animals 488 689. Australian mythic personages 489 690. Ojibwa Midē' wigwam 493 691. Lodge of a Midē' 493 692. Lodge of a Jĕssakkī'd 493 693-697. Making medicine. Dakota 494 698. Magic killing 495 699. Held-a-ghost-lodge 495 700-701. Muzzin-ne-neence. Ojibwa 495-496 702. Ojibwa divination. Ojibwa 497 703. Shaman exorcising demon. Alaska 497 704. Supplication for success. Alaska 499 705. Skokomish tamahous 498 706. Mdewakantawan fetich 500 707. Medicine bag, as worn 501 708. Medicine bag, hung up 502 709-711. Magic arrows 503 712. Hunter’s charm. Australia 504 713. Moki masks traced on rocks. Arizona 506 714. Shaman’s lodge. Alaska 507 715. Ah-tón-we-tuck 509 716. On-sáw-kie 510 717. Medicine lodge. Micmac 510 718. Juggler lodge. Micmac 511 719. Moki ceremonial 511 720. Peruvian ceremony 513 721-723. Tartar and Mongol drums 515-517 724. Votive offering. Alaska 519 725-726. Grave posts. Alaska 520 727. Village and burial ground. Alaska 520 728. Menomoni grave post 521 729. Incised lines on Menomoni grave post 522 730. Grave boxes and posts 523 731. Commemoration of dead. Dakota 523 732. Ossuary ceremonial. Dakota 523 733. Kalosh grave boxes 524 734. New Zealand grave effigy 525 735. New Zealand grave post 526 736. Nicobarese mortuary tablet 526 737. The policeman 529 738. Ottawa pipestem 530 739-740. Shooting fish. Micmac 531 741. Lancing fish. Micmac 531 742. Whale hunting. Innuit 531 743. Hunting in canoe. Ojibwa 532 744. Record of hunting. Ojibwa 532 745. Fruit gatherers. Hidatsa 533 746. Hunting antelope. Hidatsa 533 747. Hunting buffalo. Hidatsa 534 748. Counting coups. Dakota 534 749-750. Counting coup. Dakota 535 751-752. Scalp displayed. Dakota 535-536 753. Scalped head. Dakota 536 754. Scalp taken. Dakota 536 755-757. Antelope hunting. Dakota 536-537 758. Wife’s punishment. Dakota 537 759. Decorated horse. Dakota 537 760. Suicide. Dakota 537 761. Eagle hunting. Arikara 537 762. Eagle hunting. Ojibwa 538 763. Gathering pomme blanche 538 764. Moving tipi 538 765. Claiming sanctuary 538 766-769. Raising war party. Dakota 540 770. Walrus hunting. Alaska 541 771. Records carved on ivory. Alaska 541 772-773. Haka game. Dakota 547 774. Haida gambling sticks 548 775. Pebbles from Mas d’Azil 549 776-781. Records of expeditions. Dakota 553-554 782-783. Records of battles 556 784. Battle of 1797. Ojibwa 557 785. Battle of Hard river. Winnebago 559 786. Battle between Ojibwa and Sioux 559 787. Megaque’s last battle 560 788-795. Records of battles. Dakota 561-563 796. Record of Ojibwa migration 566 797. Origin of Brulé. Dakota 567 798. Kiyuksas 568 799-802. First coming of traders 568 803. Boy scalped 568 804. Boy scalped alive 569 805. Horses killed 569 806-808. Annuities received 569 809. Mexican blankets bought 569 810. Wagon captured 570 811. Clerk killed 570 812. Flagstaff cut down 570 813. Horses taken 570 814. Killed two Arikara 571 815. Shot and scalped an Arikara 572 816. Killed ten men and three women 572 817. Killed two chiefs 573 818. Killed one Arikara 573 819. Killed two Arikara hunters 574 820. Killed five Arikara 574 821. Peruvian biography 575 822. Hunting record. Iroquois 575 823. Martial exploits. Iroquois 576 824. Cross-Bear’s death 576 825. A dangerous trading trip 577 826. Shoshoni raid for horses 578 827. Life risked for water 578 828. Runs by the enemy 579 829. Runs around 579 830. Goes through the camp 579 831. Cut through 579 832. Killed in tipi 579 833. Killed in tipi 579 834. Took the warpath 579 835. White-Bull killed 580 836. Brave-Bear killed 580 837. Brave-man killed 580 838. Crazy Horse killed 580 839. Killed for whipping wife 580 840. Killed for whipping wife 580 841-842. Close shooting 581 843. Lean-Wolf’s exploits. Hidatsa 581 844. Record of hunt. Alaska 581 845. Charge after 585 846. Killed after 585 847. Old-Horse 585 848. Old-Mexican 585 849. Young-Rabbit 585 850. Bad-Boy 585 851. Bad-Horn 585 852. Bad-Face 586 853. Bad. Ojibwa 586 854. Got-there-first 586 855-860. Big 586-587 861. Center-Feather 587 862. Deaf Woman 587 863-867. Direction 588 868. Whooping cough 588 869. Measles 589 870. Measles or smallpox 589 871. Ate buffalo and died 589 872. Died of “whistle” 589 873-874. Smallpox 589 875. Smallpox. Mexican 589 876. Died of cramps 589 877-878. Died in childbirth 590 879. Sickness. Ojibwa 590 880. Sickness. Chinese 590 881. Fast-Horse 590 882. Fast-Elk 590 883-887. Fear 591 888-890. River freshet 591-592 891. Good-Weasel 592 892-897. High 592-593 898-903. Lean 593-594 904-915. Little 594-595 916. Lone-Woman 595 917. Lone-Bear 596 918. Many shells 596 919. Many deer 596 920. Much snow 596 921. Great, much 596 922. Ring-Cloud 597 923. Cloud-Ring 597 924. Fog 597 925. Kills-Back 597 926. Keeps-the-Battle 597 927. Keeps-the-Battle 597 928. His-Fight 597 929. River fight 598 930. Owns-the-arrows 598 931. Has-something-sharp 598 932. Prisoner. Dakota 598 933. Takes enemy 598 934. Iroquois triumph 599 935. Prisoners. Dakota 599 936. Prisoners. Iroquois 600 937. Prisoners. Mexico 600 938. Short bull 600 939-944. Sight 600-601 945. Slow bear 601 946-954. Tall 601-602 955-956. Trade 603 957. Brothers 603 958. Same tribe 603 959. Husband and wife 604 960. Same tribe 604 961. Same tribe 604 962-966. Whirlwind 604-605 967-975. Winter, cold, snow 605-606 976. Peruvian garrison 607 977. Comet. Mexican 613 978. Robbery. Mexican 613 979. Guatemalan symbols 614 980. Chibcha symbols 616 981. Syrian symbols 616 982. Piaroa color stamps 621 983. Rock painting. Tule river, California 638 984-998. Gesture signs in pictographs 639-641 999. Water symbols 642 1000. Gesture sign for drink 642 1001. Water. Egyptian 642 1002. Gesture for rain 643 1003. Water signs. Moki 643 1004. Symbols for child and man 644 1005. Gestures for birth 644 1006. Negation 645 1007. Hand 645 1008. Signal of discovery 645 1009. Pictured gestures. Maya 646 1010. Pictured gestures. Guatemala 647 1011-1019. Peace 650-651 1020-1022. War 651-652 1023. Chief-Boy 652 1024. War chief. Passamaquoddy 652 1025-1029. Council 653-654 1030-1037. Plenty of food 654-655 1038-1043. Famine 655-656 1044-1046. Starvation 656 1047-1051. Horses 656-657 1052-1060. Horse stealing 657-658 1061-1069. Kill and death 658-660 1070. Killed. Dakota 660 1071. Life and death. Ojibwa 660 1072. Dead. Iroquois 660 1073. Dead man. Arikara 660 1074-1078. Shot 661 1079. Coming rain 662 1080. Hittite emblems of known sound 663 1081. Hittite emblems of uncertain sound 664 1082. Title page of Kauder’s Micmac Catechism 668 1083. Lord’s Prayer in Micmac “hieroglyphics” 669 1084-1085. Religious story. Sicasica 672 1086. Mo-so MS. Desgodins 673 1087. Pictographs in alphabets 675 1088. Algonquian petroglyph, Hamilton farm, West Virginia 677 1089. Algonquian petroglyphs, Safe Harbor, Pennsylvania 677 1090. Algonquian petroglyphs, Cunningham’s Island, Lake Erie 679 1091. Algonquian petroglyphs, Wyoming 680 1092. Shoshonean petroglyphs, Idaho 680 1093. Shoshonean petroglyphs, Utah 681 1094. Shoshonean rock painting, Utah 681 1095-1096. Arizona petroglyphs 682-683 1097-1098. Petroglyphs in Lower California 683 1099. Haida totem post 684 1100. New Zealand house posts 685 1101. New Zealand tiki 686 1102-1103. Nicaraguan petroglyphs 686 1104. Deep carvings in Guiana 687 1105-1106. Venezuelan petroglyphs 688 1107. Brazilian petroglyphs 689 1108. Spanish and Brazilian petroglyphs 690 1109-1111. Brazilian petroglyphs 690-691 1112. Brazilian pictograph 691 1113-1114. Brazilian petroglyphs 692 1115. Tree 693 1116. Grow 693 1117. Sky 694 1118. Sun. Oakley Springs 694 1119. Sun. Gesture sign 695 1120. Devices for sun 695 1121. Sun and light 695 1122. Light 695 1123. Light and sun 696 1124. Sun. Kwakiutl 696 1125. Sun mask. Kwakiutl 696 1126. Suns 696 1127. Gesture for moon 696 1128. Moon 697 1129. Stars 697 1130. Day. Ojibwa 697 1131. Morning. Arizona 698 1132. Day 698 1133. Days. Apache 698 1134. Clear, stormy. Ojibwa 699 1135-1139. Night 699 1140. Night. Ojibwa 699 1141. Sign for night 700 1142. Night. Egyptian 700 1143. Night. Mexican 700 1144. Cloud shield 700 1145. Clouds. Moki 700 1146. Cloud. Ojibwa 700 1147. Rain. Ojibwa 701 1148. Rain. Pueblo 701 1149. Rain. Moki 701 1150. Rain. Chinese 701 1151-1153. Lightning. Moki 701-702 1154. Lightning. Pueblo 702 1155-1158. Human form 703 1159. Human form. Alaska 704 1160. Bird man. Siberia 704 1161. American. Ojibwa 704 1162. Man. Yakut 704 1163. Human forms. Moki 704 1164. Human form. Navajo 705 1165. Man and woman. Moki 705 1166. Human form. Colombia 705 1167. Human form. Peru 707 1168. Human face. Brazil 708 1169-1170. Human faces. Brazil 708 1171. Double-faced head. Brazil 708 1172. Funeral urn. Marajo 709 1173. Marajo vase 709 1174. Marajo vases 710 1175. Human heads 711 1176. Hand. Ojibwa 711 1177. Joined hands. Moki 712 1178. Cave-painting. Australia 713 1179. Irish cross 715 1180. Roman standard 715 1181-1185. Tracks 716 1186. Feet 716 1187-1192. Broken leg. Dakota 716-717 1193. Broken leg. Chinese 717 1194-1198. Voice 717-718 1199. Speech. Ojibwa 719 1200. Talk. Mexican 719 1201. Talk. Maya 719 1202. Talk. Guatemala 720 1203. Dwellings 720 1204-1210. Dwellings. Dakota 721 1211. Dwellings. Moki 721 1212. Dwelling. Maya 722 1213. House. Egyptian 722 1214. Eclipse of the sun 722 1215-1223. Meteors 722-723 1224. Meteors. Mexican 724 1225. Cross. Dakota 725 1226. Cross. Ohio mound 725 1227. Dragon fly 725 1228. Crosses. Eskimo 727 1229. Cross. Tulare valley, California 727 1230. Crosses. Owens valley, California 728 1231. Cross. Innuit 729 1232. Crosses. Moki 729 1233. Crosses. Maya 729 1234. Crosses. Nicaragua 730 1235-1236. Crosses. Guatemala 730-731 1237. Crosses. Sword-makers’ marks 732 1238. Cross. Golasecca 733 1239-1251. Composite forms 735-736 1252. Wolf-man. Haida 737 1253. Panther-man. Haida 737 1254. Moose. Kejimkoojik 739 1255. Hand. Kejimkoojik 740 1256. Engravings on bamboo. New Caledonia 743 1257. Typical character. Guiana 745 1258. Moki devices 746 1259. Frames and arrows. Moki 746 1260. Blossoms. Moki 746 1261. Moki characters 748 1262. Mantis. Kejimkoojik 749 1263. Animal forms. Sonora 749 1264-1278. Weapons and ornaments. Dakota 750-752 1279. Weapons 753 1280. Australian wommera and clubs 754 1281. Turtle. Maya 756 1282. Armadillo. Yucatan 756 1283. Dakota drawings 756 1284. Ojibwa drawings 757 1285-1287. Grave creek stone 761-762 1288. Imitated pictograph 765 1289. Fraudulent pictograph 767 1290. Chinese characters 767

PICTURE-WRITING OF THE AMERICAN INDIANS.

BY GARRICK MALLERY.

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Introduction

An essay entitled “Pictographs of the North American Indians: A Preliminary Paper,” appeared in the Fourth Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology. The present work is not a second edition of that essay, but is a continuation and elaboration of the same subject. Of the eighty-three plates in that paper not one is here reproduced, although three are presented with amendments; thus fifty-one of the fifty-four plates in this volume are new. Many of the text figures, however, are used again, as being necessary to the symmetry of the present work, but they are now arranged and correlated so as to be much more useful than when unmethodically disposed as before, and the number of text figures now given is twelve hundred and ninety-five as against two hundred and nine, the total number in the former paper. The text itself has been rewritten and much enlarged. The publication of the “Preliminary Paper” has been of great value in the preparation of the present work, as it stimulated investigation and report on the subject to such an extent that it is now impossible to publish within reasonable limits of space all the material on hand. Indeed, after the present work had been entirely written and sent to the Public Printer, new information came to hand which ought to be published, but can not now be inserted.

It is also possible to give more attention than before to the picture-writing of the aboriginal inhabitants of America beyond the limits of the United States. While the requirements of the acts of Congress establishing the Bureau of Ethnology have been observed by directing main attention to the Indians of North America, there is sufficient notice of Central and South America to justify the present title, in which also the simpler term “picture-writing” is used instead of “pictographs.”

Picture-writing is a mode of expressing thoughts or noting facts by marks which at first were confined to the portrayal of natural or artificial objects. It is one distinctive form of thought-writing without reference to sound, gesture language being the other and probably earlier form. Whether remaining purely ideographic, or having become conventional, picture-writing is the direct and durable expression of ideas of which gesture language gives the transient expression. Originally it was not connected with the words of any language. When adopted for syllabaries or alphabets, which is the historical course of its evolution, it ceased to be the immediate and became the secondary expression of the ideas framed in oral speech. The writing common in civilization may properly be styled sound-writing, as it does not directly record thoughts, but presents them indirectly, after they have passed through the phase of sound. The trace of pictographs in alphabets and syllabaries is discussed in the present work under its proper heading so far as is necessary after the voluminous treatises on the topic, and new illustrations are presented. It is sufficient for the present to note that all the varied characters of script and print now current are derived directly or mediately from pictorial representations of objects. Bacon well said that “pictures are dumb histories,” and he might have added that in the crude pictures of antiquity were contained the germs of written words.

The importance of the study of picture-writing depends partly upon the result of its examination as a phase in the evolution of human culture. As the invention of alphabetic writing is admitted to be the great step marking the change from barbarism to civilization, the history of its earlier development must be valuable. It is inferred from internal evidence, though not specifically reported in history, that picture-writing preceded and generated the graphic systems of Egypt, Assyria, and China, but in America, especially in North America, its use is still current. It can be studied here without any requirement of inference or hypothesis, in actual existence as applied to records and communications. Furthermore, the commencement of its evolution into signs of sound is apparent in the Aztec and the Maya characters, in which transition stage it was arrested by foreign conquest. The earliest lessons of the genesis and growth of culture in this important branch of investigation may, therefore, be best learned from the western hemisphere. In this connection it should be noticed that picture-writing is found in sustained vigor on the same continent where sign language has prevailed and has continued in active operation to an extent historically unknown in other parts of the world. These modes of expression, i. e., transient and permanent thought-writing, are so correlated in their origin and development that neither can be studied to the best advantage without including the other. Unacquainted with these facts, but influenced by an assumption that America must have been populated from the eastern hemisphere, some enterprising persons have found or manufactured American inscriptions composed of characters which may be tortured into identity with some of the Eurasian alphabets or syllabaries, but which sometimes suggest letters of indigenous invention. This topic is discussed in its place.

For the purposes of the present work there is no need to decide whether sign-language, which is closely connected with picture-writing, preceded articulate speech. It is sufficient to admit the high antiquity of thought-writing in both its forms, and yet it is proper to notice a strong current of recent opinions as indicated by Prof. Sayce (a) in his address to the anthropologic section of the British Association for the Advancement of Science, as follows:

I see no escape from the conclusions that the chief distinctions of race were established long before man acquired language. If the statement made by M. de Mortillet is true, that the absence of the mental tubercle, or bony excrescence in which the tongue is inserted, in a skull of the Neanderthal type found at La Naulette, indicates an absence of the faculty of speech, one race at least of palæolithic man would have existed in Europe before it had as yet invented an articulate language. Indeed it is difficult to believe that man has known how to speak for any very great length of time. * * * We can still trace through the thin disguise of subsequent modifications and growth the elements, both lexical and grammatical, out of which language must have arisen. * * * The beginnings of articulate language are still too transparent to allow us to refer them to a very remote era. * * * In fact the evidence that he is a drawing animal * * * mounts back to a much earlier epoch than the evidence that he is a speaking animal.

When a system of ideographic gesture signs prevailed and at the same time any form of artistic representation, however rude, existed, it would be expected that the delineations of the former would appear in the latter. It was but one more and an easy step to fasten upon bark, skins, or rocks the evanescent air pictures that still in pigments or carvings preserve their ideography or conventionalism in their original outlines. A transition stage between gestures and pictographs, in which the left hand is used as a supposed drafting surface, upon which the index draws lines, is exhibited in the Dialogue between Alaskan Indians in the First Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology (a). This device is common among deaf-mutes, without equal archeologic importance, as it may have been suggested by the art of writing, with which, even when not instructed in it, they are generally acquainted.

The execution of the drawings, of which the several forms of picture-writing are composed, often exhibits the first crude efforts of graphic art, and their study in that relation is of value.

When pictures are employed for the same purpose as writing, the conception intended to be presented is generally analyzed and only its most essential points are indicated, with the result that the characters when frequently repeated become conventional, and in their later form cease to be recognizable as objective portraitures. This exhibition of conventionalizing has its own historic import.

It is not probable that much valuable information will ever be obtained from ancient rock carvings or paintings, but they are important as indications of the grades of culture reached by their authors, and of the subjects which interested those authors, as is shown in the appropriate chapters following. Some portions of these pictures can be interpreted. With regard to others, which are not yet interpreted and perhaps never can be, it is nevertheless useful to gather together for synoptic study and comparison a large number of their forms from many parts of the world. The present collection shows the interesting psychologic fact that primitive or at least very ancient man made the same figures in widely separated regions, though it is not established that the same figures had a common significance. Indications of priscan habitat and migrations may sometimes be gained from the general style or type of the drawings and sculptures, which may be divided into groups, although the influence of the environing materials must always be considered.

The more modern specimens of picture-writing displayed on skins, bark, and pottery are far more readily interpreted than those on rocks, and have already afforded information and verification as to points of tribal history, religion, customs, and other ethnologic details.

A criticism has been made on the whole subject of picture-writing by the eminent anthropologist, Dr. Andree, who, in Ethnographische Parallelen und Vergleiche (a), has described and figured a large number of examples of petroglyphs, a name given by him to rock-drawings and now generally adopted. His views are translated as follows:

But if we take a connected view of the petroglyphs to which the rock pictures, generally made with red paint, are equivalent, and make a comparison of both, it becomes evident that they are usually made for mere pastime and are the first artistic efforts of rude nations. Nevertheless, we find in them the beginnings of writing, and in some instances their transition to pictography as developed among North American Indians becomes evident.

It appears, therefore, that Dr. Andree carefully excludes the picture-writings of the North American Indians from his general censure, his conclusion being that those found in other parts of the world usually occupy a lower stage. It is possible that significance may yet be ascertained in many of the characters found in other regions, and perhaps this may be aided by the study of those in America; but no doubt should exist that the latter have purpose and meaning. The relegation to a trivial origin of such pictographs as are described and illustrated in the present work will be abandoned after a thorough knowledge of the labor and thought which frequently were necessary for their production. American pictographs are not to be regarded as mere curiosities. In some localities they represent the only intellectual remains of the ancient inhabitants. Wherever found, they bear significantly upon the evolution of the human mind.

Distrust concerning the actual significance of the ancient American petroglyphs may be dispelled by considering the practical use of similar devices by historic and living Indians for purposes as important to them as those of alphabetic writing, these serving to a surprising extent the same ends. This paper presents a large number of conclusive examples. The old devices are substantially the same as the modern, though improved and established in the course of evolution. The ideography and symbolism displayed in these devices present suggestive studies in psychology more interesting than the mere information or text contained in the pictures. It must also be observed that when Indians now make pictographs it is with intention and care--seldom for mere amusement. Even when the labor is undertaken merely to supply the trade demand for painted robes or engraved pipes or bark records, it is a serious manufacture, though sometimes only imitative and not intrinsically significant. In all other known instances in which pictures are made without such specific intent as is indicated under the several headings of this work, they are purely ornamental; but in such cases they are often elaborate and artistic, not idle scrawls.

This paper is limited in its terms to the presentation of the most important known pictographs of the American Indians, but examples from other parts of the world are added for comparison. The proper classification and correlation of the matter collected has required more labor and thought than is apparent. The scheme of the work has been to give in an arrangement of chapters and sections some examples with illustrations in connection with each heading in the classification. This plan has involved a large amount of cross reference, because in many cases a character or a group of characters could be considered with reference to a number of different characteristics, and it was necessary to choose under which one of the headings it should be presented, involving reference to that from the other divisions of the work. Sometimes the decision was determined by taste or judgment, and sometimes required by mechanical considerations.

It may be mentioned that the limitation of the size of the present volume required that the space occupied by the text should be subordinated to the large amount of illustration. It is obvious that a work on picture-writing should be composed largely of pictures, and to allow room for them many pages of the present writer’s views have been omitted. Whatever may be the disadvantage of this omission it leaves to students of the work the opportunity to form their own judgments without bias. Indeed, this writer confesses that although he has examined and studied in their crude shape, as they went to the printer, all the illustrations and descriptions now presented, he expects that after the volume shall be delivered to him in printed form with its synoptic arrangement he will be better able than now to make appropriate remarks on its subject-matter. Therefore he anticipates that careful readers will judiciously correct errors in the details of the work which may have escaped him and that they will extend and expand what is yet limited and partial. It may be proper to note that when the writer’s observation has resulted in agreement with published authorities or contributors, the statements that could have been made on his own personal knowledge have been cited, when possible, from the printed or manuscript works of others. Quotation is still more requisite when there is disagreement with the authorities.

Thanks for valuable assistance are due and rendered to correspondents and to officers of the Bureau of Ethnology and of the United States Geological Survey, whose names are generally mentioned in connection with their several contributions. Acknowledgment is also made now and throughout the work to Dr. W. J. Hoffman, who has officially assisted in its preparation during several years, by researches in the field, in which his familiarity with Indians and his artistic skill have been of great value. Similar recognition is due to Mr. De Lancey W. Gill, in charge of the art department of the Bureau of Ethnology and the U. S. Geological Survey, and to Mr. Wells M. Sawyer, his assistant, specially detailed on the duty, for their work on the illustrations presented. While mentioning the illustrations, it may be noted that the omission to furnish the scale on which some of them are produced is not from neglect, but because it was impossible to ascertain the dimensions of the originals in the few cases where no scale or measurement is stated. This omission is most frequently noticeable in the illustrations of petroglyphs which have not been procured directly by the officers of the Bureau of Ethnology. The rule in that Bureau is to copy petroglyphs on the scale of one-sixteenth actual size. Most of the other classes of pictographs are presented without substantial reduction, and in those cases the scale is of little importance.

It remains to give special notice to the reader regarding the mode adopted to designate the authors and works cited. A decision was formed that no footnotes should appear in the work. A difficulty in observing that rule arose from the fact that in the repeated citation of published works the text would be cumbered with many words and numbers to specify titles, pages and editions. The experiment was tried of printing in the text only the most abbreviated mention, generally by the author’s name alone, of the several works cited, and to present a list of them arranged in alphabetic order with cross references and catch titles. This list appears at the end of the work with further details and examples of its use. It is not a bibliography of the subject of picture-writing, nor even a list of authorities read and studied in the preparation of the work, but it is simply a special list, prepared for the convenience of readers, of the works and authors cited in the text, and gives the page and volume, when there is more than one volume in the edition, from which the quotation is taken.

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I. PETROGLYPHS

In the plan of this work a distinction has been made between a petroglyph, as Andree names the class, or rock-writing, as Ewbank called it, and all other descriptions of picture-writing. The criterion for the former is that the picture, whether carved or pecked, or otherwise incised, and whether figured only by coloration or by coloration and incision together, is upon a rock either in situ or sufficiently large for inference that the picture was imposed upon it where it was found. This criterion allows geographic classification. In presenting the geographic distribution, prominence is necessarily (because of the laws authorizing this work) given to the territory occupied by the United States of America, but examples are added from various parts of the globe, not only for comparison of the several designs, but to exhibit the prevalence of the pictographic practice in an ancient form, though probably not the earliest form. The rocks have preserved archaic figures, while designs which probably were made still earlier on less enduring substances are lost.

Throughout the world in places where rocks of a suitable character appear, and notably in South America, markings on them have been found similar to those in North America, though until lately they have seldom been reported with distinct description or with illustration. They are not understood by the inhabitants of their vicinity, who generally hold them in superstitious regard, and many of them appear to have been executed from religious motives. They are now most commonly found remaining where the population has continued to be sparse, or where civilization has not been of recent introduction, with exceptions such as appear in high development on the Nile.

The superstitions concerning petroglyphs are in accord with all other instances where peoples in all ages and climes, when observing some phenomenon which they did not understand, accounted for it by supernatural action. The following examples are selected as of interest in the present connection.

It must be premised with reference to the whole character of the mythology and folk-lore of the Indians that, even when professed converts to Christianity, they seem to have taken little interest in the stories of the Christian church, whether the biblical narratives or the lives and adventures of the saints, which are so constantly dwelt upon throughout the Christian world that they have become folk-lore. The general character of the Christian legends does not seem to have suited the taste of Indians and has not at all impaired their affection for or their belief in the aboriginal traditions.

Among the gods or demigods of the Abnaki are those who particularly preside over the making of petroglyphs. Their name in the plural, for there are several personages, is Oonagamessok. They lived in caves by the shore and were never seen, but manifested their existence by inscriptions on the rocks. The fact that these inscribed rocks are now very seldom found is accounted for by the statement that the Oonagamessok have become angry at the want of attention paid to them since the arrival of the white people and have caused the pictures to disappear. There is no evidence to determine whether this tradition should be explained by the fact that the ingenious shamans of the last century would sometimes produce a miracle, carving the rocks themselves and interpreting the marks in their own way, or by the fact that the rock inscriptions were so old that their origin was not remembered and an explanation was, as usual, made by ascription to a special divinity, perhaps a chieftain famous in the old stage of mythology, or perhaps one invented for the occasion by the class of priests who from immemorial antiquity have explained whatever was inexplicable.

At a rock near the mouth of the Magiguadavic river, at the time immediately before the Passamaquoddy Indians chose their first governor after the manner of the whites, the old Indians say there suddenly appeared a white man’s flag carved on the rocks. The old Indians interpreted this as a prophecy that the people would soon be abandoned to the white man’s methods, and this came to pass shortly after. Formerly they had a “Mayouett” or chief. Many other rock carvings are said to have foretold what has since come to pass. Strange noises have also been heard near them.

The Omaha superstition is mentioned on pages 91-92 infra.

The Mandans had an oracle stone on which figures appeared on the morning after a night of public fasting. They were deciphered by the shaman, who doubtless had made them.

Mr. T. H. Lewis (a) gives the following tradition relating to the incised bowlders in the upper Minnesota valley:

In olden times there used to be an object that marked the bowlders at night. It could be seen, but its exact shape was indistinct. It would work making sounds like hammering, and occasionally emit a light similar to that of a firefly. After finishing its work it would give one hearty laugh like a woman laughing and then disappear. The next morning the Indians would find another pictured bowlder in the vicinity where the object had been seen the night previous.

Mr. J. W. Lynd (a) says of the Dakotas:

The deities upon which the most worship is bestowed, if, indeed, any particular one is nameable, are Tunkan (Inyan) the Stone God and Wakinyan, the Thunder Bird. The latter, as being the main god of war, receives constant worship and sacrifices; whilst the adoration of the former is an every-day affair. The Tunkan, the Dakotas say, is the god that dwells in stones or rocks, and is the oldest god. If asked why it is considered the oldest, they will tell you because it is the hardest.

Mr. Charles Hallock, on the authority of Capt. Ed. Hunter, First Cavalry, U. S. A., furnishes the following information respecting the Assiniboin, Montana, rock pictures, which shows the reverence of these Indians for the petroglyphs even when in ruins:

Some of the rocks of the sculptured cliff cleaved off and tumbled to the ground, whereupon the Indians assembled in force, stuck up a pole, hung up some buffalo heads and dried meat, had a song and dance, and carefully covered the detached fragments (which were sculptured or painted) with cotton cloth and blankets. Jim Brown, a scout, told Capt. Hunter that the Indians assembled at this station at stated times to hold religious ceremonies. The pictures are drawn on the smooth face of an outcrop or rocky projection.

Marcano (a) gives an account in which superstition is mixed with historic tradition. It is translated as follows:

The legend of the Tamanaques, transmitted by Father Gili, has also been invoked in favor of an ancient civilization. According to the beliefs of this nation, there took place in days of old a general inundation, which recalls the age of the great waters of the Mexicans, during which the scattered waves beat against the Encaramada. All the Tamanaques were drowned except one man and one woman, who fled to the mountain of Tamacu or Tamanácu, situated on the banks of Asiveru (Cuchivero). They threw above their heads the fruits of the palm tree, Mauritia, and saw arising from their kernels the men and women who repeopled the earth. It was during this inundation that Amalavica, the creator of mankind, arrived on a bark and carved the inscription of Tepumereme. Amalavica remained long among the Tamanaques, and dwelt in Amalavica-Jeutitpe (house). After putting everything in order he set sail and returned “to the other shore,” whence he had come. “Did you perchance meet him there?” said an Indian to Father Gili, after relating to him this story. In this connection Humboldt recalls that in Mexico, too, the monk Sahagun was asked whether he came from the other shore, whither Quetzalcoatl had retired.

The same traveler adds: “When you ask the natives how the hieroglyphic characters carved on the mountains of Urbana and Encaramada could have been traced, they reply that this was done in the age of the great waters, at the time when their fathers were able to reach the heights in their canoes.”

If these legends and these petroglyphs are proof of an extinct civilization, it is astonishing that their authors should have left no other traces of their culture. To come to the point, is it admissible that they were replaced by savage tribes without leaving a trace of what they had been, and can we understand this retrograde march of civilization when progress everywhere follows an ascending course? These destructions of American tribes in place are very convenient to prop up theories, but they are contrary to ethnologic laws.

The remarkable height of some petroglyphs has misled authors of good repute as well as savages. Petroglyphs frequently appear on the face of rocks at heights and under conditions which seemed to render their production impossible without the appliances of advanced civilization, a large outlay, and the exercise of unusual skill. An instance among many of the same general character is in the petroglyphs at Lake Chelan, Washington, where they are about 30 feet above the present water level, on a perpendicular cliff, the base of which is in the lake. On simple examination the execution of the pictographic work would seem to involve details of wharfing, staging, and ladders if operated from the base, and no less elaborate machinery if approached from the summit. Strahlenberg suggests that such elevated drawings were made by the ingenious use of stone wedges driven into the rock, thus affording support for ascent or descent, and reports that he actually saw such stone wedges in position on the Yenesei river. A very rough geological theory has been presented by others to account for the phenomena by the rise of the rocks to a height far above the adjacent surface at a time later than their carving.

But in the many cases observed in America it is not necessary to propose either the hypothesis involving such elaborate work as is suggested or one postulating enormous geological changes. The escarpment of cliffs is from time to time broken down by the action of the elements and the fragments fall to the base, frequently forming a talus of considerable height, on which it is easy to mount and incise or paint on the remaining perpendicular face of the cliff. When the latter adjoins a lake or large stream, the disintegrated débris is almost immediately carried off, leaving the drawings or paintings at an apparently inaccessible altitude. When the cliff is on dry land, the rain, which is driven against the face of the cliff and thereby increased in volume and force at the point in question, also sweeps away the talus, though more slowly. The talus is ephemeral in all cases, and the face of the cliff may change in a week or a century, as it may happen, so its aspect gives but a slight evidence of age. The presence, therefore, of the pictures on the heights described proves neither extraordinary skill in their maker nor the great antiquity which would be indicated by the emergence of the pictured rocks through volcanic or other dynamic agency. The age of the paintings and sculptures must be inferred from other considerations.

Pictures are sometimes found on the parts of rocks which at present are always, or nearly always, covered with water. On the sea shore at Machias bay, Maine, the peckings have been continued below the line of the lowest tides as known during the present generation. In such cases subsidence of the rocky formation may be indicated. At Kejimkoojik lake, Nova Scotia, incisions of the same character as those on the bare surface of the slate rocks can now be seen only by the aid of a water glass, and then only when the lake is at its lowest. This may be caused by subsidence of the rocks or by rise of the water through the substantial damming of the outlet. Some rocks on the shores of rivers, e. g., those on the Kanahwa, in West Virginia, show the same general result of the covering and concealment of petroglyphs by water, except in an unusual drought, which may more reasonably be attributed to the gradual elevation of the river through the rise of the surface near its mouth than to the subsidence of the earth’s crust at the locality of the pictured rocks.

It must be admitted that no hermeneutic key has been discovered applicable to American pictographs, whether ancient on stone or modern on bark, skins, linen, or paper. Nor has any such key been found which unlocks the petroglyphs of any other people. Symbolism was of individual origin and was soon variously obscured by conventionalizing; therefore it requires separate study in every region. No interpreting laws of general application to petroglyphs so far appear, although types and tendencies can be classified. It was hoped that in some lands petroglyphs might tell of the characters and histories of extinct or emigrated peoples, but it now seems that knowledge of the people who were the makers of the petroglyphs is necessary to any clear understanding of their work. The fanciful hypotheses which have been formed without corroboration, wholly from such works as remain, are now generally discarded.

There is a material reason why the interpretation of petroglyphs is attended with special difficulty. They have often become so blurred by the elements and so much defaced where civilized man has penetrated that they cease to have any distinct or at least incontrovertible features. The remarks relating to Dighton rock, infra, Chap. XXII, are in point.

Rock-carving or picture-writing on rocks is so old among the American tribes as to have acquired a nomenclature. The following general remarks of Schoolcraft (a) are of some value, though they apply with any accuracy only to the Ojibwa and are tinctured with a fondness for the mysterious:

For their pictographic devices the North American Indians have two terms, namely, Kekeewin, or such things as are generally understood by the tribe, and Kekeenowin, or teachings of the medas or priests and jossakeeds or prophets. The knowledge of the latter is chiefly confined to persons who are versed in their system of magic medicine, or their religion, and may be deemed hieratic. The former consists of the common figurative signs, such as are employed at places of sepulture or by hunting or traveling parties. It is also employed in the muzzinabiks, or rock-writings. Many of the figures are common to both and are seen in the drawings generally; but it is to be understood that this results from the figure alphabet being precisely the same in both, while the devices of the nugamoons or medicine, wabino, hunting, and war songs are known solely to the initiates who have learned them, and who always pay high to the native professors for this knowledge.

In the Oglala Roster mentioned in Chapter XIII, Section 4, infra, one of the heads of families is called Inyanowapi, translated as Painted (or inscribed) rock. A blue object in the shape of a bowlder is connected with the man’s head by the usual line, and characters too minute for useful reproduction appear on the bowlder. The name is interesting as giving the current Dakota term for rock-inscriptions. The designation may have been given to this Indian because he was an authority on the subject and skilled either in the making or interpretation of petroglyphs.

The name “Wikhegan” was and still is used by the Abnaki to signify portable communications made in daily life, as distinct from the rock carvings mentioned above, which are regarded by them as mystic.

One of the curious facts in connection with petroglyphs is the meager notice taken of them by explorers and even by residents other than the Indians, who are generally reticent concerning them. The present writer has sometimes been annoyed and sometimes amused by this indifference. The resident nearest to the many inscribed rocks at Kejimkoojik Lake, Nova Scotia, described in Chapter II, Section 1, was a middle-aged farmer of respectable intelligence who had lived all his life about 3 miles from those rocks, but had only a vague notion of their character, and with difficulty found them. A learned and industrious priest, who had been working for many years on the shores of Lake Superior preparing not only a dictionary and grammar of the Ojibwa language, but an account of Ojibwa religion and customs, denied the present existence of any objects in the nature of petroglyphs in that region. Yet he had lived for a year within a mile of a very important and conspicuous pictured rock, and, on being convinced of his error by sketches shown him, called in his Ojibwa assistant and for the first time learned the common use of a large group of words which bore upon the system of picture-writing, and which he thereupon inserted in his dictionary, thus gaining from the visitor, who had come from afar to study at the feet of this supposed Gamaliel, much more than the visitor gained from him.

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