Hobson-Jobson A Glossary of Colloquial Anglo-Indian Words and Phrases, and of Kindred Terms, Etymological, Historical, Geographical and Discursive (part 7 of 11)

Hobson-Jobson A Glossary of Colloquial Anglo-Indian Words and Phrases, and of Kindred Terms, Etymological, Historical, Geographical and Discursive (part 7 of 11)

" "And from these Cellates and native Malays come all the MANDARINS, who are now the gentlemen (fidalgos) of Malaca."—Ibid. II. vi. 1.

1598.—"They are called ... MANDORIJNS, and are always borne in the streetes, sitting in chariots which are hanged about with Curtaines of Silke, covered with Clothes of Gold and Silver, and are much given to banketing, eating and drinking, and making good cheare, as also the whole land of China."—Linschoten, 39; [Hak. Soc. i. 135].

1610.—"The MANDORINS (officious officers) would have interverted the king's command for their own covetousnesse" (at Siam).—Peter Williamson Floris, in Purchas, i. 322.

1612.—"Shah Indra Brama fled in like manner to Malacca, where they were graciously received by the King, Mansur Shah, who had the Prince converted to Islamism, and appointed him to be a MANTOR."—Sijara Malayu, in J. Ind. Arch. v. 730.

c. 1663.—"Domandò il Signor Carlo se MANDARINO è voce Chinese. Disse esser Portoghese, e che in Chinese si chiamano Quoan, che signifia signoreggiare, comandare, gobernare."—Viaggio del P. Gio. Grueber, in Thevenot, Divers Voyages.

1682.—In the Kingdome of Patane (on E. coast of Malay Peninsula) "The King's counsellors are called MENTARY."—Nieuhof, Zee en Lant-Reize, ii. 64.

c. 1690.—"MANDARINORUM autem nomine intelliguntur omnis generis officiarii, qui a mandando appellantur mandarini linguâ Lusitanicâ, quae unica Europaea est in oris Chinensibus obtinens."—T. Hyde, De Ludis Orientalibus, in Syntagmata, Oxon. 1767, ii. 266.

1719.—"... one of the MANDARINS, a kind of viceroy or principal magistrate in the province where they reside."—Robinson Crusoe, Pt. ii.

1726.—"MANTRÍS. Councillors. These give rede and deed in things of moment, and otherwise are in the Government next to the King...." (in Ceylon).—Valentijn, Names, &c., 6.

1727.—"Every province or city (Burma) has a MANDEREEN or Deputy residing at Court, which is generally in the City of Ava, the present Metropolis."—A. Hamilton, ii. 43, [ed. 1744, ii. 42].

1774.—"... presented to each of the Batchian MANTERIES as well as the two officers a scarlet coat."—Forrest, V. to N. Guinea, p. 100.

1788.—"... Some words notoriously corrupt are fixed, and as it were naturalized in the vulgar tongue ... and we are pleased to blend the three Chinese monosyllables Con-fû-tzee in the respectable name of Confucius, or even to adopt the Portuguese corruption of MANDARIN."—Gibbon, Preface to his 4th volume.

1879.—"The MENTRÍ, the Malay Governor of Larut ... was powerless to restore order."—Miss Bird, Golden Chersonese, 267.

Used as an adjective:

[c. 1848.—"The MANDARIN-boat, or 'Smug-boat,' as it is often called by the natives, is the most elegant thing that floats."—Berncastle, Voyage to China, ii. 71.

[1878.—"The Cho-Ka-Shun, or boats in which the MANDARINS travel, are not unlike large floating caravans."—Gray, China, ii. 270.]

MANDARIN LANGUAGE, s. The language spoken by the official and literary class in China, as opposed to local dialects. In Chinese it is called Kuan-Hua. It is substantially the language of the people of the northern and middle zones of China, extending to Yun-nan. It is not to be confounded with the literary style which is used in books. [See Ball, Things Chinese, 169 seq.]

1674.—"The Language ... is called Quenhra (hua), or the LANGUAGE OF MANDARINES, because as they spread their command they introduced it, and it is used throughout all the Empire, as Latin in Europe. It is very barren, and as it has more Letters far than any other, so it has fewer words."—Faria y Sousa, E.T. ii. 468.

MANGALORE, n.p. The only place now well known by this name is (A) Mangaḷ-ūr, a port on the coast of Southern Canara and chief town of that district, in lat. 12° 51′ N. In Mīr Husain Ali's Life of Haidar it is called "Gorial Bunder," perhaps a corr. of Kandiāl, which is said in the Imp. Gaz. to be the modern native name. [There is a place called Gurupura close by; see Madras Gloss. s.v. Goorpore.] The name in this form is found in an inscription of the 11th century, whatever may have been its original form and etymology. [The present name is said to be taken from the temple of Mangalā Devī.] But the name in approximate forms (from mañgala, 'gladness') is common in India. One other port (B) on the coast of Peninsular Guzerat was formerly well known, now commonly called Mungrole. And another place of the name (C) Manglavar in the valley of Swat, north of Peshāwar, is mentioned by Hwen T'sang as a city of Gandhāra. It is probably the same that appears in Skt. literature (see Williams, s.v. Mangala) as the capital of Udyāna.

A. MANGALORE of Canara.

c. 150.—"Μεταξὺ δὲ τοῦ Ψευδοστόμου καὶ τοῦ Βάριος πόλεις αἵδε· Μαγγάνουρ."—Ptolemy, VII. i. 86.

c. 545.—"And the most notable places of trade are these ... and then the five ports of Malé from which pepper is exported, to wit, Parti, MANGARUTH...."—Cosmas, in Cathay, &c. clxxvii.

[c. 1300.—"MANJARUR." See under SHINKALI.]

c. 1343.—"Quitting Fākanūr (see BACANORE) we arrived after three days at the city of MANJARŪR, which is large and situated on an estuary.... It is here that most of the merchants of Fars and Yemen land; pepper and ginger are very abundant."—Ibn Batuta, iv. 79-80.

1442.—"After having passed the port of Bendinaneh (see PANDARANI) situated on the coast of Melibar, (he) reached the port of MANGALOR, which forms the frontier of the kingdom of Bidjanagar...."—Abdurrazzāk, in India in the XVth Cent., 20.

1516.—"There is another large river towards the south, along the sea-shore, where there is a very large town, peopled by Moors and Gentiles, of the kingdom of Narsinga, called MANGALOR.... They also ship there much rice in Moorish ships for Aden, also pepper, which thenceforward the earth begins to produce."—Barbosa, 83.

1727.—"The Fields here bear two Crops of Corn yearly in the Plains; and the higher Grounds produce Pepper, Bettle-nut, Sandalwood, Iron and Steel, which make MANGULORE a Place of pretty good Trade."—A. Hamilton, i. 285, [ed. 1744].

B. MANGALOR or MUNGROLE in Guzerat.

c. 150.—

"Συραστρηνῆς ... Συράστρα κώμη Μοηόγλωσσοη εμποριον ..." Ptolemy, VII. i. 3.

1516.—"... there is another town of commerce, which has a very good port, and is called Surati MANGALOR, where also many ships of Malabar touch."—Barbosa, 59.

1536.—"... for there was come another CATUR with letters, in which the Captain of Diu urgently called for help; telling how the King (of Cambay) had equipped large squadrons in the Ports of the Gulf ... alleging ... that he was sending them to MANGALOR to join others in an expedition against Sinde ... and that all this was false, for he was really sending them in the expectation that the Rumis would come to MANGALOR next September...."—Correa, iv. 701.

1648.—This place is called MANGEROL by Van Twist, p. 13.

1727.—"The next maritime town is MANGAROUL. It admits of Trade, and affords coarse Callicoes, white and died, Wheat, Pulse, and Butter for export."—A. Hamilton, i. 136, [ed. 1744].

C. MANGLAVAR in Swat.

c. 630.—"Le royaume de Ou-tchang-na (Oudyâna) a environ 5000 li de tour ... on compte 4 ou 5 villes fortifiées. La pluspart des rois de ce pays ont pris pour capitale la ville de MOUNG-KIE-LI (Moungali).... La population est fort nombreuse."—Hwen T'sang, in Pèl. Bouddh. ii. 131-2.

1858.—"Mongkieli se retrouve dans MANGLAVOR (in Sanskrit Mañgala-poura) ... ville située près de la rive gauche de la rivière de Svat, et qui a été longtemps, au rapport des indigènes, la capitale du pays."—Vivien de St. Martin, Ibid. iii. 314-315.

MANGELIN, s. A small weight, corresponding in a general way to a CARAT (q.v.), used in the S. of India and in Ceylon for weighing precious stones. The word is Telegu maṇjāḷi; in Tamil maṇjāḍi, [from Skt. manju, 'beautiful']; the seed of the Adenanthera pavonina (Compare RUTTEE). On the origin of this weight see Sir W. Elliot's Coins of S. India. The maṇjāḍi seed was used as a measure of weight from very early times. A parcel of 50 taken at random gave an average weight of 4.13 grs. Three parcels of 10 each, selected by eye as large, gave average 5.02 and 5.03 (op. cit. p. 47).

1516.—Diamonds "... sell by a weight which is called a MANGIAR, which is equal to 2 tare and ⅔, and 2 tare make a carat of good weight, and 4 tare weigh one fanam."—Barbosa, in Ramusio, i. f. 321_v_.

1554.—(In Ceylon) "A calamja contains 20 MAMGELINS, each MAMGELIM 8 grains of rice; a Portugues of gold weighs 8 calamjas and 2 MANGELINS."—A. Nunez, 35.

1584.—"There is another sort of weight called MANGIALLINO, which is 5 graines of Venice weight, and therewith they weigh diamants and other jewels."—Barret, in Hakl. ii. 409.

1611.—"Quem não sabe a grandeza das minas de finissimos diamantes do Reyno de Bisnaga, donde cada dia, e cada hora se tiram peças de tamanho de hum ovo, e muitas de sessenta e oitenta MANGELINS."—Couto, Dialogo do Soldato Pratico, 154.

1665.—"Le poids principal des Diamans est le MANGELIN; il pèse cinq grains et trois cinquièmes."—Thevenot, v. 293.

1676.—"At the mine of Raolconda they weigh by MANGELINS, a MANGELIN being one Carat and three quarters, that is 7 grains.... At the Mine of Soumelpore in Bengal they weigh by Rati's (see RUTTEE), and the Rati is ⅞ of a Carat, or 3½ grains. In the Kingdoms of Golconda and Visapour, they make use of MANGELINS, but a MANGELIN in those parts is not above 1 carat and ⅜. The Portugals in Goa make use of the same Weights in Goa; but a MANGELIN there is not above 5 grains."—Tavernier, E.T. ii. 141; [ed. Ball, ii. 87, and see ii. 433.]

MANGO, s. The royal fruit of the Mangifera indica, when of good quality is one of the richest and best fruits in the world. The original of the word is Tamil mān-kāy or mān-gāy, i.e. mān fruit (the tree being māmarum, 'mān-tree'). The Portuguese formed from this manga, which we have adopted as mango. The tree is wild in the forests of various parts of India; but the fruit of the wild tree is uneatable.

The word has sometimes been supposed to be Malay; but it was in fact introduced into the Archipelago, along with the fruit itself, from S. India. Rumphius (Herb. Amboyn. i. 95) traces its then recent introduction into the islands, and says that it is called (Malaicè) "mangka, vel vulgo Manga et Mapelaam." This last word is only the Tamil Māpaḷam, i.e. 'mān fruit' again. The close approximation of the Malay mangka to the Portuguese form might suggest that the latter name was derived from Malacca. But we see manga already used by Varthema, who, according to Garcia, never really went beyond Malabar. [Mr. Skeat writes: "The modern standard Malay word is mangga, from which the Port. form was probably taken. The other Malay form quoted from Rumphius is in standard Malay mapĕlam, with mĕpĕlam, hĕmpĕlam, ampĕlam, and 'pĕlam or 'plam as variants. The Javanese is pĕlĕm."]

The word has been taken to Madagascar, apparently by the Malayan colonists, whose language has left so large an impression there, in the precise shape mangka. Had the fruit been an Arab importation it is improbable that the name would have been introduced in that form.

The N. Indian names are Ām and Amba, and variations of these we find in several of the older European writers. Thus Fr. Jordanus, who had been in the Konkan, and appreciated the progenitors of the Goa and Bombay Mango (c. 1328), calls the fruit Aniba. Some 30 years later John de' Marignolli calls the tree "amburan, having a fruit of excellent fragrance and flavour, somewhat like a peach" (Cathay, &c., ii. 362). Garcia de Orta shows how early the Bombay fruit was prized. He seems to have been the owner of the parent tree. The Skt. name is Amra, and this we find in Hwen T'sang (c. 645) phoneticised as 'An-mo-lo.

The mango is probably the fruit alluded to by Theophrastus as having caused dysentery in the army of Alexander. (See the passage s.v. JACK).

c. 1328.—"Est etiam alia arbor quae fructus facit ad modum pruni, grosissimos, qui vocantur Aniba. Hi sunt fructus ita dulces et amabiles, quod ore tenus exprimi hoc minimè possit."—Fr. Jordanus, in Rec. de Voyages, &c., iv. 42.

c. 1334.—"The mango tree ('anba) resembles an orange-tree, but is larger and more leafy; no other tree gives so much shade, but this shade is unwholesome, and whoever sleeps under it gets fever."—Ibn Batuta, iii. 125. At ii. 185 he writes 'anbā. [The same charge is made against the tamarind; see Burton, Ar. Nights, iii. 81.]

c. 1349.—"They have also another tree called Amburan, having a fruit of excellent fragrance and flavour, somewhat like a peach."—John de' Marignolli, in Cathay, &c., 362.

1510.—"Another fruit is also found here, which is called Amba, the stem of which is called MANGA," &c.—Varthema, 160-161.

c. 1526.—"Of the vegetable productions peculiar to Hindustân one is the mango (ambeh).... Such mangoes as are good are excellent...." &c.—Baber, 324.

1563.—"O. Boy! go and see what two vessels those are coming in—you see them from the varanda here—and they seem but small ones.

"Servant. I will bring you word presently.

* * * * *

"S. Sir! it is Simon Toscano, your tenant in Bombay, and he brings this hamper of MANGAS for you to make a present to the Governor, and says that when he has moored the boat he will come here to stop.

"O. He couldn't have come more à propos. I have a MANGA-tree (mangueira) in that island of mine which is remarkable for both its two crops, one at this time of year, the other at the end of May, and much as the other crop excels this in quality for fragrance and flavour, this is just as remarkable for coming out of season. But come, let us taste them before His Excellency. Boy! take out six MANGAS."—Garcia, ff. 134_v_, 135. This author also mentions that the MANGAS of Ormuz were the most celebrated; also certain MANGAS of Guzerat, not large, but of surpassing fragrance and flavour, and having a very small stone. Those of Balaghat were both excellent and big; the Doctor had seen two that weighed 4 arratel and a half (4-1/5 lbs.); and those of Bengal, Pegu, and Malacca were also good.

[1569.—"There is much fruit that comes from Arabia and Persia, which they call mangoes (MANGAS), which is very good fruit."—Cronica dos Reys Dormuz, translated from the Arabic in 1569.]

c. 1590.—"The Mangoe (Anba).... This fruit is unrivalled in colour, smell, and taste; and some of the gourmands of Túrán and Irán place it above musk melons and grapes.... If a half-ripe mango, together with its stalk to a length of about two fingers, be taken from the tree, and the broken end of its stalk be closed with warm wax, and kept in butter or honey, the fruit will retain its taste for two or three months."—Āīn, ed. Blochmann, i. 67-68.

[1614.—"Two jars of MANGES at rupees 4½."—Foster, Letters, iii. 41.

[1615.—"George Durois sent in a present of two pottes of MANGEAS."—Cocks's Diary, Hak. Soc. i. 79.]

" "There is another very licquorish fruit called AMANGUES growing on trees, and it is as bigge as a great quince, with a very great stone in it."—De Monfart, 20.

1622.—P. della Valle describes the tree and fruit at Miná (Minao) near Hormuz, under the name of Amba, as an exotic introduced from India. Afterwards at Goa he speaks of it as "MANGA or amba."—ii. pp. 313-14, and 581; [Hak. Soc. i. 40].

1631.—"Alibi vero commemorat MANGAE speciem fortis admodum odoris, Terebinthinam scilicet, et Piceae arboris lacrymam redolentes, quas propterea nostri stinkers appellant."—Piso on Bontius, Hist. Nat. p. 95.

[1663.—"Ambas, or MANGUES, are in season during two months in summer, and are plentiful and cheap; but those grown at Delhi are indifferent. The best come from Bengale, Golkonda, and Goa, and these are indeed excellent. I do not know any sweet-meat more agreeable."—Bernier, ed. Constable, 249.]

1673.—Of the Goa MANGO,[161] Fryer says justly: "When ripe, the Apples of the Hesperides are but Fables to them; for Taste, the Nectarine, Peach, and Apricot fall short...."—p. 182.

1679.—"MANGO and SAIO (see SOY), two sorts of sauces brought from the East Indies."—Locke's Journal, in Ld. King's Life, 1830, i. 249.

1727.—"The Goa MANGO is reckoned the largest and most delicious to the taste of any in the world, and I may add, the wholesomest and best tasted of any Fruit in the World."—A. Hamilton, i. 255, [ed. 1744, i. 258].

1883.—"... the unsophisticated ryot ... conceives that cultivation could only emasculate the pronounced flavour and firm fibrous texture of that prince of fruits, the wild MANGO, likest a ball of tow soaked in turpentine."—Tribes on My Frontier, 149.

The name has been carried with the fruit to Mauritius and the West Indies. Among many greater services to India the late Sir Proby Cautley diffused largely in Upper India the delicious fruit of the Bombay mango, previously rare there, by creating and encouraging groves of grafts on the banks of the Ganges and Jumna canals. It is especially true of this fruit (as Sultan Baber indicates) that excellence depends on the variety. The common mango is coarse and strong of turpentine. Of this only an evanescent suggestion remains to give peculiarity to the finer varieties. [A useful account of these varieties, by Mr. Maries, will be found in Watt, Econ. Dict. v. 148 seqq.]

MANGO-BIRD, s. The popular Anglo-Indian name of the beautiful golden oriole (Oriolus aureus, Jerdon). Its "loud mellow whistle" from the mango-groves and other gardens, which it affects, is associated in Upper India with the invasion of the hot weather.

1878.—"The MANGO-BIRD glances through the groves, and in the early morning announces his beautiful but unwelcome presence with his merle melody."—Ph. Robinson, In My Indian Garden, 59.

MANGO-FISH, s. The familiar name of an excellent fish (Polynemus Visua of Buchanan, P. paradiseus of Day), in flavour somewhat resembling the smelt, but, according to Dr. Mason, nearly related to the mullets. It appears in the Calcutta market early in the hot season, and is much prized, especially when in roe. The Hindustani name is tapsī or tapassī, 'an ascetic,' or 'penitent,' but we do not know the rationale of the name. Buchanan says that it is owing to the long fibres (or free rays), proceeding from near the head, which lead the natives to associate it with penitents who are forbidden to shave. [Dr. Grierson writes: "What the connection of the fish with a hermit was I never could ascertain, unless it was that like wandering Fakīrs, they disappear directly the rains begin. Compare the uposatha of the Buddhists." But tapasya means 'produced by heat,' and is applied to the month Phāgun (Feb.-March) when the fish appears; and this may be the origin of the name.]

1781.—"The BOARD OF TRUSTIES Assemble on Tuesday at the New Tavern, where the Committee meet to eat MANGOE FISH for the benefit of the Subscribers and on other special affairs."—Hickey's Bengal Gazette, March 3.

[1820.—"... the MANGOE FISH (so named from its appearing during the mangoe season).... By the natives they are named the Tapaswi (penitent) fish, (abbreviated by Europeans to Tipsy) from their resembling a class of religious penitents, who ought never to shave."—Hamilton, Des. of Hindostan, i. 58.]

MANGO-SHOWERS, s. Used in Madras for showers which fall in March and April, when the mangoes begin to ripen.

MANGO-TRICK. One of the most famous tricks of Indian jugglers, in which they plant a mango-stone, and show at brief intervals the tree shooting above ground, and successively producing leaves, flowers, and fruit. It has often been described, but the description given by the Emperor Jahāngīr in his Autobiography certainly surpasses all in its demand on our belief.

c. 1610.—"... Khaun-e-Jehaun, one of the nobles present, observed that if they spoke truly he should wish them to produce for his conviction a mulberry-tree. The men arose without hesitation, and having in ten separate spots set some seed in the ground, they recited among themselves ... when instantly a plant was seen springing from each of the ten places, and each proved the tree required by Khaun-e-Jehaun. In the same manner they produced a mango, an apple-tree, a cypress, a pine-apple, a fig-tree, an almond, a walnut ... open to the observation of all present, the trees were perceived gradually and slowly springing from the earth, to the height of one or perhaps of two cubits.... Then making a sort of procession round the trees as they stood ... in a moment there appeared on the respective trees a sweet mango without the rind, an almond fresh and ripe, a large fig of the most delicious kind ... the fruit being pulled in my presence, and every one present was allowed to taste it. This, however, was not all; before the trees were removed there appeared among the foliage birds of such surpassing beauty, in colour and shape, and melody and song, as the world never saw before.... At the close of the operation, the foliage, as in autumn, was seen to put on its variegated tints, and the trees gradually disappeared into the earth...."—Mem. of the Emp. Jehanguier, tr. by Major D. Price, pp. 96-97.

c. 1650.—"Then they thrust a piece of stick into the ground, and ask'd the Company what Fruit they would have. One told them he would have Mengues; then one of the Mountebanks hiding himself in the middle of a Sheet, stoopt to the ground five or six times one after another. I was so curious to go upstairs, and look out of a window, to see if I could spy what the Mountebank did, and perceived that after he had cut himself under the armpits with a Razor, he rubb'd the stick with his Blood. After the two first times that he rais'd himself, the stick seemed to the very eye to grow. The third time there sprung out branches with young buds. The fourth time the tree was covered with leaves; and the fifth time it bore flowers.... The English Minister protested that he could not give his consent that any Christian should be Spectator of such delusions. So that as soon as he saw that these Mountebanks had of a dry stick, in less than half-an-hour, made a Tree four or five foot high, that bare leaves and flowers as in the Spring-time: he went about to break it, protesting that he would not give the Communion to any person that should stay any longer to see those things."—Tavernier, Travels made English, by J.P., ii. 36; [ed. Ball, i. 67, seq.].

1667.—"When two of these Jauguis (see JOGEE) that are eminent, do meet, and you stir them up on the point and power of their knowledge or Jauguisme, you shall see them do such tricks out of spight to one another, that I know not if Simon Magus could have outdone them. For they divine what one thinketh, make the Branch of a Tree blossome and bear fruit in less than an hour, hatch eggs in their bosome in less than half a quarter of an hour, and bring forth such birds as you demand.... I mean, if what is said of them is true.... For, as for me, I am with all my curiosity none of those happy Men, that are present at, and see these great feats."—Bernier, E.T. 103; [ed. Constable, 321].

1673.—"Others presented a Mock-Creation of a Mango-Tree, arising from the Stone in a short space (which they did in Hugger-Mugger, being very careful to avoid being discovered) with Fruit Green and Ripe; so that a Man must stretch his Fancy, to imagine it Witchcraft; though the common Sort think no less."—Fryer, 192.

1690.—"Others are said to raise a Mango-Tree, with ripe Fruit upon its Branches, in the space of one or two Hours. To confirm which Relation, it was affirmed confidently to me, that a Gentleman who had pluckt one of these Mangoes, fell sick upon it, and was never well as long as he kept it 'till he consulted a Bramin for his Health, who prescrib'd his only Remedy would be the restoring of the Mango, by which he was restor'd to his Health again."—Ovington, 258-259.

1726.—"They have some also who will show you the kernel of a mango-fruit, or may be only a twig, and ask if you will see the fruit or this stick planted, and in a short time see a tree grow from it and bear fruit: after they have got their answer the jugglers (Koorde-danssers) wrap themselves in a blanket, stick the twig into the ground, and then put a basket over them (&c. &c.).

"There are some who have prevailed on these jugglers by much money to let them see how they have accomplished this.

"These have revealed that the jugglers made a hole in their bodies under the armpits, and rubbed the twig with the blood from it, and every time that they stuck it in the ground they wetted it, and in this way they clearly saw it to grow and to come to the perfection before described.

"This is asserted by a certain writer who has seen it. But this can't move me to believe it!"—Valentijn, v. (Chorom.) 53.

Our own experience does not go beyond Dr. Fryer's, and the hugger-mugger performance that he disparages. But many others have testified to more remarkable skill. We once heard a traveller of note relate with much spirit such an exhibition as witnessed in the Deccan. The narrator, then a young officer, determined with a comrade, at all hazards of fair play or foul, to solve the mystery. In the middle of the trick one suddenly seized the conjuror, whilst the other uncovered and snatched at the mango-plant. But lo! it came from the earth with a root, and the mystery was darker than ever! We tell the tale as it was told.

It would seem that the trick was not unknown in European conjuring of the 16th or 17th centuries, e.g.

1657.—"... trium horarum spatio arbusculam veram spitamae longitudine e mensâ facere enasci, ut et alias arbores frondiferas et fructiferas."—Magia Universalis, of P. Gaspar Schottus e Soc. Jes., Herbipoli, 1657, i. 32.

MANGOSTEEN, s. From Malay manggusta (Crawfurd), or manggistan (Favre), in Javanese Manggis. [Mr. Skeat writes: "The modern standard Malay form used in the W. coast of the Peninsula is manggis, as in Javanese, the forms manggusta and manggistan never being heard there. The Siamese form maangkhut given in M‘Farland's Siamese Grammar is probably from the Malay manggusta. It was very interesting to me to find that some distinct trace of this word was still preserved in the name of this fruit at Patani-Kelantan on the E. coast, where it was called bawah 'seta (or 'setar), i.e. the 'setar fruit,' as well as occasionally mestar or mesetar, clearly a corruption of some such old form as manggistar."] This delicious fruit is known throughout the Archipelago, and in Siam, by modifications of the same name; the delicious fruit of the Garcinia Mangostana (Nat. Ord. Guttiferae). It is strictly a tropical fruit, and, in fact, near the coast does not bear fruit further north than lat. 14°. It is a native of the Malay Peninsula and the adjoining islands.

1563.—"R. They have bragged much to me of a fruit which they call MANGOSTANS; let us hear what you have to say of these.

"O. What I have heard of the MANGOSTAN is that 'tis one of the most delicious fruits that they have in these regions...."—Garcia, f. 151_v_.

1598.—"There are yet other fruites, as ... MANGOSTAINE [in Hak. Soc. MANGESTAINS] ... but because they are of small account I thinke it not requisite to write severallie of them."—Linschoten, 96; [Hak. Soc. ii. 34].

1631.—

"Cedant Hesperii longe hinc, mala aurea, fructus, Ambrosiâ pascit MANGOSTAN et nectare divos—— ... Inter omnes Indiae fructus longe sapidissimus." Jac. Bontii, lib. vi. cap. 28, p. 115.

1645.—"Il s'y trouue de plus vne espece de fruit propre du terroir de Malaque, qu'ils nomment MANGOSTANS."—Cardim, Rel. de la Prov. de Japon, 162.

[1662.—"The MANGOSTHAN is a Fruit growing by the Highwayes in Java, upon bushes, like our Sloes."—Mandelslo, tr. Davies, Bk. ii. 121 (Stanf. Dict.).]

1727.—"The MANGOSTANE is a delicious Fruit, almost in the Shape of an Apple, the Skin is thick and red, being dried it is a good Astringent. The Kernels (if I may so call them) are like Cloves of Garlick, of a very agreeable Taste, but very cold."—A. Hamilton, ii. 80 [ed. 1744].

MANGROVE, s. The sea-loving genera Rhizophora and Avicennia derive this name, which applies to both, from some happy accident, but from which of two sources may be doubtful. For while the former genus is, according to Crawfurd, called by the Malays manggi-manggi, a term which he supposes to be the origin of the English name, we see from Oviedo that one or other was called mangle in S. America, and in this, which is certainly the origin of the French manglier, we should be disposed also to seek the derivation of the English word. Both genera are universal in the tropical tidal estuaries of both Old World and New. Prof. Sayce, by an amusing slip, or oversight probably of somebody else's slip, quotes from Humboldt that "maize, mangle, hammock, canoe, tobacco, are all derived through the medium of the Spanish from the Haytian mahiz, mangle, hamaca, canoa, and tabaco." It is, of course, the French and not the English mangle that is here in question. [Mr. Skeat observes: "I believe the old English as well as French form was mangle, in which case Prof. Sayce would be perfectly right. Mangrove is probably mangle-grove. The Malay manggi-manggi is given by Klinkert, and is certainly on account of the reduplication, native. But I never heard it in the Peninsula, where mangrove is always called bakau."] The mangrove abounds on nearly all the coasts of further India, and also on the sea margin of the Ganges Delta, in the backwaters of S. Malabar, and less luxuriantly on the Indus mouths.

1535.—"Of the Tree called MANGLE.... These trees grow in places of mire, and on the shores of the sea, and of the rivers, and streams, and torrents that run into the sea. They are trees very strange to see ... they grow together in vast numbers, and many of their branches seem to turn down and change into roots ... and these plant themselves in the ground like stems, so that the tree looks as if it had many legs joining one to the other."—Oviedo, in Ramusio, iii. f. 145_v_.

" "So coming to the coast, embarked in a great Canoa with some 30 Indians, and 5 Christians, whom he took with him, and coasted along amid solitary places and islets, passing sometimes into the sea itself for 4 or 5 leagues,—among certain trees, lofty, dense and green, which grow in the very sea-water, and which they call MANGLE."—Ibid. f. 224.

1553.—"... by advice of a Moorish pilot, who promised to take the people by night to a place where water could be got ... and either because the Moor desired to land many times on the shore by which he was conducting them, seeking to get away from the hands of those whom he was conducting, or because he was really perplext by its being night, and in the middle of a great growth of mangrove (MANGUES) he never succeeded in finding the wells of which he spoke."—Barros, I. iv. 4.

c. 1830.—"'Smite my timbers, do the trees bear shellfish?' The tide in the Gulf of Mexico does not ebb and flow above two feet except in the springs, and the ends of the drooping branches of the MANGROVE trees that here cover the shore, are clustered, within the wash of the water, with a small well-flavoured oyster."—Tom Cringle, ed. 1863, 119.

MANILLA-MAN, s. This term is applied to natives of the Philippines, who are often employed on shipboard, and especially furnish the quartermasters (SEACUNNY, q.v.) in Lascar crews on the China voyage. But Manilla-man seems also, from Wilson, to be used in S. India as a hybrid from Telug. manelā vādu, 'an itinerant dealer in coral and gems'; perhaps in this sense, as he says, from Skt. maṇi, 'a jewel,' but with some blending also of the Port. manilha, 'a bracelet.' (Compare COBRA-MANILLA.)

MANJEE, s. The master, or steersman, of a boat or any native river-craft; Hind. mānjhī, Beng. mājī and mājhī, [all from Skt. madhya, 'one who stands in the middle']. The word is also a title borne by the head men among the Pahāris or Hill-people of Rājmahal (Wilson), [and as equivalent for Majhwār, the name of an important Dravidian tribe on the borders of the N.W. Provinces and Chota Nāgpur].

1683.—"We were forced to track our boat till 4 in the Afternoon, when we saw a great black cloud arise out of ye North with much lightning and thunder, which made our MANGEE or Steerman advise us to fasten our boat in some Creeke."—Hedges, Diary, Hak. Soc. i. 88.

[1706.—"MANJEE." See under HARRY.]

1781.—"This is to give notice that the principal Gaut MANGIES of Calcutta have entered into engagements at the Police Office to supply all Persons that apply there with Boats and Budgerows, and to give security for the Dandies."—India Gazette, Feb. 17.

1784.—"Mr. Austin and his head bearer, who were both in the room of the budgerow, are the only persons known to be drowned. The MANJEE and dandees have not appeared."—In Seton-Karr, i. 25.

1810.—"Their MANJIES will not fail to take every advantage of whatever distress, or difficulty, the passenger may labour under."—Williamson, V. M. i. 148.

For the Pahari use, see Long's Selections, p. 561.

[1864.—"The Khond chiefs of villages and Mootas are termed MAJI instead of Mulliko as in Goomsur, or Khonro as in Boad...."—Campbell, Wild Tribes of Khondistan, 120.]

MANNICKJORE, s. Hind. mānikjoṛ; the white-necked stork (Ciconia leucocephala, Gmelin); sometimes, according to Jerdon, called in Bengal the 'Beef-steak bird,' because palatable when cooked in that fashion. "The name of Manikjor means the companion of Manik, a Saint, and some Mussulmans in consequence abstain from eating it" (Jerdon). [Platts derives it from mānik, 'a ruby.']

[1840.—"I reached the jheel, and found it to contain many MANICKCHORS, ibis, paddy birds, &c...."—Davidson, Travels in Upper India, ii. 165.]

MANUCODIATA. (See BIRD OF PARADISE.)

MARAMUT, MURRUMUT, s. Hind. from Ar. maramma(t), 'repair.' In this sense the use is general in Hindustani (in which the terminal t is always pronounced, though not by the Arabs), whether as applied to a stocking, a fortress, or a ship. But in Madras Presidency the word had formerly a very specialised sense as the recognised title of that branch of the Executive which included the conservation of irrigation tanks and the like, and which was worked under the District Civil Officers, there being then no separate department of the State in charge of Civil Public Works. It is a curious illustration of the wide spread at one time of Musulman power that the same Arabic word, in the form MARAMA, is still applied in Sicily to a standing committee charged with repairs to the Duomo or Cathedral of Palermo. An analogous instance of the wide grasp of the Saracenic power is mentioned by one of the Musulman authors whom Amari quotes in his History of the Mahommedan rule in Sicily. It is that the Caliph Al-Māmūn, under whom conquest was advancing in India and in Sicily simultaneously, ordered that the idols taken from the infidels in India should be sent for sale to the infidels in Sicily!

[1757.—"On the 6th the Major (Eyre Coote) left Muxadabad with ... 10 MARMUTTY men, or pioneers to clear the road."—Ives, 156.

[1873.—"For the actual execution of works there was a MARAMAT Department constituted under the Collector."—Boswell, Man. of Nellore, 642.]

MARGOSA, s. A name in the S. of India and Ceylon for the Nīm (see NEEM) tree. The word is a corruption of Port. amargosa, 'bitter,' indicating the character of the tree. This gives rise to an old Indian proverb, traceable as far back as the Jātakas, that you cannot sweeten the nīm tree though you water it with syrup and ghee (Naturam expellas furcâ, &c.).

1727.—"The wealth of an evil man shall another evil man take from him, just as the crows come and eat the fruit of the MARGOISE tree as soon as it is ripe."—Apophthegms translated in Valentijn, v. (Ceylon) 390.

1782.—"... ils lavent le malade avec de l'eau froide, ensuite ils le frottent rudement avec de la feuille de MARGOSIER."—Sonnerat, i. 208.

1834.—"Adjacent to the Church stand a number of tamarind and MARGOSA trees."—Chitty, Ceylon Gazetteer, 183.

MARKHORE, s. Pers. mār-khōr, 'snake-eater.' A fine wild goat of the Western Himālaya; Capra megaceros, Hutton.

[1851.—"Hence the people of the country call it the MARKHOR (eater of serpents)."—Edwardes, A Year on the Punjab Frontier, i. 474.

[1895.—"Never more would he chase the ibex and MAKOR."—Mrs. Croker, Village Tales, 112.]

MARTABAN, n.p. This is the conventional name, long used by all the trading nations, Asiatic and European, for a port on the east of the Irawadi Delta and of the Sitang estuary, formerly of great trade, but now in comparative decay. The original name is Talaing, Mūt-ta-man, the meaning of which we have been unable to ascertain.

1514.—"... passed then before MARTAMAN, the people also heathens; men expert in everything, and first-rate merchants; great masters of accounts, and in fact the greatest in the world. They keep their accounts in books like us. In the said country is great produce of lac, cloths, and provisions."—Letter of Giov. da Empoli, p. 80.

1545.—"At the end of these two days the King ... caused the Captains that were at the Guard of the Gates to leave them and retire; whereupon the miserable City of MARTABANO was delivered to the mercy of the Souldiers ... and therein showed themselves so cruel-minded, that the thing they made least reckoning of was to kill 100 men for a crown."—Pinto, in Cogan, 203.

1553.—"And the towns which stand outside this gulf of the Isles of Pegu (of which we have spoken) and are placed along the coast of that country, are Vagara, MARTABAN, a city notable in the great trade that it enjoys, and further on Rey, Talaga, and Tavay."—Barros, I. ix. 1.

1568.—"Trouassimo nella città di MARTAUAN intorno a nouanta Portoghesi, tra mercadanti e huomini vagabondi, li quali stauano in gran differenza co' Rettorì della città."—Ces. Federici, in Ramusio, iii. 393.

1586.—"The city of MARTABAN hath its front to the south-east, south, and south-west, and stands on a river which there enters the sea ... it is a city of Mauparagia, a Prince of the King of Pegu's."—Gasparo Balbi, f. 129_v_, 130_v_.

1680.—"That the English may settle ffactorys at Serian, Pegu, and Ava ... and alsoe that they may settle a ffactory in like manner at MORTAVAN...."—Articles to be proposed to the King of Barma and Pegu in Notes and Exts., No. iii. p. 8.

1695.—"Concerning Bartholomew Rodrigues.... I am informed and do believe he put into MORTAVAN for want of wood and water, and was there seized by the King's officers, because not bound to that Place."—Governor Higginson, in Dalrymple, Or. Repert. ii. 342-3.

MARTABAN, s. This name was given to vessels of a peculiar pottery, of very large size, and glazed, which were famous all over the East for many centuries, and were exported from Martaban. They were sometimes called Pegu jars, and under that name specimens were shown at the Great Exhibition of 1851. We have not been able to obtain recent information on the subject of this manufacture. The word appears to be now obsolete in India, except as a colloquial term in Telegu. [The word is certainly not obsolete in Upper India: "The 'martaban' (Plate ii. fig. 10) is a small deep jar with an elongated body, which is used by Hindus and Muhammadans to keep pickles and acid articles" (Hallifax, Mono. of Punjab Pottery, p. 9). In the endeavour to supply a Hindi derivation it has been derived from imrita-bān, 'the holder of the water of immortality.' In the Arabian Nights the word appears in the form bartaman, and is used for a crock in which gold is buried. (Burton, xi. 26). Mr. Bell saw some large earthenware jars at Malé, some about 2 feet high, called rumba; others larger and barrel-shaped, called MĀTABĀN. (Pyrard, Hak. Soc. i. 259.) For the modern manufacture, see Scott, Gazetteer of Upper Burma, 1900, Pt. i. vol. ii. 399 seq.]

c. 1350.—"Then the Princess made me a present consisting of dresses, of two elephant-loads of rice, of two she-buffaloes, ten sheep, four rotls of cordial syrup, and four MARTABĀNS, or huge jars, filled with pepper, citron, and mango, all prepared with salt, as for a sea-voyage."—Ibn Batuta, iv. 253.

(?).—"Un grand bassin de MARTABANI."—1001 Jours, ed. Paris 1826, ii. 19. We do not know the date of these stories. The French translator has a note explaining "porcelaine verte."

1508.—"The lac (lacre) which your Highness desired me to send, it will be a piece of good luck to get, because these ships depart early, and the vessels from Pegu and MARTABAN come late. But I hope for a good quantity of it, as I have given orders for it."—Letter from the Viceroy Dom Francisco Almeida to the King. In Correa, i. 900.

1516.—"In this town of MARTABAN are made very large and beautiful porcelain vases, and some of glazed earthenware of a black colour, which are highly valued among the Moors, and they export them as merchandize."—Barbosa, 185.

1598.—"In this towne many of the great earthen pots are made, which in India are called MARTAUANAS, and many of them carryed throughout all India, of all sortes both small and great; some are so great that they will hold full two pipes of water. The cause why so many are brought into India is for that they vse them in every house, and in their shippes insteede of caskes."—Linschoten, p. 30; [Hak. Soc. i. 101; see also i. 28, 268].

c. 1610.—"... des iarres les plus belles, les mieux vernis et les mieux façonnées que j'aye veu ailleurs. Il y en a qui tiennent autant qu'vne pippe et plus. Elles se font au Royaume de MARTABANE, d'ou on les apporte, et d'où elles prennent leur nom par toute l'Inde."—Pyrard de Laval, i. 179; [Hak. Soc. i. 259].

1615.—"Vasa figulina quae vulgo MARTABANIA dicuntur per Indiam nota sunt.... Per Orientem omnem, quin et Lusitaniam, horum est usus."—Jarric, Thesaurus Rer. Indic. pt. ii. 389.

1673.—"Je vis un vase d'une certaine terre verte qui vient des Indes, dont les Turcs ... font un grand estime, et qu'ils acheptent bien cher à cause de la propriété qu'elle a de se rompre à la présence du poison.... Ceste terre se nomme MERDEBANI."—Journal d' Ant. Galland, ii. 110.

1673.—"... to that end offer Rice, Oyl, and Cocoe-Nuts in a thick Grove, where they piled an huge Heap of long Jars like MORTIVANS."—Fryer, 180.

1688.—"They took it out of the cask, and put it into earthen Jars that held about eight Barrels apiece. These they call MONTABAN Jars, from a town of that name in Pegu, whence they are brought, and carried all over India."—Dampier, ii. 98.

c. 1690.—"Sunt autem haec vastissimae ac turgidae ollae in regionibus MARTAVANA et Siama confectae, quae per totam transferuntur Indiam ad varios liquores conservandos."—Rumphius, i. ch. iii.

1711.—"... Pegu, Quedah, Jahore and all their own Coasts, whence they are plentifully supply'd with several Necessarys, they otherwise must want; As Ivory, Beeswax, MORTIVAN and small Jars, Pepper, &c."—Lockyer, 35.

1726.—"... and the MARTAVAANS containing the water to drink, when empty require two persons to carry them."—Valentijn, v. 254.

" "The goods exported hitherward (from Pegu) are ... glazed pots (called MARTAVANS after the district where they properly belong), both large and little."—Ibid. v. 128.

1727.—"MARTAVAN was one of the most flourishing Towns for Trade in the East.... They make earthen Ware there still, and glaze them with Lead-oar. I have seen some Jars made there that could contain two Hogsheads of Liquor."—A. Hamilton, i. 63, [ed. 1744, ii. 62].

1740.—"The Pay Master is likewise ordered ... to look out for all the PEGU JARS in Town, or other vessels proper for keeping water."—In Wheeler, iii. 194.

Such jars were apparently imitated in other countries, but kept the original name. Thus Baillie Fraser says that "certain jars called MARTABAN were manufactured in Oman."—Journey into Khorasan, 18.

1851.—"Assortment of PEGU JARS as used in the Honourable Company's Dispensary at Calcutta."

"Two large PEGU JARS from Moulmein."—Official Catal. Exhibition of 1851, ii. 921.

MARTIL, MARTOL, s. A hammer. Hind. mārtol, from Port. martello, but assisted by imaginary connection with Hind. mār-nā, 'to strike.'

MARTINGALE, s. This is no specially Anglo-Indian word; our excuse for introducing it is the belief that it is of Arabic origin. Popular assumption, we believe, derives the name from a mythical Colonel Martingale. But the word seems to come to us from the French, in which language, besides the English use, Littré gives chauses à la martingale as meaning "culottes dont le pont était placé par derriere," and this he strangely declares to be the true and original meaning of the word. His etymology, after Ménage, is from Martigues in Provence, where, it is alleged, breeches of this kind were worn. Skeat seems to accept these explanations. [But see his Concise Dict., where he inclines to the view given in this article, and adds: "I find Arab. rataka given by Richardson as a verbal root, whence ratak, going with a short quick step."] But there is a Span. word al-martaga, for a kind of bridle, which Urrea quoted by Dozy derives from verb Arab. rataka, "qui, à la IVe forme signifie 'effecit ut brevibus assibus incederet.'" This is precisely the effect of a martingale. And we venture to say that probably the word bore its English meaning originally also in French and Spanish, and came from Arabic direct into the latter tongue. Dozy himself, we should add, is inclined to derive the Span. word from al-mirta'a, 'a halter.'

MARWÁREE, n.p. and s. This word Mārwāṛī, properly a man of the Mārwār [Skt. maru, 'desert'], or Jodhpur country in Rājputāna, is used in many parts of India as synonymous with Banya (see BANYAN) or SOWCAR, from the fact that many of the traders and money-lenders have come originally from Mārwār, most frequently Jains in religion. Compare the Lombard of medieval England, and the caorsino of Dante's time.

[1819.—"Miseries seem to follow the footsteps of the MARWAREES."—Tr. Lit. Soc. Bo. i. 297.

[1826.—"One of my master's under-shopmen, Sewchund, a MARWARRY."—Pandurang Hari, ed. 1873, i. 233.]

MARYACAR, n.p. According to R. Drummond and a MS. note on the India Library copy of his book R. Catholics in Malabar were so called. Marya Karar, or 'Mary's People.' [The word appears to be really marakkar, of which two explanations are given. Logan (Malabar, i. 332 note) says that Marakkar means 'doer or follower of the Law' (marggam), and is applied to a foreign religion, like that of Christians and Mohammedans. The Madras Gloss. (iii. 474) derives it from Mal. marakkalam, 'boat,' and kar, a termination showing possession, and defines it as a "titular appellation of the MOPLAH Mahommedans on the S.W. coast."]

MASCABAR, s. This is given by C. P. Brown (MS. notes) as an Indo-Portuguese word for 'the last day of the month,' quoting Calcutta Review, viii. 345. He suggests as its etymon Hind. mās-ke-ba'ad, 'after a month.' [In N. Indian public offices the māskabār is well known as the monthly statement of cases decided during the month. It has been suggested that it represents the Port. mes-acabar, 'end of the month'; but according to Platts, it is more probably a corruption of Hind. māsik-wār or mās-kā-wār.]

MASH, s. Hind. māsh, [Skt. māsha, 'a bean']; Phaseolus radiatus, Roxb. One of the common Hindu pulses. [See MOONG.]

MASKEE. This is a term in Chinese "pigeon," meaning 'never mind,' 'n'importe,' which is constantly in the mouths of Europeans in China. It is supposed that it may be the corruption or ellipsis of a Portuguese expression, but nothing satisfactory has been suggested. [Mr. Skeat writes: "Surely this is simply Port. mas que, probably imported direct through Macao, in the sense of 'although, even, in spite of,' like French malgre. And this seems to be its meaning in 'pigeon':

"That nightey tim begin chop-chop, One young man walkee—no can stop. MASKEE snow, MASKEE ice! He cally flag with chop so nice— Topside Galow! 'Excelsior,' in 'pigeon.'"]

MASULIPATAM, n.p. This coast town of the Madras Presidency is sometimes vulgarly called Machhli-patan or Machhli-bandar, or simply Bandar (see BUNDER, 2); and its name explained (Hind. machhlī, 'fish') as Fish-town, [the Madras Gloss. says from an old tradition of a whale being stranded on the shore.] The etymology may originally have had such a connection, but there can be no doubt that the name is a trace of the Μαισωλία and Μαισώλου ποταμοῦ ἐκβολαὶ which we find in Ptolemy's Tables; and of the Μασαλία producing muslins, in the Periplus. [In one of the old Logs the name is transformed into Mesopotamia (J. R. As. Soc., Jan. 1900, p. 158). In a letter of 1605-6 it appears as Mesepatamya (Birdwood, First Letter Book, 73).

[1613.—"Concerning the Darling was departed for MOSSAPOTAM."—Foster, Letters, ii. 14.

[1615.—"Only here are no returns of any large sum to be employed, unless a factory at MESSEPOTAN."—Ibid. iv. 5.]

1619.—"Master Methwold came from MISSULAPATAM in one of the country Boats."—Pring, in Purchas, i. 638.

[1623.—"MISLIPATAN." P. della Valle, Hak. Soc. i. 148.

[c. 1661.—"It was reported, at one time, that he was arrived at MASSIPATAM...."—Bernier, ed. Constable, 112.]

c. 1681.—"The road between had been covered with brocade velvet, and MACHLIBENDER chintz."—Seir Mutaqherin, iii. 370.

1684.—"These sort of Women are so nimble and active that when the present king went to see MASLIPATAN, nine of them undertook to represent the figure of an Elephant; four making the four feet, four the body, and one the trunk; upon which the King, sitting in a kind of Throne, made his entry into the City."—Tavernier, E.T. ii. 65; [ed. Ball, i. 158].

1789.—"MASULIPATAM, which last word, by the bye, ought to be written MACHLIPATAN (Fish-town), because of a Whale that happened to be stranded there 150 years ago."—Note on Seir Mutaqherin, iii. 370.

c. 1790.—"... cloths of great value ... from the countries of Bengal, Bunaras, China, Kashmeer, Boorhanpoor, MUTCHLIPUTTUN, &c."—Meer Hussein Ali, H. of Hydur Na'ik, 383.

MATE, MATY, s. An assistant under a head servant; in which sense or something near it, but also sometimes in the sense of a 'head-man,' the word is in use almost all over India. In the Bengal Presidency we have a mate-bearer for the assistant body-servant (see BEARER); the mate attendant on an elephant under the mahout; a mate (head) of COOLIES or JOMPONNIES (qq.v.) (see JOMPON), &c. And in Madras the maty is an under-servant, whose business it is to clean crockery, knives, &c., to attend to lamps, and so forth.

The origin of the word is obscure, if indeed it has not more than one origin. Some have supposed it to be taken from the English word in the sense of comrade, &c.; whilst Wilson gives meṭṭi as a distinct Malayālam word for an inferior domestic servant, [which the Madras Gloss. derives from Tamil mel, 'high']. The last word is of very doubtful genuineness. Neither derivation will explain the fact that the word occurs in the Āīn, in which the three classes of attendants on an elephant in Akbar's establishment are styled respectively Mahāwat, Bhoī, and Meth; two of which terms would, under other circumstances, probably be regarded as corruptions of English words. This use of the word we find in Skt. dictionaries as meṭha, meṇṭha, and meṇḍa, 'an elephant-keeper or feeder.' But for the more general use we would query whether it may not be a genuine Prakrit form from Skt. mitra, 'associate, friend'? We have in Pali metta, 'friendship,' from Skt. maitra.

c. 1590.—"A MET'H fetches fodder and assists in caparisoning the elephant. MET'HS of all classes get on the march 4 dáms daily, and at other times 3½."—Āīn, ed. Blochmann, i. 125.

1810.—"In some families MATES or assistants are allowed, who do the drudgery."—Williamson, V. M. i. 241.

1837.—"One MATEE."—See Letters from Madras, 106.

1872.—"At last the morning of our departure came. A crowd of porters stood without the veranda, chattering and squabbling, and the MATE distributed the boxes and bundles among them."—A True Reformer, ch. vi.

1873.—"To procure this latter supply (of green food) is the daily duty of one of the attendants, who in Indian phraseology is termed a MATE, the title of Mahout being reserved for the head keeper" (of an elephant).—Sat. Rev. Sept. 6, 302.

MATRANEE, s. Properly Hind. from Pers. mihtarānī; a female sweeper (see MEHTAR). [In the following extract the writer seems to mean Bhaṭhiyāran or Bhaṭhiyārin, the wife of a Bhaṭhiyāra or inn-keeper.

[1785.—"... a handsome serai ... where a number of people, chiefly women, called METRAHNEES, take up their abode to attend strangers on their arrival in the city."—Diary, in Forbes, Or. Mem. 2nd ed. ii. 404.]

MATROSS, s. An inferior class of soldier in the Artillery. The word is quite obsolete, and is introduced here because it seems to have survived a good deal longer in India than in England, and occurs frequently in old Indian narratives. It is Germ. matrose, Dutch matroos, 'a sailor,' identical no doubt with Fr. matelot. The origin is so obscure that it seems hardly worth while to quote the conjectures regarding it. In the establishment of a company of Royal Artillery in 1771, as given in Duncan's Hist. of that corps, we have besides sergeants and corporals, "4 Bombardiers, 8 Gunners, 34 Matrosses, and 2 Drummers." A definition of the Matross is given in our 3rd quotation. We have not ascertained when the term was disused in the R.A. It appears in the Establishment as given by Grose in 1801 (Military Antiq. i. 315). As far as Major Duncan's book informs us, it appears first in 1639, and has disappeared by 1793, when we find the men of an artillery force divided (excluding sergeants, corporals, and bombardiers) into First Gunners, Second Gunners, and Military Drivers.

1673.—"There being in pay for the Honourable East India Company of English and Portuguese, 700, reckoning the MONTROSSES and Gunners."—Fryer, 38.

1745.—"... We were told with regard to the Fortifications, that no Expense should be grudged that was necessary for the Defence of the Settlement, and in 1741, a Person was sent out in the character of an Engineer for our Place; but ... he lived not to come among us; and therefore, we could only judge of his Merit and Qualifications by the Value of his Stipend, Six Pagodas a Month, or about Eighteen Pence a Day, scarce the Pay of a common MATROSS...."—Letter from Mr. Barnett to the Secret Committee, in Letter to a Proprietor of the E.I. Co., p. 45.

1757.—"I have with me one Gunner, one MATROSS, and two Lascars."—Letter in Dalrymple, Or. Repert. i. 203.

1779.—"MATROSSES are properly apprentices to the gunner, being soldiers in the royal regiment of artillery, and next to them; they assist in loading, firing, and spunging the great guns. They carry firelocks, and march along with the guns and store-waggons, both as a guard, and to give their assistance in every emergency."—Capt. G. Smith's Universal Military Dictionary.

1792.—"Wednesday evening, the 25th inst., a MATROSS of Artillery deserted from the Mount, and took away with him his firelock, and nine rounds of powder and ball."—Madras Courier, Feb. 2.

[1800.—"A serjeant and two MATROSSES employed under a general committee on the captured military stores in Seringapatam."—Wellington Suppl. Desp. ii. 32 (Stanf. Dict.).]

MATT, s. Touch (of gold). Tamil _mā_RR_u_ (pron. māṭṭu), perhaps from Skt. mātra, 'measure.' Very pure gold is said to be 9 _mā_RR_u_, inferior gold of 5 or 6 _mā_RR_u_.

[1615.—"Tecalls the MATTE Janggamay 8 is Sciam 7½."—Foster, Letters, iii. 156.

[1680.—"MATT." See under BATTA.]

1693.—"Gold, purified from all other metals ... by us is reckoned as of four-and-Twenty Carats, but by the blacks is here divided and reckoned as of ten MAT."—Havart, 106.

1727.—At Mocha ... "the Coffee Trade brings in a continual Supply of Silver and Gold ... from Turkey, Ebramies and Mograbis, Gold of low MATT."—A. Hamilton, i. 43, [ed. 1744].

1752.—"... to find the Value of the Touch in Fanams, multiply the MATT by 10, and then by 8, which gives it in Fanams."—T. Brooks, 25.

The same word was used in Japan for a measure, sometimes called a fathom.

[1614.—"The MATT which is about two yards."—Foster, Letters, ii. 3.]

MAUMLET, s. Domestic Hind. māmlat, for 'omelet'; [Māmlēt is 'marmalade'].

MAUND, s. The authorised Anglo-Indian form of the name of a weight (Hind. man, Mahr. maṇ), which, with varying values, has been current over Western Asia from time immemorial. Professor Sayce traces it (mana) back to the Accadian language.[162] But in any case it was the Babylonian name for 1/80 of a talent, whence it passed, with the Babylonian weights and measures, almost all over the ancient world. Compare the men or mna of Egyptian hieroglyphic inscriptions, preserved in the emna or amna of the Copts, the Hebrew māneh, the Greek μνᾶ, and the Roman mina. The introduction of the word into India may have occurred during the extensive commerce of the Arabs with that country during the 8th and 9th centuries; possibly at an earlier date. Through the Arabs also we find an old Spanish word almena, and in old French almène, for a weight of about 20 lbs. (Marcel Devic).

The quotations will show how the Portuguese converted man into mão, of which the English made maune, and so (probably by the influence of the old English word maund)[163] our present form, which occurs as early as 1611. Some of the older travellers, like Linschoten, misled by the Portuguese mão, identified it with the word for 'hand' in that language, and so rendered it.

The values of the man as weight, even in modern times, have varied immensely, i.e. from little more than 2 lbs. to upwards of 160. The 'Indian Maund,' which is the standard of weight in British India, is of 40 sers, each ser being divided into 16 chhiṭāks; and this is the general scale of sub-division in the local weights of Bengal, and Upper and Central India, though the value of the ser varies. That of the standard ser is 80 TOLAS (q.v.) or rupee-weights, and thus the maund = 82-2/7 lbs. avoirdupois. The Bombay maund (or man) of 48 sers = 28 lbs.; the Madras one of 40 sers = 25 lbs. The Palloda man of Aḥmadnagar contained 64 sers, and was = 163¼ lbs. This is the largest man we find in the 'Useful Tables.' The smallest Indian man again is that of Colachy in Travancore, and that = 18 lbs. 12 oz. 13 dr. The Persian Tabrīzī man is, however, a little less than 7 lbs.; the man shāhī twice that; the smallest of all on the list named is the Jeddah man = 2 lbs. 3 oz. 9¾ dr.

B.C. 692.—In the "Eponymy of Zazai," a house in Nineveh, with its shrubbery and gates, is sold for one MANEH of silver according to the royal standard. Quoted by Sayce, u.s.

B.C. 667.—We find Nergal-sarra-nacir lending "four MANEHS of silver, according to the MANEH of Carchemish."—Ibid.

c. B.C. 524.—"Cambyses received the Libyan presents very graciously, but not so the gifts of the Cyrenaeans. They had sent no more than 500 MINAE of silver, which Cambyses, I imagine, thought too little. He therefore snatched the money from them, and with his own hand scattered it among the soldiers."—Herodot. iii. ch. 13 (E.T. by Rawlinson).

c. A.D. 70.—"Et quoniam in mensuris quoque ac ponderibus crebro Graecis nominibus utendum est, interpretationem eorum semel in hoc loco ponemus: ... MNA, quam nostri MINAM vocant pendet drachmas Atticas c."—Pliny, xxi., at end.

c. 1020.—"The gold and silver ingots amounted to 700,400 MANS in weight."—Al 'Utbi, in Elliot, ii. 35.

1040.—"The Amír said:—'Let us keep fair measure, and fill the cups evenly.'... Each goblet contained half a MAN."—Baihaki, ibid. ii. 144.

c. 1343.—

"The MENA of Sarai makes in Genoa weight lb. 6 oz. 2 The MENA of Organci (Urghanj) in Genoa lb. 3 oz. 9 The MENA of Oltrarre (Otrār) in Genoa lb. 3 oz. 9 The MENA of Armalecho (Al-maligh) in Genoa lb. 2 oz. 8 The MENA of Camexu (Kancheu in N.W. China) lb. 2" Pegolotti, 4.

1563.—"The value of stones is only because people desire to have them, and because they are scarce, but as for virtues, those of the loadstone, which staunches blood, are very much greater and better attested than those of the emerald. And yet the former sells by MAOS, which are in Cambay ... equal to 26 arratels each, and the latter by ratis, which weigh 3 grains of wheat."—Garcia, f. 159_v_.

1598.—"They have another weight called MAO, which is a Hand, and is 12 pounds."—Linschoten, 69; [Hak. Soc. i. 245].

1610.—"He was found ... to have sixtie MAUNES in Gold, and euery MAUNE is five and fiftie pound weight."—Hawkins, in Purchas, i. 218.

1611.—"Each MAUND being three and thirtie pound English weight."—Middleton, ibid. i. 270.

[1645.—"As for the weights, the ordinary MAND is 69 livres, and the livre is of 16 onces; but the MAND, which is used to weigh indigo, is only 53 livres. At Surat you speak of a seer, which is 1¾ livres, and the livre is 16 onces."—Tavernier, ed. Ball, i. 38.]

c. 1665.—"Le MAN pese quarante livres par toutes les Indes, mais ces livres ou serres sont differentes selon les Pais."—Thevenot, v. 54.

1673.—"A Lumbrico (Sconce) of pure Gold, weighing about one MAUND and a quarter, which is Forty-two pounds."—Fryer, 78.

"

"The Surat MAUND ... is 40 Sear, of 20 Pice the Sear, which is 37_l._ The Pucka MAUND at Agra is double as much, where is also the Ecbarry MAUND which is 40 Sear, of 30 Pice to the Sear...." Ibid. 205.

1683.—"Agreed with Chittur Mullsaw and Muttradas, Merchants of this place (Hugly), for 1,500 Bales of ye best Tissinda Sugar, each bale to weigh 2 MAUNDS, 6½ Seers, Factory weight."—Hedges, Diary, April 5; [Hak. Soc. i. 75].

1711.—"Sugar, Coffee, Tutanague, all sorts of Drugs, &c., are sold by the MAUND Tabrees; which in the Factory and Custom house is nearest 6¾_l._ Avoirdupoiz.... Eatables, and all sorts of Fruit ... &c. are sold by the MAUND Copara of 7¾_l._... The MAUND Shaw is two MAUNDS Tabrees, used at Ispahan."—Lockyer, 230.

c. 1760.—Grose says, "the MAUND they weigh their indicos with is only 53 lb." He states the maund of Upper India as 69 lb.; at Bombay, 28 lb.; at Goa, 14 lb.; at Surat, 37½ lb.; at Coromandel, 25 lb.; in Bengal, 75 lb.

1854.—"... You only consent to make play when you have packed a good MAUND of traps on your back."—Life of Lord Lawrence, i. 433.

MAYLA, s. Hind. melā, 'a fair,' almost always connected with some religious celebration, as were so many of the medieval fairs in Europe. The word is Skt. mela, melaka, 'meeting, concourse, assembly.'

[1832.—"A party of foreigners ... wished to see what was going on at this far-famed mayllah...."—Mrs. Meer Hassan Ali, Observations, ii. 321-2.]

1869.—"Le MELA n'est pas précisément une foire telle que nous l'entendent; c'est le nom qu'on donne aux réunions de pèlerins et des marchands qui ... se rendent dans les lieux considérés comme sacrés, aux fêtes de certaine dieux indiens et des personnages reputés saints parmi les musulmans."—Garcin de Tassy, Rel. Mus. p. 26.

MAZAGONG, MAZAGON, n.p. A suburb of Bombay, containing a large Portuguese population. [The name is said to be originally Maheśa-grāma, 'the village of the Great Lord,' Śiva.]

1543.—

"MAZAGUÃO, por 15,000 fedeas, MONBAYM (Bombay), por 15,000." S. Botelho, Tombo, 149.

1644.—"Going up the stream from this town (Mombaym, i.e. Bombay) some 2 leagues, you come to the aldea of MAZAGAM."—Bocarro, MS. f. 227.

1673.—"... for some miles together, till the Sea break in between them; over against which lies MASSEGOUNG, a great Fishing Town.... The Ground between this and the Great Breach is well ploughed and bears good Batty. Here the Portugals have another Church and Religious House belonging to the Franciscans."—Fryer, p. 67.

[MEARBAR, s. Pers. mīrbaḥr, 'master of the bay,' a harbour-master. Mīrbaḥrī, which appears in Botelho (Tombo, p. 56) as MIRABARY, means 'ferry dues.'

[1675.—"There is another hangs up at the daily Waiters, or MEERBAR'S CHOULTRY, by the Landing-place...."—Fryer, 98.]

[1682.—"... ordering them to bring away ye boat from ye MEARBAR."—Hedges, Diary, Hak. Soc. i. 34.]

MECKLEY, n.p. One of the names of the State of MUNNEEPORE.

MEEANA, MYANNA, s. H.—P. mīyāna, 'middle-sized.' The name of a kind of palankin; that kind out of which the palankin used by Europeans has been developed, and which has been generally adopted in India for the last century. [Buchanan Hamilton writes: "The lowest kind of palanquins, which are small litters suspended under a straight bamboo, by which they are carried, and shaded by a frame covered with cloth, do not admit the passenger to lie at length, and are here called MIYANA, or Mahapa. In some places, these terms are considered as synonymous, in others the Miyana is open at the sides, while the Mahapa, intended for women, is surrounded with curtains." (Eastern India, ii. 426).] In Williamson's Vade Mecum (i. 319) the word is written MOHANNAH.

1784.—"... an entire new MYANNAH, painted and gilt, lined with orange silk, with curtains and bedding complete."—In Seton-Karr, i. 49.

" "Patna common chairs, couches and teapoys, two MAHANA palanquins."—Ibid. 62.

1793.—"To be sold ... an Elegant New Bengal MEANA, with Hair Bedding and furniture."—Bombay Courier, Nov. 2.

1795.—"For Sale, an Elegant Fashionable New MEANNA from Calcutta."—Ibid. May 16.

MEERASS, s., MEERASSY, adj., MEERASSIDAR, s. 'Inheritance,' 'hereditary,' 'a holder of hereditary property.' Hind. from Arab. mīrās̤, mīrās̤ī, mīrās̤dār; and these from waris̤, 'to inherit.'

1806.—"Every MEERASSDAR in Tanjore has been furnished with a separate POTTAH (q.v.) for the land held by him."—Fifth Report (1812), 774.

1812.—"The term MEERASSEE ... was introduced by the Mahommedans."—Ibid. 136.

1877.—"All MIRAS rights were reclaimable within a forty years' absence."—Meadows Taylor, Story of My Life, ii. 211.

" "I found a great proportion of the occupants of land to be MIRASDARS,—that is, persons who held their portions of land in hereditary occupancy."—Ibid. 210.

MEHAUL, s. Hind. from Arab. maḥāll, being properly the pl. of Arab. maḥall. The word is used with a considerable variety of application, the explanation of which would involve a greater amount of technical detail than is consistent with the purpose of this work. On this Wilson may be consulted. But the most usual Anglo-Indian application of maḥāll (used as a singular and generally written, incorrectly, maḥāl) is to 'an estate,' in the Revenue sense, i.e. 'a parcel or parcels of land separately assessed for revenue.' The sing. maḥall (also written in the vernaculars maḥal, and maḥāl) is often used for a palace or important edifice, e.g. (see SHISHMUHULL, TAJ-MAHAL).

MEHTAR, s. A sweeper or scavenger. This name is usual in the Bengal Presidency, especially for the domestic servant of this class. The word is Pers. comp. mihtar (Lat. major), 'a great personage,' 'a prince,' and has been applied to the class in question in irony, or rather in consolation, as the domestic tailor is called CALEEFA. But the name has so completely adhered in this application, that all sense of either irony or consolation has perished; mehtar is a sweeper and nought else. His wife is the MATRANEE. It is not unusual to hear two mehtars hailing each other as Mahārāj! In Persia the menial application of the word seems to be different (see below). The same class of servant is usually called in W. India bhangī (see BUNGY), a name which in Upper India is applied to the caste generally and specially to those not in the service of Europeans. [Examples of the word used in the honorific sense will be found below.]

c. 1800.—"MAITRE." See under BUNOW.

1810.—"The MATER, or sweeper, is considered the lowest menial in every family."—Williamson, V. M. i. 276-7.

1828.—"... besides many MEHTARS or stable-boys."—Hajji Baba in England, i. 60.

[In the honorific sense:

[1824.—"In each of the towns of Central India, there is ... a MEHTUR, or head of every other class of the inhabitants down to the lowest."—Malcolm, Central India, 2nd ed. i. 555.

[1880.—"On the right bank is the fort in which the MIHTER or Bādshāh, for he is known by both titles, resides."—Biddulph, Tribes of the Hindoo Kush, 61.]

MELINDE, MELINDA, n.p. The name (Malinda or Malindī) of an Arab town and State on the east coast of Africa, in S. lat. 3° 9′; the only one at which the expedition of Vasco da Gama had amicable relations with the people, and that at which they obtained the pilot who guided the squadron to the coast of India.

c. 1150.—"MELINDE, a town of the Zendj, ... is situated on the sea-shore at the mouth of a river of fresh water.... It is a large town, the people of which ... draw from the sea different kinds of fish, which they dry and trade in. They also possess and work mines of iron."—Edrisi (Jaubert), i. 56.

c. 1320.—See also Abulfeda, by Reinaud, ii. 207.

1498.—"And that same day at sundown we cast anchor right opposite a place which is called MILINDE, which is 30 leagues from Mombaça.... On Easter Day those Moors whom we held prisoners, told us that in the said town of MILINDE were stopping four ships of Christians who were Indians, and that if we desired to take them these would give us, instead of themselves, Christian Pilots."—Roteiro of Vasco da Gama, 42-3.

1554.—"As the King of MELINDE pays no tribute, nor is there any reason why he should, considering the many tokens of friendship we have received from him, both on the first discovery of these countries, and to this day, and which in my opinion we repay very badly, by the ill treatment which he has from the Captains who go on service to this Coast."—Simão Botelho, Tombo, 17.

c. 1570.—"Di Chiaul si negotia anco per la costa de' MELINDI in Ethiopia."—Cesare de Federici in Ramusio, iii. 396_v_.

1572.—

"Quando chegava a frota áquella parte Onde o reino MELINDE já se via, De toldos adornada, e leda de arte: Que bem mostra estimar a sancta dia Treme a bandeira, voa o estandarte, A cor purpurea ao longe apparecia, Soam os atambores, e pandeiros: E assi entravam ledos e guerreiros." Camões, ii. 73.

By Burton:

"At such a time the Squadron neared the part where first MELINDE'S goodly shore unseen, in awnings drest and prankt with gallant art, to show that none the Holy Day misween: Flutter the flags, the streaming Estandart gleams from afar with gorgeous purple sheen, tom-toms and timbrels mingle martial jar: thus past they forwards with the pomp of war."

1610.—P. Texeira tells us that among the "Moors" at Ormuz, Alboquerque was known only by the name of MALANDY, and that with some difficulty he obtained the explanation that he was so called because he came thither from the direction of MELINDE, which they call MALAND.—Relacion de los Reyes de Harmuz, 45.

[1823.—Owen calls the place MALEENDA and gives an account of it.—Narrative, i. 399 seqq.]

1859.—"As regards the immigration of the Wagemu (Ajemi, or Persians), from whom the ruling tribe of the Wasawahili derives its name, they relate that several Shaykhs, or elders, from Shiraz emigrated to Shangaya, a district near the Ozi River, and founded the town of MALINDI (Melinda)."—Burton, in J.R.G.S. xxix. 51.

MELIQUE VERIDO, n.p. The Portuguese form of the style of the princes of the dynasty established at Bīdar in the end of the 15th century, on the decay of the Bāhmani kingdom. The name represents 'Malik Barīd.' It was apparently only the third of the dynasty, 'Ali, who first took the title of ('Ali) Barīd Shāh.

1533.—"And as the folosomia (?) of Badur was very great, as well as his presumption, he sent word to Yzam Maluco (NIZAMALUCO) and to VERIDO (who were great Lords, as it were Kings, in the Decanim, that lies between the Balgat and Cambaya) ... that they must pay him homage, or he would hold them for enemies, and would direct war against them, and take away their dominions."—Correa, iii. 514.

1563.—"And these regents ... concerted among themselves ... that they should seize the King of Daquem in Bedar, which is the chief city and capital of the Decan; so they took him and committed him to one of their number, by name VERIDO; and then he and the rest, either in person or by their representatives, make him a SALAAM (çalema) at certain days of the year.... The VERIDO who died in the year 1510 was a Hungarian by birth, and originally a Christian, as I have heard on sure authority."—Garcia, f. 35 and 35_v_.

c. 1601.—"About this time a letter arrived from the Prince Sultán Dániyál, reporting that (Malik) Ambar had collected his troops in Bidar, and had gained a victory over a party which had been sent to oppose him by MALIK BARĪD."—Ináyat Ullah, in Elliot, vi. 104.

MEM-SAHIB, s. This singular example of a hybrid term is the usual respectful designation of a European married lady in the Bengal Presidency; the first portion representing ma'am. Madam Sahib is used at Bombay; Doresani (see DORAY) in Madras. (See also BURRA BEEBEE.)

MENDY, s. Hind. mehndī, [meṅhdī, Skt. mendhikā;] the plant Lawsonia alba, Lam., of the N. O. Lythraceae, strongly resembling the English privet in appearance, and common in gardens. It is the plant whose leaves afford the henna, used so much in Mahommedan countries for dyeing the hands, &c., and also in the process of dyeing the hair. Mehndī is, according to Royle, the Cyprus of the ancients (see Pliny, xii. 24). It is also the camphire of Canticles i. 14, where the margin of A.V. has erroneously cypress for cyprus.

[1813.—"After the girls are betrothed, the ends of the fingers and nails are dyed red, with a preparation from the MENDEY, or hinna shrub."—Forbes, Or. Mem. 2nd ed. i. 55; also see i. 22.]

c. 1817.—"... his house and garden might be known from a thousand others by their extraordinary neatness. His garden was full of trees, and was well fenced round with a ditch and MINDEY hedge."—Mrs. Sherwood's Stories, ed. 1873, p. 71.

MERCÁLL, MARCÁL, s. Tam. marakkāl, a grain measure in use in the Madras Presidency, and formerly varying much in different localities, though the most usual was = 12 sers of grain. [Also known as toom.] Its standard is fixed since 1846 at 800 cubic inches, and = 1/400 of a GARCE (q.v.).

1554.—(Negapatam) "Of ghee (mamteiga) and oil, one MERCAR is = 2½ canadas" (a Portuguese measure of about 3 pints).—A. Nunez, 36.

1803.—"... take care to put on each bullock full six MERCALLS or 72 seers."—Wellington Desp., ed. 1837, ii. 85.

MERGUI, n.p. The name by which we know the most southern district of Lower Burma with its town; annexed with the rest of what used to be called the "Tenasserim Provinces" after the war of 1824-26. The name is probably of Siamese origin; the town is called by the Burmese Beit (Sir A. Phayre).

1568.—"Tenasari la quale è Città delle regioni del regno di Sion, posta infra terra due o tre maree sopra vn gran fiume ... ed oue il fiume entra in mare e vna villa chiamata MERGI, nel porto della quale ogn' anno si caricano alcune navi di verzino (see BRAZIL-wood and SAPPAN-wood), di NIPA (q.v.), di belzuin (see BENJAMIN), e qualche poco di garofalo, macis, noci...."—Ces. Federici, in Ramusio, iii. 327_v_.

[1684-5.—"A Country Vessel belonging to Mr. Thomas Lucas arriv'd in this Road from MERGE."—Pringle, Diary, Ft. St. Geo., 1st ser. iv. 19.

[1727.—"MERJEE." See under TENASSERIM.]

MILK-BUSH, MILK-HEDGE, s. Euphorbia Tirucalli, L., often used for hedges on the Coromandel coast. It abounds in acrid milky juices.

c. 1590.—"They enclose their fields and gardens with hedges of the zekoom (zaḳḳum) tree, which is a strong defence against cattle, and makes the country almost impenetrable by an army."—Ayeen, ed. Gladwin, ii. 68; [ed. Jarrett, ii. 239].

[1773.—"MILKY HEDGE. This is rather a shrub, which they plant for hedges on the coast of Coromandel...."—Ives, 462.]

1780.—"Thorn hedges are sometimes placed in gardens, but in the fields the MILK BUSH is most commonly used ... when squeezed emitting a whitish juice like milk, that is deemed a deadly poison.... A horse will have his head and eyes prodigiously swelled from standing for some time under the shade of a milk hedge."—Munro's Narr. 80.

1879.—

"So saying, Buddh Silently laid aside sandals and staff, His sacred thread, turban, and cloth, and came Forth from behind the MILK-BUSH on the sand...." Sir E. Arnold, Light of Asia, Bk. v.

c. 1886.—"The MILK-HEDGE forms a very distinctive feature in the landscape of many parts of Guzerat. Twigs of the plant thrown into running water kill the fish, and are extensively used for that purpose. Also charcoal from the stems is considered the best for making gunpowder."—M.-Gen. R. H. Keatinge.

MINCOPIE, n.p. This term is attributed in books to the Andaman islanders as their distinctive name for their own race. It originated with a vocabulary given by Lieut. Colebrooke in vol. iv. of the Asiatic Researches, and was certainly founded on some misconception. Nor has the possible origin of the mistake been ascertained. [Mr. Man (Proc. Anthrop. Institute, xii. 71) suggests that it may have been a corruption of the words min kaich! 'Come here!']

MINICOY, n.p. Minikai; [Logan (Malabar, i. 2) gives the name as Menakāyat, which the Madras Gloss. derives from Mal. min, 'fish,' kayam, 'deep pool.' The natives call it Maliku (note by Mr. Gray on the passage from Pyrard quoted below).] An island intermediate between the Maldive and the Laccadive group. Politically it belongs to the latter, being the property of the Ali Raja of Cannanore, but the people and their language are Maldivian. The population in 1871 was 2800. One-sixth of the adults had perished in a cyclone in 1867. A lighthouse was in 1883 erected on the island. This is probably the island intended for Mulkee in that ill-edited book the E.T. of Tuhfat al-Mujāhidīn. [Mr. Logan identifies it with the "female island" of Marco Polo. (Malabar, i. 287.)]

[c. 1610.—"... a little island named MALICUT."—Pyrard de Laval, Hak. Soc. i. 322.]

MISCALL, s. Ar. mis̤ḳāl (mithḳāl, properly). An Arabian weight, originally that of the Roman aureus and the gold dīnār; about 73 grs.

c. 1340.—"The prince, violently enraged, caused this officer to be put in prison, and confiscated his goods, which amounted to 437,000,000 MITHKALS of gold. This anecdote serves to attest at once the severity of the sovereign and the extreme wealth of the country."—Shihābuddīn, in Not. et Ext., xiii. 192.

1502.—"Upon which the King (of Sofala) showed himself much pleased ... and gave them as a present for the Captain-Major a mass of strings of small golden beads which they call pingo, weighing 1000 MATICALS, every MATICAL being worth 500 reis, and gave for the King another that weighed 3000 maticals...."—Correa, i. 274.

MISREE, s. Sugar candy. Miṣrī, 'Egyptian,' from Miṣr, Egypt, the Mizraim of the Hebrews, showing the original source of supply. [We find the Miṣrī or 'sugar of Egypt' in the Arabian Nights (Burton, xi. 396).] (See under SUGAR.)

1810.—"The sugar-candy made in India, where it is known by the name of MISCERY, bears a price suited to its quality.... It is usually made in small conical pots, whence it concretes into masses, weighing from 3 to 6 lbs. each."—Williamson, V. M. ii. 134.

MISSAL, s. Hind. from Ar. mis̤l, meaning 'similitude.' The body of documents in a particular case before a court. [The word is also used in its original sense of a 'clan.']

[1861.—"The martial spirit of the Sikhs thus aroused ... formed itself into clans or confederacies called MISLS...."—Cave-Brown, Punjab and Delhi, i. 368.]

MOBED, s. P. mūbid, a title of Parsee Priests. It is a corruption of the Pehlevi magô-pat, 'Lord Magus.'

[1815.—"The rites ordained by the chief MOBUDS are still observed."—Malcolm, H. of Persia, ed. 1829, i. 499.]

MOCUDDUM, s. Hind. from Ar. muḳaddam, 'praepositus,' a head-man. The technical applications are many; e.g. to the headman of a village, responsible for the realisation of the revenue (see LUMBERDAR); to the local head of a caste (see CHOWDRY); to the head man of a body of peons or of a gang of labourers (see MATE), &c. &c. (See further detail in Wilson). Cobarruvias (Tesoro de la Lengua Castellana, 1611) gives ALMOCADEN, "Capitan de Infanteria."

c. 1347.—"... The princess invited ... the tandail (see TINDAL) or MUKADDAM of the crew, and the sipāhsālār or MUKADDAM of the archers."—Ibn Batuta, iv. 250.[164]

1538.—"O MOCADÃO da mazmorra q̃ era o carcereiro d'aquella prisão, tanto q̃ os vio mortos, deu logo rebate disso ao Guazil da justiça...."—Pinto, cap. vi.

" "The Jaylor, which in their language is called MOCADAN, repairing in the morning to us, and finding our two companions dead, goes away in all haste therewith to acquaint the Gauzil, which is as the Judg with us."—Cogan's Transl., p. 8.

1554.—"E a hum naique, com seys piães (peons) e hum MOCADÃO, com seys tochas, hum BÓY de sombreiro, dous MAINATOS," &c.—Botelho, Tombo, 57.

1567.—"... furthermore that no infidel shall serve as scrivener, SHROFF (xarrafo) MOCADAM (mocadão), naique (see NAIK), PEON (pião), parpatrim (see PARBUTTY), collector of dues, corregidor, interpreter, procurator or solicitor in court, nor in any other office or charge in which he can in any way hold authority over Christians."—Decree of the Sacred Council of Goa, Dec. 27. In Arch. Port. Orient. fascic. 4.

[1598.—"... a chief Boteson ... which they call MOCADON."—Linschoten, Hak. Soc. i. 267.

[c. 1610.—"They call these Lascarys and their captain MONCADON."—Pyrard de Laval, Hak. Soc. ii. 117.

[1615.—"The Generall dwelt with the MAKADOW of Swally."—Sir T. Roe, Hak. Soc. i. 45; comp. Danvers, Letters, i. 234.]

1644.—"Each vessel carries forty mariners and two MOCADONS."—Bocarro, MS.

1672.—"Il MUCADAMO, cosi chiamano li Padroni di queste barche."—P. Vincenz. Maria, 3rd ed. 459.

1680.—"For the better keeping the Boatmen in order, resolved to appoint Black Tom MUCKADUM or Master of the Boatmen, being Christian as he is, his wages being paid at 70 FANAMS per mensem."—Fort St. Geo. Consn., Dec. 23, in Notes and Exts. No. iii. p. 42.

1870.—"This headman was called the MOKADDAM in the more Northern and Eastern provinces."—Systems of Land Tenure (Cobden Club), 163.

MOCCUDDAMA, s. Hind. from Ar. muḳaddama, 'a piece of business,' but especially 'a suit at law.'

MODELLIAR, MODLIAR, s. Used in the Tamil districts of Ceylon (and formerly on the Continent) for a native head-man. It is also a caste title, assumed by certain Tamil people who styled themselves Śudras (an honourable assumption in the South). Tam. mudaliyār, muthaliyār, an honorific pl. from mudali, muthali, 'a chief.'

c. 1350.—"When I was staying at Columbum (see QUILON) with those Christian chiefs who are called MODILIAL, and are the owners of the pepper, one morning there came to me ..."—John de Marignolli, in Cathay, &c., ii. 381.

1522.—"And in opening this foundation they found about a cubit below a grave made of brickwork, white-washed within, as if newly made, in which they found part of the bones of the King who was converted by the holy Apostle, who the natives said they heard was called Tani (Tami) MUDOLYAR, meaning in their tongue 'Thomas Servant of God.'"—Correa, ii. 726.

1544.—"... apud Praefectum locis illis quem MUDELIAREM vulgo nuncupant."—S. Fr. Xaverii Epistolae, 129.

1607.—"On the part of Dom Fernando MODELIAR, a native of Ceylon, I have received a petition stating his services."—Letter of K. Philip III. in L. das Monções, 135.

1616.—"These entered the Kingdom of Candy ... and had an encounter with the enemy at Matalé, where they cut off five-and-thirty heads of their people and took certain araches and MODILIARES who are chiefs among them, and who had ... deserted and gone over to the enemy as is the way of the Chingalas."—Bocarro, 495.

1648.—"The 5 August followed from Candy the MODELIAR, or Great Captain ... in order to inspect the ships."—Van Spilbergen's Voyage, 33.

1685.—"The MODELIARES ... and other great men among them put on a shirt and doublet, which those of low caste may not wear."—Ribeiro, f. 46.

1708.—"Mon Révérend Père. Vous êtes tellement accoûtumé à vous mêler des affaires de la Compagnie, que non obstant la prière que je vous ai réitérée plusieurs fois de nous laisser en repos, je ne suis pas étonné si vous prenez parti dans l'affaire de Lazaro ci-devant courtier et MODELIAR de la Compagnie."—Norbert, Mémoires, i. 274.

1726.—"MODELYAAR. This is the same as Captain."—Valentijn (Ceylon), Names of Officers, &c., 9.

1810.—"We ... arrived at Barbareen about two o'clock, where we found that the provident MODELIAR had erected a beautiful rest-house for us, and prepared an excellent collation."—Maria Graham, 98.

MOFUSSIL, s., also used adjectively, "The provinces,"—the country stations and districts, as contra-distinguished from 'the Presidency'; or, relatively, the rural localities of a district as contra-distinguished from the SUDDER or chief station, which is the residence of the district authorities. Thus if, in Calcutta, one talks of the Mofussil, he means anywhere in Bengal out of Calcutta; if one at Benares talks of going into the Mofussil, he means going anywhere in the Benares division or district (as the case might be) out of the city and station of Benares. And so over India. The word (Hind. from Ar.) mufaṣṣal means properly 'separate, detailed, particular,' and hence 'provincial,' as mufaṣṣal 'adālat, a 'provincial court of justice.' This indicates the way in which the word came to have the meaning attached to it.

About 1845 a clever, free-and-easy newspaper, under the name of The MOFUSSILITE, was started at Meerut, by Mr. John Lang, author of Too Clever by Half, &c., and endured for many years.

1781.—"... a gentleman lately arrived from the MOUSSEL" (plainly a misprint).—Hicky's Bengal Gazette, March 31.

" "A gentleman in the MOFUSSIL, Mr. P., fell out of his chaise and broke his leg...."—Ibid., June 30.

1810.—"Either in the Presidency or in the MOFUSSIL...."—Williamson, V. M. ii. 499.

1836.—"... the MOFUSSIL newspapers which I have seen, though generally disposed to cavil at all the acts of the Government, have often spoken favourably of the measure."—T. B. Macaulay, in Life, &c. i. 399.

MOGUL, n.p. This name should properly mean a person of the great nomad race of Mongols, called in Persia, &c., Mughals; but in India it has come, in connection with the nominally Mongol, though essentially rather Turk, family of Baber, to be applied to all foreign Mahommedans from the countries on the W. and N.W. of India, except the Pathāns. In fact these people themselves make a sharp distinction between the Mughal Irānī, of Pers. origin (who is a Shīah), and the M. Tūrānī of Turk origin (who is a Sunni). Beg is the characteristic affix of the Mughal's name, as Khān is of the Pathān's. Among the Mahommedans of S. India the Moguls or Mughals constitute a strongly marked caste. [They are also clearly distinguished in the Punjab and N.W.P.] In the quotation from Baber below, the name still retains its original application. The passage illustrates the tone in which Baber always speaks of his kindred of the Steppe, much as Lord Clyde used sometimes to speak of "confounded Scotchmen."

In Port. writers Mogol or Mogor is often used for "Hindostān," or the territory of the GREAT MOGUL.

1247.—"Terra quaedam est in partibus orientis ... quae MONGAL nominatur. Haec terra quondam populos quatuor habuit: unus Yeka MONGAL, id est magni Mongali...."—Joannis de Plano Carpini, Hist. Mongalorum, 645.

1253.—"Dicit nobis supradictus Coiac.... 'Nolite dicere quod dominus noster sit christianus. Non est christianus, sed MOAL'; quia enim nomen christianitatis videtur eis nomen cujusdem gentis ... volentes nomen suum, hoc est MOAL, exaltare super omne nomen, nec volunt vocari Tartari."—Itin. Willielmi de Rubruk, 259.

1298.—"... MUNGUL, a name sometimes applied to the Tartars."—Marco Polo, i. 276 (2nd ed.).

c. 1300.—"Ipsi verò dicunt se descendisse de Gog et Magog. Vnde ipsi dicuntur MOGOLI, quasi corrupto vocabulo Magogoli."—Ricoldus de Monte Crucis, in Per. Quatuor, p. 118.

c. 1308.—"Ὁ δὲ Νογᾶς ... ὃς ἅμα πλείσταις δυνάμεσιν ἐξ ὁμογενῶν Τοχάρων, οὕς αὐτοι Μουγουλίους λέγουσι, ἔξαποσταλεις ἐκ τῶν κατὰ τὰς Κασπίας ἀρχόντων τοῦ γένους οὕς Κάνιδας στομάζουσιν."—Georg. Pachymeres, de Mich. Palaeol., lib. v.

c. 1340.—"In the first place from Tana to Gintarchan may be 25 days with an ox-waggon, and from 10 to 12 days with a horse-waggon. On the road you will find plenty of MOCCOLS, that is to say of armed troopers."—Pegolotti, on the Land Route to Cathay, in Cathay, &c., ii. 287.

1404.—"And the territory of this empire of Samarkand is called the territory of MOGALIA, and the language thereof is called MUGALIA, and they don't understand this language on this side of the River (the Oxus) ... for the character which is used by those of Samarkand beyond the river is not understood or read by those on this side the river; and they call that character MONGALI, and the Emperor keeps by him certain scribes who can read and write this MOGALI character."—Clavijo, § ciii. (Comp. Markham, 119-120.)

c. 1500.—"The MOGHUL troops, which had come to my assistance, did not attempt to fight, but instead of fighting, betook themselves to dismounting and plundering my own people. Nor is this a solitary instance; such is the uniform practice of these wretches the MOGHULS; if they defeat the enemy they instantly seize the booty; if they are defeated, they plunder and dismount their own allies, and betide what may, carry off the spoil."—Baber, 93.

1534.—"And whilst Badur was there in the hills engaged with his pleasures and luxury, there came to him a messenger from the King of the MOGORES of the kingdom of Dely, called Bobor Mirza."—Correa, iii. 571.

1536.—"Dicti MOGORES vel à populis Persarum MOGORIBUS, vel quod nunc Turkae à Persis MOGORES appellantur."—Letter from K. John III. to Pope Paul III.

1555.—"Tartaria, otherwyse called MONGAL, As Vincentius wryteth, is in that parte of the earthe, where the Easte and the northe joine together."—W. Watreman, Fardle of Faciouns.

1563.—"This Kingdom of Dely is very far inland, for the northern part of it marches with the territory of Coraçone (Khorasan).... The MOGORES, whom we call Tartars, conquered it more than 30 years ago...."—Garcia, f. 34.

[c. 1590.—"In his time (Naṣiru'ddīn Maḥmūd) the MUGHALS entered the Panjab ..."—Āīn. ed. Jarrett, ii. 304.

[c. 1610.—"The greatest ships come from the coast of Persia, Arabia, MOGOR."—Pyrard de Laval, Hak. Soc. i. 258.

[1636.—India "containeth many Provinces and Realmes, as Cambaiar, Delli, Decan, Bishagar, Malabar, Narsingar, Orixa, Bengala, Sanga, MOGORES, Tipura, Gourous, Ava, Pegua, Aurea Chersonesus, Sina, Camboia, and Campaa."—T. Blundevil, Description and use of Plancius his Mappe, in Eight Treatises, ed. 1626, p. 547.]

c. 1650.—"Now shall I tell how the royal house arose in the land of the MONGHOL.... And the Ruler (Chingiz Khan) said, ... 'I will that this people Bèdè, resembling a precious crystal, which even to the completion of my enterprise hath shown the greatest fidelity in every peril, shall take the name of Köke (Blue) MONGHOL...."—Sanang Setzen, by Schmidt, pp. 57 and 71.

1741.—"Ao mesmo tempo que a paz se ajusterou entre os referidos generaes MOGOR e Marata."—Bosquejo das Possessões Portug. na Oriente—Documentos Comprovativos, iii. 21 (Lisbon 1853).

1764.—"Whatever MOGULS, whether Oranies or Tooranies, come to offer their services should be received on the aforesaid terms."—Paper of Articles sent to Major Munro by the Nawab, in Long, 360.

c. 1773.—"... the news-writers of Rai Droog frequently wrote to the Nawaub ... that the besieged Naik ... had attacked the batteries of the besiegers, and had killed a great number of the MOGHULS."—H. of Hydur, 317.

1781.—"Wanted an European or MOGUL Coachman that can drive four Horses in hand."—India Gazette, June 30.

1800.—"I pushed forward the whole of the Mahratta and MOGUL cavalry in one body...."—Sir A. Wellesley to Munro, Munro's Life, i. 268.

1803.—"The MOGUL horse do not appear very active; otherwise they ought certainly to keep the PINDARRIES at a greater distance."—Wellington, ii. 281.

In these last two quotations the term is applied distinctively to Hyderabad troops.

1855.—"The MOGULS and others, who at the present day settle in the country, intermarrying with these people (Burmese Mahommedans) speedily sink into the same practical heterodoxies."—Yule, Mission to Ava, 151.

MOGUL, THE GREAT, n.p. Sometimes 'The Mogul' simply. The name by which the Kings of Delhi of the House of Timur were popularly styled, first by the Portuguese (o grão Mogor) and after them by Europeans generally. It was analogous to THE SOPHY (q.v.), as applied to the Kings of Persia, or to the 'Great Turk' applied to the Sultan of Turkey. Indeed the latter phrase was probably the model of the present one. As noticed under the preceding article, MOGOL, MOGOR, and also Mogolistan are applied among old writers to the dominions of the Great Mogul. We have found no native idiom precisely suggesting the latter title; but Mughal is thus used in the Araish-i-Mahfil below, and Mogolistan must have been in some native use, for it is a form that Europeans would not have invented. (See quotations from Thevenot here and under MOHWA.)

c. 1563.—"Ma già dodici anni il GRAN MAGOL Re Moro d'Agra et del Deli ... si è impatronito di tutto il Regno de Cambaia."—V. di Messer Cesare Federici, in Ramusio, iii.

1572.—

"A este o Rei Cambayco soberbissimo Fortaleza darà na rica Dio; Porque contra o MOGOR poderosissimo Lhe ajude a defender o senhorio...." Camões, x. 64.

By Burton:

"To him Cambaya's King, that haughtiest Moor, shall yield in wealthy Diu the famous fort that he may gain against the GRAND MOGOR 'spite his stupendous power, your firm support...."

[1609.—"When you shall repair to the GREATE MAGULL."—Birdwood, First Letter Book, 325.

[1612.—"Hecchabar (Akbar) the last deceased Emperor of Hindustan, the father of the present GREAT MOGUL."—Danvers, Letters, i. 163.]

1615.—"Nam praeter MAGNUM MOGOR cui hodie potissima illius pars subjecta est; qui tum quidem Mahometicae religioni deditus erat, quamuis eam modo cane et angue peius detestetur, vix scio an illius alius rex Mahometana sacra coleret."—Jarric, i. 58.

" "... prosecuting my travaile by land, I entered the confines of the GREAT MOGOR...."—De Monfart, 15.

1616.—"It (Chitor) is in the country of one Rama, a Prince newly subdued by the MOGUL."—Sir T. Roe. [In Hak. Soc. (i. 102) for "the MOGUL" the reading is "this King."]

" "The Seuerall Kingdomes and Prouinces subject to the GREAT MOGOLL Sha Selin Gehangier."—Idem. in Purchas, i. 578.

" "... the base cowardice of which people hath made The GREAT MOGUL sometimes use this proverb, that one Portuguese would beat three of his people ... and he would further add that one Englishman would beat three Portuguese. The truth is that those Portuguese, especially those born in those Indian colonies, ... are a very low poor-spirited people...."—Terry, ed. 1777, 153.

[ " "... a copy of the articles granted by the GREAT MOGOLL may partly serve for precedent."—Foster, Letters, iv. 222.]

1623.—"The people are partly Gentile and partly Mahometan, but they live mingled together, and in harmony, because the GREAT MOGUL, to whom Guzerat is now subject ... although he is a Mahometan (yet not altogether that, as they say) makes no difference in his states between one kind of people and the other."—P. della Valle, ii. 510; [Hak. Soc. i. 30, where Mr. Grey reads "Gran Moghel"].

1644.—"The King of the inland country, on the confines of this island and fortress of Dlu, is the MOGOR, the greatest Prince in all the East."—Bocarro, MS.

1653.—"MOGOL est vn terme des Indes qui signifie blanc, et quand nous disons le GRAND MOGOL, que les Indiens appellent Schah Geanne Roy du monde, c'est qu'il est effectiuement blanc ... nous l'appellons grand Blanc ou GRAND MOGOL, comme nous appellons le Roy des Ottomans grand Turq."—De la Boullaye-le-Gouz, ed. 1657, pp. 549-550.

" "This Prince, having taken them all, made fourscore and two of them abjure their faith, who served him in his wars against the GREAT MOGOR, and were every one of them miserably slain in that expedition."—Cogan's Pinto, p. 25. The expression is not in Pinto's original, where it is Rey dos Mogores (cap. xx.).

c. 1663.—"Since it is the custom of Asia never to approach Great Persons with Empty Hands, when I had the Honour to kiss the Vest of the GREAT MOGOL Aureng Zebe, I presented him with Eight Roupees ..."—Bernier, E.T. p. 62; [ed. Constable, 200].

1665.—

"... Samarchand by Oxus, Temir's throne, To Paquin of Sinaean Kings; and thence To Agra and Lahor of GREAT MOGUL...." Paradise Lost, xi. 389-91.

c. 1665.—"L'Empire du GRAND-MOGOL, qu'on nomme particulierement le MOGOLISTAN, est le plus étendu et le plus puissant des Roiaumes des Indes.... Le GRAND-MOGOL vient en ligne directe de Tamerlan, dont les descendants qui se sont établis aux Indes, se sont fait appeller MOGOLS...."—Thevenot, v. 9.

1672.—"In these beasts the GREAT MOGUL takes his pleasure, and on a stately Elephant he rides in person to the arena where they fight."—Baldaeus (Germ. ed.), 21.

1673.—"It is the Flower of their Emperor's Titles to be called the GREAT MOGUL, Burrore (read Burrow, see Fryer's Index) MOGUL Podeshar, who ... is at present Auren Zeeb."—Fryer, 195.

1716.—"GRAM MOGOL. Is as much as to say 'Head and king of the Circumcised,' for MOGOL in the language of that country signifies circumcised" (!)—Bluteau, s.v.

1727.—"Having made what observations I could, of the Empire of Persia, I'll travel along the Seacoast towards Industan, or the GREAT MOGUL'S Empire."—A. Hamilton, i. 115, [ed. 1744].

1780.—"There are now six or seven fellows in the tent, gravely disputing whether Hyder is, or is not, the person commonly called in Europe the GREAT MOGUL."—Letter of T. Munro, in Life, i. 27.

1783.—"The first potentate sold by the Company for money, was the GREAT MOGUL—the descendant of Tamerlane."—Burke, Speech on Fox's E.I. Bill, iii. 458.

1786.—"That Shah Allum, the prince commonly called the GREAT MOGUL, or, by eminence, the King, is or lately was in possession of the ancient capital of Hindostan...."—Art. of Charge against Hastings, in Burke, vii. 189.

1807.—"L'Hindoustan est depuis quelque temps dominé par une multitude de petits souverains, qui s'arrachent l'un l'autre leurs possessions. Aucun d'eux ne reconnait comme il faut l'autorité légitime du MOGOL, si ce n'est cependant Messieurs les Anglais, lesquels n'ont pas cessé d'être soumis à son obéissance; en sort qu'actuellement, c'est à dire en 1222 (1807) ils reconnaissent l'autorité suprême d'Akbar Schah, fils de Schah Alam."—Afsos, Araish-i-Mahfil, quoted by Garcin de Tassy, Rel. Mus. 90.

MOGUL BREECHES, s. Apparently an early name for what we call LONG-DRAWERS or PYJAMAS (qq.v.).

1625.—"... let him have his shirt on and his MOGUL BREECHES; here are women in the house."—Beaumont & Fletcher, The Fair Maid of the Inn, iv. 2.

In a picture by Vandyke of William 1st Earl of Denbigh, belonging to the Duke of Hamilton, and exhibited at Edinburgh in July 1883, the subject is represented as out shooting, in a red striped shirt and pyjamas, no doubt the "Mogul breeches" of the period.

MOHUR, GOLD, s. The official name of the chief gold coin of British India, Hind. from Pers. muhr, a (metallic) seal, and thence a gold coin. It seems possible that the word is taken from mihr, 'the sun,' as one of the secondary meanings of that word is 'a golden circlet on the top of an umbrella, or the like' (Vullers). [Platts, on the contrary, identifies it with Skt. mudrā, 'a seal.']

The term muhr, as applied to a coin, appears to have been popular only and quasi-generic, not precise. But that to which it has been most usually applied, at least in recent centuries, is a coin which has always been in use since the foundation of the Mahommedan Empire in Hindustan by the Ghūrī Kings of Ghazni and their freedmen, circa A.D. 1200, tending to a standard weight of 100 ratis (see RUTTEE) of pure gold, or about 175 grains, thus equalling in weight, and probably intended then to equal ten times in value, the silver coin which has for more than three centuries been called RUPEE.

There is good ground for regarding this as the theory of the system.[165] But the gold coins, especially, have deviated from the theory considerably; a deviation which seems to have commenced with the violent innovations of Sultan Mahommed Tughlak (1325-1351), who raised the gold coin to 200 grains, and diminished the silver coin to 140 grains, a change which may have been connected with the enormous influx of gold into Upper India, from the plunder of the immemorial accumulations of the Peninsula in the first quarter of the 14th century. After this the coin again settled down in approximation to the old weight, insomuch that, on taking the weight of 46 different mohurs from the lists given in Prinsep's Tables, the average of pure gold is 167.22 grains.[166]

The first gold mohur struck by the Company's Government was issued in 1766, and declared to be a legal tender for 14 sicca rupees. The full weight of this coin was 179.66 grs., containing 149.72 grs. of gold. But it was impossible to render it current at the rate fixed; it was called in, and in 1769 a new mohur was issued to pass as legal tender for 16 sicca rupees. The weight of this was 190.773 grs. (according to Regn. of 1793, 190.894), and it contained 190.086 grs. of gold. Regulation xxxv. of 1793 declared these GOLD MOHURS to be a legal tender in all public and private transactions. Regn. xiv. of 1818 declared, among other things, that "it has been thought advisable to make a slight deduction in the intrinsic value of the GOLD MOHUR to be coined at this Presidency (Fort William), in order to raise the value of fine gold to fine silver, from the present rates of 1 to 14.861 to that of 1 to 15. The GOLD MOHUR will still continue to pass current at the rate of 16 rupees." The new gold mohur was to weigh 204.710 grs., containing fine gold 187.651 grs. Once more Act xvii. of 1835 declared that the only gold coin to be coined at Indian mints should be (with proportionate subdivisions) a GOLD MOHUR or "15 rupee piece" of the weight of 180 grs. troy, containing 165 grs. of pure gold; and declared also that no gold coin should thenceforward be a legal tender of payment in any of the territories of the E.I. Company. There has been since then no substantive change.

A friend (W. Simpson, the accomplished artist) was told in India that GOLD MOHUR was a corruption of gol, ('round') mohr, indicating a distinction from the square mohurs of some of the Delhi Kings. But this we take to be purely fanciful.

1690.—"The GOLD MOOR, or Gold Roupie, is valued generally at 14 of Silver; and the Silver Roupie at Two Shillings Three Pence."—Ovington, 219.

1726.—"There is here only also a State mint where GOLD MOORS, silver Ropyes, Peysen and other money are struck."—Valentijn, v. 166.

1758.—"80,000 rupees, and 4000 GOLD MOHURS, equivalent to 60,000 rupees, were the military chest for immediate expenses."—Orme, ed. 1803, ii. 364.

[1776.—"Thank you a thousand times for your present of a parcel of MORAHS."—Mrs. P. Francis, to her husband, in Francis Letters, i. 286.]

1779.—"I then took hold of his hand: then he (Francis) took out GOLD MOHURS: and offered to give them to me: I refused them; he said 'Take that (offering both his hands to me), 'twill make you great men, and I will give you 100 GOLD MOHURS more.'"—Evidence of Rambux Jemadar, on Trial of Grand v. Francis, quoted in Echoes of Old Calcutta, 228.

1785.—"Malver, hairdresser from Europe, proposes himself to the ladies of the settlement to dress Hair daily, at two GOLD MOHURS per month, in the latest fashion with gauze flowers, &c. He will also instruct the slaves at a moderate price."[167]—In Seton-Karr, i. 119.

1797.—"Notwithstanding he (the Nabob) was repeatedly told that I would accept nothing, he had prepared 5 lacs of rupees and 8000 GOLD MOHURS for me, of which I was to have 4 lacs, my attendants one, and your Ladyship the gold."—Letter in Mem. of Lord Teignmouth, i. 410.

1809.—"I instantly presented to her a nazur (see NUZZER) of nineteen GOLD MOHURS in a white handkerchief."—Lord Valentia, i. 100.

1811.—"Some of his fellow passengers ... offered to bet with him sixty GOLD MOHURS."—Morton's Life of Leyden, 83.

1829.—"I heard that a private of the Company's Foot Artillery passed the very noses of the prize-agents, with 500 GOLD MOHURS (sterling 1000_l._) in his hat or cap."—John Shipp, ii. 226.

[c. 1847.—"The widow is vexed out of patience, because her daughter Maria has got a place beside Cambric, the penniless curate, and not by Colonel GOLDMORE, the rich widower from India."—Thackeray, Book of Snobs, ed. 1879, p. 71.]

MOHURRER, MOHRER, &c., s. A writer in a native language. Ar. muḥarrir, 'an elegant, correct writer.' The word occurs in Grose (c. 1760) as 'MOOREIS, writers.'

[1765.—"This is not only the custom of the heads, but is followed by every petty MOHOOREE in each office."—Verelst, View of Bengal, App. 217.]

MOHURRUM, s. Ar. Muḥarram ('sacer'), properly the name of the 1st month of the Mahommedan lunar year. But in India the term is applied to the period of fasting and public mourning observed during that month in commemoration of the death of Hassan and of his brother Husain (A.D. 669 and 680) and which terminates in the ceremonies of the 'Ashūrā-a, commonly however known in India as "the Mohurrum." For a full account of these ceremonies see Herklots, Qanoon-e-Islam, 2nd ed. 98-148. [Perry, Miracle Play of Hasan and Husain.] And see in this book HOBSON-JOBSON.

1869.—"Fête du Martyre de Huçain.... On la nomme généralement MUHARRAM du nom du mois ... et plus spécialement Dahâ, mot persan dérivé de dah 'dix,' ... les dénominations viennent de ce que la fête de Huçain dure dix jours."—Garcin de Tassy, Rel. Mus. p. 31.

MOHWA, MHOWA, MOWA, s. Hind. &c. mahuā, mahwā, Skt. madhūka, the large oak-like tree Bassia latifolia,[168] Roxb. (N. O. Sapotaceae), also the flower of this tree from which a spirit is distilled and the spirit itself. It is said that the Mahwā flower is now largely exported to France for the manufacture of liqueurs. The tree, in groups, or singly, is common all over Central India in the lower lands, and, more sparsely, in the Gangetic provinces. "It abounds in Guzerat. When the flowers are falling the Hill-men camp under the trees to collect them. And it is a common practice to sit perched on one of the trees in order to shoot the large deer which come to feed on the fallen MHOWA. The timber is strong and durable." (M.-Gen. R. H. Keatinge).

c. 1665.—"Les bornes du MOGOLISTAN et de Golconde sont plantées à environ un lieue et demie de Calvar. Ce sont des arbres qu'on appelle MAHOUA; ils marquent la dernière terre du MOGOL."—Thevenot, v. 200.

1810.—"... the number of shops where Toddy, MOWAH, Pariah Arrack, &c., are served out, absolutely incalculable."—Williamson, V. M. ii. 153.

1814.—"The MOWAH ... attains the size of an English oak ... and from the beauty of its foliage, makes a conspicuous appearance in the landscape."—Forbes, Or. Mem. ii. 452; [2nd ed. ii. 261, reading MAWAH].

1871.—"The flower ... possesses considerable substance, and a sweet but sickly taste and smell. It is a favourite article of food with all the wild tribes, and the lower classes of Hindus; but its main use is in the distillation of ardent spirits, most of what is consumed being MHOWA. The spirit, when well made, and mellowed by age, is by no means of despicable quality, resembling in some degree Irish whisky. The luscious flowers are no less a favourite food of the brute creation than of man...."—Forsyth, Highlands of C. India, 75.

MOLE-ISLAM, n.p. The title applied to a certain class of rustic Mahommedans or quasi-Mahommedans in Guzerat, said to have been forcibly converted in the time of the famous Sultan Mahmūd Bigarra, Butler's "Prince of Cambay." We are ignorant of the true orthography or meaning of the term. [In the E. Panjab the descendants of Jats forcibly converted to Islam are known as Mūla, or 'unfortunate' (Ibbetson, Punjab Ethnography, p. 142). The word is derived from the nakshatra or lunar asterism of Mūl, to be born in which is considered specially unlucky.]

[1808.—"MOLE-ISLAMS." See under GRASSIA.]

MOLEY, s. A kind of (so-called wet) curry used in the Madras Presidency, a large amount of coco-nut being one of the ingredients. The word is a corruption of 'Malay'; the dish being simply a bad imitation of one used by the Malays.

[1885.—"Regarding the Ceylon curry.... It is known by some as the 'Malay curry,' and it is closely allied to the MOLI of the Tamils of Southern India." Then follows the recipe.—Wyvern, Culinary Jottings, 5th ed., 299.]

MOLLY, or (better) MALLEE, s. Hind. mālī, Skt. mālika, 'a garland-maker,' or a member of the caste which furnishes gardeners. We sometimes have heard a lady from the Bengal Presidency speak of the daily homage of "the MOLLY with his DOLLY," viz. of the mālī with his dālī.

1759.—In a Calcutta wages tariff of this year we find—

"House MOLLY 4 Rs." In Long, 182.

MOLUCCAS, n.p. The 'Spice Islands,' strictly speaking the five Clove Islands, lying to the west of Gilolo, and by name Ternate (Tarnāti), Tidore (Tidori), Mortir, Makian, and Bachian. [See Mr. Gray's note on Pyrard de Laval, Hak. Soc. ii. 166.] But the application of the name has been extended to all the islands under Dutch rule, between Celebes and N. Guinea. There is a Dutch governor residing at Amboyna, and the islands are divided into 4 residencies, viz. Amboyna, Banda, Ternate and Manado. The origin of the name Molucca, or Maluco as the Portuguese called it, is not recorded; but it must have been that by which the islands were known to the native traders at the time of the Portuguese discoveries. The early accounts often dwell on the fact that each island (at least three of them) had a king of its own. Possibly they got the (Ar.) name of Jazīrat-al-Mulūk, 'The Isles of the Kings.'

Valentijn probably entertained the same view of the derivation. He begins his account of the islands by saying:

"There are many who have written of the MOLUCCOS and of their Kings, but we have hitherto met with no writer who has given an exact view of the subject" (Deel, i. Mol. 3).

And on the next page he says:

"For what reason they have been called Moluccos we shall not here say; for we shall do this circumstantially when we shall speak of the MOLUKSE Kings and their customs."

But we have been unable to find the fulfilment of this intention, though probably it exists in that continent of a work somewhere. We have also seen a paper by a writer who draws much from the quarry of Valentijn. This is an article by Dr. Van Muschenbroek in the Proceedings of the International Congress of Geog. at Venice in 1881 (ii. pp. 596, seqq.), in which he traces the name to the same origin. He appears to imply that the chiefs were known among themselves as MOLOKOS, and that this term was substituted for the indigenous Kolano, or King. "Ce nom, ce titre restèrent, et furent même peu à peu employés, non seulement pour les chefs, mais aussi pour l'état même. A la longue les îles et les états des MOLOKOS devinrent les îles et les états MOLOKOS." There is a good deal that is questionable, however, in this writer's deductions and etymologies. [Mr. Skeat remarks: "The islands appear to be mentioned in the Chinese history of the Tang dynasty (618-696) as MI-LI-KU, and if this be so the name is perhaps too old to be Arab."]

c. 1430.—"Has (Javas) ultra xv dierum cursu duae reperiuntur insulae, orientem versus. Altera Sandai appellatur, in qua nuces muscatae et maces; altera Bandam nomine, in qua sola gariofali producuntur."—N. Conti, in Poggius.

1501.—The earliest mention of these islands by this name, that we know, is in a letter of Amerigo Vespucci (quoted under CANHAMEIRA), who in 1501, among the places heard of by Cabral's fleet, mentions the MALUCHE ISLANDS.

1510.—"We disembarked in the island of MONOCH, which is much smaller than Bandan; but the people are worse.... Here the cloves grow, and in many other neighbouring islands, but they are small and uninhabited."—Varthema, 246.

1514.—"Further on is Timor, whence comes sandalwood, both the white and the red; and further on still are the MALUC, whence come the cloves. The bark of these trees I am sending you; an excellent thing it is; and so are the flowers."—Letter of Giovanni da Empoli, in Archivio Stor. Ital., p. 81.

1515.—"From Malacca ships and junks are come with a great quantity of spice, cloves, mace, nut (meg), sandalwood, and other rich things. They have discovered the FIVE ISLANDS OF CLOVES; two Portuguese are lords of them, and rule the land with the rod. 'Tis a land of much meat, oranges, lemons, and clove-trees, which grow there of their own accord, just as trees in the woods with us.... God be praised for such favour, and such grand things!"—Another letter of do., ibid. pp. 85-86.

1516.—"Beyond these islands, 25 leagues towards the north-east, there are five islands, one before the other, which are called the islands of MALUCO, in which all the cloves grow.... Their Kings are Moors, and the first of them is called Bachan, the second Maquian, the third is called Motil, the fourth Tidory, and the fifth Ternaty ... every year the people of Malaca and Java come to these islands to ship cloves...."—Barbosa, 201-202.

1518.—"And it was the monsoon for MALUCO, dom Aleixo despatched dom Tristram de Meneses thither, to establish the trade in clove, carrying letters from the King of Portugal, and presents for the Kings of the isles of Ternate and Tidore where the clove grows."—Correa, ii. 552.

1521.—"Wednesday the 6th of November ... we discovered four other rather high islands at a distance of 14 leagues towards the east. The pilot who had remained with us told us these were the MALUCO islands, for which we gave thanks to God, and to comfort ourselves we discharged all our artillery ... since we had passed 27 months all but two days always in search of MALUCO."—Pigafetta, Voyage of Magellan, Hak. Soc. 124.

1553.—"We know by our voyages that this part is occupied by sea and by land cut up into many thousand islands, these together, sea and islands, embracing a great part of the circuit of the Earth ... and in the midst of this great multitude of islands are those called MALUCO.... (These) five islands called MALUCO ... stand all within sight of one another embracing a distance of 25 leagues ... we do not call them MALUCO because they have no other names; and we call them five because in that number the clove grows naturally.... Moreover we call them in combination MALUCO, as here among us we speak of the Canaries, the Terceiras, the Cabo-Verde islands, including under these names many islands each of which has a name of its own."—Barros, III. v. 5.

" "... li molti viaggi dalla città di Lisbona, e dal mar rosso a Calicut, et insino alle MOLUCCHE, done nascono le spezierie."—G. B. Ramusio, Pref. sopra il Libro del Magn. M. Marco Polo.

1665.—

"As when far off at sea a fleet descried Hangs in the clouds, by equinoctial winds Close sailing from Bengala, or the Isles Of Ternate and Tidore, whence merchants bring Their spicy drugs...." Paradise Lost, ii. 636-640.

MONE, n.p. Mōn or Mūn, the name by which the people who formerly occupied Pegu, and whom we call Talaing, called themselves. See TALAING.

MONEGAR, s. The title of the headman of a village in the Tamil country; the same as pāṭīl (see PATEL) in the Deccan, &c. The word is Tamil maṇi yakkāran, 'an overseer,' maniyam, 'superintendence.'

1707.—"Ego Petrus MANICAREN, id est Villarum Inspector...."—In Norbert, Mem. i. 390, note.

1717.—"Towns and villages are governed by inferior Officers ... MANIAKARER (Mayors or Bailiffs) who hear the complaints."—_Phillips, Account_, &c., 83.

1800.—"In each Hobly, for every thousand Pagodas (335_l._ 15_s._ 10¼_d._) rent that he pays, there is also a MUNEGAR, or a Tahsildar (see TAHSEELDAR) as he is called by the Mussulmans."—Buchanan's Mysore, &c., i. 276.

MONKEY-BREAD TREE, s. The Baobab, Adansonia digitata, L. "a fantastic-looking tree with immense elephantine stem and small twisted branches, laden in the rains with large white flowers; found all along the coast of Western India, but whether introduced by the Mahommedans from Africa, or by ocean-currents wafting its large light fruit, full of seed, across from shore to shore, is a nice speculation. A sailor once picked up a large seedy fruit in the Indian Ocean off Bombay, and brought it to me. It was very rotten, but I planted the seeds. It turned out to be Kigelia pinnata of E. Africa, and propagated so rapidly that in a few years I introduced it all over the Bombay Presidency. The Baobab however is generally found most abundant about the old ports frequented by the early Mahommedan traders." (Sir G. Birdwood, MS.) We may add that it occurs sparsely about Allahabad, where it was introduced apparently in the Mogul time; and in the Gangetic valley as far E. as Calcutta, but always planted. There are, or were, noble specimens in the Botanic Gardens at Calcutta, and in Mr. Arthur Grote's garden at Alipūr. [See Watt, Econ. Dict. i. 105.]

MONSOON, s. The name given to the periodical winds of the Indian seas, and of the seasons which they affect and characterize. The original word is the Ar. mausim, 'season,' which the Portuguese corrupted into monção, and our people into monsoon. Dictionaries (except Dr. Badger's) do not apparently give the Arabic word mausim the technical sense of monsoon. But there can be no doubt that it had that sense among the Arab pilots from whom the Portuguese adopted the word. This is shown by the quotations from the Turkish Admiral Sidi 'Ali. "The rationale of the term is well put in the Beirūt Moḥīt, which says: 'Mausim is used of anything that comes round but once a year, like the festivals. In Lebanon the mausim is the season of working with the silk,'—which is the important season there, as the season of navigation is in Yemen." (W. R. S.)

The Spaniards in America would seem to have a word for season in analogous use for a recurring wind, as may be gathered from Tom Cringle.[169] The Venetian, Leonardo Ca' Masser (below) calls the monsoons li tempi. And the quotation from Garcia De Orta shows that in his time the Portuguese sometimes used the word for season without any apparent reference to the wind. Though MONÇÃO is general with the Portuguese writers of the 16th century, the historian Diogo de Couto always writes MOUÇÃO, and it is possible that the n came in, as in some other cases, by a habitual misreading of the written u for n. Linschoten in Dutch (1596) has MONSSOYN and monssoen (p. 8; [Hak. Soc. i. 33]). It thus appears probable that we get our monsoon from the Dutch. The latter in modern times seem to have commonly adopted the French form MOUSSON. [Prof. Skeat traces our monsoon from Ital. monsone.] We see below (Ces. Feder.) that MONSOON was used as synonymous with "the half year," and so it is still in S. India.

1505.—"De qui passano el colfo de Colocut che sono leghe 800 de pacizo (? passeggio): aspettano li tempi che sono nel principio dell'Autuno, e con le cole fatte (?) passano."—Leonardo di Ca' Masser, 26.

[1512.—"... because the MAUÇAM for both the voyages is at one and the same time."—Albuquerque, Cartas, p. 30.]

1553.—"... and the more, because the voyage from that region of Malaca had to be made by the prevailing wind, which they call MONÇÃO, which was now near its end. If they should lose eight days they would have to wait at least three months for the return of the time to make the voyage."—Barros, Dec. II. liv. ii. cap. iv.

1554.—"The principal winds are four, according to the Arabs, ... but the pilots call them by names taken from the rising and setting of certain stars, and assign them certain limits within which they begin or attain their greatest strength, and cease. These winds, limited by space and time, are called MAUSIM."—The Mohit, by Sidi 'Ali Kapudān, in J. As. Soc. Beng. iii. 548.

" "Be it known that the ancient masters of navigation have fixed the time of the MONSOON (in orig. doubtless mausim), that is to say, the time of voyages at sea, according to the year of Yazdajird, and that the pilots of recent times follow their steps...." (Much detail on the MONSOONS follows.)—Ibid.

1563.—"The season (MONÇÃO) for these (i.e. mangoes) in the earlier localities we have in April, but in the other later ones in May and June; and sometimes they come as a rodolho (as we call it in our own country) in October and November."—Garcia, f. 134_v_.

1568.—"Come s'arriua in vna città la prima cosa si piglia vna casa a fitto, ò per mesi ò per anno, seconda che si disegnà di starui, e nel Pegù è costume di pigliarla per MOSON, cioè per sei mesi."—Ces. Federici, in Ramusio, iii. 394.

1585-6.—"But the other goods which come by sea have their fixed season, which here they call MONZÃO."—Sassetti, in De Gubernatis, p. 204.

1599.—"Ora nell' anno 1599, essendo venuta la MANSONE a proposito, si messero alla vela due navi Portoghesi, le quali eran venute dalla città di Goa in Amacao (see MACAO)."—Carletti, ii. 206.

c. 1610.—"Ces MONSSONS ou MUESSONS sont vents qui changent pour l'Esté ou pour l'Hyver de six mois en six mois."—Pyrard de Laval, i. 199; see also ii. 110; [Hak. Soc. i. 280; in i. 257 MONSONS; in ii. 175, 235, MUESONS].

[1615.—"I departed for Bantam having the time of the year and the opportunity of the MONETHSONE."—Foster, Letters, iii. 268.

[ " "The MONTHSONE will else be spent."—Sir T. Roe, Hak. Soc. i. 36.]

1616.—"... quos Lusitani patriâ voce MONCAM indigetant."—Jarric, i. 46.

" Sir T. Roe writes MONSON.

1627.—"Of Corea hee was also told that there are many bogges, for which cause they have Waggons with broad wheeles, to keepe them from sinking, and obseruing the MONSON or season of the wind ... they have sayles fitted to these waggons, and so make their Voyages on land."—Purchas, Pilgrimage, 602.

1634.—

"Partio, vendo que o tempo em vao gastava, E que a MONÇÃO di navegar passava." Malaca, Conquistada, iv. 75.

1644.—"The winds that blow at Diu from the commencement of the change of season in September are sea-breezes, blowing from time to time from the S., S.W., or N.W., with no certain MONSAM wind, and at that time one can row across to Dio with great facility."—Bocarro, MS.

c. 1665.—"... and it would be true to say, that the sun advancing towards one Pole, causeth on that side two great regular currents, viz., that of the Sea, and that of the Air which maketh the MOUNSON_-wind_, as he causeth two opposite ones, when he returns towards the other Pole."—Bernier, E.T. 139-40; [ed. Constable, 436; see also 109].

1673.—"The northern MONSOONS (if I may so say, being the name imposed by the first Observers, i.e. MOTIONES) lasting hither."—Fryer, 10.

" "A constellation by the Portugals called Rabodel Elephanto (see ELEPHANTA, B.) known by the breaking up of the MUNSOONS, which is the last Flory this Season makes."—Ibid. 48. He has also MOSSOONS or MONSOONS, 46.

1690.—"Two MUSSOUNS are the Age of a Man."—Bombay Proverb in Ovington's Voyage, 142.

[ " "MUSSOANS." See under ELEPHANTA, B.]

1696.—"We thought it most advisable to remain here, till the next MOSSOON."—Bowyear, in Dalrymple, i. 87.

1783.—"From the Malay word MOOSSIN, which signifies season."—Forrest, V. to Mergui, 95.

" "Their prey is lodged in England; and the cries of India are given to seas and winds, to be blown about, in every breaking up of the MONSOON, over a remote and unhearing ocean."—Burke's Speech on Fox's E.I. Bill, in Works, iii. 468.

[MOOBAREK, adj. Ar. mubārak, 'blessed, happy'; as an interjection, 'Welcome!' 'Congratulations to you!'

[1617.—"... a present ... is called MOMBARECK, good Newes, or good Successe."—Sir T. Roe, Hak. Soc. ii. 413.

[1812.—"Bombareek ... which by sailors is also called BOMBAY ROCK, is derived originally from 'MOOBAREK,' 'happy, fortunate.'"—Morier, Journey through Persia, 6.]

MOOCHULKA, s. Hind. muchalkā or muchalka. A written obligation or bond. For technical uses see Wilson. The word is apparently Turki or Mongol.

c. 1267.—"Five days thereafter judgment was held on Husamuddin the astrologer, who had executed a MUCHILKAI that the death of the Khalif would be the calamity of the world."—Hammer's Golden Horde, 166.

c. 1280.—"When he (Kubilai Kaan) approached his 70th year, he desired to raise in his own lifetime, his son Chimkin to be his representative and declared successor.... The chiefs ... represented ... that though the measure ... was not in accordance with the Yasa and customs of the world-conquering hero Chinghiz Kaan, yet they would grant a MUCHILKA in favour of Chimkin's Kaanship."—Wassáf's History, Germ. by Hammer, 46.

c. 1360.—"He shall in all divisions and districts execute MUCHILKAS to lay no burden on the subjects by extraordinary imposts, and irregular exaction of supplies."—Form of the Warrant of a Territorial Governor under the Mongols, in the above, App. p. 468.

1818.—"You were present at the India Board when Lord B—— told me that I should have 10,000 pagodas per annum, and all my expenses paid.... I never thought of taking a MUCHALKA from Lord B——, because I certainly never suspected that my expenses would ... have been restricted to 500 pagodas, a sum which hardly pays my servants and equipage."—Munro to Malcolm, in Munro's Life, &c., iii. 257.

MOOCHY, s. One who works in leather, either as shoemaker or saddler. It is the name of a low caste, Hind. mochī. The name and caste are also found in S. India, Telug. muchche. These, too, are workers in leather, but also are employed in painting, gilding, and upholsterer's work, &c.

[1815.—"Cow-stealing ... is also practised by ... the MOOTSHEE or Shoemaker cast."—Tytler, Considerations, i. 103.]

MOOKTEAR, s. Properly Hind. from Ar. mukhtār, 'chosen,' but corruptly mukhtyār. An authorised agent; an attorney. Mukhtyār-nāma, 'a power of attorney.'

1866.—"I wish he had been under the scaffolding when the roof of that new Cutcherry he is building fell in, and killed two MOOKHTARS."—The Dawk Bungalow (by G. O. Trevelyan), in Fraser's Mag. lxxiii. p. 218.

1878.—"These were the MOOKHTYARS, or Criminal Court attorneys, teaching the witnesses what to say in their respective cases, and suggesting answers to all possible questions, the whole thing having been previously rehearsed at the MOOKHTYAR'S house."—Life in the Mofussil, f. 90.

1885.—"The wily Bengali MUKTEARS, or attorneys, were the bane of the Hill Tracts, and I never relaxed in my efforts to banish them from the country."—Lt.-Col. T. Lewin, A Fly on the Wheel, p. 336.

MOOLLAH, s. Hind. mullā, corr. from Ar. maulā, a der. from wilā, 'propinquity.' This is the legal bond which still connects a former owner with his manumitted slave; and in virtue of this bond the patron and client are both called maulā. The idea of patronage is in the other senses; and the word comes to mean eventually 'a learned man, a teacher, a doctor of the Law.' In India it is used in these senses, and for a man who reads the Ḳorān in a house for 40 days after a death. When oaths were administered on the Ḳorān, the servitor who held the book was called Mullā Ḳorānī. Mullā is also in India the usual Mussulman term for 'a schoolmaster.'

1616.—"Their MOOLAAS employ much of their time like Scriueners to doe businesse for others."—Terry, in Purchas, ii. 1476.

[1617.—"He had shewed it to his MULAIES."—Sir T. Roe, Hak. Soc. ii. 417.]

1638.—"While the Body is let down into the grave, the kindred mutter certain Prayers between their Teeth, and that done all the company returns to the house of the deceased, where the MOLLAS continue their Prayers for his Soul, for the space of two or three days...."—Mandelslo, E.T. 63.

1673.—"At funerals, the MULLAHS or Priests make Orations or Sermons, after a Lesson read out of the Alchoran."—Fryer, 94.

1680.—"The old MULLA having been discharged for misconduct, another by name Cozzee (see CAZEE) Mahmud entertained on a salary of 5 Pagodas per mensem, his duties consisting of the business of writing letters, &c., in Persian, besides teaching the Persian language to such of the Company's servants as shall desire to learn it."—Ft. St. Geo. Consn. March 11. Notes and Exts. No. iii. p. 12; [also see Pringle, Diary, Ft. St. Geo., 1st ser. ii. 2, with note].

1763.—"The MULLA in Indostan superintends the practice, and punishes the breach of religious duties."—Orme, reprint, i. 26.

1809.—"The British Government have, with their usual liberality, continued the allowance for the MOOLAHS to read the Koran."—Ld. Valentia, i. 423.

[1842.—See the classical account of the MOOLLAHS of Kabul in Elphinstone's Caubul, ed. 1842, i. 281 seqq.]

1879.—"... struck down by a fanatical crowd impelled by a fierce MOOLA."—Sat. Rev. No. 1251, p. 484.

MOOLVEE, s. Popular Hind. mulvī, Ar. maulavī, from same root as mullā (see MOOLLAH). A Judge, Doctor of the Law, &c. It is a usual prefix to the names of learned men and professors of law and literature. (See LAW-OFFICER.)

1784.—

"A Pundit in Bengal or MOLAVEE May daily see a carcase burn; But you can't furnish for the soul of ye A dirge sans ashes and an urn." N. B. Halhed, see Calc. Review, xxvi. 79.

MOONAUL, s. Hind. munāl or monāl (it seems to be in no dictionary); [Platts gives "Munāl (dialec.)"]. The Lopophorus Impeyanus, most splendid perhaps of all game-birds, rivalling the brilliancy of hue, and the metallic lustre of the humming-birds on the scale of the turkey. "This splendid pheasant is found throughout the whole extent of the Himalayas, from the hills bordering Afghanistan as far east as Sikkim, and probably also to Bootan" (Jerdon). "In the autumnal and winter months numbers are generally collected in the same quarter of the forest, though often so widely scattered that each bird appears to be alone" (Ibid.). Can this last circumstance point to the etymology of the name as connected with Skt. muni, 'an eremite'?

It was pointed out in a note on Marco Polo (1st ed. i. 246, 2nd ed. i. 272), that the extract which is given below from Aelian undoubtedly refers to the Munāl. We have recently found that this indication had been anticipated by G. Cuvier, in a note on Pliny (tom. vii. p. 409 of ed. Ajasson de Grandsagne, Paris, 1830). It appears from Jerdon that Monaul is popularly applied by Europeans at Darjeeling to the Sikkim horned pheasant Ceriornis satyra, otherwise sometimes called 'ARGUS PHEASANT' (q.v.).

c. A.D. 350.—"Cocks too are produced there of a kind bigger than any others. These have a crest, but instead of being red like the crest of our cocks, this is variegated like a coronet of flowers. The tail-feathers moreover are not arched, or bent into a curve (like a cock's), but flattened out. And this tail they trail after them as a peacock does, unless when they erect it, and set it up. And the plumage of these Indian cocks is golden, and dark blue, and of the hue of the emerald."—De Nat. Animal. xvi. 2.

MOON BLINDNESS. This affection of the eyes is commonly believed to be produced by sleeping exposed to the full light of the moon. There is great difference of opinion as to the facts, some quoting experience as incontrovertible, others regarding the thing merely as a vulgar prejudice, without substantial foundation. Some remarks will be found in Collingwood's Rambles of a Naturalist, pp. 308-10. The present writer has in the East twice suffered from a peculiar affection of the eyes and face, after being in sleep exposed to a bright moon, but he would hardly have used the term moon-blindness.

MOONG, MOONGO, s. Or. 'green-gram'; Hind. mūng, [Skt. mudga]. A kind of vetch (Phaseolus Mungo, L.) in very common use over India; according to Garcia the mesce (māsh?) of Avicenna. Garcia also says that it was popularly recommended as a diet for fever in the Deccan; [and is still recommended for this purpose by native physicians (Watt, Econ. Dict. vi. pt. i. 191)].

c. 1336.—"The MUNJ again is a kind of māsh, but its grains are oblong and the colour is light green. MUNJ is cooked along with rice, and eaten with butter. This is what they call Kichrī (see KEDGEREE), and it is the diet on which one breakfasts daily."—Ibn Batuta, iii. 131.

1557.—"The people were obliged to bring hay, and corn, and MUNGO, which is a certain species of seed that they feed horses with."—Albuquerque, Hak. Soc. ii. 132.

1563.—"Servant-maid.—That girl that you brought from the Deccan asks me for MUNGO, and says that in her country they give it them to eat, husked and boiled. Shall I give it her?

"Orta.—Give it her since she wishes it; but bread and a boiled chicken would be better. For she comes from a country where they eat bread, and not rice."—Garcia, f. 145.

[1611.—"... for 25 maunds MOONG, 28 m. 09 p."—Danvers, Letters, i. 141.]

MOONGA, MOOGA, s. Beng. mūgā. A kind of wild silk, the produce of Antheraea assama, collected and manufactured in Assam. ["Its Assamese name is said to be derived from the amber munga, 'coral' colour of the silk, and is frequently used to denote silk in general" (B. C. Allen, Mono. on the Silk Cloths of Assam, 1899, p. 10).] The quotations in elucidation of this word may claim some peculiar interest. That from Purchas is a modern illustration of the legends which reached the Roman Empire in classic times, of the growth of silk in the Seric jungles ("velleraque ut foliis depectunt tenuia Seres"); whilst that from Robert Lindsay may possibly throw light on the statements in the Periplus regarding an overland importation of silk from Thin into Gangetic India.

1626.—"... MOGA which is made of the bark of a certaine tree."—Purchas, Pilgrimage, 1005.

c. 1676.—"The kingdom of Asem is one of the best countries of all Asia.... There is a sort of Silk that is found under the trees, which is spun by a Creature like our Silk-worms, but rounder, and which lives all the year long under the trees. The Silks which are made of this Silk glist'n very much, but they fret presently."—Tavernier, E.T. ii. 187-8; [ed. Ball, ii. 281].

1680.—"The Floretta yarn or MUCKTA examined and priced.... The Agent informed 'that 'twas called Arundee, made neither with cotton nor silke, but of a kind of Herba spun by a worme that feeds upon the leaves of a stalke or tree called Arundee which bears a round prickly berry, of which oyle is made; vast quantitys of this cloth is made in the country about Goora Ghaut beyond Seripore Mercha; where the wormes are kept as silke wormes here; twill never come white, but will take any colour'" &c.—Ft. St. Geo. Agent on Tour, Consn., Nov. 19. In Notes and Exts., No. iii. p. 58. Araṇḍī or reṇḍī is the castor-oil plant, and this must be the Attacus ricini, Jones, called in H. Arrindi, Arrindiaria (?) and in Bengali Eri, Eria, Erindy, according to Forbes Watson's Nomenclature, No. 8002, p. 371. [For full details see Allen, Mono. pp. 5, seqq.].

1763.—"No duties have ever yet been paid on Lacks, MUGGA-dooties, and other goods brought from Assam."—In Van Sittart, i. 249.

c. 1778.—"... Silks of a coarse quality, called MOONGA dutties, are also brought from the frontiers of China for the Malay trade."—Hon. R. Lindsay, in Lives of the Lindsays, iii. 174.

MOONSHEE, s. Ar. munshi, but written in Hind. munshī. The verb insha, of which the Ar. word is the participle, means 'to educate' a youth, as well as 'to compose' a written document. Hence 'a secretary, a reader, an interpreter, a writer.' It is commonly applied by Europeans specifically to a native teacher of languages, especially of Arabic, Persian, and Urdū, though the application to a native amanuensis in those tongues, and to any respectable, well-educated native gentleman is also common. The word probably became tolerably familiar in Europe through a book of instruction in Persian bearing the name (viz. "The Persian Moonshee, by F. Gladwyn," 1st ed. s.a., but published in Calcutta about 1790-1800).

1777.—"MOONSHI. A writer or secretary."—Halhed, Code, 17.

1782.-"The young gentlemen exercise themselves in translating ... they reason and dispute with their MUNCHEES (tutors) in Persian and Moors...."—Price's Tracts, i. 89.

1785.—"Your letter, requiring our authority for engaging in your service a MÛNSHY, for the purpose of making out passports, and writing letters, has been received."—Tippoo's Letters, 67.

" "A lasting friendship was formed between the pupil and his MOONSHEE.... The MOONSHEE, who had become wealthy, afforded him yet more substantial evidence of his recollection, by earnestly requesting him, when on the point of leaving India, to accept a sum amounting to £1600, on the plea that the latter (i.e. Shore) had saved little."—Mem. of Lord Teignmouth, i. 32-33.

1814.—"They presented me with an address they had just composed in the Hindoo language, translated into Persian by the Durbar MUNSEE."—Forbes, Or. Mem. iii. 365; [2nd ed. ii. 344].

1817.—"Its authenticity was fully proved by ... and a Persian MOONSHEE who translated."—Mill, Hist. v. 127.

1828.—"... the great MOONSHI of State himself had applied the whole of his genius to selecting such flowers of language as would not fail to diffuse joy, when exhibited in those dark and dank regions of the north."—Hajji Baba in England, i. 39.

1867.—"When the Mirza grew up, he fell among English, and ended by carrying his rupees as a MOONSHEE, or a language-master, to that infidel people."—Select Writings of Viscount Strangford, i. 265.

MOONSIFF, s. Hind. from Ar. munṣif, 'one who does justice' (inṣāf), a judge. In British India it is the title of a native civil judge of the lowest grade. This office was first established in 1793.

1812.—"... MUNSIFS, or native justices."—Fifth Report, p. 32.

[1852.—"'I wonder, Mr. Deputy, if Providence had made you a MOONSIFF, instead of a Deputy Collector, whether you would have been more lenient in your strictures upon our system of civil justice?'"—Raikes, Notes on the N.W. Provinces, 155.]

MOOR, MOORMAN, s. (and adj. MOORISH). A Mahommedan; and so from the habitual use of the term (Mouro), by the Portuguese in India, particularly a Mahommedan inhabitant of India.

In the Middle Ages, to Europe generally, the Mahommedans were known as the Saracens. This is the word always used by Joinville, and by Marco Polo. Ibn Batuta also mentions the fact in a curious passage (ii. 425-6). At a later day, when the fear of the Ottoman had made itself felt in Europe, the word Turk was that which identified itself with the Moslem, and thus we have in the Collect for Good Friday,—"Jews, Turks, Infidels, and Heretics." But to the Spaniards and Portuguese, whose contact was with the Musulmans of Mauritania who had passed over and conquered the Peninsula, all Mahommedans were MOORS. So the Mahommedans whom the Portuguese met with on their voyages to India, on what coast soever, were alike styled Mouros; and from the Portuguese the use of this term, as synonymous with Mahommedan, passed to Hollanders and Englishmen.

The word then, as used by the Portuguese discoverers, referred to religion, and implied no nationality. It is plain indeed from many passages that the Moors of Calicut and Cochin were in the beginning of the 16th century people of mixt race, just as the MOPLAHS (q.v.) are now. The Arab, or Arabo-African occupants of Mozambique and Melinda, the Sumālis of Magadoxo, the Arabs and Persians of Kalhāt and Ormuz, the Boras of Guzerat, are all MOUROS to the Portuguese writers, though the more intelligent among these are quite conscious of the impropriety of the term. The Moors of the Malabar coast were middlemen, who had adopted a profession of Islam for their own convenience, and in order to minister for their own profit to the constant traffic of merchants from Ormuz and the Arabian ports. Similar influences still affect the boatmen of the same coast, among whom it has become a sort of custom in certain families, that different members should profess respectively Mahommedanism, Hinduism, and Christianity.

The use of the word Moor for Mahommedan died out pretty well among educated Europeans in the Bengal Presidency in the beginning of the last century, or even earlier, but probably held its ground a good deal longer among the British soldiery, whilst the adjective Moorish will be found in our quotations nearly as late as 1840. In Ceylon, the Straits, and the Dutch Colonies, the term Moorman for a Musalman is still in common use. Indeed the word is still employed by the servants of Madras officers in speaking of Mahommedans, or of a certain class of these. MORO is still applied at Manilla to the Musulman Malays.

1498.—"... the MOORS never came to the house when this trading went on, and we became aware that they wished us ill, insomuch that when any of us went ashore, in order to annoy us they would spit on the ground, and say 'Portugal, Portugal.'"—Roteiro de V. da Gama, p. 75.

" "For you must know, gentlemen, that from the moment you put into port here (Calecut) you caused disturbance of mind to the MOORS of this city, who are numerous and very powerful in the country."—Correa, Hak. Soc. 166.

1499.—"We reached a very large island called Sumatra, where pepper grows in considerable quantities.... The Chief is a MOOR, but speaking a different language."—Santo Stefano, in India in the XVth Cent. [7].

1505.—"Adì 28 zugno vene in Venetia insieme co Sier Alvixe de Boni un sclav MORO el qual portorono i spagnoli da la insula spagniola."—MS. in Museo Civico at Venice. Here the term MOOR is applied to a native of Hispaniola!

1513.—"Hanc (Malaccam) rex MAURUS gubernabat."—Emanuelis Regis Epistola, f. 1.

1553.—"And for the hatred in which they hold them, and for their abhorrence of the name of Frangue, they call in reproach the Christians of our parts of the world Frangues (see FIRINGHEE), just as we improperly call them again Moors."—Barros, IV. iv. 16.

c. 1560.—"When we lay at Fuquien, we did see certain MOORES, who knew so little of their secte that they could say nothing else but that Mahomet was a MOORE, my father was a MOORE, and I am a MOORE."—Reports of the Province of China, done into English by R. Willes, in Hakl. ii. 557.

1563.—"And as to what you say of Ludovico Vartomano, I have spoken both here and in Portugal, with people who knew him here in India, and they told me that he went about here in the garb of a MOOR, and that he came back among us doing penance for his sins; and that the man never went further than Calecut and Cochin, nor indeed did we at that time navigate those seas that we now navigate."—Garcia, f. 30.

1569.—"... always whereas I have spoken of Gentiles is to be understood Idolaters, and whereas I speak of MOORES, I mean Mahomets secte."—Caesar Frederike, in Hakl. ii. 359.

1610.—"The King was fled for feare of the King of Makasar, who ... would force the King to turne MOORE, for he is a Gentile."—Midleton, in Purchas, i. 239.

1611.—"Les MORES du pay faisoiẽt courir le bruict, que les notres avoient esté battus."—Wytfliet, H. des Indes, iii. 9.

1648.—"King Jangier (Jehāngīr) used to make use of a reproach: That one Portugees was better than three MOORS, and one Hollander or Englishman better than two Portugees."—Van Twist, 59.

c. 1665.—"Il y en a de MORES et de Gentils Raspoutes (see RAJPOOT) parce que je savois qu'ils servent mieux que les MORES qui sont superbes, et ne veulent pas qu'on se plaigne d'eux, quelque sotise ou quelque tromperie qu'ils fassent."—Thevenot, v. 217.

1673.—"Their Crew were all MOORS (by which Word hereafter must be meant those of the Mahometan faith) apparell'd all in white."—Fryer, p. 24.

" "They are a Shame to our Sailors, who can hardly ever work without horrid Oaths and hideous Cursing and Imprecations; and these MOORMEN, on the contrary, never set their Hands to any Labour, but that they sing a Psalm or Prayer, and conclude at every joint Application of it, 'Allah, Allah,' invoking the Name of God."—Ibid. pp. 55-56.

1685.—"We putt out a peece of a Red Ancient to appear like a MOOR'S Vessel: not judging it safe to be known to be English; Our nation having lately gott an ill name by abusing ye Inhabitants of these Islands: but no boat would come neer us ..." (in the Maldives).—Hedges, Diary, March 9; [Hak. Soc. i. 190].

1688.—"LASCARS, who are MOORS of India."—Dampier, ii. 57.

1689.—"The place where they went ashore was a Town of the MOORS: Which name our Seamen give to all the Subjects of the great Mogul, but especially his Mahometan Subjects; calling the Idolators, Gentous or Rashboots (see RAJPOOT)."—Dampier, i. 507.

1747.—"We had the Misfortune to be reduced to almost inevitable Danger, for as our Success chiefly depended on the assistance of the MOORS, We were soon brought to the utmost Extremity by being abandoned by them."—Letter from Ft. St. Geo. to the Court, May 2 (India Office MS. Records).

1752.—"His successor Mr. Godehue ... even permitted him (Dupleix) to continue the exhibition of those marks of MOORISH dignity, which both Murzafa-jing and Sallabad-jing had permitted him to display."—Orme, i. 367.

1757.—In Ives, writing in this year, we constantly find the terms MOORMEN and MOORISH, applied to the forces against which Clive and Watson were acting on the Hoogly.

1763.—"From these origins, time has formed in India a mighty nation of near ten millions of Mahomedans, whom Europeans call MOORS."—Orme, ed. 1803, i. 24.

1770.—"Before the Europeans doubled the Cape of Good Hope, the MOORS, who were the only maritime people of India, sailed from Surat and Bengal to Malacca."—Raynal (tr. 1777), i. 210.

1781.—"Mr. Hicky thinks it a Duty incumbent on him to inform his friends in particular, and the Public in General, that an attempt was made to Assassinate him last Thursday Morning between the Hours of One and two o'Clock, by two armed Europeans aided and assisted by a MOORMAN...."—Hicky's Bengal Gazette, April 7.

1784.—"Lieutenants Speediman and Rutledge ... were bound, circumcised, and clothed in MOORISH garments."—In Seton-Karr, i. 15.

1797.—"Under the head of castes entitled to a favourable term, I believe you comprehend Brahmans, MOORMEN, merchants, and almost every man who does not belong to the Sudra or cultivating caste...."—Minute of Sir T. Munro, in Arbuthnot, i. 17.

1807.—"The rest of the inhabitants, who are MOORS, and the richer Gentoos, are dressed in various degrees and fashions."—Ld. Minto in India, p. 17.

1829.—"I told my MOORMAN, as they call the Mussulmans here, just now to ask the drum-major when the mail for the Pradwan (?) was to be made up."—Mem. of Col. Mountain, 2nd ed. p. 80.

1839.—"As I came out of the gate I met some young MOORISH dandies on horseback; one of them was evidently a 'crack-rider,' and began to show off."—Letters from Madras, p. 290.

MOORA, s. Sea Hind. mūrā, from Port. amura, Ital. mura; a tack (Roebuck).

MOORAH, s. A measure used in the sale of paddy at Bombay and in Guzerat. The true form of this word is doubtful. From Molesworth's Mahr. Dict. it would seem that muḍā and mudī are properly cases of rice-straw bound together to contain certain quantities of grain, the former larger and the latter smaller. Hence it would be a vague and varying measure. But there is a land measure of the same name. See Wilson, s.v. Múdi. [The Madras Gloss. gives MOODA, Mal. mūta, from mūtu, 'to cover,' "a fastening package; especially the packages in a circular form, like a Dutch cheese, fastened with wisps of straw, in which rice is made up in Malabar and Canara." The MOODA is said to be 1 cubic foot and 1,116 cubic inches, and equal to 3 Kulsies (see CULSEY).]

1554.—"(At Baçaim) the Mura of batee (see BATTA) contains 3 candis (see CANDY), which (batee) is rice in the husk, and after it is stript it amounts to a candy and a half, and something more."—A. Nunes, p. 30.

[1611.—"I send your worship by the bearer 10 MORAES of rice."—Danvers, Letters, i. 116.]

1813.—

"Batty Measure.— * * * * * * 25 parahs make 1 MOORAH.[170] 4 candies " 1 MOORAH." Milburn, 2nd ed. p. 143.

MOORPUNKY, s. Corr. of Mor-pankhī, 'peacock-tailed,' or 'peacock-winged'; the name given to certain state pleasure-boats on the Gangetic rivers, now only (if at all) surviving at Murshīdābād. They are a good deal like the Burmese 'war-boats;' see cut in Mission to Ava (Major Phayre's), p. 4. [A similar boat was the Feelchehra (Hind. fīl-chehra, 'elephant-faced'). In a letter of 1784 Warren Hastings writes: "I intend to finish my voyage to-morrow in the feelchehra" (Busteed, Echoes, 3rd ed. 291).]

1767.—"Charges Dewanny, viz.:—

"A few MOORPUNGKEYS and beauleahs (see BOLIAH) for the service of Mahomed Reza Khan, and on the service at the city some are absolutely necessary ... 25,000 : 0 : 0."—Dacca Accounts, in Long, 524.

1780.—"Another boat ... very curiously constructed, the MOOR-PUNKY: these are very long and narrow, sometimes extending to upwards of 100 feet in length, and not more than 8 feet in breadth; they are always paddled, sometimes by 40 men, and are steered by a large paddle from the stern, which rises in the shape of a peacock, a snake, or some other animal."—Hodges, 40.

[1785.—"... MOOR-PUNKEES, or peacock-boats, which are made as much as possible to resemble the peacock."—Diary, in Forbes, Or. Mem. 2nd ed. ii. 450.]

MOORS, THE, s. The Hindustani language was in the 18th century commonly thus styled. The idiom is a curious old English one for the denomination of a language, of which 'broad Scots' is perhaps a type, and which we find exemplified in 'Malabars' (see MALABAR) for Tamil, whilst we have also met with Bengals for Bengālī, with Indostans for Urdū, and with Turks for Turkish. The term Moors is probably now entirely obsolete, but down to 1830, at least, some old officers of the Royal army and some old Madras civilians would occasionally use the term as synonymous with what the former would also call 'the black language.' [MOORS for Urdū was certainly in use among the old European pensioners at Chunār as late as 1892.]

The following is a transcript of the title-page of Hadley's Grammar, the earliest English Grammar of Hindustani:[171]

"Grammatical Remarks | on the | Practical and Vulgar Dialect | Of the | Indostan Language | commonly called MOORS | with a Vocabulary | English and MOORS. The Spelling according to | The Persian Orthography | Wherein are | References between Words resembling each other in | Sound and different in Significations | with Literal Translations and Explanations of the Com- | pounded Words and Circumlocutory Expressions | For the more easy attaining the Idiom of the Language | The whole calculated for

The Common Practice in Bengal.

"——Si quid novisti rectius istis, Candidus imperti; si non his utere mecum."

By Capt. GEORGE HADLEY. London: Printed for T. Cadell in the Strand. MDCCLXXII."

Captain Hadley's orthography is on a detestable system. He writes chookerau, chookeree, for chhokrā, chhokrī ('boy, girl'); dolchinney for dāl-chīnī ('cinnamon'), &c. His etymological ideas also are loose. Thus he gives shrimps = chînghra mutchee, 'fish with legs and claws,' as if the word was from chang (Pers.), 'a hook or claw.' Bāgḍor, 'a halter,' or as he writes, baug-doore, he derives from dūr, 'distance,' instead of ḍor, 'a rope.' He has no knowledge of the instrumental case with terminal ne, and he does not seem to be aware that ham and tum (hum and toom, as he writes) are in reality plurals ('we' and 'you'). The grammar is altogether of a very primitive and tentative character, and far behind that of the R. C. Missionaries, which is referred to s.v. HINDOSTANEE. We have not seen that of Schulz (1745) mentioned under the same.

1752.—"The Centinel was sitting at the top of the gate, singing a MOORISH song."—Orme, ed. 1803, i. 272.

1767.—"In order to transact Business of any kind in this Countrey, you must at least have a smattering of the Language for few of the Inhabitants (except in great Towns) speak English. The original Language, of this Countrey (or at least the earliest we know of) is the Bengala or Gentoo.... But the politest Language is the MOORS or Mussulmans and Persian.... The only Language that I know anything of is the Bengala, and that I do not speak perfectly, for you may remember that I had a very poor knack at learning Languages."—MS. Letter of James Rennell, March 10.

1779.—"C. What language did Mr. Francis speak?

W. (Meerum Kitmutgar). The same as I do, in broken MOORS."—Trial of Grand v. Philip Francis, quoted in Echoes of Old Calcutta, 226.

1783.—"MOORS, by not being written, bars all close application."—Letter in Life of Colebrooke, 13.

" "The language called 'MOORS' has a written character differing both from the Sanskrit and Bengalee character, it is called Nagree, which means 'writing.'"—Letter in Mem. of Ld. Teignmouth, i. 104.

1784.—

"Wild perroquets first silence broke, Eager of dangers near to prate; But they in English never spoke, And she began her MOORS of late." Plassey Plain, a Ballad by Sir W. Jones, in Works, ii. 504.

1788.—"Wants Employment. A young man who has been some years in Bengal, used to common accounts, understands Bengallies, MOORS, Portuguese...."—In Seton-Karr, i. 286.

1789.—"... sometimes slept half an hour, sometimes not, and then wrote or talked Persian or MOORS till sunset, when I went to parade."—Letter of Sir T. Munro, i. 76.

1802.—"All business is transacted in a barbarous mixture of MOORS, Mahratta, and Gentoo."—Sir T. Munro, in Life, i. 333.

1803.—"Conceive what society there will be when people speak what they don't think, in MOORS."—M. Elphinstone, in Life, i. 108.

1804.—"She had a MOORISH woman interpreter, and as I heard her give orders to her interpreter in the MOORISH language ... I must consider the conversation of the first authority."—Wellington, iii. 290.

" "The Stranger's Guide to the Hindoostanic, or Grand Popular Language of India, improperly called MOORISH; by J. Borthwick Gilchrist: Calcutta."

MOORUM, s. A word used in Western India for gravel, &c., especially as used in road-metal. The word appears to be Mahratti. Molesworth gives "murūm, a fissile kind of stone, probably decayed Trap." [Murukallu is the Tel. name for LATERITE. (Also see CABOOK.)]

[1875.—"There are few places where MORRAM, or decomposed granite, is not to be found."—Gribble, Cuddapah, 247.

[1883.—"Underneath is MORAMBU, a good filtering medium."—Le Fanu, Salem, ii. 43.]

MOOTSUDDY, s. A native accountant. Hind. mutaṣaddī from Ar. mutaṣaddi.

1683.—"Cossadass ye Chief Secretary, MUTSUDDIES, and ye Nabobs Chief Eunuch will be paid all their money beforehand."—Hedges, Diary, Jan. 6; [Hak. Soc. i. 61].

[1762.—"MUTTASUDDIES." See under GOMASTA.]

1785.—"This representation has caused us the utmost surprise. Whenever the MUTSUDDIES belonging to your department cease to yield you proper obedience, you must give them a severe flogging."—Tippoo's Letters, p. 2.

" "Old age has certainly made havock on your understanding, otherwise you would have known that the MUTUSUDDIES here are not the proper persons to determine the market prices there."—Ibid. p. 118.

[1809.—"The regular battalions have also been riotous, and confined their MOOTUSUDEE, the officer who keeps their accounts, and transacts the public business on the part of the commandant."—Broughton, Letters, ed. 1892, p. 135.]

MOPLAH, s. Malayāl. māppila. The usual application of this word is to the indigenous Mahommedans of Malabar; but it is also applied to the indigenous (so-called) Syrian Christians of Cochin and Travancore. In Morton's Life of Leyden the word in the latter application is curiously misprinted as madilla. The derivation of the word is very obscure. Wilson gives mā-pilla, 'mother's son,' "as sprung from the intercourse of foreign colonists, who were persons unknown, with Malabar women." Nelson, as quoted below interprets the word as 'bridegroom' (it should however rather be 'son-in-law').[172] Dr. Badger suggests that it is from the Arabic verb falaḥa, and means 'a cultivator' (compare the fellah of Egypt), whilst Mr. C. P. Brown expresses his conviction that it was a Tamil mispronunciation of the Arabic mu'abbar, 'from over the water.' No one of these greatly commends itself. [Mr. Logan (Malabar, ii. ccviii.) and the Madras Glossary derive it from Mal. ma, Skt. māha, 'great,' and Mal. piḷḷa, 'a child.' Dr. Gundert's view is that Māpiḷḷa was an honorary title given to colonists from the W., perhaps at first only to their representatives.]

1516.—"In all this country of Malabar there are a great quantity of Moors, who are of the same language and colour as the Gentiles of the country.... They call these Moors MAPULERS; they carry on nearly all the trade of the seaports."—Barbosa, 146.

1767.—"Ali Raja, the Chief of Cananore, who was a Muhammadan, and of the tribe called MAPILLA, rejoiced at the success and conquests of a Muhammadan Chief."—H. of Hydur, p. 184.

1782.—"... les MAPLETS reçurent les coutumes et les superstitions des Gentils, sous l'empire des quels ils vivoient. C'est pour se conformer aux usages des Malabars, que les enfans des MAPLETS n'héritent point de leurs pères, mais des frères de leurs mères."—Sonnerat, i. 193.

1787.—

"Of MOPLAS fierce your hand has tam'd, And monsters that your sword has maim'd." Life and Letters of J. Ritson, 1833, i. 114.

1800.—"We are not in the most thriving condition in this country. Polegars, nairs, and MOPLAS in arms on all sides of us."—Wellington, i. 43.

1813.—"At one period the MOPLAHS created great commotion in Travancore, and towards the end of the 17th century massacred the chief of Anjengo, and all the English gentlemen belonging to the settlement, when on a public visit to the Queen of Attinga."—Forbes, Or. Mem. i. 402; [2nd ed. i. 259].

1868.—"I may add in concluding my notice that the Kallans alone of all the castes of Madura call the Mahometans 'māpilleis' or bridegrooms (MOPLAHS)."—Nelson's Madura, Pt. ii. 55.

MORA, s. Hind. moṛhā. A stool (tabouret); a footstool. In common colloquial use.

[1795.—"The old man, whose attention had been chiefly attracted by a Ramnaghur MORAH, of which he was desirous to know the construction, ... departed."—Capt. Blunt, in Asiat. Res., vii. 92.

[1843.—"Whilst seated on a round stool, or MONDAH, in the thanna, ... I entered into conversation with the thannadar...."—Davidson, Travels in Upper India, i. 127.]

MORCHAL, s. A fan, or a fly-whisk, made of peacock's feathers. Hind. morch'hal.

1673.—"All the heat of the Day they idle it under some shady Tree, at night they come in troops, armed with a great Pole, a MIRCHAL or Peacock's Tail, and a Wallet."—Fryer, 95.

1690.—(The heat) "makes us Employ our Peons in Fanning of us with MURCHALS made of Peacock's Feathers, four or five Foot long, in the time of our Entertainments, and when we take our Repose."—Ovington, 335.

[1826.—"They (Gosseins) are clothed in a ragged mantle, and carry a long pole, and a MIRCHAL, or peacock's tail."—Pandurang Hari, ed. 1873, i. 76.]

MORT-DE-CHIEN, s. A name for cholera, in use, more or less, up to the end of the 18th century, and the former prevalence of which has tended probably to the extraordinary and baseless notion that epidemic cholera never existed in India till the governorship of the Marquis of Hastings. The word in this form is really a corruption of the Portuguese MORDEXIM, shaped by a fanciful French etymology. The Portuguese word again represents the Konkani and Mahratti moḍachī, moḍshī, or moḍwashī, 'cholera,' from a Mahr. verb moḍnen, 'to break up, to sink' (as under infirmities, in fact 'to collapse'). The Guzaratī appears to be moṛchi or moṛachi.

[1504.—Writing of this year Correa mentions the prevalence of the disease in the Samorin's army, but he gives it no name. "Besides other illness there was one almost sudden, which caused such a pain in the belly that a man hardly survived 8 hours of it."—Correa, i. 489.]

1543.—Correa's description is so striking that we give it almost at length: "This WINTER they had in Goa a mortal distemper which the natives call MORXY, and attacking persons of every quality, from the smallest infant at the breast to the old man of fourscore, and also domestic animals and fowls, so that it affected every living thing, male and female. And this malady attacked people without any cause that could be assigned, falling upon sick and sound alike, on the fat and the lean; and nothing in the world was a safeguard against it. And this malady attacked the stomach, caused as some experts affirmed by chill; though later it was maintained that no cause whatever could be discovered. The malady was so powerful and so evil that it immediately produced the symptoms of strong poison; e.g., vomiting, constant desire for water, with drying of the stomach; and cramps that contracted the hams and the soles of the feet, with such pains that the patient seemed dead, with the eyes broken and the nails of the fingers and toes black and crumpled. And for this malady our physicians never found any cure; and the patient was carried off in one day, or at the most in a day and night; insomuch that not ten in a hundred recovered, and those who did recover were such as were healed in haste with medicines of little importance known to the natives. So great was the mortality this season that the bells were tolling all day ... insomuch that the governor forbade the tolling of the church bells, not to frighten the people ... and when a man died in the hospital of this malady of MOREXY the Governor ordered all the experts to come together and open the body. But they found nothing wrong except that the paunch was shrunk up like a hen's gizzard, and wrinkled like a piece of scorched leather...."—Correa, iv. 288-289.

1563.—"Page.—Don Jeronymo sends to beg that you will go and visit his brother immediately, for though this is not the time of day for visits, delay would be dangerous, and he will be very thankful that you come at once.

"Orta.—What is the matter with the patient, and how long has he been ill?

"Page.—He has got MORXI; and he has been ill two hours.

"Orta.—I will follow you.

"Ruano.—Is this the disease that kills so quickly, and that few recover from? Tell me how it is called by our people, and by the natives, and the symptoms of it, and the treatment you use in it.

"Orta.—Our name for the disease is Collerica passio; and the Indians call it morxi; whence again by corruption we call it MORDEXI.... It is sharper here than in our own part of the world, for usually it kills in four and twenty hours. And I have seen some cases where the patient did not live more than ten hours. The most that it lasts is four days; but as there is no rule without an exception, I once saw a man with great constancy of virtue who lived twenty days continually throwing up ("curginosa"?) ... bile, and died at last. Let us go and see this sick man; and as for the symptoms you will yourself see what a thing it is."—Garcia, ff. 74_v_, 75.

1578.—"There is another thing which is useless called by them canarin, which the Canarin Brahman physicians usually employ for the collerica passio sickness, which they call MORXI; which sickness is so sharp that it kills in fourteen hours or less."—Acosta, Tractado, 27.

1598.—"There reigneth a sicknesse called MORDEXIJN which stealeth uppon men, and handleth them in such sorte, that it weakeneth a man, and maketh him cast out all that he hath in his bodie, and many times his life withall."—Linschoten, 67; [Hak. Soc. i. 235; MORXI in ii. 22].

1599.—"The disease which in India is called MORDICIN. This is a species of Colic, which comes on in those countries with such force and vehemence that it kills in a few hours; and there is no remedy discovered. It causes evacuations by stool or vomit, and makes one burst with pain. But there is a herb proper for the cure, which bears the same name of MORDESCIN."—Carletti, 227.

1602.—"In those islets (off Aracan) they found bad and brackish water, and certain beans like ours both green and dry, of which they ate some, and in the same moment this gave them a kind of dysentery, which in India they corruptly call MORDEXIM, which ought to be morxis, and which the Arabs call sachaiza (Ar. hayẓat), which is what Rasis calls sahida, a disease which kills in 24 hours. Its action is immediately to produce a sunken and slender pulse, with cold sweat, great inward fire, and excessive thirst, the eyes sunken, great vomitings, and in fact it leaves the natural power so collapsed (derribada) that the patient seems like a dead man."—Couto, Dec. IV. liv. iv. cap. 10.

c. 1610.—"Il regne entre eux vne autre maladie qui vient a l'improviste, ils la nomment MORDESIN, et vient auec grande douleur des testes, et vomissement, et crient fort, et le plus souvent en meurent."—Pyrard de Laval, ii. 19; [Hak. Soc. ii. 13].

1631.—"Pulvis ejus (Calumbac) ad scrup. unius pondus sumptus cholerae prodest, quam MORDEXI incolae vocant."—Jac. Bontii, lib. iv. p. 43.

1638.—"... celles qui y regnent le plus, sont celles qu'ils appellent MORDEXIN, qui tue subitement."—Mandelslo, 265.

1648.—See also the (questionable) Voyages Fameux du Sieur Victor le Blanc, 76.

c. 1665.—"Les Portugais appellent MORDECHIN les quatre sortes de Coliques qu'on souffre dans les Indes ou elles sont frequentes ... ceux qui ont la quatrième soufrent les trois maux ensemble, à savoir le vomissement, le flux de ventre, les extremes douleurs, et je crois que cette derniere est le Colera-Morbus."—Thevenot, v. 324.

1673.—"They apply Cauteries most unmercifully in a MORDISHEEN, called so by the Portugals, being a Vomiting with Looseness."—Fryer, 114.

[1674.—"The disease called MORDECHI generally commences with a violent fever, accompanied by tremblings, horrors and vomitings; these symptoms are generally followed by delirium and death." He prescribes a hot iron applied to the soles of the feet. He attributes the disease to indigestion, and remarks bitterly that at least the prisoners of the Inquisition were safe from this disease.—Dellon, Relation de l'Inquisition de Goa, ii. ch. 71.]

1690.—"The MORDECHINE is another Disease ... which is a violent Vomiting and Looseness."—Ovington, 350.

c. 1690.—Rumphius, speaking of the JACK-fruit (q.v.): "Non nisi vacuo stomacho edendus est, alias enim ... plerumque oritur Passio Cholerica, Portugallis MORDEXI dicta."—Herb. Amb., i. 106.

1702.—"Cette grande indigestion qu'on appelle aux Indes MORDECHIN, et que quelques uns de nos Français ont appellée MORT-DE-CHIEN."—Lettres Edif., xi. 156.

Bluteau (s.v.) says MORDEXIM is properly a failure of digestion which is very perilous in those parts, unless the native remedy be used. This is to apply a thin rod, like a spit, and heated, under the heel, till the patient screams with pain, and then to slap the same part with the sole of a shoe, &c.

1705.—"Ce mal s'appelle MORT-DE-CHIEN."—Luillier, 113.

The following is an example of literal translation, as far as we know, unique:

1716.—"The extraordinary distempers of this country (I. of Bourbon) are the Cholick, and what they call the Dog's Disease, which is cured by burning the heel of the patient with a hot iron."—Acct. of the I. of Bourbon, in La Roque's Voyage to Arabia the Happy, &c., E.T. London, 1726, p. 155.

1727.—"... the MORDEXIN (which seizes one suddenly with such oppression and palpitation that he thinks he is going to die on the spot)."—Valentijn, v. (Malabar) 5.

c. 1760.—"There is likewise known, on the Malabar coast chiefly, a most violent disorder they call the MORDECHIN; which seizes the patient with such fury of purging, vomiting, and tormina of the intestines, that it will often carry him off in 30 hours."—Grose, i. 250.

1768.—"This (cholera morbus) in the East Indies, where it is very frequent and fatal, is called MORT-DE-CHIEN."—Lind, Essay on Diseases incidental to Hot Climates, 248.

1778.—In the Vocabulary of the Portuguese Grammatica Indostana, we find MORDECHIM, as a Portuguese word, rendered in Hind. by the word badazmi, i.e. bad-haẓmī, 'dyspepsia' (p. 99). The most common modern Hind. term for cholera is Arab. haiẓah. The latter word is given by Garcia de Orta in the form hachaiza, and in the quotation from Couto as sachaiza (?). Jahāngīr speaks of one of his nobles as dying in the Deccan, of haiẓah, in A.D. 1615 (see note to Elliot, vi. 346). It is, however, perhaps not to be assumed that haiẓah always means cholera. Thus Macpherson mentions that a violent epidemic, which raged in the Camp of Aurangzīb at Bījapur in 1689, is called so. But in the history of Khāfi Khān (Elliot, vii. 337) the general phrases ta'ūn and wabā are used in reference to this disease, whilst the description is that of bubonic plague.

1781.—"Early in the morning of the 21st June (1781) we had two men seized with the MORT-DE-CHIEN."—Curtis, Diseases of India, 3rd ed., Edinb., 1807.

1782.—"Les indigestions appellées dans l'Inde MORT-DE-CHIEN, sont fréquentes. Les Castes qui mangent de la viande, nourriture trop pesante pour un climat si chaud, en sont souvent attaquées...."—Sonnerat, i. 205. This author writes just after having described two epidemics of cholera under the name of Flux aigu. He did not apprehend that this was in fact the real MORT-DE-CHIEN.

1783.—"A disease generally called 'MORT-DE-CHIEN' at this time (during the defence of Onore) raged with great violence among the native inhabitants."—Forbes, Or. Mem. iv. 122.

1796.—"Far more dreadful are the consequences of the above-mentioned intestinal colic, called by the Indians shani, MORDEXIM, and also Nircomben. It is occasioned, as I have said, by the winds blowing from the mountains ... the consequence is that malignant and bilious slimy matter adheres to the bowels, and occasions violent pains, vomiting, fevers, and stupefaction; so that persons attacked with the disease die very often in a few hours. It sometimes happens that 30 or 40 persons die in this manner, in one place, in the course of the day.... In the year 1782 this disease raged with so much fury that a great many persons died of it."—Fra Paolino, E.T. 409-410 (orig. see p. 353). As to the names used by Fra Paolino, for his Shani or Ciani, we find nothing nearer than Tamil and Mal. sanni, 'convulsion, paralysis.' (Winslow in his Tamil Dict. specifies 13 kinds of sanni. Komben is explained as 'a kind of cholera or smallpox' (!); and nir-komben ('water-k.') as a kind of cholera or bilious diarrhœa.) Paolino adds: "La droga amara costa assai, e non si poteva amministrare a tanti miserabili che perivano. Adunque in mancanza di questa droga amara noi distillasimo in Tàgara, o acqua vite di coco, molto sterco di cavalli (!), e l'amministrammo agl'infermi. Tutti quelli che prendevano questa guarivano."

1808.—"MÔRCHEE or MORTSHEE (Guz.) and Môdee (Mah.). A morbid affection in which the symptoms are convulsive action, followed by evacuations of the first passage up and down, with intolerable tenesmus, or twisting-like sensation in the intestines, corresponding remarkably with the cholera-morbus of European synopsists, called by the country people in England (?) MORTISHEEN, and by others MORD-DU-CHIEN and MAUA DES CHIENES, as if it had come from France."—R. Drummond, Illustrations, &c. A curious notice; and the author was, we presume, from his title of "Dr.," a medical man. We suppose for England above should be read India.

The next quotation is the latest instance of the familiar use of the word that we have met with:

1812.—"General M—— was taken very ill three or four days ago; a kind of fit—MORT DE CHIEN—the doctor said, brought on by eating too many radishes."—Original Familiar Correspondence between Residents in India, &c., Edinburgh, 1846, p. 287.

1813.—"MORT DE CHIEN is nothing more than the highest degree of Cholera Morbus."—Johnson, Infl. of Tropical Climate, 405.

The second of the following quotations evidently refers to the outbreak of cholera mentioned, after Macpherson, in the next paragraph.

1780.—"I am once or twice a year (!) subject to violent attacks of CHOLERA MORBUS, here called MORT-DE-CHIEN...."—Impey to Dunning, quoted by Sir James Stephen, ii. 339.

1781.—"The Plague is now broke out in Bengal, and rages with great violence; it has swept away already above 4000 persons. 200 or upwards have been buried in the different Portuguese churches within a few days."—Hicky's Bengal Gazette, April 21.

These quotations show that cholera, whether as an epidemic or as sporadic disease, is no new thing in India. Almost in the beginning of the Portuguese expeditions to the East we find apparent examples of the visitations of this terrible scourge, though no precise name is given in the narratives. Thus we read in the Life of Giovanni da Emboli, an adventurous young Florentine who served with the Portuguese, that, arriving in China in 1517, the ships' crews were attacked by a pessima malatia di frusso (virulent flux) of such kind that there died thereof about 70 men, and among these Giovanni himself, and two other Florentines (Vita, in Archiv. Stor. Ital. 33). Correa says that, in 1503, 20,000 men died of a like disease in the army of the Zamorin. We have given above Correa's description of the terrible Goa pest of 1543, which was most evidently cholera. Madras accounts, according to Macpherson, first mention the disease at Arcot in 1756, and there are frequent notices of it in that neighbourhood between 1763 and 1787. The Hon. R. Lindsay speaks of it as raging at Sylhet in 1781, after carrying off a number of the inhabitants of Calcutta (Macpherson, see the quotation of 1781 above). It also raged that year at Ganjam, and out of a division of 5000 Bengal troops under Col. Pearse, who were on the march through that district, 1143 were in a few days sent into hospital, whilst "death raged in the camp with a horror not to be described." The earliest account from the pen of an English physician is by Dr. Paisley, and is dated Madras, Feby. 1774. In 1783 it broke out at Hardwār Fair, and is said, in less than 8 days, to have carried off 20,000 pilgrims. The paucity of cases of cholera among European troops in the returns up to 1817, is ascribed by Dr. Macnamara to the way in which facts were disguised by the current nomenclature of disease. It need not perhaps be denied that the outbreak of 1817 marked a great recrudescence of the disease. But it is a fact that some of the more terrible features of the epidemic, which are then spoken of as quite new, had been prominently described at Goa nearly three centuries before.

See on this subject an article by Dr. J. Macpherson in Quarterly Review, for Jany. 1867, and a Treatise on Asiatic Cholera, by C. Macnamara, 1876. To these, and especially to the former, we owe several facts and references; though we had recorded quotations relating to MORDEXIN and its identity with cholera some years before even the earlier of these publications.

MORDEXIM, MORDIXIM, s. Also the name of a sea-fish. Bluteau says 'a fish found at the Isle of Quixembe on the Coast of Mozambique, very like bogas (?) or river-pikes.'

MOSELLAY, n.p. A site at Shīrāz often mentioned by Hāfiz as a favourite spot, and near which is his tomb.

c. 1350.—

"Boy! let yon liquid ruby flow, And bid thy pensive heart be glad, Whate'er the frowning zealots say; Tell them that Eden cannot show A stream so clear as Rocnabad; A bower so sweet as MOSSELLAY." Hafiz, rendered by Sir W. Jones.

1811.—"The stream of Rúknabád murmured near us; and within three or four hundred yards was the MOSSELLÁ and the Tomb of Hafiz."—W. Ouseley's Travels, i. 318.

1813.—"Not a shrub now remains of the bower of MOSSELLA, the situation of which is now only marked by the ruins of an ancient tower."—Macdonald Kinneir's Persia, 62.

MOSQUE, s. There is no room for doubt as to the original of this word being the Ar. masjid, 'a place of worship,' literally the place of sujūd, i.e. 'prostration.' And the probable course is this. Masjid becomes (1) in Span. mezquita, Port. mesquita;[173] (2) Ital. meschita, moschea; French (old) mosquete, mosquée; (3) Eng. mosque. Some of the quotations might suggest a different course of modification, but they would probably mislead.

Apropos of masjid rather than of mosque we have noted a ludicrous misapplication of the word in the advertisement to a newspaper story. "Musjeed the Hindoo: Adventures with the Star of India in the Sepoy Mutiny of 1857." The Weekly Detroit Free Press, London, July 1, 1882.

1336.—"Corpusque ipsius perditissimi Pseudo-prophetae ... in civitate quae Mecha dicitur ... pro maximo sanctuario conservatur in pulchrâ ipsorum Ecclesiâ quam MULSCKET vulgariter dicunt."—Gul. de Boldensele, in Canisii Thesaur. ed. Basnage, iv.

1384.—"Sonvi le MOSQUETTE, cioe chiese de' Saraceni ... dentro tutte bianche ed intonicate ed ingessate."—Frescobaldi, 29.

1543.—"And with the stipulation that the 5000 larin tangas which in old times were granted, and are deposited for the expenses of the MIZQUITAS of Baçaim, are to be paid from the said duties as they always have been paid, and in regard to the said MIZQUITAS and the prayers that are made in them there shall be no innovation whatever."—Treaty at Baçaim of the Portuguese with King Bador of Çanbaya (Bahādur Shāh of Guzerat) in S. Botelho, Tombo, 137.

1553.—"... but destined yet to unfurl that divine and royal banner of the Soldiery of Christ ... in the Eastern regions of Asia, amidst the infernal MESQUITAS of Arabia and Persia, and all the PAGODES of the heathenism of India, on this side and beyond the Ganges."—Barros, I. i. 1.

[c. 1610.—"The principal temple, which they call Oucourou MISQUITTE" (Hukuru miskitu, 'Friday mosque').—Pyrard de Laval, Hak. Soc. i. 72.]

1616.—"They are very jealous to let their women or MOSCHEES be seen."—Sir T. Roe, in Purchas, i. 537; [Hak. Soc. ii. 21].

[1623.—"We went to see upon the same Lake a MESCHITA, or temple of the Mahometans."—P. della Valle, Hak. Soc. i. 69.]

1634.—

"Que a de abominação MESQUITA immũda Casa, a Deos dedicada hoje se veja." Malaca Conquistada, l. xii. 43.

1638.—Mandelslo unreasonably applies the term to all sorts of pagan temples, e.g.—

"Nor is it only in great Cities that the Benjans have their many MOSQUEYS...."—E.T. 2nd ed. 1669, p. 52.

"The King of Siam is a Pagan, nor do his Subjects know any other Religion. They have divers MOSQUEES, Monasteries, and Chappels."—Ibid. p. 104.

c. 1662.—"... he did it only for love to their Mammon; and would have sold afterwards for as much more St. Peter's ... to the Turks for a MOSQUITO."—Crowley, Discourse concerning the Govt. of O. Cromwell.

1680.—Consn. Ft. St. Geo. March 28: "Records the death of Cassa Verona ... and a dispute arising as to whether his body should be burned by the Gentues or buried by the Moors, the latter having stopped the procession on the ground that the deceased was a Mussleman and built a MUSSEET in the Towne to be buried in, the Governor with the advice of his Council sent an order that the body should be burned as a Gentue, and not buried by the Moors, it being apprehended to be of dangerous consequence to admit the Moors such pretences in the Towne."—Notes and Exts. No. iii. p. 14.

1719.—"On condition they had a COWLE granted, exempting them from paying the Pagoda or MUSQUEET duty."—In Wheeler, ii. 301.

1727.—"There are no fine Buildings in the City, but many large Houses, and some Caravanserays and MUSCHEITS."—A. Hamilton, i. 161; [ed. 1774, i. 163].

c. 1760.—"The Roman Catholic Churches, the Moorish MOSCHS, the Gentoo Pagodas, the worship of the Parsees, are all equally unmolested and tolerated."—Grose, i. 44.

[1862.—"... I slept at a MUSHEED, or village house of prayer."—Brinckman, Rifle in Cashmere, 78.]

MOSQUITO, s. A gnat is so called in the tropics. The word is Spanish and Port. (dim. of mosca, 'a fly'), and probably came into familiar English use from the East Indies, though the earlier quotations show that it was first brought from S. America. A friend annotates here: "Arctic mosquitoes are worst of all; and the Norfolk ones (in the Broads) beat Calcutta!"

It is related of a young Scotch lady of a former generation who on her voyage to India had heard formidable, but vague accounts of this terror of the night, that on seeing an elephant for the first time, she asked: "Will yon be what's called a MUSQUEETAE?"

1539.—"To this misery was there adjoyned the great affliction, which the Flies and Gnats (por parte dos atabões e MOSQUITOS), that coming out of the neighbouring Woods, bit and stung us in such sort, as not one of us but was gore blood."—Pinto (orig. cap. xxiii.), in Cogan, p. 29.

1582.—"We were oftentimes greatly annoyed with a kind of flie, which in the Indian tongue is called Tiquari, and the Spanish call them MUSKITOS."—Miles Phillips, in Hakl. iii. 564.

1584.—"The 29 Day we set Saile from Saint Iohns, being many of vs stung before upon Shoare with the MUSKITOS; but the same night we tooke a Spanish Frigat."—Sir Richard Greenevile's Voyage, in Hakl. iii. 308.

1616 and 1673.—See both Terry and Fryer under CHINTS.

1662.—"At night there is a kind of insect that plagues one mightily; they are called MUSCIETEN,—it is a kind that by their noise and sting cause much irritation."—Saar, 68-69.

1673.—"The greatest Pest is the MOSQUITO, which not only wheals, but domineers by its continual Hums."—Fryer, 189.

1690.—(The Governor) "carries along with him a Peon or Servant to Fan him, and drive away the busie Flies, and troublesome MUSKETOES. This is done with the Hair of a Horse's Tail."—Ovington, 227-8.

1740.—"... all the day we were pestered with great numbers of MUSCATOS, which are not much unlike the gnats in England, but more venomous...."—Anson's Voyage, 9th ed., 1756, p. 46.

1764.—

"MOSQUITOS, sandflies, seek the sheltered roof, And with full rage the stranger guest assail, Nor spare the sportive child." —Grainger, bk. i.

1883.—"Among rank weeds in deserted Bombay gardens, too, there is a large, speckled, unmusical MOSQUITO, raging and importunate and thirsty, which will give a new idea in pain to any one that visits its haunts."—Tribes on My Frontier, 27.

MOTURPHA, s. Hind. from Ar. muḥtarafa, but according to C. P. B. mu'tarifa; [rather Ar. muḥtarifa, muḥtarif, 'an artizan']. A name technically applied to a number of miscellaneous taxes in Madras and Bombay, such as were called SAYER (q.v.), in Bengal.

[1813.—"MOHTEREFA. An artificer. Taxes, personal and professional, on artificers, merchants and others; also on houses, implements of agriculture, looms, &c., a branch of the SAYER."—Gloss. 5th Report, s.v.

1826.—"... for example, the tax on merchants, manufacturers, &c. (called MOHTURFA)...."—Grant Duff, H. of the Mahrattas, 3rd ed. 356.]

MOULMEIN, n.p. This is said to be originally a Talaing name Mut-mwoa-lem, syllables which mean (or may be made to mean) 'one-eye-destroyed'; and to account for which a cock-and-bull legend is given (probably invented for the purpose): "Tradition says that the city was founded ... by a king with three eyes, having an extra eye in his forehead, but that by the machinations of a woman, the eye in his forehead was destroyed...." (Mason's Burmah, 2nd ed. p. 18). The Burmese corrupted the name into Mau-la-yaing, whence the foreign (probably Malay) form Maulmain. The place so called is on the opposite side of the estuary of the Salwin R. from MARTABAN (q.v.), and has entirely superseded that once famous port. Moulmein, a mere site, was chosen as the headquarters of the Tenasserim provinces, when those became British in 1826 after the first Burmese War. It has lost political importance since the annexation of Pegu, 26 years later, but is a thriving city which numbered in 1881, 53,107 inhabitants; [in 1891, 55,785].

MOUNT DELY, n.p. (See DELLY, MOUNT.)

MOUSE-DEER, s. The beautiful little creature, Meminna indica (Gray), [Tragulus meminna, the Indian Chevrotain (Blanford, Mammalia, 555),] found in various parts of India, and weighing under 6 lbs., is so called. But the name is also applied to several pigmy species of the genus Tragulus, found in the Malay regions, [where, according to Mr. Skeat, it takes in popular tradition the place of Brer Rabbit, outwitting even the tiger, elephant, and crocodile.] All belong to the family of Musk-deer.

MUCHÁN, s. Hind. machān, Dekh. manchān, Skt. maṅcha. An elevated platform; such as the floor of huts among the Indo-Chinese races; or a stage or scaffolding erected to watch a tiger, to guard a field, or what not.

c. 1662.—"As the soil of the country is very damp, the people do not live on the ground-floor, but on the MACHÁN, which is the name for a raised floor."—Shihábuddín Tálish, by Blochmann, in J. A. S. B. xli. Pt. i. 84.

[1882.—"In a shady green MECHAN in some fine tree, watching at the cool of evening...."—Sanderson, Thirteen Years, 3rd ed. 284.]

MUCHWA, s. Mahr. machwā, Hind. machuā, machwā. A kind of boat or barge in use about Bombay.

MUCKNA, s. Hind. makhnā, [which comes from Skt. matkuna, 'a bug, a flea, a beardless man, an elephant without tusks']. A male elephant without tusks or with only rudimentary tusks. These latter are familiar in Bengal, and still more so in Ceylon, where according to Sir S. Baker, "not more than one in 300 has tusks; they are merely provided with short grubbers, projecting generally about 3 inches from the upper jaw, and about 2 inches in diameter." (The Rifle and Hound in Ceylon, 11.) Sanderson (13 Years among the Wild Beasts of India, [3rd ed. 66]) says: "On the Continent of India mucknas, or elephants born without tusks, are decidedly rare ... Mucknas breed in the herds, and the peculiarity is not hereditary or transmitted." This author also states that out of 51 male elephants captured by him in Mysore and Bengal only 5 were mucknas. But the definition of a makhnā in Bengal is that which we have given, including those animals which possess only feminine or rudimentary tusks, the 'short grubbers' of Baker; and these latter can hardly be called rare among domesticated elephants. This may be partially due to a preference in purchasers.[174] The same author derives the term from mukh, 'face'; but the reason is obscure. Shakespear and Platts give the word as also applied to 'a cock without spurs.'

c. 1780.—"An elephant born with the left tooth only is reckoned sacred; with black spots in the mouth unlucky, and not saleable; the MUKNA or elephant born without teeth is thought the best."—Hon. R. Lindsay in Lives of the Lindsays, iii. 194.

MUCOA, MUKUVA, n.p. Malayal. and Tamil, mukkuvan (sing.), 'a diver,' and mukkuvar (pl.). [Logan (Malabar, ii. Gloss. s.v.) derives it from Drav. mukkuha, 'to dive'; the Madras Gloss. gives Tam. muzhugu, with the same meaning.] A name applied to the fishermen of the western coast of the Peninsula near C. Comorin. [But Mr. Pringle (Diary, Ft. St. Geo. 1st ser. iii. 187) points out that formerly as now, the word was of much more general application. Orme in a passage quoted below employs it of boatmen at Karikal. The use of the word extended as far N. as Madras, and on the W. coast; it was not confined to the extreme S.] It was among these, and among the corresponding class of PARAVARS on the east coast, that F. Xavier's most noted labours in India occurred.

1510.—"The fourth class are called MECHUA, and these are fishers."—Varthema, 142.

1525.—"And Dom João had secret speech with a married Christian whose wife and children were inside the fort, and a valiant man, with whom he arranged to give him 200 PARDAOS (and that he gave him on the spot) to set fire to houses that stood round the fort.... So this Christian, called Duarte Fernandes ... put on a lot of old rags and tags, and powdered himself with ashes after the fashion of jogues (see JOGEE) ... also defiling his hair with a mixture of oil and ashes, and disguising himself like a regular jogue, whilst he tied under his rags a parcel of gunpowder and pieces of slow-match, and so commending himself to God, in which all joined, slipped out of the fort by night, and as the day broke, he came to certain huts of MACUAS, which are fishermen, and began to beg alms in the usual palaver of the jogues, i.e. prayers for their long life and health, and the conquest of enemies, and easy deliveries for their womenkind, and prosperity for their children, and other grand things."—Correa, ii. 871.

1552.—Barros has MUCUARIA, 'a fisherman's village.'

1600.—"Those who gave the best reception to the Gospel were the MACÓAS; and, as they had no church in which to assemble, they did so in the fields and on the shores, and with such fervour that the Father found himself at times with 5000 or 6000 souls about him."—Lucena, Vida do P. F. Xavier, 117.

[c. 1610.—"These mariners are called MOUCOIS."—Pyrard de Laval, Hak. Soc. i. 314.]

1615.—"Edixit ut MACUAE omnes, id est vilissima plebecula et piscatu vivens, Christiana sacra susciperent."—Jarric, i. 390.

1626.—"The MUCHOA or MECHOE are Fishers ... the men Theeues, the women Harlots, with whom they please...."—Purchas, Pilgrimage, 553.

1677.—Resolved "to raise the rates of hire of the Mesullas (see MUSSOOLA) boatmen called MACQUARS."—Ft. St. Geo. Consn., Jan 12, in Notes and Exts. No. i. 54.

[1684.—"The MAQUAS or Boatmen ye Ordinary Astralogers (sic) for weather did ... prognosticate great Rains...."—Pringle, Diary, Ft. St. Geo., 1st ser. iii. 131.]

1727.—"They may marry into lower Tribes ... and so may the MUCKWAS, or Fishers, who, I think, are a higher tribe than the Poulias (see POLEA)."—A. Hamilton, i. 310, [ed. 1744, i. 312].

[1738.—"Gastos com Nairos, Tibas, MAQUAS."—Agreement, in Logan, Malabar, ii. 36.]

1745.—"The MACOAS, a kind of Malabars, who have specially this business, and, as we might say, the exclusive privilege in all that concerns sea-faring."—Norbert, i. 227-8.

1746.—"194 MACQUARS attending the sea-side at night ... (P.) 8 : 8 : 40."—Account of Extraordinary Expenses, at Ft. St. David (India Office MS. Records).

1760.—"Fifteen massoolas (see MUSSOOLA) accompanied the ships; they took in 170 of the troops, besides the MACOAS, who are the black fellows that row them."—Orme, ed. 1803, iii. 617.

[1813.—"The MUCKWAS or MACUARS of Tellicherry are an industrious, useful set of people."—Forbes, Or. Mem. 2nd ed. i. 202.]

MUDDÁR, s. Hind. madār, Skt. mandāra; Calotropis procera, R. Brown, N.O. Asclepiadaceae. One of the most common and widely diffused plants in uncultivated plains throughout India. In Sind the bark fibre is used for halters, &c., and experiment has shown it to be an excellent material worth £40 a ton in England, if it could be supplied at that rate; but the cost of collection has stood in the way of its utilisation. The seeds are imbedded in a silky floss, used to stuff pillows. This also has been the subject of experiment for textile use, but as yet without practical success. The plant abounds with an acrid milky juice which the Rājputs are said to employ for infanticide. (Punjab Plants.) The plant is called AK in Sind and throughout N. India.

MUDDLE, s. (?) This word is only known to us from the clever—perhaps too clever—little book quoted below. The word does not seem to be known, and was probably a misapprehension of BUDLEE. [Even Mr. Brandt and Mrs. Wyatt are unable to explain this word. The former does not remember hearing it. Both doubt its connection with BUDLEE. Mrs. Wyatt suggests with hesitation Tamil muder, "boiled rice," mudei-palli, "the cook-house."]

1836-7.—"Besides all these acknowledged and ostensible attendants, each servant has a kind of MUDDLE or double of his own, who does all the work that can be put off upon him without being found out by his master or mistress."—Letters from Madras, 38.

" "They always come accompanied by their Vakeels, a kind of Secretaries, or interpreters, or flappers,—their MUDDLES in short; everybody here has a MUDDLE, high or low."—Letters from Madras, 86.

MUFTY, s.

A. Ar. Muftī, an expounder of the Mahommedan Law, the utterer of the fatwā (see FUTWAH). Properly the Muftī is above the Kāẓī who carries out the judgment. In the 18th century, and including Regulation IX. of 1793, which gave the Company's Courts in Bengal the reorganization which substantially endured till 1862, we have frequent mention of both Cauzies and Mufties as authorized expounders of the Mahommedan Law; but, though Kāẓīs were nominally maintained in the Provincial Courts down to their abolition (1829-31), practically the duty of those known as Kāẓīs became limited to quite different objects and the designation of the Law-officer who gave the futwā in our District Courts was Maulavī. The title Muftī has been long obsolete within the limits of British administration, and one might safely say that it is practically unknown to any surviving member of the Indian Civil Service, and never was heard in India as a living title by any Englishman now surviving. (See CAZEE, LAW-OFFICER, MOOLVEE).

B. A slang phrase in the army, for 'plain clothes.' No doubt it is taken in some way from A, but the transition is a little obscure. [It was perhaps originally applied to the attire of dressing-gown, smoking-cap, and slippers, which was like the Oriental dress of the Muftī who was familiar in Europe from his appearance in Moliere's Bourgeois Gentilhomme. Compare the French en Pekin.]

A.—

1653.—"Pendant la tempeste vne femme INDUSTANI mourut sur notre bord; vn MOUFTI Persan de la Secte des Schaï (see SHEEAH) assista à cette derniere extrémité, luy donnant esperance d'vne meilleure vie que celle-cy, et d'vn Paradis, où l'on auroit tout ce que l'on peut desirer ... et la fit changer de Secte...."—De la Boullaye-le-Gouz, ed. 1657, p. 281.

1674.—"Resolve to make a present to the Governors of Changulaput and Pallaveram, old friends of the Company, and now about to go to Golcondah, for the marriage of the former with the daughter of the King's MUFTI or Churchman."—Fort St. Geo. Consn., March 26. In Notes and Exts., No. i. 30.

1767.—"3d. You will not let the CAUZY or MUFTY receive anything from the tenants unlawfully."—Collectors' Instructions, in Long, 511.

1777.—"The CAZI and MUFTIS now deliver in the following report, on the right of inheritance claimed by the widow and nephew of Shabaz Beg Khan...."—Report on the Patna Cause, quoted in Stephen's Nuncomar and Impey, ii. 167.

1793.—"§ XXXVI. The CAUZIES and MUFTIS of the provincial Courts of Appeal, shall also be CAUZIES and MUFTIES of the courts of circuit in the several divisions, and shall not be removable, except on proof to the satisfaction of the Governor-General in Council that they are incapable, or have been guilty of misconduct...."—Reg. IX. of 1793.

[c. 1855.—

"Think'st thou I fear the dark vizier, Or the MUFTI'S vengeful arm?" Bon Gaultier, The Cadi's Daughter.]

MUGG, n.p. Beng. Magh. It is impossible to deviate without deterioration from Wilson's definition of this obscure name: "A name commonly applied to the natives of Arakan, particularly those bordering on Bengal, or residing near the sea; the people of Chittagong." It is beside the question of its origin or proper application, to say, as Wilson goes on to say, on the authority of Lieut. (now Sir Arthur) Phayre, that the Arakanese disclaim the title, and restrict it to a class held in contempt, viz. the descendants of Arakanese settlers on the frontier of Bengal by Bengali mothers. The proper names of foreign nations in any language do not require the sanction of the nation to whom they are applied, and are often not recognised by the latter. German is not the German name for the Germans, nor Welsh the Welsh name for the Welsh, nor Hindu (originally) a Hindu word, nor China a Chinese word. The origin of the present word is very obscure. Sir A. Phayre kindly furnishes us with this note: "There is good reason to conclude that the name is derived from Maga, the name of the ruling race for many centuries in Magadha (modern Behar). The kings of Arakan were no doubt originally of this race. For though this is not distinctly expressed in the histories of Arakan, there are several legends of Kings from Benares reigning in that country, and one regarding a Brahman who marries a native princess, and whose descendants reign for a long period. I say this, although Buchanan appears to reject the theory (see Montg. Martin, ii. 18 seqq.)" The passage is quoted below.

On the other hand the Mahommedan writers sometimes confound Buddhists with fire-worshippers, and it seems possible that the word may have been Pers. magh = 'magus.' [See Risley, Tribes and Castes, ii. 28 seq.] The Chittagong Muggs long furnished the best class of native cooks in Calcutta; hence the meaning of the last quotation below.

1585.—"The MOGEN, which be of the kingdom of Recon (see ARAKAN) and Rame, be stronger than the King of Tipara; so that Chatigam or PORTO GRANDE (q.v.) is often under the King of Recon."—R. Fitch, in Hakl. ii. 389.

c. 1590.—(In a country adjoining Pegu) "there are mines of ruby and diamond and gold and silver and copper and petroleum and sulphur and (the lord of that country) has war with the tribe of MAGH about the mines; also with the tribe of Tipara there are battles."—Āīn (orig.) i. 388; [ed. Jarrett, ii. 120].

c. 1604.—"Defeat of the MAGH Rájá.—This short-sighted Rájá ... became elated with the extent of his treasures and the number of his elephants.... He then openly rebelled, and assembling an army at Sunárgánw laid seige to a fort in that vicinity ... Rájá Mán Singh ... despatched a force.... These soon brought the MAGH Rájá and all his forces to action ... regardless of the number of his boats and the strength of his artillery."—Ináyatullah, in Elliot, vi. 109.

1638.—"Submission of Manek Ráí, the MAG Rájá of Chittagong."—Abdul-Hamíd Lahori, in do. vii. 66.

c. 1665.—"These many years there have always been in the Kingdom of Rakan or Moy (read MOG) some Portuguese, and with them a great number of their Christian Slaves, and other Franguis.... That was the refuge of the Run-aways from Goa, Ceilan, Cochin, Malague (see MALACCA), and all these other places which the Portugueses formerly held in the Indies."—Bernier, E.T. p. 53; [ed. Constable, 109].

1676.—"In all Bengala this King (of Arakan) is known by no other name but the King of MOGUE."—Tavernier, E.T. i. 8.

1752.—"... that as the time of the MUGS draws nigh, they request us to order the pinnace to be with them by the end of next month."—In Long, p. 87.

c. 1810.—"In a paper written by Dr. Leyden, that gentleman supposes ... that Magadha is the country of the people whom we call MUGGS.... The term MUGG, these people assured me, is never used by either themselves or by the Hindus, except when speaking the jargon commonly called Hindustani by Europeans...."—F. Buchanan, in Eastern India, ii. 18.

1811.—"MUGS, a dirty and disgusting people, but strong and skilful. They are somewhat of the Malayan race."—Solvyns, iii.

1866.—"That vegetable curry was excellent. Of course your cook is a MUG?"—The Dawk Bungalow, 389.

MUGGUR, s. Hind. and Mahr. magar and makar, from Skt. makara 'a sea-monster' (see MACAREO). The destructive broad-snouted crocodile of the Ganges and other Indian rivers, formerly called Crocodilus biporcatus, now apparently subdivided into several sorts or varieties.

1611.—"Alagaters or Crocodiles there called MURGUR match...."—Hawkins, in Purchas, i. 436. The word is here intended for magar-mats or machh, 'crocodile-fish.'

[1876.—See under NUZZER.]

1878.—"The MUGGUR is a gross pleb, and his features stamp him as low-born. His manners are coarse."—Ph. Robinson, In My Indian Garden, 82-3.

1879.—"En route I killed two crocodiles; they are usually called alligators, but that is a misnomer. It is the MUGGER ... these MUGGERS kill a good many people, and have a playful way of getting under a boat, and knocking off the steersman with their tails, and then swallowing him afterwards."—Pollok, Sport, &c., i. 168.

1881.—"Alligator leather attains by use a beautiful gloss, and is very durable ... and it is possible that our rivers contain a sufficient number of the two varieties of crocodile, the MUGGAR and the garial (see GAVIAL) for the tanners and leather-dressers of Cawnpore to experiment upon."—Pioneer Mail, April 26.

MUGGRABEE, n.p. Ar. maghrabī, 'western.' This word, applied to western Arabs, or Moors proper, is, as might be expected, not now common in India. It is the term that appears in the Hayraddin MOGRABBIN of Quentin Durward. From gharb, the root of this word, the Spaniards have the province of ALGARVE, and both Spanish and Portuguese have GARBIN, a west wind. [The magician in the tale of Alaeddin is a Maghrabī, and to this day in Languedoc and Gascony Maugraby is used as a term of cursing. (Burton, Ar. Nights, x. 35, 379). MUGGERBEE is used for a coin (see GUBBER).]

1563.—"The proper tongue in which Avicena wrote is that which is used in Syria and Mesopotamia and in Persia and in Tartary (from which latter Avicena came) and this tongue they call Araby; and that of our Moors they call MAGARABY, as much as to say Moorish of the West...."—Garcia, f. 19_v_.

MULL, s. A contraction of MULLIGATAWNY, and applied as a distinctive sobriquet to members of the Service belonging to the Madras Presidency, as Bengal people are called QUI-HIS, and Bombay people DUCKS or BENIGHTED.

[1837.—"The MULLS have been excited also by another occurrence ... affecting rather the trading than fashionable world."—Asiatic Journal, December, p. 251.]

[1852.—"... residents of Bengal, Bombay, and Madras are, in Eastern parlance, designated 'Qui Hies,' 'Ducks,' and 'MULLS.'"—Notes and Queries, 1st ser. v. 165.]

1860.—"It ys ane darke Londe, and ther dwellen ye Cimmerians whereof speketh Homerus Poeta in his Odysseia, and to thys Daye thei clepen Tenebrosi or 'ye Benyghted ffolke.' Bot thei clepen hemselvys MULLYS from Mulligatawnee wh^{ch} ys ane of theyr goddys from w^{ch} thei ben ysprong."—Ext. from a lately discovered MS. of Sir John Maundeville.

MULLIGATAWNY, s. The name of this well-known soup is simply a corruption of the Tamil milagu-tannīr, 'pepper-water'; showing the correctness of the popular belief which ascribes the origin of this excellent article to Madras, whence—and not merely from the complexion acquired there—the sobriquet of the preceding article.

1784.—

"In vain our hard fate we repine; In vain on our fortune we rail; On MULLAGHEE-TAWNY we dine, Or CONGEE, in Bangalore Jail." Song by a Gentleman of the Navy (one of Hyder's Prisoners), in Seton-Karr, i. 18.

[1823.—"... in a brasen pot was MULUGU TANNI, a hot vegetable soup, made chiefly from pepper and capsicums."—Hoole, Missions in Madras, 2nd ed. 249.]

MULMULL, s. Hind. malmal; Muslin.

[c. 1590.—"MALMAL, per piece ... 4 R."—Āīn, ed. Blochmann, i. 94.]

1683.—"Ye said Ellis told your Petitioner that he would not take 500 Pieces of your Petitioner's MULMULLS unless your Petitioner gave him 200 Rups. which your Petitioner being poor could not do."—Petition of Rogoodee, Weaver of Hugly, in Hedges, Diary, March 26; [Hak. Soc. i. 73].

1705.—"MALLE-MOLLES et autre diverses sortes de toiles ... stinquerques et les belles mousselines."—Luillier, 78.

MUNCHEEL, MANJEEL, s. This word is proper to the S.W. coast; Malayal. manjīl, mañchal, from Skt. maṅcha. It is the name of a kind of hammock-litter used on that coast as a substitute for palankin or dooly. It is substantially the same as the DANDY of the Himālaya, but more elaborate. Correa describes but does not name it.

1561.—"... He came to the factory in a litter which men carried on their shoulders. These are made with thick canes, bent upwards and arched, and from them are suspended some clothes half a fathom in width, and a fathom and a half in length; and at the extremities pieces of wood to sustain the cloth hanging from the pole; and upon this cloth a mattress of the same size as the cloth ... the whole very splendid, and as rich as the gentlemen ... may desire."—Correa, Three Voyages, &c., p. 199.

1811.—"The Inquisition is about a quarter of a mile distant from the convent, and we proceeded thither in MANJEELS."—Buchanan, Christian Researches, 2nd ed., 171.

1819.—"MUNCHEEL, a kind of litter resembling a sea-cot or hammock, hung to a long pole, with a moveable cover over the whole, to keep off the sun or rain. Six men will run with one from one end of the Malabar coast to the other, while twelve are necessary for the lightest palanquin."—Welsh, ii. 142.

1844.—"MUNCHEELS, with poles complete.... Poles, MUNCHEEL-, Spare."—Jameson's Bombay Code, Ordnance Nomenclature.

1862.—"We ... started ... in MUNSHEELS or hammocks, slung to bamboos, with a shade over them, and carried by six men, who kept up unearthly yells the whole time."—Markham, Peru and India, 353.

c. 1886.—"When I landed at Diu, an officer met me with a MUNCHEEL for my use, viz. a hammock slung to a pole, and protected by an awning."—M.-Gen. R. H. Keatinge.

A form of this word is used at Réunion, where a kind of palankin is called "le MANCHY." It gives a title to one of Leconte de Lisle's Poems:

c. 1858.—

"Sous un nuage frais de claire mousseline Tous les dimanches au matin, Tu venais à la ville en MANCHY de rotin, Par les rampes de la colline." Le MANCHY.

The word has also been introduced by the Portuguese into Africa in the forms maxilla, and machilla.

1810.—"... tangas, que elles chamão MAXILAS."—Annaes Maritimas, iii. 434.

1880.—"The Portuguese (in Quilliman) seldom even think of walking the length of their own street, and ... go from house to house in a sort of palanquin, called here a MACHILLA (pronounced masheela). This usually consists of a pole placed upon the shoulders of the natives, from which is suspended a long plank of wood, and upon that is fixed an old-fashioned-looking chair, or sometimes two. Then there is an awning over the top, hung all round with curtains. Each MACHILLA requires about 6 to 8 bearers, who are all dressed alike in a kind of livery."—A Journey in E. Africa, by M. A. Pringle, p. 89.

MUNGOOSE, s. This is the popular Anglo-Indian name of the Indian ichneumons, represented in the South by Mangusta Mungos (Elliot), or Herpestes griseus (Geoffroy) of naturalists, and in Bengal by Herpestes malaccensis. [Blanford (Mammalia, 119 seqq.) recognises eight species, the "Common Indian Mungoose" being described as Herpestes mungo.] The word is Telugu, mangīsu, or mungīsa. In Upper India the animal is called newal, neolā, or nyaul. Jerdon gives mangūs however as a Deccani and Mahr. word; [Platts gives it as dialectic, and very doubtfully derives it from Skt. makshu, 'moving quickly.' In Ar. it is bint-'arūs, 'daughter of the bridegroom,' in Egypt kitt or katt Farāūn, 'Pharaoh's cat' (Burton, Ar. Nights, ii. 369)].

1673.—"... a MONGOOSE is akin to a Ferret...."—Fryer, 116.

1681.—"The knowledge of these antidotal herbs they have learned from the MOUNGGUTIA, a kind of Ferret."—Knox, 115.

1685.—"They have what they call a MANGUS, creatures something different from ferrets; these hold snakes in great antipathy, and if they once discover them never give up till they have killed them."—Ribeyro, f. 56_v_.

Bluteau gives the following as a quotation from a History of Ceylon, tr. from Portuguese into French, published at Paris in 1701, p. 153. It is in fact the gist of an anecdote in Ribeyro.

"There are persons who cherish this animal and have it to sleep with them, although it is ill-tempered, for they prefer to be bitten by a MANGUS to being killed by a snake."

1774.—"He (the Dharma Raja of Bhootan) has got a little lap-dog and a MUNGOOS, which he is very fond of."—Bogle's Diary, in Markham's Tibet, 27.

1790.—"His (Mr. Glan's) experiments have also established a very curious fact, that the ichneumon, or MUNGOOSE, which is very common in this country, and kills snakes without danger to itself, does not use antidotes ... but that the poison of snakes is, to this animal, innocent."—Letter in Colebrooke's Life, p. 40.

1829.—"Il MONGÙSE animale simile ad una donnola."—Papi, in de Gubernatis, St. dei Viagg. Ital., p. 279.

MUNJEET, s. Hind. majīṭh, Skt. maṅjishṭha; a dye-plant (Rubia cordifolia, L., N.O. Cinchonaceae); 'Bengal Madder.'

MUNNEEPORE, n.p. Properly Manipūr; a quasi-independent State lying between the British district of Cachar on the extreme east of Bengal, and the upper part of the late kingdom of Burma, and in fact including a part of the watershed between the tributaries of the Brahmaputra and those of the Irawadi. The people are of genuinely Indo-Chinese and Mongoloid aspect, and the State, small and secluded as it is, has had its turn in temporary conquest and domination, like almost all the States of Indo-China from the borders of Assam to the mouth of the Mekong. Like the other Indo-Chinese States, too, Manipūr has its royal chronicle, but little seems to have been gathered from it. The Rājas and people have, for a period which seems uncertain, professed Hindu religion. A disastrous invasion of Manipūr by Alompra, founder of the present Burmese dynasty, in 1755, led a few years afterwards to negotiations with the Bengal Government, and the conclusion of a treaty, in consequence of which a body of British sepoys was actually despatched in 1763, but eventually returned without reaching Manipūr. After this, intercourse practically ceased till the period of our first Burmese War (1824-25), when the country was overrun by the Burmese, who also entered Cachar; and British troops, joined with a Manipūrī force, expelled them. Since then a British officer has always been resident at Manipūr, and at one time (c. 1838-41) a great deal of labour was expended on opening a road between Cachar and Manipūr. [The murder of Mr. Quinton, Chief-Commissioner of Assam, and other British officers at Manipūr, in the close of 1890, led to the infliction of severe punishment on the leaders of the outbreak. The Mahārāja, whose abdication led to this tragedy, died in Calcutta in the following year, and the State is now under British management during the minority of his successor.]

This State has been called by a variety of names. Thus, in Rennell's Memoir and maps of India it bears the name of MECKLEY. In Symes's Narrative, and in maps of that period, it is CASSAY; names, both of which have long disappeared from modern maps. Meckley represents the name (Makli?) by which the country was known in Assam; Mogli (apparently a form of the same) was the name in Cachar; Ka-sé or Ka-thé (according to the Ava pronunciation) is the name by which it is known to the Shans or Burmese.

1755.—"I have carried my Arms to the confines of CHINA ... on the other quarter I have reduced to my subjection the major part of the Kingdom of CASSAY; whose Heir I have taken captive, see there he sits behind you...."—Speech of Alompra to Capt. Baker at Momchabue. Dalrymple, Or. Rep. i. 152.

1759.—"CASSAY, which ... lies to the N. Westward of AVA, is a Country, so far as I can learn, hitherto unheard of in Europe...."—Letter, dd. 22 June 1759, in ibid. 116.

[1762.—"... the President sent the Board a letter which he had received from Mr. Verelst at Chittagong, containing an invitation which had been made to him and his Council by the Rajah of MECKLEY to assist him in obtaining redress ... from the Burmas...."—Letter, in Wheeler, Early Records, 291.]

1763.—"MECKLEY is a Hilly Country, and is bounded on the North, South, and West by large tracts of Cookie Mountains, which prevent any intercourse with the countries beyond them; and on the East[175] by the Burampoota (see BURRAMPOOTER); beyond the Hills, to the North by Asam and Poong; to the West Cashar; to the South and East the BURMAH Country, which lies between Meckley and China.... The Burampoota is said to divide, somewhere to the north of Poong, into two large branches, one of which passes through ASAM, and down by the way of Dacca, the other through POONG into the Burma Country."—Acct. of Meckley, by Nerher Doss Gosseen, in Dalrymple's Or. Rep., ii. 477-478.

" "... there is about seven days plain country between MONEYPOOR and BURAMPOOTA, after crossing which, about seven days, Jungle and Hills, to the inhabited border of the Burmah country."—Ibid. 481.

1793.—"... The first ridge of mountains towards Thibet and Bootan, forms the limit of the survey to the north; to which I may now add, that the surveys extend no farther eastward, than the frontiers of Assam and MECKLEY.... The space between Bengal and China, is occupied by the province of MECKLEY and other districts, subject to the King of Burmah, or Ava...."—Rennell's Memoir, 295.

1799.—(Referring to 1757). "Elated with success Alompra returned to Monchaboo, now the seat of imperial government. After some months ... he took up arms against the CASSAYERS.... Having landed his troops, he was preparing to advance to MUNNEPOORA, the capital of CASSAY, when information arrived that the Peguers had revolted...."—Symes, Narrative, 41-42.

" "All the troopers in the King's service are natives of CASSAY, who are much better horsemen than the Birmans."—Ibid. 318.

1819.—"Beyond the point of Negraglia (see NEGRAIS), as far as Azen (see ASSAM), and even further, there is a small chain of mountains that divides Aracan and CASSÉ from the Burmese...."—Sangermano, p. 33.

1827.—"The extensive area of the Burman territory is inhabited by many distinct nations or tribes, of whom I have heard not less than eighteen enumerated. The most considerable of these are the proper Burmans, the Peguans or Talains, the Shans or people of Lao, the CASSAY, or more correctly Kathé...."—Crawfurd's Journal, 372.

1855.—"The weaving of these silks ... gives employment to a large body of the population in the suburbs and villages round the capital, especially to the MUNNIPOORIANS, or KATHÉ, as they are called by the Burmese.

"These people, the descendants of unfortunates who were carried off in droves from their country by the Burmans in the time of King Mentaragyi and his predecessors, form a very great proportion ... of the metropolitan population, and they are largely diffused in nearly all the districts of Central Burma.... Whatever work is in hand for the King or for any of the chief men near the capital, these people supply the labouring hands; if boats have to be manned they furnish the rowers; and whilst engaged on such tasks any remuneration they may receive is very scanty and uncertain."—Yule, Mission to Ava, 153-154.

MUNSUBDAR. Hind. from Pers. manṣabdār, 'the holder of office or dignity' (Ar. manṣab). The term was used to indicate quasi-feudal dependents of the Mogul Government who had territory assigned to them, on condition of their supplying a certain number of horse, 500, 1000 or more. In many cases the title was but nominal, and often it was assumed without warrant. [Mr. Irvine discusses the question at length and represents manṣab by "the word 'rank,' as its object was to settle precedence and fix gradation of pay; it did not necessarily imply the exercise of any particular office, and meant nothing beyond the fact that the holder was in the employ of the State, and bound in return to yield certain services when called upon." (J.R.A.S., July 1896, pp. 510 seqq.)]

[1617.—"... slew one of them and twelve MAANCIPDARES."—Sir T. Roe, Hak. Soc. ii. 417; in ii. 461, "MANCIPDARIES."

[1623.—"... certain Officers of the Militia, whom they call MANSUBDÀR."—P. della Valle, Hak. Soc. i. 97.]

c. 1665.—"MANSEBDARS are Cavaliers of Manseb, which is particular and honourable Pay; not so great indeed as that of the Omrahs ... they being esteemed as little Omrahs, and of the rank of those, that are advanced to that dignity."—Bernier, E.T. p. 67; [ed. Constable, 215].

1673.—"MUNSUBDARS or petty omrahs."—Fryer, 195.

1758.—"... a MUNSUBDAR or commander of 6000 horse."—Orme, ed. 1803, ii. 278.

MUNTRA, s. Skt. mantra, 'a text of the Vedas; a magical formula.'

1612.—"... Trata da causa primeira, segundo os livros que tem, chamados Terum MANDRA mole" (mantra-mūla, mūla 'text').—Couto, Dec. V. liv. vi. cap. 3.

1776.—"MANTUR—a text of the Shaster."—Halhed, Code, p. 17.

1817.—"... he is said to have found the great MANTRA, spell or talisman."—Mill, Hist. ii. 149.

MUNTREE, s. Skt. Mantri. A minister or high official. The word is especially affected in old Hindu States, and in the Indo-Chinese and Malay States which derive their ancient civilisation from India. It is the word which the Portuguese made into MANDARIN (q.v.).

1810.—"When the Court was full, and Ibrahim, the son of Candu the merchant, was near the throne, the Raja entered.... But as soon as the Rajah seated himself, the MUNTRIES and high officers of state arrayed themselves according to their rank."—In a Malay's account of Government House at Calcutta, transl. by Dr. Leyden, in Maria Graham, p. 200.

[1811.—"MANTRI." See under ORANKAY.

[1829.—"The MANTRIS of Mewar prefer estates to pecuniary stipend, which gives more consequence in every point of view."—Tod, Annals, Calcutta reprint, i. 150.]

MUNZIL, s. Ar. manzil, 'descending or alighting,' hence the halting place of a stage or march, a day's stage.

1685.—"We were not able to reach Obdeen-deen (ye usual MENZILL) but lay at a sorry CARAVAN SARAI."—Hedges, Diary, July 30; [Hak. Soc. i. 203. In i. 214, MANZEILL].

MUSCÁT, n.p., properly Măskăt. A port and city of N.E. Arabia; for a long time the capital of 'Omān. (See IMAUM.)

[1659.—"The Governor of the city was Chah-Navaze-kan ... descended from the ancient Princes of MACHATE...."—Bernier, ed. Constable, 73.]

1673.—"MUSCHAT." See under IMAUM.

MUSIC. There is no matter in which the sentiments of the people of India differ more from those of Englishmen than on that of music, and curiously enough the one kind of Western music which they appreciate, and seem to enjoy, is that of the bagpipe. This is testified by Captain Munro in the passage quoted below; but it was also shown during Lord Canning's visit to Lahore in 1860, in a manner which dwells in the memory of one of the present writers. The escort consisted of part of a Highland regiment. A venerable Sikh chief who heard the pipes exclaimed: 'That is indeed music! it is like that which we hear of in ancient story, which was so exquisite that the hearers became insensible (behosh).'

1780.—"The bagpipe appears also to be a favourite instrument among the natives. They have no taste indeed for any other kind of music, and they would much rather listen to this instrument a whole day than to an organ for ten minutes."—Munro's Narrative, 33.

MUSK, s. We get this word from the Lat. muschus, Greek μόσχος, and the latter must have been got, probably through Persian, from the Skt. mushka, the literal meaning of which is rendered in the old English phrase 'a cod of musk.' The oldest known European mention of the article is that which we give from St. Jerome; the oldest medical prescription is in a work of Aetius, of Amida (c. 540). In the quotation from Cosmas the word used is μόσχος, and kastūri is a Skt. name, still, according to Royle, applied to the musk-deer in the Himālaya. The transfer of the name to (or from) the article called by the Greeks καστόριον, which is an analogous product of the beaver, is curious. The Musk-deer (Moschus moschiferus, L.) is found throughout the Himālaya at elevations rarely (in summer) below 8000 feet, and extends east to the borders of Szechuen, and north to Siberia.

c. 390.—"Odoris autem suavitas, et diversa thymiamata, et amomum, et cyphi, oenanthe, MUSCUS, et peregrini muris pellicula, quod dissolutis et amatoribus conveniat, nemo nisi dissolutus negat."—St. Jerome, in Lib. Secund. adv. Jovinianum, ed. Vallarsii, ii. col. 337.

c. 545.—"This little animal is the MUSK (μόσχος). The natives call it in their own tongue καστοῦρι. They hunt it and shoot it, and binding tight the blood collected about the navel they cut this off, and this is the sweet smelling part of it, and what we call MUSK."—Cosmas Indicopleustes, Bk. xi.

["MUSKE commeth from Tartaria.... There is a certaine beast in Tartaria, which is wilde and big as a wolfe, which beast they take aliue, and beat him to death with small stanes y^t his blood may be spread through his whole body, then they cut it in pieces, and take out all the bones, and beat the flesh with the blood in a mortar very smal, and dry it, and make purses to put it in of the skin, and these be the Cods of MUSKE."—Caesar Frederick, in Hakl. ii. 372.]

1673.—"MUSK. It is best to buy it in the Cod ... that which openeth with a bright Mosk colour is best."—Fryer, 212.

MUSK-RAT, s. The popular name of the Sorex caerulescens, Jerdon, [Crocidura caerulea, Blanford], an animal having much the figure of the common shrew, but nearly as large as a small brown rat. It diffuses a strong musky odour, so penetrative that it is commonly asserted to affect bottled beer by running over the bottles in a cellar. As Jerdon judiciously observes, it is much more probable that the corks have been affected before being used in bottling; [and Blanford (Mammalia, 237) writes that "the absurd story ... is less credited in India than it formerly was, owing to the discovery that liquors bottled in Europe and exported to India are not liable to be tainted."] When the female is in heat she is often seen to be followed by a string of males giving out the odour strongly. Can this be the mus peregrinus mentioned by St. Jerome (see MUSK), as P. Vincenzo supposes?

c. 1590.—"Here (in Tooman Bekhrad, n. of Kabul R.) are also MICE that have a fine MUSKY SCENT."—Ayeen, by Gladwin (1800) ii. 166; [ed. Jarrett, ii. 406].

[1598.—"They are called sweet smelling RATTES, for they have a smell as if they were full of MUSKE."—Linschoten, Hak. Soc. i. 303.]

1653.—"Les rats d'Inde sont de deux sortes.... La deuxiesme espece que les Portugais appellent cheroso ou odoriferant est de la figure d'vn furet" (a ferret), "mais extremement petit, sa morseure est veneneuse. Lorsqu'il entre en vne chambre l'on le sent incontinent, et l'on l'entend crier krik, krik, krik."—De la Boullaye-le-Gouz, ed. 1657, p. 256. I may note on this that Jerdon says of the Sorex murinus,—the large musk-rat of China, Burma, and the Malay countries, extending into Lower Bengal and Southern India, especially the Malabar coast, where it is said to be the common species (therefore probably that known to our author),—that the bite is considered venomous by the natives (Mammals, p. 54), [a belief for which, according to Blanford (l.c. p. 236), there is no foundation].

1672.—P. Vincenzo Maria, speaking of his first acquaintance with this animal (il ratto del musco), which occurred in the Capuchin Convent at Surat, says with simplicity (or malignity?): "I was astonished to perceive an odour so fragrant[176] in the vicinity of those most religious Fathers, with whom I was at the moment in conversation."—Viaggio, p. 385.

1681.—"This country has its vermin also. They have a sort of Rats they call MUSK-RATS, because they smell strong of musk. These the inhabitants do not eat of, but of all other sorts of Rats they do."—Knox, p. 31.

1789.—H. Munro in his Narrative (p. 34) absurdly enough identifies this animal with the BANDICOOT, q.v.

1813.—See Forbes, Or. Mem. i. 42; [2nd. ed. i. 26].

MUSLIN, s. There seems to be no doubt that this word is derived from Mosul (Mauṣal or Mauṣil) on the Tigris,[177] and it has been from an old date the name of a texture, but apparently not always that of the thin semi-transparent tissue to which we now apply it. Dozy (p. 323) says that the Arabs employ mauṣili in the same sense as our word, quoting the Arabian Nights (Macnaghten's ed., i. 176, and ii. 159), in both of which the word indicates the material of a fine turban. [Burton (i. 211) translates 'Mosul stuff,' and says it may mean either of 'Mosul fashion,' or muslin.] The quotation from Ives, as well as that from Marco Polo, seems to apply to a different texture from what we call muslin.

1298.—"All the cloths of gold and silk that are called MOSOLINS are made in this country (Mausul)."—Marco Polo, Bk. i. chap. 5.

c. 1544.—"Almussoli est regio in Mesopotamia, in qua texuntur telae ex bombyce valde pulchrae, quae apud Syros et Aegyptios et apud mercatores Venetos appellantur MUSSOLI, ex hoc regionis nomine. Et principes Aegyptii et Syri, tempore aestatis sedentes in loco honorauiliori induunt vestes ex hujusmodi MUSSOLI."—Andreae Bellunensis, Arabicorum nominum quae in libris Avicennae sparsim legebantur Interpretatio.

1573.—"... you have all sorts of Cotton-works, Handkerchiefs, long Fillets, Girdles ... and other sorts, by the Arabians called MOSSELLINI (after the Country Mussoli, from whence they are brought, which is situated in Mesopotamia), by us MUSLIN."—Rauwolff, p. 84.

c. 1580.—"For the rest the said Agiani (misprint for Bagnani, BANYANS) wear clothes of white MUSSOLO or sessa (?); having their garments very long and crossed over the breast."—Gasparo Balbi, f. 33_b_.

1673.—"Le drap qu'on estend sur les matelas est d'une toille aussy fine que de la MOUSCELINE."—App. to Journal d'Ant. Galland, ii. 198.

1685.—"I have been told by several, that MUSCELIN (so much in use here for cravats) and Calligo (!), and the most of the Indian linens, are made of nettles, and I see not the least improbability but that they may be made of the fibres of them."—Dr. Hans Sloane to Mr. Ray, in Ray Correspondence, 1848, p. 163.

c. 1760.—"This city (Mosul)'s manufacture is MUSSOLIN [read MUSSOLEN] (a cotton cloth) which they make very strong and pretty fine, and sell for the European and other markets."—Ives, Voyage, p. 324.

MUSNUD, s. H.—Ar. masnad, from root sanad, 'he leaned or rested upon it.' The large cushion, &c., used by native Princes in India, in place of a throne.

1752.—"Salabat-jing ... went through the ceremony of sitting on the MUSNUD or throne."—Orme, ed. 1803, i. 250.

1757.—"On the 29th the Colonel went to the Soubah's Palace, and in the presence of all the Rajahs and great men of the court, led him to the MUSLAND...."—Reflexions by Luke Scrafton, Esq., ed. 1770, p. 93.

1803.—"The Peshwah arrived yesterday, and is to be seated on the MUSNUD."—A. Wellesley, in Munro's Life, i. 343.

1809.—"In it was a MUSNUD, with a carpet, and a little on one side were chairs on a white cloth."—Ld. Valentia, i. 346.

1824.—"They spread fresh carpets, and prepared the royal MUSNUD, covering it with a magnificent shawl."—Hajji Baba, ed. 1835, p. 142.

1827.—"The Prince Tippoo had scarcely dismounted from his elephant, and occupied the MUSNUD, or throne of cushions."—Sir W. Scott, Surgeon's Daughter, ch. xiv.

MUSSALLA, s. P.—H. (with change of sense from Ar. maṣāliḥ, pl. of maṣlaḥa) 'materials, ingredients,' lit. 'things for the good of, or things or affairs conducive to good.' Though sometimes used for the ingredients of any mixture, e.g. to form a cement, the most usual application is to spices, curry-stuffs and the like. There is a tradition of a very gallant Governor-General that he had found it very tolerable, on a sharp but brief campaign, to "rough it on CHUPRASSIES and MUSSAULCHEES" (qq.v.), meaning chupatties and mussalla.

1780.—"A dose of MARSALL, or purgative spices."—Munro, Narrative, 85.

1809.—"At the next hut the woman was grinding MISSALA or curry-stuff on a flat smooth stone with another shaped like a rolling pin."—Maria Graham, 20.

MUSSAUL, s. Hind. from Ar. mash'al, 'a torch.' It is usually made of rags wrapt round a rod, and fed at intervals with oil from an earthen pot.

c. 1407.—"Suddenly, in the midst of the night they saw the Sultan's camp approaching, accompanied by a great number of MASHAL."—Abdurazzāk, in N. & Exts. xiv. Pt. i. 153.

1673.—"The Duties[178] march like Furies with their lighted MUSSALS in their hands, they are Pots filled with Oyl in an Iron Hoop like our Beacons, and set on fire by stinking rags."—Fryer, 33.

1705.—"... flambeaux qu'ils appellent MANSALLES."—Luillier, 89.

1809.—"These MUSSAL or link-boys."—Ld. Valentia, i. 17.

1810.—"The MOSAUL, or flambeau, consists of old rags, wrapped very closely round a small stick."—Williamson, V. M. i. 219.

[1813.—"These nocturnal processions illumined by many hundred MASSAULS or torches, illustrate the parable of the ten virgins...."—Forbes, Or. Mem. 2nd ed. ii. 274.

[1857.—"Near him was another Hindoo ... he is called a MUSSAL; and the lamps and lights are his special department."—Lady Falkland, Chow-Chow, 2nd ed. i. 35.]

MUSSAULCHEE, s. Hind. mash'alchī from mash'al (see MUSSAUL), with the Turkish termination chī, generally implying an agent. [In the Arabian Nights (Burton, i. 239) al-masha'ilī is the executioner.] The word properly means a link-boy, and was formerly familiar in that sense as the epithet of the person who ran alongside of a palankin on a night journey, bearing a MUSSAUL. "In Central India it is the special duty of the barber (nāī) to carry the torch; hence nāī commonly = 'torch-bearer'" (M.-Gen. Keatinge). The word [or sometimes in the corrupt form MUSSAUL] is however still more frequent as applied to a humble domestic, whose duty was formerly of a like kind, as may be seen in the quotation from Ld. Valentia, but who now looks after lamps and washes dishes, &c., in old English phrase 'a scullion.'

1610.—"He always had in service 500 MASSALGEES."—Finch, in Purchas, i. 432.

1662.—(In Asam) "they fix the head of the corpse rigidly with poles, and put a lamp with plenty of oil, and a MASH'ALCHÍ [torch-bearer] alive into the vault, to look after the lamp."—Shihábuddín Tálish, tr. by Blochmann, in J.A.S.B. xli. Pt. i. 82.

[1665.—"They (flambeaux) merely consist of a piece of iron hafted in a stick, and surrounded at the extremity with linen rags steeped in oil, which are renewed ... by the MASALCHIS, or link boys, who carry the oil in long narrow-necked vessels of iron or brass."—Bernier, ed. Constable, 361.]

1673.—"Trois MASSALGIS du Grand Seigneur vinrent faire honneur à M. l'Ambassadeur avec leurs feux allumés."—Journal d'Ant. Galland, ii. 103.

1686.—"After strict examination he chose out 2 persons, the Chout (Chous?), an Armenian, who had charge of watching my tent that night, and my MOSSALAGEE, a person who carries the light before me in the night."—Hedges, Diary, July 2; [Hak. Soc. i. 232].

[1775.—"... MASHARGUES, Torch-bearers."—Letter of W. Mackrabie, in Francis, Letters, i. 227.]

1791.—"... un MASOLCHI, ou porte-flambeau, pour la nuit."—B. de St. Pierre, La Chaumière Indienne, 16.

1809.—"It is universally the custom to drive out between sunset and dinner. The MASSALCHEES, when it grows dark, go out to meet their masters on their return, and run before them, at the full rate of eight miles an hour, and the numerous lights moving along the esplanade produce a singular and pleasing effect."—Ld. Valentia, i. 240.

1813.—"The occupation of MASSAULCHEE, or torch-bearer, although generally allotted to the village barber, in the purgannas under my charge, may vary in other districts."—Forbes, Or. Mem. ii. 417; [2nd ed. ii. 43].

1826.—"After a short conversation, they went away, and quickly returned at the head of 200 men, accompanied by MUSSALCHEES or torch-bearers."—Pandurang Hari, 557; [ed. 1873, ii. 69].

[1831.—"... a MOSSOLEI, or man to light up the place."—Asiatic Journal, N.S. v. 197.]

MUSSENDOM, CAPE, n.p. The extreme eastern point of Arabia, at the entrance of the Persian Gulf. Properly speaking, it is the extremity of a small precipitous island of the name, which protrudes beyond the N.E. horn of 'Omān. The name is written Masándim in the map which Dr. Badger gives with his H. of 'Oman. But it is Rās Masandam (or possibly Masandum) in the Mohit of Sidi 'Ali Kapudān (J. As. Soc. Ben., v. 459). Sprenger writes Mosandam (Alt. Geog. Arabiens, p. 107). [Morier gives another explanation (see the quotation below).]

1516.—"... it (the coast) trends to the N.E. by N. 30 leagues until Cape MOCONDON, which is at the mouth of the Sea of Persia."—Barbosa, 32.

1553.—"... before you come to Cape MOÇANDAN, which Ptolemy calls Asaboro (Ἀσαβῶν ἄκρον) and which he puts in 23½°, but which we put in 26°; and here terminates our first division" (of the Eastern Coasts).—Barros, I. ix. 1.

1572.—

"Olha o cabo Asabóro que chamado Agora he MOÇANDÃO dos navegantes: Por aqui entra o lago, que he fechado De Arabia, e Persias terras abundantes." Camões, x. 102.

By Burton:

"Behold of Asabón the Head, now hight MOSANDAM, by the men who plough the Main: Here lies the Gulf whose long and lake-like Bight, parts Araby from fertile Persia's plain."

The fact that the poet copies the misprint or mistake of Barros in Asaboro, shows how he made use of that historian.

1673.—"On the one side St. Jaques (see JASK) his Headland, on the other that of MUSSENDOWN appeared, and afore Sunset we entered the Straights Mouth."—Fryer, 221.

1727.—"The same Chain of rocky Mountains continue as high as Zear, above Cape MUSENDEN, which Cape and Cape Jaques begin the Gulf of Persia."—A. Hamilton, i. 71; [ed. 1744, i. 73].

1777.—"At the mouth of the Strait of MOCANDON, which leads into the Persian gulph, lies the island of GOMBROON" (?)—Raynal, tr. 1777, i. 86.

[1808.—"MUSSELDOM is a still stronger instance of the perversion of words. The genuine name of this head-land is Mama Selemeh, who was a female saint of Arabia, and lived on the spot or in its neighbourhood."—Morier, Journey through Persia, p. 6.]

MUSSOOLA, MUSSOOLAH, BOAT, s. The surf boat used on the Coromandel Coast; of capacious size, and formed of planks sewn together with coir-twine; the open joints being made good with a caulking or wadding of twisted coir. The origin of the word is very obscure. Leyden thought it was derived from "masoula ... the Mahratta term for fish" (Morton's Life of Leyden, 64). As a matter of fact the Mahr. word for fish is māsolī, Konk. măsūlī. This etymology is substantially adopted by Bp. Heber (see below); [and by the compiler of the Madras Gloss., who gives Tel. māsūla, Hind. machhlī]. But it may be that the word is some Arabic sea-term not in the dictionaries. Indeed, if the term used by C. Federici (below) be not a clerical error, it suggests a possible etymology from the Ar. masad, 'the fibrous bark of the palm-tree, a rope made of it.' Another suggestion is from the Ar. mauṣūl, 'joined,' as opposed to 'dug-out,' or canoes; or possibly it may be from maḥsūl, 'tax,' if these boats were subject to a tax. Lastly it is possible that the name may be connected with MASULIPATAM (q.v.), where similar boats would seem to have been in use (see Fryer, 26). But these are conjectures. The quotation from Gasparo Balbi gives a good account of the handling of these boats, but applies no name to them.

c. 1560.—"Spaventosa cosa'è chi nõ ha più visto, l'imbarcare e sbarcar le mercantie e le persone a San Tomè ... adoperano certe barchette fatte aposta molto alte e larghe, ch'essi chiamano MASUDI, e sono fatte con tauole sottili, e con corde sottili cusite insieme vna tauola con l'altre," &c. (there follows a very correct description of their use).—C. Federici, in Ramusio, iii. 391.

c. 1580.—"... where (Negapatam) they cannot land anything but in the MAÇULES of the same country."—Primor e Honra, &c., f. 93.

c. 1582.—"... There is always a heavy sea there (San Thomé), from swell or storm; so the merchandise and passengers are transported from shipboard to the town by certain boats which are sewn with fine cords, and when they approach the beach, where the sea breaks with great violence, they wait till the perilous wave has past, and then, in the interval between one wave and the next, those boatmen pull with great force, and so run ashore; and being there overtaken by the waves they are carried still further up the beach. And the boats do not break, because they give to the wave, and because the beach is covered with sand, and the boats stand upright on their bottoms."—G. Balbi, f. 89.

1673.—"I went ashore in a MUSSOOLA, a Boat wherein ten Men paddle, the two aftermost of whom are Steersmen, using their Paddles instead of a Rudder. The Boat is not strengthened with Knee-Timbers, as ours are; the bended Planks are sowed together with Rope-Yarn of the Cocoe, and calked with Dammar (see DAMMER) (a sort of Resin taken out of the Sea), so artificially that it yields to every ambitious Surf."—Fryer, 37.

[1677.—"MESULLAS." See MUCOA.]

1678.—"Three Englishmen drowned by upsetting of a MUSSOOLA boat. The fourth on board saved with the help of the Muckwas" (see MUCOA).—Ft. St. Geo. Consn., Aug. 13. Notes and Exts., No. i. p. 78.

1679.—"A MUSSOOLEE being overturned, although it was very smooth water and no surf, and one Englishman being drowned, a Dutchman being with difficulty recovered, the Boatmen were seized and put in prison, one escaping."—Ibid. July 14. In No. ii. p. 16.

[1683.—"This Evening about seven a Clock a MUSSULA coming ashoar ... was oversett in the Surf and all four drowned."—Pringle, Diary, Ft. St. Geo. 1st ser. ii. 54.]

1685.—"This morning two MUSOOLAS and two Cattamarans came off to ye Shippe."—Hedges, Diary, Feb. 3; [Hak. Soc. i. 182].

1760.—"As soon as the yawls and pinnaces reached the surf they dropped their graplings, and cast off the MASOOLAS, which immediately rowed ashore, and landed the troops."—Orme, iii. 617.

1762.—"No European boat can land, but the natives make use of a boat of a particular construction called a MAUSOLO," &c.—MS. Letter of James Rennell, April 1.

[1773.—"... the governor ... sent also four MOSSULAS, or country boats, to accommodate him...."—Ives, 182.]

1783.—"The want of MASSOOLA boats (built expressly for crossing the surf) will be severely felt."—In Life of Colebrooke, 9.

1826.—"The MASULI-boats (which first word is merely a corruption of 'muchli,' fish) have been often described, and except that they are sewed together with coco-nut twine, instead of being fastened with nails, they very much resemble the high, deep, charcoal boats ... on the Ganges."—Heber, ed. 1844, ii. 174.

1879.—"Madras has no harbour; nothing but a long open beach, on which the surf dashes with tremendous violence. Unlucky passengers were not landed there in the ordinary sense of the term, but were thrown violently on the shore, from springy and elastic MASULAH boats, and were occasionally carried off by sharks, if the said boats chanced to be upset in the rollers."—Saty. Review, Sept. 20.

MUSSUCK, s. The leathern water-bag, consisting of the entire skin of a large goat, stript of the hair and dressed, which is carried by a bhishtī (see BHEESTY). Hind. mashak, Skt. maśaka.

[1610.—"MUSSOCKE." See under RUPEE.

[1751.—"7 hands of MUSUK" (probably meaning Bhistis).—In Yule, Hedges' Diary, Hak. Soc. II. xi.]

1842.—"Might it not be worth while to try the experiment of having 'MUSSUCKS' made of waterproof cloth in England?"—Sir G. Arthur, in Ind. Adm. of Lord Ellenborough, 220.

MUSSULMAN, adj. and s. Mahommedan. Muslim, 'resigning' or 'submitting' (sc. oneself to God), is the name given by Mahommed to the Faithful. The Persian plural of this is Muslimân, which appears to have been adopted as a singular, and the word Muslimān or Musalmān thus formed. [Others explain it as either from Ar. pl. Muslimīn, or from Muslim-mān, 'like a Muslim,' the former of which is adopted by Platts as most probable.]

1246.—"Intravimus terram BISERMINORUM. Isti homines linguam Comanicam loquebantur, et adhuc loquuntur; sed legem Sarracenorum tenent."—Plano Carpini, in Rec. de Voyages, &c. iv. 750.

c. 1540.—"... disse por tres vezes, Lah, hilah, hilah, lah Muhamed roçol halah, o MASSOLEYMOENS e homes justos da santa ley de Mafamede."—Pinto, ch. lix.

1559.—"Although each horde (of Tartars) has its proper name, e.g. particularly the horde of the Savolhensians ... and many others, which are in truth Mahometans; yet do they hold it for a grievous insult and reproach to be called and styled Turks; they wish to be styled BESERMANI, and by this name the Turks also desire to be styled."—Herberstein, in Ramusio, ii. f. 171.

[1568.—"I have noted here before that if any Christian will become a BUSORMAN, ... and be a Mahumetan of their religion, they give him any gifts ..."—A. Edward, in Hakl. i. 442.]

c. 1580.—"Tutti sopradetti Tartari seguitano la fede de' Turchi et alla Turchesca credono, ma si tẽgono a gran vergogna, e molto si corrociano l'esser detti Turchi, secondo che all'incontro godono d'esser BESURMANI, cioè gẽte eletta, chiamati."—Descrittione della Sarmatia Evropea del magn. caval. Aless. Gvagnino, in Ramusio, ii. Pt. ii. f. 72.

1619.—"... i MUSULMANI, cioè i salvati: che cosa pazzamente si chiamano fra di loro i maomettani."—P. della Valle, i. 794.

" "The precepts of the MOSLEMANS are first, circumcision ..."—Gabriel Sionita, in Purchas, ii. 1504.

1653.—"... son infanterie d'Indistannis MANSULMANS, ou Indiens de la secte des Sonnis."—De la Boullaye-le-Gouz, ed. 1657, 233.

1673.—"Yet here are a sort of bold, lusty, and most an end, drunken Beggars of the MUSSLEMEN Cast, that if they see a Christian in good clothes, mounted on a stately horse ... are presently upon their Punctilio's with God Almighty, and interrogate him, Why he suffers him to go a Foot, and in Rags, and this Coffery (see CAFFER) (Unbeliever) to vaunt it thus?"—Fryer, 91.

1788.—"We escape an ambiguous termination by adopting Moslem instead of MUSULMAN in the plural number."—Gibbon, pref. to vol. iv.

MUST, adj. Pers. mast, 'drunk.' It is applied in Persia also, and in India specially, to male animals, such as elephants and camels, in a state of periodical excitement.

[1882.—"Fits of MUST differ in duration in different animals (elephants); in some they last for a few weeks, in others for even four or five months."—Sanderson, Thirteen Years, 3rd ed., 59.]

MUSTEES, MESTIZ, &c., s. A HALF-CASTE. A corruption of the Port. mestiço, having the same meaning; "a mixling; applied to human beings and animals born of a father and mother of different species, like a mule" (Bluteau); French, métis and métif.

1546.—"The Governor in honour of this great action (the victory at Diu) ordered that all the MESTIÇOS who were in Dio should be inscribed in the Book, and that pay and subsistence should be assigned to them,—subject to the King's confirmation. For a regulation had been sent to India that no MESTIÇO of India should be given pay or subsistence: for, as it was laid down, it was their duty to serve for nothing, seeing that they had their houses and heritages in the country, and being on their native soil were bound to defend it."—Correa, iv. 580.

1552.—"... the sight of whom as soon as they came, caused immediately to gather about them a number of the natives, Moors in belief, and Negroes with curly hair in appearance, and some of them only swarthy, as being MISTIÇOS."—Barros, I. ii. 1.

1586.—"... che se sono nati qua di donne indiane, gli domandano MESTIZI."—Sassetti, in De Gubernatis, 188.

1588.—"... an Interpretour ... which was a MESTIZO, that is halfe an Indian, and halfe a Portugall."—Candish, in Hakl. iv. 337.

c. 1610.—"Le Capitaine et les Marchands estoient MESTIFS, les autres Indiens Christianisez."—Pyrard de Laval, i. 165; [Hak. Soc. i. 78; also see i. 240]. This author has also MÉTIFS (ii. 10; [Hak. Soc. i. 373]), and again: "... qu'ils appellent METICES, c'est à dire METIFS, meslez" (ii. 23; [Hak. Soc. ii. 38]).

" "Ie vy vne moustre generalle de tous les Habitans portans armes, tant Portugais que METICES et Indiens, et se trouuerent environ 4000."—Moquet, 352.

[1615.—"A MESTISO came to demand passage in our junck."—Cocks's Diary, Hak. Soc. i. 216.]

1653.—(At Goa) "Les MESTISSOS sont de plusieurs sortes, mais fort mesprisez des REINOLS et Castissos (see CASTEES), parce qu'il y a eu vn peu de sang noir dans la generation de leurs ancestres ... la tache d'auoir eu pour ancestre une Indienne leur demeure iusques à la centiesme generation: ils peuuent toutesfois estre soldats et Capitaines de forteresses ou de vaisseaux, s'ils font profession de suiure les armes, et s'ils se iettent du costé de l'Eglise ils peuuent estre Lecteurs, mais non Prouinciaux."—De la Boullaye-le-Gouz, ed. 1657, p. 226.

c. 1665.—"And, in a word, Bengale is a country abounding in all things; and 'tis for this very reason that so many Portuguese, MESTICKS, and other Christians are fled thither."—Bernier, E.T. 140; [ed. Constable, 438].

[1673.—"Beyond the Outworks live a few Portugals MUSTEROES or MISTERADOES."—Fryer, 57.]

1678.—"Noe Roman Catholick or Papist, whether English or of any other nation shall bear office in this Garrison, and shall have no more pay than 80 FANAMS per mensem, as private centinalls, and the pay of those of the Portuguez nation, as Europeans, MUSTEESES, and TOPASEES, is from 70 to 40 FANAMS per mensem."—Articles and Orders ... of Ft. St. Geo., Madraspatam. In Notes and Exts., i. 88.

1699.—"Wives of Freemen, MUSTEES."—Census of Company's Servants on the Coast, in Wheeler, i. 356.

1727.—"A poor Seaman had got a pretty MUSTICE Wife."—A. Hamilton, ii. 10; [ed. 1744, ii. 8].

1781.—"Eloped from the service of his Mistress a Slave Boy aged 20 years, or thereabouts, pretty white or colour of MUSTY, tall and slinder."—Hicky's Bengal Gazette, Feb. 24.

1799.—"August 13th.... Visited by appointment ... Mrs. Carey, the last survivor of those unfortunate persons who were imprisoned in the Black Hole of Calcutta.... This lady, now fifty-eight years of age, as she herself told me, is ... of a fair MESTICIA colour.... She confirmed all which Mr. Holwell has said...."—Note by Thomas Boileau (an attorney in Calcutta, the father of Major-Generals John Theophilus and A. H. E. Boileau, R.E. (Bengal)), quoted in Echoes of Old Calcutta, 34.

1834.—"You don't know these Baboos.... Most of them now-a-days have their MISTEESA Beebees, and their Moosulmaunees, and not a few their Gora Beebees likewise."—The Baboo, &c., 167-168.

1868.—"These MESTIZAS, as they are termed, are the native Indians of the Philippines, whose blood has to a great extent perhaps been mingled with that of their Spanish rulers. They are a very exclusive people ... and have their own places of amusement ... and MESTIZA balls, to which no one is admitted who does not don the costume of the country."—Collingwood, Rambles of a Naturalist, p. 296.

MUSTER, s. A pattern, or a sample. From Port. mostra (Span. muestra, Ital. mostra). The word is current in China, as well as India. See Wells Williams's Guide, 237.

c. 1444.—"Vierão as nossas Galés por commissão sua com algunas AMOSTRAS de açucar da Madeira, de Sangue de Drago, e de outras cousas."—Cadamosta, Navegação primeira, 6.

1563.—"And they gave me a MOSTRA of amomum, which I brought to Goa, and showed to the apothecaries here; and I compared it with the drawings of the simples of Dioscorides."—Garcia, f. 15.

1601.—"MUSTERS and Shewes of Gold."—Old Transl. of Galvano, Hak. Soc. p. 83.

1612.—"A Moore came aboord with a MUSTER of Cloves."—Saris, in Purchas, i. 357.

[1612-13.—"MUSTRAES." See under CORGE.]

1673.—"Merchants bringing and receiving MUSTERS."—Fryer, 84.

1702.—"... Packing Stuff, Packing Materials, MUSTERS."—Quinquepartite Indenture, in Charters of the E.I. Co., 325.

1727.—"He advised me to send to the King ... that I designed to trade with his Subjects ... which I did, and in twelve Days received an Answer that I might, but desired me to send some person up with MUSTERS of all my Goods."—A. Hamilton, ii. 200; [ed. 1744].

c. 1760.—"He (the tailor) never measures you; he only asks master for MUSTER, as he terms it, that is for a pattern."—Ives, 52.

1772.—"The Governor and Council of Bombay must be written to, to send round MUSTERS of such kinds of silk, and silk piece-goods, of the manufacture of Bengal, as will serve the market of Surat and Bombay."—Price's Travels, i. 39.

[1846.—"The above MUSTER was referred to a party who has lately arrived from ... England...."—J. Agri. Hort. Soc., in Watt, Econ. Dict. vi. pt. ii. 601.]

MUTLUB, s. Hind. from Ar. maṭlab. The Ar. from ṭalab, 'he asked,' properly means a question, hence intention, wish, object, &c. In Anglo-Indian use it always means 'purpose, gist,' and the like. Illiterate natives by a common form of corruption turn the word into matbal. In the Punjab this occurs in printed books; and an adjective is formed, matbalī, 'opinionated,' and the like.

MUTT, MUTH, s. Skt. maṭha; a sort of convent where a celibate priest (or one making such profession) lives with disciples making the same profession, one of whom becomes his successor. Buildings of this kind are very common all over India, and some are endowed with large estates.

[1856.—"... a Gosaeen's MUT in the neighbourhood ..."—Rās Mālā, ed. 1878, p. 527.]

1874.—"The monastic Order is celibate, and in a great degree erratic and mendicant, but has anchorage places and head-quarters in the MATHS."—Calc. Review, cxvii. 212.

MUTTONGOSHT, s. (i.e. 'Mutton-flesh.') Anglo-Indian domestic Hind. for 'Mutton.'

MUTTONGYE, s. Sea-Hind. matangai, a (nautical) martingale; a corruption of the Eng. word.

MUTTRA, n.p. A very ancient and holy Hindu city on the Jumna, 30 miles above Agra. The name is Mathura, and it appears in Ptolemy as Μόδουρα ἡ τῶν Θεῶν. The sanctity of the name has caused it to be applied in numerous new localities; see under MADURA. [Tavernier (ed. Ball, ii. 240) calls it MATURA, and Bernier (ed. Constable, 66), MATURAS.]

MUXADABAD, n.p. Ar.—P. Maḳṣūdābād, a name that often occurs in books of the 18th century. It pertains to the same city that has latterly been called Murshidābād, the capital of the Nawābs of Bengal since the beginning of the 18th century. The town Maḳṣūdābād is stated by Tiefenthaler to have been founded by Akbar. The Governor of Bengal, Murshid Ḳulī Khān (also called in English histories Jafier Khan), moved the seat of Government hither in 1704, and gave the place his own name. It is written Muxudavad in the early English records down to 1760 (Sir W. W. Hunter).

[c. 1670.—"MADESOU BAZARKI," in Tavernier, ed. Ball, i. 132.]

1684.—"Dec. 26.—In ye morning I went to give Bulchund a visit according to his invitation, who rose up and embraced me when I came near him, enquired of my health and bid me welcome to MUXOODAVAD...."—Hedges, Diary, Hak. Soc. i. 59.

1703-4.—"The first act of the Nuwab, on his return to Bengal, was to change the name of the city of MAKHSOOSABAD to Moorshudabad; and by establishing in it the mint, and by erecting a palace ... to render it the capital of the Province."—Stewart, H. of Bengal, 309.

1726.—"MOXADABATH."—Valentijn, Chorom., &c., 147.

1727.—"MUXADABAUD is but 12 miles from it (Cossimbazar), a Place of much greater Antiquity, and the Mogul has a Mint there; but the ancient name of Muxadabaud has been changed for Rajahmal, for above a Century."—A. Hamilton, ii. 20; [ed. 1744]. (There is great confusion in this.)

1751.—"I have heard that Ram Kissen Seat, who lives in Calcutta, has carried goods to that place without paying the MUXIDAVAD Syre (see SAYER) Chowkey duties. I am greatly surprised, and send a Chubdar to bring him, and desire you will be speedy in delivering him over."—Letter from Nawab Allyverdi Caun to the Prest. of Council, dated MUXIDAVAD, May 20.

1753.—"En omettant quelques lieux de moindre considération, je m'arrête d'abord à MOCSUDABAD. Ce nom signifie ville de la monnoie. Et en effet c'est là où se frappe celle du pays; et un grand fauxbourg de cette ville, appelé Azingonge, est la résidence du Nabab, qui gouverne le Bengale presque souverainement."—D'Anville, 63.

1756.—"The Nabob, irritated by the disappointment of his expectations of immense wealth, ordered Mr. Holwell and the two other prisoners to be sent to MUXADAVAD."—Orme, iii. 79.

1782.—"You demand an account of the East Indies, the Mogul's dominions and MUXADABAD.... I imagine when you made the above requisition that you did it with a view rather to try my knowledge than to increase your own, for your great skill in geography would point out to you that MUXADABAD is as far from Madras, as Constantinople is from Glasgow."—T. Munro to his brother William, in Life, &c. iii. 41.

1884.—It is alleged in a passage introduced in Mrs. C. Mackenzie's interesting memoir of her husband, Storms and Sunshine of a Soldier's Life, that "Admiral Watson used to sail up in his ships to Moorshedabad." But there is no ground for this statement. So far as I can trace, it does not appear that the Admiral's flag-ship ever went above Chandernagore, and the largest of the vessels sent to Hoogly even was the Bridgewater of 20 guns. No vessel of the fleet appears to have gone higher.

MUZBEE, s. The name of a class of Sikhs originally of low caste, vulg. mazbī, apparently maẓhabī from Ar. maẓhab, 'religious belief.' Cunningham indeed says that the name was applied to Sikh converts from Mahommedanism (History, p. 379). But this is not the usual application now. ["When the sweepers have adopted the Sikh faith they are known as MAZHABIS.... When the Chuhra is circumcised and becomes a Musulman, he is known as a Musalli or a Kotána" (Maclagan, Panjab Census Rep., 1891, p. 202).] The original corps of MUZBEES, now represented by the 32nd Bengal N.I. (Pioneers) was raised among the men labouring on the Baree Doab Canal.

1858.—"On the 19th June (1857) I advocated, in the search for new Military classes, the raising of a corps of MUZZUBEES.... The idea was ultimately carried out, and improved by making them pioneers."—Letter from Col. H. B. Edwardes to R. Montgomery, Esq., March 23.

" "To the same destination (Delhi) was sent a strong corps of MUZHUBEE (low-caste) Sikhs, numbering 1200 men, to serve as pioneers."—Letter from R. Temple, Secretary to Punjab Govt., dd. Lahore, May 25, 1858.

MYDAN, MEIDAUN, s. Hind. from Pers. maidān. An open space, an esplanade, parade-ground or green, in or adjoining a town; a piazza (in the Italian sense); any open plain with grass on it; a chaugān (see CHICANE) ground; a battle-field. In Ar., usually, a hippodrome or race-course.

c. 1330.—"But the brethren were meanwhile brought out to the MEDAN, i.e., the piazza of the City, where an exceeding great fire had been kindled. And Friar Thomas went forward to cast himself into the fire, but as he did so a certain Saracen caught him by the hood...."—Friar Odoric, in Cathay, 63.

1618.—"When it is the hour of complines, or a little later to speak exactly, it is the time for the promenade, and every one goes on horseback to the MEIDAN, which is always kept clean, watered by a number of men whose business this is, who water it carrying the water in skins slung over the shoulder, and usually well shaded and very cool."—P. della Valle, i. 707.

c. 1665.—"Celui (Quervansera) des Étrangers est bien plus spacieux que l'autre et est quarré, et tous deux font face au MEIDAN."—Thevenot, v. 214.

1670.—"Before this house is a great square MEIDAN or promenade, planted on all sides with great trees, standing in rows."—Andriesz, 35.

1673.—"The MIDAN, or open Space before the Caun's Palace, is an Oblong and Stately Piatzo, with real not belied Cloisters."—Fryer, 249.

1828.—"All this was done with as much coolness and precision, as if he had been at exercise upon the MAIDAUN."—The Kuzzilbash, i. 223.

[1859.—"A 24-pound howitzer, hoisted on to the maintop of the Shannon, looked menacingly over the MAIDAN (at Calcutta) ..."—Oliphant, Narrative of Ld. Elgin's Mission, i. 60.

MYNA, MINA, &c. s. Hind. mainā. A name applied to several birds of the family of starlings. The common myna is the Acridotheres tristis of Linn.; the southern Hill-Myna is the Gracula, also Eulabes religiosa of Linn.; the Northern Hill-Myna, Eulabes intermedia of Hay (see Jerdon's Birds, ii. Pt. i. 325, 337, 339). Of both the first and last it may be said that they are among the most teachable of imitative birds, articulating words with great distinctness, and without Polly's nasal tone. We have heard a wild one (probably the first), on a tree in a field, spontaneously echoing the very peculiar call of the black partridge from an adjoining jungle, with unmistakable truth. There is a curious description in Aelian (De Nat. An. xvi. 2) of an Indian talking bird which we thought at one time to be the Myna; but it seems to be nearer the SHĀMĀ, and under that head the quotation will be found. [Mr. M‘Crindle (Invasion of India, 186) is in favour of the Myna.]

[1590.—"The MYNAH is twice the size of the Shárak, with glossy black plumage, but with the bill, wattles and tail coverts yellow. It imitates the human voice and speaks with great distinctness."—Āīn, ed. Jarrett, iii. 121.]

1631.—Jac. Bontius describes a kind of MYNA in Java, which he calls Pica, seu potius Sturnus Indicus. "The owner, an old Mussulman woman, only lent it to the author to be drawn, after great persuasion, and on a stipulation that the beloved bird should get no swine's flesh to eat. And when he had promised accordingly, the avis pessima immediately began to chaunt: Orang Nasarani catjor macan babi! i.e. 'Dog of a Christian, eater of swine!'"—Lib. v. cap. 14, p. 67.

[1664.—"In the Duke's chamber there is a bird, given him by Mr. Pierce, the surgeon, comes from the East Indys, black the greatest part, with the finest collar of white about the neck; but talks many things and neyes like the horse, and other things, the best almost that ever I heard bird in my life."—Pepys, Diary, April 25. Prof. Newton in Mr. Wheatley's ed. (iv. 118) is inclined to identify this with the Myna, and notes that one of the earliest figures of the bird is by Eleazar Albin (Nat. Hist. of Birds, ii. pl. 38) in 1738.

[1703.—"Among singing birds that which in Bengall is called the MINAW is the only one that comes within my knowledge."—In Yule, Hedges' Diary, Hak. Soc. ii. cccxxxiv.]

1803.—"During the whole of our stay two MINAHS were talking almost incessantly, to the great delight of the old lady, who often laughed at what they said, and praised their talents. Her hookah filled up the interval."—Ld. Valentia, i. 227-8.

1813.—"The MYNEH is a very entertaining bird, hopping about the house, and articulating several words in the manner of the starling."—Forbes, Or. Mem. i. 47; [2nd ed. i. 32.]

1817.—"Of all birds the chiong (MINER) is the most highly prized."—Raffles, Java, i. 260.

1875.—"A talking MINA in a cage, and a rat-trap, completed the adornments of the veranda."—The Dilemma, ch. xii.

1878.—"The MYNA has no wit.... His only way of catching a worm is to lay hold of its tail and pull it out of its hole,—generally breaking it in the middle and losing the bigger half."—Ph. Robinson, In My Indian Garden, 28.

1879.—"So the dog went to a MAINÁ, and said: 'What shall I do to hurt this cat!'"—Miss Stokes, Indian Fairy Tales, 18.

"

"... beneath Striped squirrels raced, the MYNAS perked and picked. The NINE BROWN SISTERS chattered in the thorn ..." E. Arnold, The Light of Asia, Book i.

See SEVEN SISTERS in Gloss. Mr. Arnold makes too many!

MYROBALAN, s. A name applied to certain dried fruits and kernels of astringent flavour, but of several species, and not even all belonging to the same Natural Order, which were from an early date exported from India, and had a high reputation in the medieval pharmacopoeia. This they appear (some of them) to retain in native Indian medicine; though they seem to have disappeared from English use and have no place in Hanbury and Flückiger's great work, the Pharmacographia. They are still, to some extent, imported into England, but for use in tanning and dyeing, not in pharmacy.

It is not quite clear how the term myrobalan, in this sense, came into use. For the people of India do not seem to have any single name denoting these fruits or drugs as a group; nor do the Arabic dictionaries afford one either (but see further on). Μυροβάλανος is spoken of by some ancient authors, e.g. Aristotle, Dioscorides and Pliny, but it was applied by them to one or more fruits[179] entirely unconnected with the subjects of this article. This name had probably been preserved in the laboratories, and was applied by some early translator of the Arabic writers on Materia Medica to these Indian products. Though we have said that (so far as we can discover) the dictionaries afford no word with the comprehensive sense of Myrobalan, it is probable that the physicians had such a word, and Garcia de Orta, who is trustworthy, says explicitly that the Arab practitioners whom he had consulted applied to the whole class the name delegi, a word which we cannot identify, unless it originated in a clerical error for alelegi, i.e. ihlīlaj. The last word may perhaps be taken as covering all myrobalans; for according to the Glossary to Rhazes at Leyden (quoted by Dozy, Suppt. i. 43) it applies to the Kābulī, the yellow, and the black (or Indian), whilst the Emblic is also called Ihlīlaj amlaj.

In the Kashmīr Customs Tariff (in Punjab Trade Report, ccxcvi.) we have entries of

"Hulela (Myrobalan). Bulela (Bellerick ditto). Amla (Emblica Phyllanthus)."

The kinds recognised in the Medieval pharmacopoeia were five, viz.:—

(1) The Emblic myrobalan; which is the dried astringent fruit of the Ānwulā, ānwlā of Hind., the Emblica officinalis of Gaertner (Phyllanthus Emblica, L., N. O. Euphorbiaceae). The Persian name of this is āmlah, but, as the Arabic amlaj suggests, probably in older Persian amlag, and hence no doubt Emblica. Garcia says it was called by the Arab physicians embelgi (which we should write ambaljī).

(2) The Belleric Myrobalan; the fruit of Terminalia Bellerica, Roxb. (N.O. Combretaceae), consisting of a small nut enclosed in a thin exterior rind. The Arabic name given in Ibn Baithar is balīlij; in the old Latin version of Avicenna belilegi; and in Persian it is called balīl and balīla. Garcia says the Arab physicians called it beleregi (balīrij, and in old Persian probably balīrig) which accounts for Bellerica.

(3) The Chebulic Myrobalan; the fruit of Terminalia Chebula, Roxb. The derivation of this name which we have given under CHEBULI is confirmed by the Persian name, which is Halīla-i-Kābulī. It can hardly have been a product of Kabul, but may have been imported into Persia by that route, whence the name, as calicoes got their name from Calicut. Garcia says these myrobalans were called by his Arabs quebulgi. Ibn Baithar calls them halīlaj, and many of the authorities whom he quotes specify them as Kābulī.

(4) and (5). The Black Myrobalan, otherwise called 'Indian,' and the Yellow or Citrine. These, according to Royle (Essay on Antiq. of Hindoo Medicine, pp. 36-37), were both products of T. Chebula in different states; but this does not seem quite certain. Further varieties were sometimes recognised, and nine are said to be specified in a paper in an early vol. of the Philos. Transactions.[180] One kind called Ṣīnī or Chinese, is mentioned by one of the authorities of Ibn Baithar, quoted below, and is referred to by Garcia.

The virtues of Myrobalans are said to be extolled by Charaka, the oldest of the Sanskrit writers on Medicine. Some of the Arabian and Medieval Greek authors, referred to by Royle, also speak of a combination of different kinds of Myrobalan called Tryphera or Tryphala; a fact of great interest. For this is the triphala ('Three-fruits') of Hindu medicine, which appears in Amarakosha (c. A.D. 500), as well as in a prescription of Susruta, the disciple of Charaka, and which is still, it would seem, familiar to the native Indian practitioners. It is, according to Royle, a combination of the black, yellow and Chebulic; but Garcia, who calls it tinepala (tīn-phal in Hind. = 'Three-fruits'), seems to imply that it consisted of the three kinds known in Goa, viz. citrine (or yellow), the Indian (or black), and the belleric. [Watt, Econ. Dict. vi. pt. iv. 32 seqq.] The emblic, he says, were not used in medicine there, only in tanning, like sumach. The Myrobalans imported in the Middle Ages seem often to have been preserved (in syrup?).

c. B.C. 340.—"διότι ἡ γέννησις τοῦ καρποῦ ἐν τῇ ἀρχῇ ἐστὶ χωρὶς γλυκύτητος. Τῶν μυραβαλάνων δὲ δένδρων ἐν τῇ ἀρχῇ, ὅταν φανῶσιν, οἱ καρποί εἰσι γλυκεῖς· κοινῶς δὲ εἰσι στρυφνοὶ καὶ ἐν τῇ κράσει αὐτῶν πικροὶ..."—Aristoteles, De Plantis, ii. 10.

c. A.D. 60.—"φοῖνιξ ἐν Αἰγύπτῳ γίνεται· τρυγᾶται δε μετοπωρούσης τῆς κατὰ τὴν ὀπώραν ἀκμῆς, παρεμφέρων τῇ Ἀραβικῇ μυροβαλάνῳ, πόμα δὲ λέγεται."—Dioscorides, de Mat. Medica, i. cxlviii.

c. A.D. 70.—"MYROBALANUM Troglodytis et Thebaidi et Arabiae quae Iudaeam ab Aegypto disterminat commune est, nascens unguento, ut ipso nomine apparet, quo item indicatur et glandem esse. Arbor est heliotropio ... simili folio, fructus magnitudine abellanae nucis," &c.—Pliny, xii. 21 (46).

c. 540.—A prescription of Aëtius of Amida, which will be found transcribed under ZEDOARY, includes MYROBALAN among a large number of ingredients, chiefly of Oriental origin; and one doubts whether the word may not here be used in the later sense.

c. 1343.—"Preserved MIRABOLANS (mirabolani conditi) should be big and black, and the envelope over the nut tender to the tooth; and the bigger and blacker and tenderer to the tooth (like candied walnuts), the better they are.... Some people say that in India they are candied when unripe (acerbe), just as we candy[181] the unripe tender walnuts, and that when they are candied in this way they have no nut within, but are all through tender like our walnut-comfits. But if this is really done, anyhow none reach us except those with a nut inside, and often very hard nuts too. They should be kept in brown earthen pots glazed, in a syrop made of cassia fistula[182] and honey or sugar; and they should remain always in the syrop, for they form a moist preserve and are not fit to use dry."—Pegolotti, p. 377.

c. 1343.—(At Alexandria) "are sold by the ten mans (mene, see MAUND), ... amomum, MIROBALANS of every kind, camphor, castor...."—Ibid. 57.

1487.—"... Vasi grandi di confectione, MIROBOLANI e gengiovo."—Letter on presents sent by the Sultan to L. de' Medici, in Roscoe's Lorenzo, ed. 1825, ii. 372.

1505.—(In Calicut) "li nasce MIRABOLANI, emblici e chebali, li quali valeno ducati do' el baar (see BAHAR.)"—Lionardo Ca' Masser, p. 27.

1552.—"La campagne de Iericho est entournée de mõtaignes de tous costez: poignant laquelle, et du costé de midy est la mer morte.... Les arbres qui portent le Licion, naissent en ceste plaine, et aussi les arbres qui portent les MYROBALANS Citrins, du noyau desquels les habitants font de l'huille."[183]—P. Belon, Observations, ed. 1554, f. 144.

1560.—"Mais pource que le Ben, que les Grecz appellent Balanus Myrepsica, m'a fait souvenir des MYRABOLANS des Arabes, dont y en a cinq especes: et que d'ailleurs, on en vse ordinairement en Medecine, encores que les anciens Grecz n'en ayent fait aucune mention: il m'a semblé bon d'en toucher mot: car i'eusse fait grand tort à ces Commentaires de les priuer d'vn fruict si requis en Medecine. Il y a donques cinq especes de MYRABOLANS."—Matthioli, Com. on Dioscorides, old Fr. Tr. p. 394.

1610.—

"Kastril. How know you?

Subtle. By inspection on her forehead; And subtlety of lips, which must be tasted Often, to make a judgment.

[Kisses her again.]

'Slight, she melts Like a MYRABOLANE."—The Alchemist, iv. 1.

[c. 1665.—"Among other fruits, they preserve (in Bengal) large citrons ... small MIROBOLANS, which are excellent...."—Bernier, ed. Constable, 438.]

1672.—"Speaking of the Glans Unguentaria, otherwise call'd Balanus Mirepsica or Ben Arabum, a very rare Tree, yielding a most fragrant and highly esteem'd Oyl; he is very particular in describing the extraordinary care he used in cultivating such as were sent to him in Holland."—Notice of a Work by Abraham Munting, M.D., in Philosoph. Trans. ix. 249.

MYSORE, n.p. Tam. Maisūr, Can. Maisūru. The city which was the capital of the Hindu kingdom, taking its name, and which last was founded in 1610 by a local chief on the decay of the Vijayanagar (see BISNAGAR, NARSINGA) dynasty. C. P. Brown gives the etym. as Maisi-ūr, Maisi being the name of a local goddess like Pomona or Flora; ūr, 'town, village.' It is however usually said to be a corruption of Mahish-āsura, the buffalo demon slain by the goddess Durga or Kali. [Rice (Mysore, i. 1) gives Can. Maisa, from Skt. Mahisha, and ūru, 'town.']

[1696.—"Nabob Zulphecar Cawn is gone into the MIZORE country after the Mahratta army...."—Letter in Wilks, Hist. Sketches, Madras reprint, i. 60.]

MYSORE THORN. The Caesalpinia sepiaria, Roxb. It is armed with short, sharp, recurved prickles; and is much used as a fence in the Deccan. Hyder Ali planted it round his strongholds in Mysore, and hence it is often called "Hyder's Thorn," Haidar kā jhār.

[1857.—"What may be termed the underwood consisted of MILK BUSHES, PRICKLY PEARS, MYSORE THORN, intermingled in wild confusion...."—Lady Falkland, Chow-chow, 2nd ed. i. 300.]

N

NABÓB, s. Port. Nabâbo, and Fr. Nabab, from Hind. Nawāb, which is the Ar. pl. of sing. Nāyab (see NAIB), 'a deputy,' and was applied in a singular sense[184] to a delegate of the supreme chief, viz. to a Viceroy or chief Governor under the Great Mogul, e.g. the Nawāb of Surat, the Nawāb of Oudh, the Nawāb of Arcot, the Nawāb Nāzim of Bengal. From this use it became a title of rank without necessarily having any office attached. It is now a title occasionally conferred, like a peerage, on Mahommedan gentlemen of distinction and good service, as Rāī and Rājā are upon Hindus.

Nabob is used in two ways: (A) simply as a corruption and representative of Nawāb. We get it direct from the Port. nabâbo, see quotation from Bluteau below. (B) It began to be applied in the 18th century, when the transactions of Clive made the epithet familiar in England, to Anglo-Indians who returned with fortunes from the East; and Foote's play of 'The NABOB' (Nábob) (1768) aided in giving general currency to the word in this sense.

A.—

1604.—"... delante del NAUABO que es justicia mayor."—Guerrero, Relacion, 70.

1615.—"There was as NABABO in Surat a certain Persian Mahommedan (Mouro Parsio) called Mocarre Bethião, who had come to Goa in the time of the Viceroy Ruy Lourenço de Tavora, and who being treated with much familiarity and kindness by the Portuguese ... came to confess that it could not but be that truth was with their Law...."—Bocarro, p. 354.

1616.—"Catechumeni ergo parentes viros aliquot inducunt honestos et assessores NAUABI, id est, judicis supremi, cui consiliarii erant, uti et Proregi, ut libellum famosum adversus Pinnerum spargerent."—Jarric, Thesaurus, iii. 378.

1652.—"The NAHAB[185] was sitting, according to the custom of the Country, barefoot, like one of our Taylors, with a great number of Papers sticking between his Toes, and others between the Fingers of his left hand, which Papers he drew sometimes from between his Toes, sometimes from between his Fingers, and order'd what answers should be given to every one."—Tavernier, E. T. ii. 99; [ed. Ball, i. 291].

1653.—"... il prend la qualité de NABAB qui vault autant à dire que monseigneur."—De la Boullaye-le-Gouz (ed. 1657), 142.

1666.—"The ill-dealing of the NAHAB proceeded from a scurvy trick that was play'd me by three Canary-birds at the Great Mogul's Court. The story whereof was thus in short ..."—Tavernier, E.T. ii. 57; [ed. Ball, i. 134].

1673.—"Gaining by these steps a nearer intimacy with the NABOB, he cut the new Business out every day."—Fryer, 183.

1675.—"But when we were purposing next day to depart, there came letters out of the Moorish Camp from the NABAB, the field-marshal of the Great Mogul...."—Heiden Vervaarlijke Schíp-Breuk, 52.

1682.—"... Ray Nundelall ye NÁBABS Duan, who gave me a most courteous reception, rising up and taking of me by ye hands, and ye like at my departure, which I am informed is a greater favour than he has ever shown to any Franke...."—Hedges, Diary, Oct. 27; [Hak. Soc. i. 42]. Hedges writes Nabob, Nabab, Navab, Navob.

1716.—"NABÂBO. Termo do Mogol. He o Titolo do Ministro que he Cabeca."—Bluteau, s.v.

1727.—"A few years ago, the NABOB or Vice-Roy of Chormondel, who resides at Chickakal, and who superintends that Country for the Mogul, for some Disgust he had received from the Inhabitants of Diu Islands, would have made a Present of them to the Colony of Fort St. George."—A. Hamilton, i. 374; [ed. 1744].

1742.—"We have had a great man called the NABOB (who is the next person in dignity to the Great Mogul) to visit the Governor.... His lady, with all her women attendance, came the night before him. All the guns fired round the fort upon her arrival, as well as upon his; he and she are MOORS, whose women are never seen by any man upon earth except their husbands."—Letter from Madras in Mrs. Delany's Life, ii. 169.

1743.—"Every governor of a fort, and every commander of a district had assumed the title of NABOB ... one day after having received the homage of several of these little lords, Nizam ul muluck said that he had that day seen no less than eighteen NABOBS in the Carnatic."—Orme, Reprint, Bk. i. 51.

1752.—"Agreed ... that a present should be made the NOBAB that might prove satisfactory."—In Long, 33.

1773.—

"And though my years have passed in this hard duty, No Benefit acquired—no NABOB'S booty." Epilogue at Fort Marlborough, by W. Marsden, in Mem. 9.

1787.—

"Of armaments by flood and field; Of NABOBS you have made to yield." Ritson, in Life and Letters, i. 124.

1807.—"Some say that he is a Tailor who brought out a long bill against some of Lord Wellesley's staff, and was in consequence provided for; others say he was an adventurer, and sold knicknacks to the NABOB of Oude."—Sir T. Munro, in Life, i. 371.

1809.—"I was surprised that I had heard nothing from the NAWAUB of the Carnatic."—Ld. Valentia, i. 381.

c. 1858.—

"Le vieux NABAB et la Begum d'Arkate." Leconte de Lisle, ed. 1872, p. 156.

B.—

[1764.—"Mogul Pitt and NABOB Bute."—Horace Walpole, Letters, ed. 1857, iv. 222 (Stanf. Dict.).]

1773.—"I regretted the decay of respect for men of family, and that a NABOB would not carry an election from them.

"JOHNSON: Why, sir, the NABOB will carry it by means of his wealth, in a country where money is highly valued, as it must be where nothing can be had without money; but if it comes to personal preference, the man of family will always carry it."—Boswell, Journal of a Tour to the Hebrides, under Aug. 25.

1777.—"In such a revolution ... it was impossible but that a number of individuals should have acquired large property. They did acquire it; and with it they seem to have obtained the detestation of their countrymen, and the appellation of NABOBS as a term of reproach."—Price's Tracts, i. 13.

1780.—"The Intrigues of a NABOB, or Bengal the Fittest Soil for the Growth of Lust, Injustice, and Dishonesty. Dedicated to the Hon. the Court of Directors of the East India Company. By Henry Fred. Thompson. Printed for the Author." (A base book).

1783.—"The office given to a young man going to India is of trifling consequence. But he that goes out an insignificant boy, in a few years returns a great NABOB. Mr. Hastings says he has two hundred and fifty of that kind of raw material, who expect to be speedily manufactured into the merchantlike quality I mention."—Burke, Speech on Fox's E.I. Bill, in Works and Corr., ed. 1852, iii. 506.

1787.—"The speakers for him (Hastings) were Burgess, who has completely done for himself in one day; Nichols, a lawyer; Mr. Vansittart, a NABOB; Alderman Le Mesurier, a smuggler from Jersey; ... and Dempster, who is one of the good-natured candid men who connect themselves with every bad man they can find."—Ld. Minto, in Life, &c., i. 126.

1848.—"'Isn't he very rich?' said Rebecca.

"'They say all Indian NABOBS are enormously rich.'"—Vanity Fair, ed. 1867, i. 17.

1872.—"Ce train de vie facile ... suffit à me faire décerner ... le surnom de NABOB par les bourgeois et les visiteurs de la petite ville."—Rev. des Deux Mondes, xcviii. 938.

1874.—"At that time (c. 1830) the Royal Society was very differently composed from what it is now. Any wealthy or well-known person, any M.P. ... or East Indian NABOB, who wished to have F.R.S. added to his name, was sure to obtain admittance."—Geikie, Life of Murchison, i. 197.

1878.—"... A Tunis?—interrompit le duc.... Alors pourquoi ce nom de NABAB?—Bah! les Parisiens n'y regardent pas de si près. Pour eux tout riche étranger est un NABAB, n'importe d'où il vienne."—Le NABAB, par Alph. Daudet, ch. i.

It is purism quite erroneously applied when we find NABOB in this sense miswritten Nawab; thus:

1878.—"These were days when India, little known still in the land that rules it, was less known than it had been in the previous generation, which had seen Warren Hastings impeached, and burghs[186] bought and sold by Anglo-Indian NAWABS."—Smith's Life of Dr John Wilson, 30.

But there is no question of purism in the following delicious passage:

1878.—"If ... the spirited proprietor of the Daily Telegraph had been informed that our aid of their friends the Turks would have taken the form of a tax upon paper, and a concession of the Levis to act as Commanders of Regiments of Bashi-Bozouks, with a request to the Generalissimo to place them in as forward a position as NABOB was given in the host of King David, the harp in Peterborough Court would not have twanged long to the tune of a crusade in behalf of the Sultan of Turkey."—Truth, April 11, p. 470. In this passage in which the wit is equalled only by the scriptural knowledge, observe that Nabob = Naboth, and Naboth = Uriah.

NACODA, NACODER, &c., s. Pers. nā-khudā (navis dominus) 'a skipper'; the master of a native vessel. (Perhaps the original sense is rather the owner of the ship, going with it as his own supercargo.) It is hard to understand why Reinaud (Relation, ii. 42) calls this a "Malay word ... derived from the Persian," especially considering that he is dealing with a book of the 9th and 10th centuries. [Mr. Skeat notes that the word is sometimes, after the manner of Hobson-Jobson, corrupted by the Malays into Anak kuda, 'son of a horse.']

c. 916.—"Bientôt l'on ne garda pas même de ménagements pour les patrons de navires (nawākhuda, pl. of NĀKHUDĀ) Arabes, et les maîtres de batiments marchands furent en butte à des pretensions injustes."—Relation, &c., i. 68.

c. 1348.—"The second day after our arrival at the port of Kailūkarī, this princess invited the NĀKHODHA, or owner of the ship (ṣāḥib-al-markab), the karānī (see CRANNY) or clerk, the merchants, the chief people, the tandail (see TINDAL) or commander of the crew, the sipasalār (see SIPAHSELAR) or commander of the fighting men."—Ibn Batuta, iv. 250.

1502.—"But having been seen by our fleet, the caravels made for them, and the Moors being laden could no longer escape. So they brought them to the Captain General, and all struck sail, and from six of the Zambucos (see SAMBOOK) the NACODAS came to the Captain General."—Correa, i. 302.

1540.—"Whereupon he desired us that the three NECODAS of the Junks, so are the commanders of them called in that country...."—Pinto, (orig. cap. xxxv.) in Cogan, p. 42.

[c. 1590.—"In large ships there are twelve classes. 1. The NAKHUDA, or owner of the ship. This word is evidently a short form of Nāvkhudā. He fixes the course of the ship."—Āīn, ed. Blochmann, i. 280.]

1610.—"The sixth NOHUDA Melech Ambor, Captaine of a great ship of Dabull (see DABUL), came ashore with a great many of Merchants with him, he with the rest were carried about the Towne in pompe."—Sir H. Middleton, in Purchas, i. 260.

[1616.—"NOHODY Chinhonne's voyage for Syam was given over."—Foster, Letters, iv. 187.]

1623.—"The China NOCHEDA hath too long deluded you through your owne simplicitie to give creditt unto him."—Council at Batavia, to Rich. Cocks, in his Diary, ii. 341.

1625.—Purchas has the word in many forms; NOKAYDAY, NAHODA, NOHUDA, &c.

1638.—"Their NOCKADO or India Pilot was stab'd in the Groyne twice."—In Hakl. iv. 48.

1649.—"In addition to this a receipt must be exacted from the NACHODAS."—Secret Instructions in Baldaeus (Germ.), p. 6.

1758.—"Our Chocarda[187] (?) assured us they were rogues; but our KNOCKATY or pilot told us he knew them."—Ives, 248. This word looks like confusion, in the manner of the poet of the "Snark," between nākhuda and (Hind.) arkātī, "a pilot," [so called because many came from ARCOT.]

[1822.—"The KNOCKADA was very attentive to Thoughtless and his family...."—Wallace, Fifteen Years in India, 241.

[1831.—"The Roban (Ar. rubbān, 'the master of a ship') and NOCKADER being afraid to keep at sea all night ..."—Life and Adventures of Nathaniel Pearce, written by himself, ii. 303.]

1880.—"That a pamphlet should be printed, illustrated by diagrams, and widely circulated, commends itself to the Government of India ... copies being supplied to NAKHUDAS and tindals of native craft at small cost."—Resn. of Govt. of India as to Lights for Shipping, 28 Jan.

NAGA, n.p. The name applied to an extensive group of uncivilised clans of warlike and vindictive character in the eastern part of the hill country which divides Assam Proper (or the valley of the Brahmaputra) from Kachār and the basin of the Surma. A part of these hills was formed into a British district, now under Assam, in 1867, but a great body of the Nāga clans is still independent. The etymology of the name is disputed; some identifying it with the Nāga or Snake Aborigines, who are so prominent in the legends and sculptures of the Buddhists. But it is, perhaps, more probable that the word is used in the sense of 'naked' (Skt. nagna, Hind. nangā, Beng. nengṭā, &c.), which, curiously enough, is that which Ptolemy attributes to the name, and which the spelling of Shihābuddīn also indicates. [The word is also used for a class of ascetics of the Dādupanthī sect, whose head-quarters are at Jaypur.]

c. A.D. 50.—"Καὶ μέχρι τοῦ Μαιάνδρου, ... Ναγγα λόγαι ὃ σημαίνει γυμνῶν κόσμος."—Ptol. VII. ii. 18.

c. 1662.—"The Rájah had first intended to fly to the NÁGÁ Hills, but from fear of our army the NÁGÁS[188] would not afford him an asylum. 'The Nágás live in the southern mountains of Asám, have a light brown complexion, are well built, but treacherous. In number they equal the helpers of Yagog and Magog, and resemble in hardiness and physical strength the 'Ádis (an ancient Arabian tribe). They go about naked like beasts.... Some of their chiefs came to see the Nawáb. They wore dark hip-clothes (lung), ornamented with cowries, and round about their heads they wore a belt of boar's tusks, allowing their black hair to hang down their neck.'"—Shihábuddín Tálísh, tr. by Prof. Blochmann, in J. As. Soc. Beng., xli. Pt. i. p. 84. [See Plate xvi. of Dalton's Descriptive Ethnology of Bengal; Journ. Anthrop. Inst. xxvi. 161 seqq.]

1883.—A correspondent of the "Indian Agriculturist" (Calcutta), of Sept. 1, dates from the Naga Hills, which he calls "NOGA, from Nok, not Naga, ..." an assertion which one is not bound to accept. "One on the Spot" is not bound to know the etymology of a name several thousand years old.

[Of the ascetic class:

[1879.—"The NÁGÁS of Jaipur are a sect of militant devotees belonging to the Dádú Panthi sect, who are enrolled in regiments to serve the State; they are vowed to celibacy and to arms, and constitute a sort of military order in the sect."—Rajputana Gazetteer, ii. 147.]

NAGAREE, s. Hind. from Skt. nāgarī. The proper Sanskrit character, meaning literally 'of the city'; and often called deva-nāgarī, 'the divine city character.'

[1623.—"An antique character ... us'd by the Brachmans, who in distinction from other vulgar Characters ... call it NAGHERI."—P. della Valle, Hak. Soc. i. 75.

[1781.—"The Shanskrit alphabet ... is now called DIEWNĀGAR, or the Language of Angels...."—Halhed, Code, Intro. xxiii.]

[c. 1805.—"As you sometimes see Mr. Wilkins, who was the inventor of printing with Bengal and NAGREE types...."—Letter of Colebrooke, in Life, 227.]

NAIB, s. Hind. from Ar. nāyab, a deputy; (see also under NABOB).

[c. 1610.—In the Maldives, "Of these are constituted thirteen provinces, over each of which is a chief called a NAYBE."—Pyrard de Laval, Hak. Soc. i. 198.]

1682.—"Before the expiration of this time we were overtaken by ye Caddie's NEIP, ye Meerbar's (see MEARBAR) deputy, and ye Dutch Director's Vakill (see VAKEEL) (by the way it is observable ye Dutch omit no opportunity to do us all the prejudice that lyes in their power)."—Hedges, Diary, Oct. 11; [Hak. Soc. i. 35].

1765.—"... this person was appointed NIAB, or deputy governor of Orissa."—Holwell, Hist. Events, i. 53.

[1856.—"The NAIB gave me letters to the chiefs of several encampments, charging them to provide me with horses."—Ferrier, Caravan Journeys, 237.]

NAIK, NAIQUE, &c. s. Hind. nāyak. A term which occurs in nearly all the vernacular languages; from Skt. nāyaka, 'a leader, chief, general.' The word is used in several applications among older writers (Portuguese) referring to the south and west of India, as meaning a native captain or headman of some sort (A). It is also a title of honour among Hindus in the Deccan (B). It is again the name of a Telugu caste, whence the general name of the Kings of Vijayanagara (A.D. 1325-1674), and of the Lords of Madura (1559-1741) and other places (C). But its common Anglo-Indian application is to the non-commissioned officer of Sepoys who corresponds to a corporal, and wears the double chevron of that rank (D).

(A)—

c. 1538.—"Mandou tambem hũ NAYQUE com vinti Abescins, que nos veio guardando dos ladrões."—Pinto, ch. iv.

1548.—"With these four captains there are 12 NAIQUES, who receive as follows—to wit, for 7 NAIQUES who have 37 pardaos and 1 tanga a year ... 11,160 reis. For Cidi NAIQUE, who has 30 pardaos, 4 tangas ... and Madguar NAIQUE the same ... and Salgy NAIQUE 24 pardaos a year, and two nafares [Ar. nafar, 'servant'] who have 8 vintens a month, equal to 12 pardaos 4 tangas a year."—S. Botelho, Tombo, 215.

1553.—"To guard against these he established some people of the same island of the Canarese Gentoos with their NAIQUES, who are the captains of the footmen and of the horsemen."—Barros, Dec. II. Liv. v. cap. 4.

c. 1565.—"Occorse l'anno 1565, se mi ricordo bene, che il NAIC cioè il Signore della Città li mandi a domandami certi caualli Arabi."—C. Federici, in Ramusio, iii. 391.

c. 1610.—"Ie priay donc ce capitaine ... qu'il me fit bailler vne almadie ou basteau auec des mariniers et vn NAIQUE pour truchement."—Mocquet, 289.

1646.—"Il s'appelle NAÏQUE, qui signifie Capitaine, doutant que c'est vn Capitaine du Roy du Narzingue."—Barretto, Rel. du Prov. de Malabar, 255.

(B)—

1598.—"The Kings of Decam also have a custome when they will honour a man or recompense [recompence] their service done, and rayse him to dignitie and honour. They give him the title of NAYGUE, which signifieth a Capitaine."—Linschoten, 51; [Hak. Soc. i. 173].

1673.—"The Prime Nobility have the title of NAIKS or NAIGS."—Fryer, 162.

c. 1704.—"Hydur Sáhib, the son of Muhammad Ilias, at the invitation of the Ministers of the Polygar of Mysore, proceeded to that country, and was entertained by them in their service ... he also received from them the honourable title of NAIK, a term which in the Hindu dialect signifies an officer or commander of foot soldiers."—H. of Hydur Naik, p. 7. This was the uncle of the famous Haidar Naik or Hyder Ali Khan.

(C)—

1604.—"Maduré; corte del NAYGUE Señor destas terras."—Guerrero, Relacion, 101.

1616.—"... and that orders should be given for issuing a proclamation at Negapatam that no one was to trade at Tevenapatam, Porto Novo, or other port belonging to the NAIQUE of Ginja or the King of Massulapatam."—Bocarro, 619.

1646.—"Le NAIQUE de Maduré, à qui appartient la coste de la pescherie, a la pesche d'vn jour par semaine pour son tribut."—Barretto, 248.

c. 1665.—"Il y a plusieurs NAIQUES au Sud de Saint-Thomé, qui sont Souverains: Le NAIQUE de Madure en est un."—Thevenot, v. 317.

1672.—"The greatest Lords and NAIKS of this kingdom (Carnataca) who are subject to the Crown of Velour ... namely Vitipa NAIK of Madura, the King's Cuspidore- (see CUSPADORE) bearer ... and Cristapa NAIK of Chengier, the King's Betel-holder ... the NAIK of Tanjower the King's Shield-bearer."—Baldaeus (Germ.), p. 153.

1809.—"All I could learn was that it was built by a NAIG of the place."—Ld. Valentia, i. 398.

(D)—

[c. 1610.—"These men are hired, whether Indians or Christians, and are called NAICLES."—Pyrard de Laval, Hak. Soc. ii. 42.]

1787.—"A Troop of Native Cavalry on the present Establishment consists of 1 European subaltern, 1 European sergeant, 1 Subidar, 3 Jemidars, 4 Havildars, 4 NAIGUES, 1 Trumpeter, 1 Farrier, and 68 Privates."—Regns. for H. Co.'s Troops on the Coast of Coromandel, &c., 6.

1834.—"... they went gallantly on till every one was shot down except the one NAIK, who continued hacking at the gate with his axe ... at last a shot from above ... passed through his body. He fell, but in dying hurled his axe against the enemy."—Mrs. Mackenzie, Storms and Sunshine of a Soldier's Life, i. 37-38.

We may add as a special sense that in West India Naik is applied to the head-man of a hamlet (Kūrī) or camp (Tānda) of BRINJARRIES (q.v.). [Bhangi and Jhangi Naiks, the famous Banjāra leaders, are said to have had 180,000 bullocks in their camp. See Berar Gazetteer, 196.]

NAIR, s. Malayal. nāyar; from the same Skt. origin as NAIK. Name of the ruling caste in Malabar. [The Greek νάουρα as a tract stood for the country of the Nairs. For their customs, see Logan, Malabar, i. 131.]

1510.—"The first class of Pagans in Calicut are called Brahmins. The second are NAERI, who are the same as the gentlefolks amongst us; and these are obliged to bear sword and shield or bows and lances."—Varthema, pp. 141-142.

1516.—"These kings do not marry ... only each has a mistress, a lady of great lineage and family, which is called NAYRE."—Barbosa, 165.

1553.—"And as ... the Gentiles of the place are very superstitious in dealing with people foreign to their blood, and chiefly those called Brammanes and NAIRES."—Barros, Dec. I. liv. iv. cap. 7.

1563.—"... The NAIRES who are the Knights."—Garcia.

1582.—"The Men of Warre which the King of Calicut and the other Kings have, are NAYRES, which be all Gentlemen."—Castañeda (by N. L.), f. 35b.

1644.—"We have much Christian people throughout his territory, not only the Christians of St. Thomas, who are the best soldiers that he (the King of Cochin) has, but also many other vassals who are converts to our Holy Catholic Faith, through the preaching of the Gospel, but none of these are NAYRES, who are his fighting men, and his nobles or gentlemen."—Bocarro, MS., f. 315.

1755.—"The king has disciplined a body of 10,000 NAIRES; the people of this denomination are by birth the Military tribe of the Malabar coast."—Orme, i. 400.

1781.—"The soldiers preceded the NAIRS or nobles of Malabar."—Gibbon, ch. xlvii.

It may be added that Nāyar was also the term used in Malabar for the mahout of an elephant; and the fact that Nāyar and Nāyaka are of the same origin may be considered with the etymology which we have given of CORNAC (see Garcia, 85_v_).

NALKEE, s. Hind. nālkī. A kind of litter formerly used by natives of rank; the word and thing are now obsolete. [It is still the name of the bride's litter in Behar (Grierson, Bihār Peasant Life, 45).] The name was perhaps a factitious imitation of pālkī? [Platts suggests Skt. nalika, 'a tube.']

1789.—"A NALEKY is a paleky, either opened or covered, but it bears upon two bamboos, like a sedan in Europe, with this difference only, that the poles are carried by four or eight men, and upon the shoulders."—Note by Tr. of Seir Mutaqherin, iii. 269.

[1844.—"This litter is called a 'NALKI.' It is one of the three great insignia which the Mogul emperors of Delhi conferred upon independent princes of the first class, and could never be used by any person upon whom, or upon whose ancestors, they had not been so conferred. These were the NALKI, the order of the Fish, and the fan of peacock's feathers."—Sleeman, Rambles, ed. V. A. Smith, i. 165.]

NAMBEADARIM, s. Malayāl. nambiyadiri, nambiyattiri, a general, a prince. [See Logan, Malabar, i. 121.]

1503.—"Afterwards we were presented to the King called NAMBIADORA; who received us with no small gladness and kindness."—Giov. da Empoli, in Ramusio, i. f. 146.

1552.—"This advice of the NAMBEADARIM was disapproved by the kings and lords."—Castanheda; see also Transl. by N. L., 1582, f. 147.

1557.—"The NAMBEADARIM who is the principal governor."—D'Alboquerque, Hak. Soc. i. 9. The word is, by the translator, erroneously identified with Nambūdiri (see NAMBOOREE), a Malabar Brahman.

1634.—

"Entra em Cochim no thalamo secreto Aonde NAMBEODERÁ dorme quieto." Malaca Conquist. i. 50.

NAMBOOREE, Malayāl. nambūdiri, Tam. nambūri; [Logan (Malabar, ii. Gloss. ccxi.) gives nambūtiri, nambūri, from Drav. nambuka, 'to trust,' tiri, Skt. śrī, 'blessed.' The Madras Gloss. has Mal. nambu, 'the Veda,' ōthu, 'to teach,' tiri, 'holy.'] A Brahman of Malabar. (See Logan, i. 118 seqq.].

1644.—"No more than any of his NAMBURES (among Christian converts) who are his padres, for you would hardly see any one of them become converted and baptized because of the punishment that the king has attached to that."—Bocarro, MS., f. 313.

1727.—"The NAMBOURIES are the first in both Capacities of Church and State, and some of them are Popes, being sovereign Princes in both."—A. Hamilton, i. 312; [ed. 1744].

[1800.—"The NAMBURIS eat no kind of animal food, and drink no spirituous liquors."—Buchanan, Mysore, ii. 426.]

NANKEEN, s. A cotton stuff of a brownish yellow tinge, which was originally imported from China, and derived its name from the city of Nanking. It was not dyed, but made from a cotton of that colour, the Gossypium religiosum of Roxb., a variety of G. herbaceum. It was, however, imitated with dyed cotton in England, and before long exports of this imitation were made to China. Nankeen appears to be known in the Central Asia markets under the modified name of NANKA (see below).

1793-4.—"The land in this neighbourhood produces the cloth usually called NANKEENS in Europe ... in that growing in the province of Kiangnan, of which the city of Nan-kin is the capital, the down is of the same yellow tinge which it possesses when spun and woven into cloth."—Staunton's Narr. of Ld. Macartney's Embassy, ii. 425.

1794-5.—"The colour of NAM-KING is thus natural, and not subject to fade.... The opinion (that it was dyed) that I combat was the cause of an order being sent from Europe a few years ago to dye the pieces of NAM-KING of a deeper colour, because of late they had grown paler."—Van Braam's Embassy, E.T. ii. 141.

1797.—"China Investment per Upton Castle.... Company's broad and narrow NANKEEN, brown NANKEEN."—In Seton-Karr, ii. 605.

c. 1809.—"Cotton in this district (Puraniya or Purneea) is but a trifling article. There are several kinds mentioned.... The Kukti is the most remarkable, its wool having the colour of NANKEEN cloth, and it seems in fact to be the same material which the Chinese use in that manufacture."—F. Buchanan, in Eastern India, iii. 244. [See Watt, Econ. Dict. iv. 16, 29.]

1838.—"NANKA is imported in the greatest quantity (to Kabul) from Russia, and is used for making the outer garments for the people, who have a great liking to it. It is similar to NANKEEN cloth that comes to India from China, and is of a strong durable texture."—Report by Baines, in Punjab Trade Report, App. p. ix. See also p. clxvii.

1848.—"'Don't be trying to deprecate the value of the lot, Mr. Moss,' Mr. Hammerdown said; 'let the company examine it as a work of art—the attitude of the gallant animal quite according to natur, the gentleman in a NANKEEN-jacket, his gun in hand, is going to the chase; in the distance a banyhann tree (see BANYAN-TREE) and a PAGODY."—Vanity Fair, i. 178.

NANKING, n.p. The great Chinese city on the lower course of the Yangtse-kiang, which was adopted as capital of the Empire for a brief space (1368-1410) by the (native) Ming dynasty on the expulsion of the Mongol family of Chinghiz. The city, previously known as Kin-ling-fu, then got the style of Nan-king, or 'South Court.' Peking ('North Court') was however re-occupied as imperial residence by the Emperor Ching-su in 1410, and has remained such ever since. Nanking is mentioned as a great city called Chilenfu (Kin-ling), whose walls had a circuit of 40 miles, by Friar Odoric (c. 1323). And the province bears the same name (Chelim) in the old notices of China translated by R. Willes in Hakluyt (ii. 546).

It appears to be the city mentioned by Conti (c. 1430), as founded by the emperor: "Hinc prope XV. dierum itinere (i.e. from Cambalec or Peking), alia civitas Nemptai nomine, ab imperatore condita, cujus ambitus patet triginta milliaribus, eaque est popolosissima omnium." This is evidently the same name that is coupled with Cambalec, in Petis de la Croix's translation of the Life of Timour (iii. 218) under the form Nemnai. The form Lankin, &c., is common in old Portuguese narratives, probably, like LIAMPO (q.v.), a Fuhkien form.

c. 1520.—"After that follows Great China, the king of which is the greatest sovereign in the world.... The port of this kingdom is called Guantan, and among the many cities of this empire two are the most important, namely NANKIN and Comlaka (read Combalak), where the king usually resides."—Pigafetta's Magellan (Hak. Soc.), p. 156.

c. 1540.—"Thereunto we answered that we were strangers, natives of the Kingdom of Siam, and that coming from the port of Liampoo to go to the fishing of NANQUIN, we were cast away at sea ... that we purposed to go to the city of NANQUIN there to imbarque ourselves as rowers in the first Lanteaa (see LANTEAS) that should put to sea, for to pass unto Cantan...."—Pinto, E.T. p. 99 (orig. cap. xxxi.).

1553.—"Further, according to the Cosmographies of China ... the maritime provinces of this kingdom, which run therefrom in a N.W. direction almost, are these three: NANQUIJ, Xanton (Shantung), and Quincij" (Kingsze or capital, i.e. Pecheli).—Barros, I. ix. 1.

1556.—"Ogni anno va di Persia alla China vna grossa Carauana, che camina sei mesi prima ch'arriui alla Città de LANCHIN, Città nella quale risiede il Re con la sua Corte."—Ces. Federici, in Ramusio, iii. 391_v_.

[1615.—"678-1/5 Catties China of raw LANKINE silk."—Foster, Letters, iii. 137.]

NARCONDAM, n.p. The name of a strange weird-looking volcanic cone, which rises, covered with forest, to a height of some 2,330 feet straight out of the deep sea, to the eastward of the Andamans. One of the present writers has observed (Marco Polo, Bk. III. ch. 13, note) that in the name of Narkandam one cannot but recognise Narak, 'Hell'; perhaps Naraka-kuṇḍam, 'a pit of hell'; adding: "Can it be that in old times, but still contemporary with Hindu navigation, this volcano was active, and that some Brahmin St. Brandon recognised in it the mouth of Hell, congenial to the Rakshasas of the adjacent group" of the Andamans? We have recently received an interesting letter from Mr. F. R. Mallet of the Geological Survey of India, who has lately been on a survey of Narcondam and Barren Island. Mr. Mallet states that Narcondam is "without any crater, and has certainly been extinct for many thousand years. Barren Island, on the other hand, forms a complete amphitheatre, with high precipitous encircling walls, and the volcano has been in violent eruption within the last century. The term 'pit of hell,' therefore, while quite inapplicable to Narcondam, applies most aptly to Barren Island." Mr. Mallet suggests that there may have been some confusion between the two islands, and that the name Narcondam may have been really applicable to Barren Island. [See the account of both islands in Ball, Jungle Life, 397 seqq.] The name Barren Island is quite modern. We are told in Purdy's Or. Navigator (350) that Barren Island was called by the Portuguese Ilha alta, a name which again would be much more apt for Narcondam, Barren Island being only some 800 feet high. Mr. Mallet mentions that in one of the charts of the E.I. Pilot or Oriental Navigator (1781) he finds "Narcondam according to the Portuguese" in 13° 45′ N. lat. and 110° 35′ E. long. (from Ferro) and "Narcondam or High Island, according to the French," in 12° 50′ N. lat. and 110° 55′ E. long. This is valuable as showing both that there may have been some confusion between the islands, and that Ilha alta or High Island has been connected with the name of Narcondam. The real positions by our charts are of Narcondam, N. lat. 13° 24′, E. long. 94° 12′. Barren Island, N. lat. 12° 16′, E. long. 93° 54′.

The difference of lat. (52 miles) agrees well with that between the Portuguese and French Narcondam, but the difference in long., though approximate in amount (18 or 20 miles), is in one case plus and in the other minus; so that the discrepancies may be due merely to error in the French reckoning. In a chart in the E.I. Pilot (1778) "Monday or Barren Island, called also High Island" and "Ayconda or Narcondam," are marked approximately in the positions of the present Barren Island and Narcondam. Still, we believe that Mr. Mallet's suggestion is likely to be well founded. The form Ayconda is nearer that found in the following:

1598.—"... as you put off from the Ilandes of Andeman towards the Coast ... there lyeth onely in the middle way an Ilande which the inhabitantes call VIACONDAM, which is a small Iland having faire ground round about it, but very little fresh water."—Linschoten, p. 328.

The discrepancy in the position of the islands is noticed in D'Anville:

1753.—"Je n'oublierai pas NARCONDAM, et d'autant moins que ce que j'en trouve dans les Portugais ne repond point à la position que nos cartes lui donnent. Le routier de Gaspar Pereira de los Reys indique l'île NARCODÃO ou Narcondam à 6 lieues des îles Cocos, 12 de la tête de l'Andaman; et le rhumb de vent à l'égard de ce point il le determine, leste quarta da nordeste, meya quarta mais para les nordestes, c'est à dire à peu-près 17 degrés de l'est au nord. Selon les cartes Françoises, NARCONDAM s'écarte environ 25 lieues marines de la tête d'Andaman; et au lieu de prendre plus du nord, cette île baisse vers le sud d'une fraction de degré plus ou moins considérable selon differéntes cartes."—D'Anville, Eclairc., 141-142.

I may add that I find in a French map of 1701 (Carte Marine depuis Suratte jusqu'au Detroit de Malaca, par le Père P. P. Tachard) we have, in the (approximately) true position of Narcondam, Isle Haute, whilst an islet without name appears in the approximate position of Barren Island.

NARD, s. The rhizome of the plant Nardostachys Jatamansi, D.C., a native of the loftier Himālaya (allied to Valerian). This is apparently an Indian word originally, but, as we have it, it has come from the Skt. nalada through Semitic media, whence the change of l into r; and in this form it is found both in Hebrew and Greek. [Prof. Skeat gives: "F. nard, L. nardus. Greek νάρδος, Pers. nard (whence Skt. nalada), spikenard. Skt. nada, a reed."] The plant was first identified in modern times by Sir W. Jones. See in Canticles, i. 12, and iv. 13, 14.

B.C. c. 25.—

"Cur non sub altâ vel platano, vel hac Pinu jacentes sic temere, et rosâ Canos odorati capillos, Dum licet, Assyriâque NARDO Potamus uncti?" Horace, Odes, II. xi.

A.D. 29.—"Καὶ ὄντος αὐτοῦ ἐν Βηθανίᾳ, ἐν τῇ οἰκίᾳ Σίμωνος ... ἦλθε γυνὴ ἔχουσα ἀλάβαστρον μύρον, νάρδου πιστικῆς πολυτελοῦς...."—St. Mark, xiv. 3.

c. A.D. 70.—"As touching the leafe of NARDUS, it were good that we discoursed thereof at large, seeing that it is one of the principal ingredients aromaticall that goe to the making of most costly and precious ointments.... The head of NARDUS spreadeth into certain spikes and ears, whereby it hath a twofold use both as spike and also as leafe."—Pliny (Ph. Holland), xii. 12.

c. A.D. 90.—"Κατάγεται δὲ δι' αὐτῆς (Οζηνῆς) καὶ ἀπὸ τῶν ἄνω τόπων, ἡ διὰ Πωκλαΐδος καταφερομένη νάρδος, ἡ Κασπαπυρηνὴ, καὶ ἡ Παροπανισηνὴ, καὶ ἡ Καβολίτη, καὶ ἡ διά τῆς παρακειμένης Σκυθίας."—Periplus, § 48 (corrected by Fabricius).

c. A.D. 545.—"... also to Sindu, where you get the musk or castorin, and androstachyn" (for NARDOSTACHYS, i.e. spikenard).—Cosmas, in Cathay, p. clxxviii.

1563.—"I know no other spikenard (espique-NARDO) in this country, except what I have already told you, that which comes from Chitor and Mandou, regions on the confines of Deli, Bengala, and the Decan."—Garcia, f. 191.

1790.—"We may on the whole be assured that the NARDUS of Ptolemy, the Indian Sumbul of the Persians and Arabs, the Jatámánsì of the Hindus, and the spikenard of our shops, are one and the same plant."—Sir W. Jones, in As. Res. ii. 410.

c. 1781.—

"My first shuts out thieves from your house or your room, My second expresses a Syrian perfume; My whole is a man in whose converse is shared The strength of a Bar and the sweetness of NARD."— Charade on Bishop Barnard by Dr. Johnson.

NARGEELA, NARGILEH, s. Properly the coco-nut (Skt. nārikera, -kela, or -keli; Pers. nārgīl; Greek of Cosmas, Ἀργέλλιον); thence the HUBBLE-BUBBLE, or HOOKA in its simplest form, as made from a coco-nut shell; and thence again, in Persia, a HOOKA or water-pipe with a glass or metal vase.

[c. 545.—"ARGELL." See under SURA.

[1623.—"NARGHIL, like the palm in the leaves also, and is that which we call Nux Indica."—P. della Valle, Hak. Soc. i. 40.

[1758.—"An ARGILE, or smoking tube, and coffee, were immediately brought us ..."—Ives, 271.

[1813.—"... the Persians smoked their culloons and NARGILLS...."—Forbes, Or. Mem. 2nd ed. ii. 173.]

NARROWS, THE, n.p. A name applied by the Hoogly pilots for at least two centuries to the part of the river immediately below Hoogly Point, now known as 'Hoogly Bight.' See Mr. Barlow's note on Hedges' Diary, i. 64.

1684.—"About 11 o'clock we met with ye Good-hope, at an anchor in ye NARROWS, without Hugly River,[189] and ordered him upon ye first of ye flood to weigh, and make all haste he could to Hugly ..."—Hedges, Diary, Hak. Soc. i. 64.

1711.—"From the lower Point of the NARROWS on the Starboard-side ... the Eastern Shore is to be kept close aboard, until past the said Creek, afterwards allowing only a small Birth for the Point off the RIVER OF ROGUES, commonly called by the Country People, Adegom.... From the RIVER OF ROGUES, the Starboard Shore, with a great Ship, ought to be kept close aboard down to the Channel Trees, for in the Offing lies the Grand middle Ground...."—English Pilot, p. 57.

NARSINGA, n.p. This is the name most frequently applied in the 16th and 17th centuries to the kingdom in Southern India, otherwise termed Vijayanagara or BISNAGAR (q.v.), the latest powerful Hindu kingdom in the Peninsula. This kingdom was founded on the ruins of the Belāla dynasty reigning at Dwāra Samudra, about A.D. 1341 [see Rice, Mysore, i. 344 seqq.]. The original dynasty of Vijayanagara became extinct about 1487, and was replaced by Narasiṉha, a prince of Telugu origin, who reigned till 1508. He was therefore reigning at the time of the first arrival of the Portuguese, and the name of Narsinga, which they learned to apply to the kingdom from his name, continued to be applied to it for nearly two centuries.

1505.—"Hasse notizia delli maggiori Re che hanno nell'India, che è el Re de NARSIN, indiano zentil; confina in Estremadura con el regno de Comj (qu. regno Deconij?), el qual Re si è Moro. El qual Re de NARSIN tien grande regno; sarà (harà?) ad ogni suo comando 10 mila elefanti, 30 mila cavalli, e infinito numero di genti."—Lionardo Ca' Masser, 35.

1510.—"The Governor ... learning of the embassy which the King of Bisnega was sending to Cananore to the Viceroy, to offer firm friendship, he was most desirous to make alliance and secure peace ... principally because the kingdom of NARSINGA extends in the interior from above Calecut and from the Balagate as far as Cambaya, and thus if we had any wars in those countries by sea, we might by land have the most valuable aid from the King of Bisnega."—Correa, ii. 30.

1513.—"Aderant tunc apud nostrũ praefectũ a NARSINGAE rege legati."—Emanuel. Reg. Epist. f. 3_v_.

1516.—"45 leagues from these mountains inland, there is a very large city which is called Bijanaguer, very populous.... The King of NARSINGA always resides there."—Barbosa, 85.

c. 1538.—"And she (the Queen of Onor) swore to him by the golden sandals of her pagod that she would rejoice as much should God give him the victory over them (the Turks) as if the King of NARSINGA, whose slave she was, should place her at table with his wife."—F. Mendez Pinto, ch. ix.; see also Cogan, p. 11.

1553.—"And they had learned besides from a Friar who had come from Narsinga to stay at Cananor, how that the King of NARSINGA, who was as it were an Emperor of the Gentiles of India in state and riches, was appointing ambassadors to send him ..."—Barros, I. viii. 9.

1572.—

"... O Reyno NARSINGA poderoso Mais de ouro e de pedras, que de forte gente." Camões, vii. 21.

By Burton:

"Narsinga's Kingdom, with her rich display Of gold and gems, but poor in martial vein ..."

1580.—"In the Kingdom of NARSINGUA to this day, the wives of their priests are buried alive with the bodies of their husbands; all other wives are burnt at their husbands' funerals."—Montaigne, by Cotton, ch. xi. (What is here said about priests applies to LINGAITS, q.v.).

1611.—"... the Dutch President on the coast of Choromandell, shewed us a Caul (see COWLE) from the King of NARSINGA, Wencapati, Raia, wherein was granted that it should not be lawfull for any one that came out of Europe to trade there, but such as brought Prince Maurice his Patent, and therefore desired our departure."—P. W. Floris, in Purchas, i. 320.

1681.—"Coromandel. Ciudad muy grande, sugeta al Rey de NARSINGA, el qual Reyno e llamado por otre nombre Bisnaga."—Martinez de la Puente, Compendio, 16.

NASSICK, n.p. Nāsik; Νασίκα of Ptolemy (vii. i. 63); an ancient city of Hindu sanctity on the upper course of the Godavery R., and the headquarter of a district of the same name in the Bombay Presidency. A curious discussion took place at the R. Geog. Society in 1867, arising out of a paper by Mr. (afterwards Sir) George Campbell, in which the selection of a capital for British India was determined on logical principles in favour of Nassick. But logic does not decide the site of capitals, though government by logic is quite likely to lose India. Certain highly elaborated magic squares and magic cubes, investigated by the Rev. A. H. Frost (Cambridge Math. Jour., 1857) have been called by him Nasik squares, and Nasik cubes, from his residence in that ancient place (see Encyc. Britan. 9th ed. xv. 215).

NAT, s. Burmese nāt, [apparently from Skt. nātha, 'lord']; a term applied to all spiritual beings, angels, elfs, demons, or what not, including the gods of the Hindus.

[1878.—"Indeed, with the country population of Pegu the worship, or it should rather be said the propitiation of the 'NÁTS' or spirits, enters into every act of their ordinary life, and Buddha's doctrine seems kept for sacred days and their visits to the KYOUNG (monastery) or to the pagoda."—Forbes, British Burma, 222.]

NAUND, s. Hind. nānd. A coarse earthen vessel of large size, resembling in shape an inverted bee-hive, and useful for many economic and domestic purposes. The dictionary definition in Fallon, 'an earthen trough,' conveys an erroneous idea.

[1832.—"The ghurī (see GHURRY), or copper cup, floats usually in a vessel of coarse red pottery filled with water, called a NĀN."—Wanderings of a Pilgrim, i. 250.

[1899.—"To prevent the crickets from wandering away when left, I had a large earthen pan placed over them upside down. These pans are termed NANDS. They are made of the coarsest earthenware, and are very capacious. Those I used were nearly a yard in diameter and about eighteen inches deep."—Thornhill, Haunts and Hobbies of an Indian Official, 79.]

NAUTCH, s. A kind of ballet-dance performed by women; also any kind of stage entertainment; an European ball. Hind. and Mahr. nāch, from Skt. nṛitya, dancing and stage-playing, through Prakrit nachcha. The word is in European use all over India. [A poggly nautch (see POGGLE) is a fancy-dress ball. Also see POOTLY NAUTCH.] Browning seems fond of using this word, and persists in using it wrongly. In the first of the quotations below he calls Fifine the 'European nautch,' which is like calling some Hindu dancing-girl 'the Indian ballet.' He repeats the mistake in the second quotation.

[1809.—"You Europeans are apt to picture to yourselves a NACH as a most attractive spectacle, but once witnessed it generally dissolves the illusion."—Broughton, Letters from a Mahratta Camp, ed. 1892, p. 142.]

1823.—"I joined Lady Macnaghten and a large party this evening to go to a NÂCH given by a rich native, Rouplall Mullich, on the opening of his new house."—Mrs. Heber, in Heber, ed. 1844, i. 37.

[1829.—"... a dance by black people which they calls a NOTCH...."—Oriental Sport. Mag. ed. 1873, i. 129.]

c. 1831.—"Elle (Begum Sumrou) fit enterrer vivante une jeune esclave, dont elle était jalouse, et donna à son mari un NAUTCH (bal) sur cette horrible tombe."—Jacquemont, Correspondance, ii. 221.

1872.—

"... let be there was no worst Of degradation spared Fifine; ordained from first To last, in body and soul, for one life-long debauch, The Pariah of the North, the European NAUTCH!" Fifine at the Fair, 31.

1876.—

"... I locked in the swarth little lady—I swear, From the head to the foot of her,—well quite as bare! 'No NAUTCH shall cheat me,' said I, taking my stand At this bolt which I draw...." Natural Magic, in Pacchiarotto, &c.

NAUTCH-GIRL, s. (See BAYADÈRE, DANCING-GIRL.) The last quotation is a glorious jumble, after the manner of the compiler.

[1809.—"NACH GIRLS are exempted from all taxes, though they pay a kind of voluntary one monthly to a Fuqeer...."—Broughton, Letters from a Mahratta Camp, ed. 1892, p. 113-4.]

1825.—"The NÂCH WOMEN were, as usual, ugly, huddled up in huge bundles of red petticoats; and their exhibition as dull and insipid to an European taste, as could well be conceived."—Heber, ii. 102.

1836.—"In India and the East dancing-girls are trained called Almeh, and they give a fascinating entertainment called a NATCH, for which they are well paid."—In R. Phillips, A Million of Facts, 322.

NAVAIT, NAITEA, NEVOYAT, &c., n.p. A name given to Mahommedans of mixt race in the Konkan and S. Canara, corresponding more or less to MOPLAHS (q.v.) and LUBBYES of Malabar and the Coromandel coast. [The head-quarters of the Navayats are in N. Canara, and their traditions state that their ancestors fled from the Persian Gulf about the close of the 7th century, to escape the cruelty of a Governor of Irān. See Sturrock, Man. of S. Canara, i. 181.] It is apparently a Konkani word connected with Skt. nava, 'new,' and implying 'new convert.' [The Madras Gloss. derives the word from Pers. nāīt̤ī, from Nāīt̤, the name of an Arab clan.]

1552.—"Sons of Moors and of Gentile women, who are called NEITEAS...."—Castanheda, iii. 24.

1553.—"NAITEAS que são mestiços: quanto aos padres de geração dos Arabios ... e perparte das madres das Gentias."—Barros, I. ix. 3.

" "And because of this fertility of soil, and of the trade of these ports, there was here a great number of Moors, natives of the country, whom they call NAITEAS, who were accustomed to buy the horses and sell them to the Moors of the Decan...."—Ibid. I. viii. 9.

c. 1612.—"From this period the Mahomedans extended their religion and their influence in Malabar, and many of the princes and inhabitants, becoming converts to the true faith, gave over the management of some of the seaports to the strangers, whom they called NOWAYITS (literally the New Race)...."—Firishta, by Briggs, iv. 533.

1615.—"... et passim infiniti Mahometani reperiebantur, tum indigenae quos NAITEAS vocabant, tum externi...."—Jarric, i. 57.

1626.—"There are two sorts of Moors, one Mesticos of mixed seed of Moore-fathers and Ethnike-mothers, called NAITEANI, Mungrels also in their religion, the other Forreiners...."—Purchas, Pilgrimage, 554.

NAZIR, s. Hind. from Ar. nāẓir, 'inspector' (naẓr, 'sight'). The title of a native official in the Anglo-Indian Courts, sometimes improperly rendered 'sheriff,' because he serves processes, &c.

1670.—"The Khan ... ordered his NASSIR, or Master of the Court, to assign something to the servants...."—Andriesz, 41.

[1708.—"He especially, who is called NADER, that is the chief of the Mahal ..."—Catrou, H. of the Mogul Dynasty, E.T. 295.

[1826.—"The NAZIR is a perpetual sheriff, and executes writs and summonses to all the parties required to attend in civil and criminal cases."—Pandurang Hari, ed. 1873, ii. 118.]

1878.—"The NAZIR had charge of the treasury, stamps, &c., and also the issue of summonses and processes."—Life in the Mofussil, i. 204.

[In the following the word represents naḳḳāra, 'a kettle-drum.'

1763.—"His Excellency (Nawab Meer Cossim) had not eaten for three days, nor allowed his NAZIR to be beaten."—Diary of a Prisoner at Patna, in Wheeler, Early Records, 323.]

NEELÁM, LEELÁM, s. Hind. nīlām, from Port. leilão. An auction or public OUTCRY, as it used to be called in India (corresponding to Scotch roup; comp. Germ. rufen, and outroop of Linschoten's translator below). The word is, however, Oriental in origin, for Mr. C. P. Brown (MS. notes) points out that the Portuguese word is from Ar. i'lām (al-i'lām), 'proclamation, advertisement.' It is omitted by Dozy and Engelmann. How old the custom in India of prompt disposal by auction of the effects of a deceased European is, may be seen in the quotation from Linschoten.

1515.—"Pero d'Alpoym came full of sorrow to Cochin with all the apparel and servants of Afonso d'Alboquerque, all of which Dom Gracia took charge of; but the Governor (Lopo Soares) gave orders that there should be a LEILÃO (auction) of all the wardrobe, which indeed made a very poor show. Dom Gracia said to D. Aleixo in the church, where they met: The Governor your uncle orders a LEILÃO of all the old wardrobe of Afonso d'Alboquerque. I can't praise his intention, but what he has done only adds to my uncle's honour; for all the people will see that he gathered no rich Indian stuffs, and that he despised everything but to be foremost in honour."—Correa, ii. 469.

[1527.—"And should any man die, they at once make a LEYLAM of his property."—India Office MSS., Corpo Chronologico, vol. i. Letter of Fernando Nunes to the King, Sept. 7.

[1554.—"All the spoil of Mombasa that came into the general stock was sold by LEILÃO."—Castanheda, Bk. ii. ch. 13.]

1598.—"In Goa there is holden a daylie assemblie ... which is like the meeting upõ the burse in Andwarpe ... and there are all kindes of Indian commodities to sell, so that in a manner it is like a Faire ... it beginneth in y^e morning at 7 of the clocke, and continueth till 9 ... in the principal streete of the citie ... and is called the LEYLON, which is as much as to say, as an outroop ... and when any man dieth, all his goods are brought thether and sold to the last pennieworth, in the same outroop, whosoever they be, yea although they were the Viceroyes goodes...."—Linschoten, ch. xxix.; [Hak. Soc. i. 184; and compare Pyrard de Laval, Hak. Soc. ii. 52, who spells the word LAYLON].

c. 1610.—"... le mary vient frapper à la porte, dont la femme faisant fort l'estonnée, prie le Portugais de se cacher dans vne petite cuue à pourcelaine, et l'ayant fait entrer là dedans, et ferme très bien à clef, ouurit la porte a son mary, qui ... le laissa tremper là iusqu'au lendemain matin, qu'il fit porter ceste cuue au marché, ou LAILAN ainsi qu'ils appellent...."—Mocquet, 344.

Linschoten gives an engraving of the Rua Direita in Goa, with many of these auctions going on, and the superscription: "O LEILAO que se faz cada dia pola menhã na Rua direita de Goa." The Portuguese word has taken root at Canton Chinese in the form yélang; but more distinctly betrays its origin in the Amoy form lé-lang and Swatow loylang (see Giles; also Dennys's Notes and Queries, vol. i.).

NEELGYE, NILGHAU, &c., s. Hind. nīlgāū, nīlgāī, līlgāī, i.e. 'blue cow'; the popular name of the great antelope, called by Pallas Antilope tragocamelus (Portax pictus of Jerdon, [Boselaphus tragocamelus of Blanford, Mammalia, 517]), given from the slaty blue which is its predominant colour. The proper Hind. name of the animal is rojh (Skt. ṛiśya, or ṛishya).

1663.—"After these Elephants are brought divers tamed Gazelles, which are made to fight with one another; as also some NILGAUX, or grey oxen, which in my opinion are a kind of Elands, and Rhinoceross, and those great Buffalos of Bengala ... to combat with a Lion or Tiger."—Bernier, E.T. p. 84; [ed. Constable, 262; in 218 NILSGAUS; in 364, 377, NIL-GHAUX].

1773.—"Captain Hamilton has been so obliging as to take charge of two deer, a male and a female, of a species which is called NEELGOW, and is, I believe, unknown in Europe, which he will deliver to you in my name."—Warren Hastings to Sir G. Colebrooke, in Gleig, i. 288.

1824.—"There are not only NEELGHAUS, and the common Indian deer, but some noble red-deer in the park" (at Lucknow).—Heber, ed. 1844, i. 214.

1882.—"All officers, we believe, who have served, like the present writers, on the canals of Upper India, look back on their peripatetic life there as a happy time ... occasionally on a winding part of the bank one intruded on the solitude of a huge NÍLGAI."—Mem. of General Sir W. E. Baker, p. 11.

NEEM, s. The tree (N. O. Meliaceae) Azadirachta indica, Jussieu; Hind. nīm (and nīb, according to Playfair, Taleef Shereef, 170), Mahr. nimb, from Skt. nimba. It grows in almost all parts of India, and has a repute for various remedial uses. Thus poultices of the leaves are applied to boils, and their fresh juice given in various diseases; the bitter bark is given in fevers; the fruit is described as purgative and emollient, and as useful in worms, &c., whilst a medicinal oil is extracted from the seeds; and the gum also is reckoned medicinal. It is akin to the bakain (see BUCKYNE), on which it grafts readily.

1563.—"R. I beg you to recall the tree by help of which you cured that valuable horse of yours, of which you told me, for I wish to remember it.

"O. You are quite right, for in sooth it is a tree that has a great repute as valuable and medicinal among nations that I am acquainted with, and the name among them all is NIMBO. I came to know its virtues in the Balaghat, because with it I there succeeded in curing sore backs of horses that were most difficult to clean and heal; and these sores were cleaned very quickly, and the horses very quickly cured. And this was done entirely with the leaves of this tree pounded and put over the sores, mixt with lemon-juice...."—Garcia, f. 153.

1578.—"There is another tree highly medicinal ... which is called NIMBO; and the Malabars call it Bepole [Malayāl. vēppu]."—Acosta, 284.

[1813.—"... the principal square ... regularly planted with beautiful NYM or LYM-trees."—Forbes, Or. Mem. 2nd ed. ii. 445.

[1856.—"Once on a time Guj Singh ... said to those around him, 'Is there any one who would leap down from that LIMB tree into the court?'"—Forbes, Rās Mālā, ed. 1878, p. 465.]

1877.—"The elders of the Clans sat every day on their platform, under the great NEEM tree in the town, and attended to all complaints."—Meadows Taylor, Story, &c., ii. 85.

NEGAPATAM, n.p. A seaport of Tanjore district in S. India, written Nāgai-ppaṭṭanam, which may mean 'Snake Town.' It is perhaps the Νίγαμα Μητρόπολις of Ptolemy; and see under COROMANDEL.

1534.—"From this he (Cunhall Marcar, a Mahommedan corsair) went plundering the coast as far as NEGAPATÃO, where there were always a number of Portuguese trading, and Moorish merchants. These latter, dreading that this pirate would come to the place and plunder them, to curry favour with him, sent him word that if he came he would make a famous haul, because the Portuguese had there a quantity of goods on the river bank, where he could come up...."—Correa, iii. 554.

[1598.—"The coast of Choramandel beginneth from the Cape of NEGAPATAN."—Linschoten, Hak. Soc. i. 82.

[1615.—"Two (ships) from NEGAPOTAN, one from Cullmat and Messepotan."—Foster, Letters, iv. 6.]

NEGOMBO, n.p. A pleasant town and old Dutch fort nearly 20 miles north of Colombo in Ceylon; formerly famous for the growth of the best cinnamon. The etymology is given in very different ways. We read recently that the name is properly (Tamil) Nīr-Kol̤umbu, i.e. 'Columbo in the water.' But, according to Emerson Tennent, the ordinary derivation is Mi-gamoa, the 'Village of bees'; whilst Burnouf says it is properly Nāga-bhu, 'Land of Nagas,' or serpent worshippers (see Tennent, ii. 630).

1613.—"On this he cast anchor; but the wind blowing very strong by daybreak, the ships were obliged to weigh, as they could not stand at their moorings. The vessel of Andrea Coelho and that of Nuno Alvares Teixeira, after weighing, not being able to weather the reef of NEGUMBO, ran into the bay, where the storm compelled them to be beached: but as there were plenty of people there, the vessels were run up by hand and not wrecked."—Bocarro, 42.

NEGRAIS, CAPE, n.p. The name of the island and cape at the extreme south end of Arakan. In the charts the extreme south point of the mainland is called Pagoda Point, and the seaward promontory, N.W. of this, Cape Negrais. The name is a Portuguese corruption probably of the Arab or Malay form of the native name which the Burmese express as Naga-rīt, 'Dragon's whirlpool.' The set of the tide here is very apt to carry vessels ashore, and thus the locality is famous for wrecks. It is possible, however, that the Burmese name is only an effort at interpretation, and that the locality was called in old times by some name like Nāgarāshtra. Ibn Batuta touched at a continental coast occupied by uncivilised people having elephants, between Bengal and Sumatra, which he calls Baranagār. From the intervals given, the place must have been near Negrais, and it is just possible that the term Barra de Negrais, which frequently occurs in the old writers (e.g. see Balbi, Fitch, and Bocarro below) is a misinterpretation of the old name used by Ibn Batuta (iv. 224-228).

1553.—"Up to the Cape of NEGRAIS, which stands in 16 degrees, and where the Kingdom of Pegu commences, the distance may be 100 leagues."—Barros, I. ix. 1.

1583.—"Then the wind came from the S.W., and we made sail with our stern to the N.E., and running our course till morning we found ourselves close to the Bar of NEGRAIS, as in their language they call the port which runs up into Pegu."—Gasparo Balbi, f. 92.

1586.—"We entered the barre of NEGRAIS, which is a braue barre," &c. (see COSMIN).—R. Fitch, in Hakl. ii. 390.

1613.—"Philip de Brito having sure intelligence of this great armament ... ordered the arming of seven ships and some sanguicels, and appointing as their commodore Paulo de Rego Pinheiro, gave him precise orders to engage the prince of Arracan at sea, before he should enter the Bar and rivers of NEGRAIS, which form the mouth of all those of the kingdom of Pegù."—Bocarro, 137.

1727.—"The Sea Coast of Arackan reaches from Xatigam (see CHITTAGONG) to Cape NEGRAIS, about 400 Miles in length, but few places inhabited ... (after speaking of "the great Island of Negrais") ... he goes on.... "The other Island of Negrais, which makes the Point called the Cape ... is often called Diamond Island, because its Shape is a Rhombus.... Three Leagues to the Southward of Diamond Island lies a Reef of Rocks a League long ... conspicuous at all Times by the Sea breaking over them ... the Rocks are called the Legarti, or in English, the Lizard."—A. Hamilton, ii. 29. This reef is the Alguada, on which a noble lighthouse was erected by Capt. (afterwards Lieut.-Gen.) Sir A. Fraser, C.B., of the Engineers, with great labour and skill. The statement of Hamilton suggests that the original name may have been Lagarto. But Alagada, "overflowed," is the real origin. It appears in the old French chart of d'Après as Ile Noyée. In Dunn it is Negada or Neijada, or Lequado, or Sunken Island (N. Dir. 1780, 325).

1759.—"The Dutch by an Inscription in Teutonic Characters, lately found at NEGRAIS, on the Tomb of a Dutch Colonel, who died in 1607 (qu. if not 1627?), appear then to have had Possession of that Island."—Letter in Dalrymple, Or. Rep. i. 98.

1763.—"It gives us pleasure to observe that the King of the Burmahs, who caused our people at NEGRAIS to be so cruelly massacred, is since dead, and succeeded by his son, who seems to be of a more friendly and humane disposition."—Fort William Consns., Feb. 19. In Long, 288.

[1819.—"NEGRAGLIA." See under MUNNEEPORE.]

NELLY, NELE. s. Malayāl. nel, 'rice in the husk'; [Tel. and Tam. nelli, 'rice-like']. This is the Dravidian equivalent of PADDY (q.v.), and is often used by the French and Portuguese in South India, where Englishmen use the latter word.

1606.—"... when they sell NELE, after they have measured it out to the purchaser, for the seller to return and take out two grains for himself for luck (com superstição), things that are all heathen vanities, which the synod entirely prohibits, and orders that those who practise them shall be severely punished by the Bishop."—Gouvea, Synodo, f. 52_b_.

1651.—"NILI, that is unpounded rice, which is still in the husk."—Rogerius, p. 95.

1760.—"Champs de NELIS." See under JOWAUR.

[1796.—"75 parahs NELLY."—List of Export Duties, in Logan, Malabar, iii. 265.]

NELLORE, n.p. A town and district north of Madras. The name may be Tamil Nall-ūr, 'Good Town.' But the local interpretation is from nel (see NELLY); and in the local records it is given in Skt. as Dhānyapuram, meaning 'rice-town' (Seshagiri Sāstri). [The Madras Man. (ii. 214) gives Nall-ūr, 'Good-town'; but the Gloss. (s.v.) has nellu, 'paddy,' ūru, 'village.' Mr. Boswell (Nellore, 687) suggests that it is derived from a nelli chett tree under which a famous lingam was placed.]

c. 1310.—"Ma'bar extends in length from Kulam to NILÁWAR, nearly 300 parasangs along the sea coast."—Wassáf, in Elliot, iii. 32.

NERBUDDA R., n.p. Skt. Narmadā, 'causing delight'; Ptol. Νάμαδος; Peripl. Λαμναιος (amended by Fabricius to Νάμμαδος). Dean Vincent's conjectured etymology of Nahr-Budda, 'River of Budda,' is a caution against such guesses.

c. 1020.—"From Dhár southwards to the R. NERBADDA nine (parasangs); thence to Mahrat-des ... eighteen ..."—Al-Birūnī, in Elliot, i. 60. The reading of Nerbadda is however doubtful.

c. 1310.—"There were means of crossing all the rivers, but the NERBÁDDA was such that you might say it was a remnant of the universal deluge."—Amír Khusrú, in Elliot, i. 79.

[1616.—"The King rode to the riuer of DARBADATH."—Sir T. Roe, Hak. Soc. ii. 413. In his list (ii. 539) he has NARBADAH.]

1727.—"The next Town of Note for Commerce is Baroach ... on the Banks of the River NERDABA."—A. Hamilton, ed. 1744, i. 145.]

NERCHA, s. Malayāl. nerchcha, 'a vow,' from verb neruγa, 'to agree or promise.'

1606.—"They all assemble on certain days in the porches of the churches and dine together ... and this they call NERCHA."—Gouvea, Synodo, f. 63. See also f. 11. This term also includes offerings to saints, or to temples, or particular forms of devotion. Among Hindus a common form is to feed a lamp before an idol with ghee instead of oil.

NERRICK, NERRUCK, NIRK, &c., s. Hind. from Pers. nirkh, vulgarly nirakh, nirikh. A tariff, rate, or price-current, especially one established by authority. The system of publishing such rates of prices and wages by local authority prevailed generally in India a generation or two back, and is probably not quite extinct even in our own territories. [The provincial Gazettes still publish periodical lists of current prices, but no attempt is made to fix such by authority.] It is still in force in the French settlements, and with no apparent ill effects.

1799.—"I have written to Campbell a long letter about the NERRICK of exchange, in which I have endeavoured to explain the principles of the whole system of shroffing (see SHROFF)...."—Wellington, i. 56.

1800.—"While I was absent with the army, Col. Sherbrooke had altered the NERRICK of artificers, and of all kinds of materials for building, at the instigation of Capt. Norris ... and on the examination of the subject a system of engineering came out, well worthy of the example set at Madras."—Ibid. i. 67.

[ " "Here is established a NIRUC, or regulation, by which all coins have a certain value affixed to them; and at this rate they are received in the payment of the revenue; but in dealings between private persons attention is not paid to this rule."—F. Buchanan, Mysore, ii. 279.]

1878.—"On expressing his surprise at this, the man assured him that it was really the case that the bazar 'NERIK' or market-rate, had so risen."—Life in the Mofussil, i. p. 33.

NGAPEE, s. The Burmese name, ngapi, 'pressed fish,' of the odorous delicacy described under BALACHONG. [See Forbes, British Burma, 83.]

1855.—"Makertich, the Armenian, assured us that the jars of NGAPÉ at Amarapoora exhibited a flux and reflux of tide with the changes of the moon. I see this is an old belief. De la Loubère mentions it in 1688 as held by the Siamese."—Yule, Mission to Ava, p. 160.

NICOBAR ISLANDS, n.p. The name for centuries applied to a group of islands north of Sumatra. They appear to be the βάρουσσαι of Ptolemy, and the Lankha Bālus of the oldest Arab Relation. [Sir G. Birdwood identifies them with the Island of the Bell (Nakūs) to which Sindbad, the Seaman, is carried in his fifth voyage. (Report on Old Records, 108; Burton, Arabian Nights, iv. 368).] The Danes attempted to colonize the islands in the middle of the 18th century, and since, unsuccessfully. An account of the various attempts will be found in the Voyage of the Novara. Since 1869 they have been partially occupied by the British Government, as an appendage of the Andaman settlement. Comparing the old forms Lankha and Nakkavāram, and the nakedness constantly attributed to the people, it seems possible that the name may have had reference to this (nañgā). [Mr. Man (Journ. Anthrop. Institute, xviii. 359) writes: "A possible derivation may be suggested by the following extract from a paper by A. de Candolle (1885) on 'The Origin of Cultivated Plants': 'The presence of the coconut in Asia three or four thousand years ago is proved by several Sanskrit names.... The Malays have a name widely diffused in the Archipelago, kalapa, klapa, klopo. At Sumatra and Nicobar we find the name njior, nieor, in the Philippines niog, at Bali, nioh, njo....' While the Nicobars have long been famed for the excellence of their coconuts, the only words which bear any resemblance to the forms above given are ngoât, 'a ripe nut,' and ñi-nàu, 'a half-ripe nut.'"]

c. 1050.—The name appears as NAKKAVĀRAM in the great Tanjore Inscription of the 11th century.

c. 1292.—"When you leave the island of Java (the Less) and the Kingdom of Lambri, you sail north about 150 miles, and then you come to two Islands, one of which is called NECUVERAN. In this island they have no king nor chief, but live like beasts...."—Marco Polo, Bk. III. ch. 12.

c. 1300.—"Opposite Lámúri is the island of Lákwáram (probably to read NÁKWÁRAM), which produces plenty of red amber. Men and women go naked, except that the latter cover the pudenda with cocoanut leaves. They are all subject to the Káán."—Rashíduddín, in Elliot, i. 71.

c. 1322.—"Departing from that country, and sailing towards the south over the Ocean Sea, I found many islands and countries, where among others was one called NICOVERAN ... both the men and women there have faces like dogs, etc...."—Friar Odoric, in Cathay, &c., 97.

1510.—"In front of the before named island of Samatra, across the Gulf of the Ganges, are 5 or 6 small islands, which have very good water and ports for ships. They are inhabited by Gentiles, poor people, and are called NICONVAR (Nacabar in Lisbon ed.), and they find in them very good amber, which they carry thence to Malaca and other parts."—Barbosa, 195.

1514.—"Seeing the land, the pilot said it was the land of NICUBAR.... The pilot was at the top to look out, and coming down he said that this land was all cut up (i.e. in islands), and that it was possible to pass through the middle; and that now there was no help for it but to chance it or turn back to Cochin.... The natives of the country had sight of us and suddenly came forth in great boats full of people.... They were all Caffres, with fish-bones inserted in their lips and chin: big men and frightful to look on; having their boats full of bows and arrows poisoned with herbs."—Giov. da Empoli, in Archiv. Stor. pp. 71-72.

NIGGER, s. It is an old brutality of the Englishman in India to apply this title to the natives, as we may see from Ives quoted below. The use originated, however, doubtless in following the old Portuguese use of negros for "the BLACKS" (q.v.), with no malice prepense, without any intended confusion between Africans and Asiatics.

1539.—See quot. from Pinto under COBRA DE CAPELLO, where NEGROES is used for natives of Sumatra.

1548.—"Moreover three blacks (NEGROS) in this territory occupy lands worth 3000 or 4000 pardaos of rent; they are related to one another, and are placed as guards in the outlying parts."—S. Botelho, Cartas, 111.

1582.—"A NIGROE of John Cambrayes, Pilot to Paulo de la Gama, was that day run away to the Moores."—Castañeda, by N. L., f. 19.

[1608.—"The King and people NIGGERS."—Danvers, Letters, i. 10.]

1622.—Ed. Grant, purser of the Diamond, reports capture of vessels, including a junk "with some stoor of NEGERS, which was devided bytwick the Duch and the English."—Sainsbury, iii. p. 78.

c. 1755.—"You cannot affront them (the natives) more than to call them by the name of NEGROE, as they conceive it implies an idea of slavery."—Ives, Voyage, p. 23.

c. 1757.—"Gli Gesuiti sono missionarii e parocchi de' NEGRI detti Malabar."—Della Tomba, 3.

1760.—"The Dress of this Country is entirely linnen, save Hats and Shoes; the latter are made of tanned Hides as in England ... only that they are no thicker than coarse paper. These shoes are neatly made by NEGROES, and sold for about 10_d._ a Pr. each of which will last two months with care."—MS. Letter of James Rennell, Sept. 30.

1866.—"Now the political creed of the frequenters of dawk bungalows is too uniform ... it consists in the following tenets ... that Sir Mordaunt Wells is the greatest judge that ever sat on the English bench; and that when you hit a NIGGER he dies on purpose to spite you."—The Dawk Bungalow, p. 225.

NILGHERRY, NEILGHERRY, &c., n.p. The name of the Mountain Peninsula at the end of the Mysore table land (originally known as Malaināḍu, 'Hill country'), which is the chief site of hill sanataria in the Madras Presidency. Skt. Nīlagiri, 'Blue Mountain.' The name Nīla or Nīlādri (synonymous with Nīlagiri) belongs to one of the mythical or semi-mythical ranges of the Puranic Cosmography (see Vishnu Purāna, in Wilson's Works, by Hall, ii. 102, 111, &c.), and has been applied to several ranges of more assured locality, e.g. in Orissa as well as in S. India. The name seems to have been fancifully applied to the Ootacamund range about 1820, by some European. [The name was undoubtedly applied by natives to the range before the appearance of Europeans, as in the Kongu-deśa Rajákal, quoted by Grigg (Nilagiri Man. 363), and the name appears in a letter of Col. Mackenzie of about 1816 (Ibid. 278). Mr. T. M. Horsfall writes: "The name is in common use among all classes of natives in S. India, but when it may have become specific I cannot say. Possibly the solution may be that the Nilgiris being the first large mountain range to become familiar to the English, that name was by them caught hold of, but not coined, and stuck to them by mere priority. It is on the face of it improbable that the Englishmen who early in the last century discovered these Hills, that is, explored and shot over them, would call them by a long Skt. name."]

Probably the following quotation from Dampier refers to Orissa, as does that from Hedges:

"One of the English ships was called the Nellegree, the name taken from the NELLEGREE Hills in Bengal, as I have heard."—Dampier, ii. 145.

1683.—"In y^e morning early I went up the NILLIGREE Hill, where I had a view of a most pleasant fruitfull valley."—Hedges, Diary, March 2; [Hak. Soc. i. 67].

The following also refers to the Orissa Hills:

1752.—"Weavers of Balasore complain of the great scarcity of rice and provisions of all kinds occasioned by the devastations of the Mahrattas, who, 600 in number, after plundering Balasore, had gone to the NELLIGREE Hills."—In Long, 42.

NIPA, s. Malay nīpah.

A. The name of a stemless palm (Nipa fruticans, Thunb.), which abounds in estuaries from the Ganges delta eastwards, through Tenasserim and the Malay countries, to N. Australia, and the leaves of which afford the chief material used for thatch in the Archipelago. "In the Philippines," says Crawfurd, "but not that I am aware of anywhere else, the sap of the Nipa ... is used as a beverage, and for the manufacture of vinegar, and the distillation of spirits. On this account it yields a considerable part of the revenue of the Spanish Government" (Desc. Dict. p. 301). But this fact is almost enough to show that the word is the same which is used in sense B; and the identity is placed beyond question by the quotations from Teixeira and Mason.

B. Arrack made from the sap of a palm tree, a manufacture by no means confined to the Philippines. The Portuguese, appropriating the word Nipa to this spirit, called the tree itself nipeira.

A.—

1611.—"Other wine is of another kind of palm which is called NIPA (growing in watery places), and this is also extracted by distillation. It is very mild and sweet, and clear as pure water; and they say it is very wholesome. It is made in great quantities, with which ships are laden in Pegu and Tanasarim, Malaca, and the Philippines or Manila; but that of Tanasarim exceeds all in goodness."—Teixeira, Relaciones, i. 17.

1613.—"And then on from the marsh to the NYPEIRAS or wild-palms of the rivulet of Paret China."—Godinho de Eredia, 6.

" "And the wild palms called NYPEIRAS ... from those flowers is drawn the liquor which is distilled into wine by an alembic, which is the best wine of India."—Ibid. 16_v_.

[1817.—"In the maritime districts, atap, or thatch, is made almost exclusively from the leaves of the NÍPA or búyu."—Raffles, H. of Java, 2nd ed. i. 185.]

1848.—"Steaming amongst the low swampy islands of the Sunderbunds ... the paddles of the steamer tossed up the large fruits of the NIPA fruticans, a low stemless palm that grows in the tidal waters of the Indian ocean, and bears a large head of nuts. It is a plant of no interest to the common observer, but of much to the geologist, from the nuts of a similar plant abounding in the tertiary formations at the mouth of the Thames, having floated about there in as great profusion as here, till buried deep in the silt and mud that now form the island of Sheppey."—Hooker, Himalayan Journals, i. 1-2.

1860.—"The NIPA is very extensively cultivated in the Province of Tavoy. From incisions in the stem of the fruit, toddy is extracted, which has very much the flavour of mead, and this extract, when boiled down, becomes sugar."—Mason's Burmah, p. 506.

1874.—"It (sugar) is also got from NIPA fruticans, Thunb., a tree of the low coast-regions, extensively cultivated in Tavoy."—Hanbury and Flückiger, 655.

These last quotations confirm the old travellers who represent Tenasserim as the great source of the NIPA spirit.

B.—

c. 1567.—"Euery yeere is there lade (at Tenasserim) some ships with Verzino, NIPA, and Benjamin."—Ces. Federici (E.T. in Hakl.), ii. 359.

1568.—"NIPA, qual'è vn Vino eccellentissimo che nasce nel fior d'vn arbore chiamato NIPER, il cui liquor si distilla, e se ne fa vna beuanda eccellentissima."—Ces. Federici, in Ramusio, iii. 392v.

1583.—"I Portoghesi e noi altri di queste bande di quà non mangiamo nel Regno di Pegù pane di grano ... ne si beve vino; ma una certa acqua lambiccata da vn albero detto ANNIPPA, ch'è alla bocca assai gustevole; ma al corpo giova e nuoce, secondo le complessioni de gli huomini."—G. Balbi, f. 127.

1591.—"Those of Tanaseri are chiefly freighted with Rice and NIPAR wine, which is very strong."—Barker's Account of Lancaster's Voyage, in Hakl. ii. 592.

In the next two quotations nipe is confounded with coco-nut spirit.

1598.—"Likewise there is much wine brought thether, which is made of Cocus or Indian Nuttes, and is called NYPE de Tanassaria, that is Aqua-Composita of Tanassaria."—Linschoten, 30; [Hak. Soc. i. 103].

" "The Sura, being distilled, is called Fula (see FOOL'S RACK) or NIPE, and is an excellent Aqua Vitae as any is made in Dort."—Ibid. 101; [Hak. Soc. ii. 49].

[1616.—"One jar of NEEPE."—Foster, Letters, iv. 162].

1623.—"In the daytime they did nothing but talk a little with one another, and some of them get drunk upon a certain wine they have of raisins, or on a kind of aqua vitæ with other things mixt in it, in India called NIPPA, which had been given them."—P. della Valle, ii. 669; [Hak. Soc. ii. 272].

We think there can be little doubt that the slang word NIP, for a small dram of spirits, is adopted from NIPA. [But compare Dutch nippen, 'to take a dram.' The old word nippitatum was used for 'strong drink'; see Stanf. Dict.]

NIRVÁNA, s. Skt. nirvāṇa. The literal meaning of this word is simply 'blown out,' like a candle. It is the technical term in the philosophy of the Buddhists for the condition to which they aspire as the crown and goal of virtue, viz. the cessation of sentient existence. On the exact meaning of the term see Childer's Pali Dictionary, s.v. nibbāna, an article from which we quote a few sentences below, but which covers ten double-column pages. The word has become common in Europe along with the growing interest in Buddhism, and partly from its use by Schopenhauer. But it is often employed very inaccurately, of which an instance occurs in the quotation below from Dr. Draper. The oldest European occurrence of which we are aware is in Purchas, who had met with it in the Pali form common in Burma, &c., nibban.

1626.—"After death they (the Talapoys) beleeve three Places, one of Pleasure Scuum (perhaps sukham) like the Mahumitane Paradise; another of Torment Naxac (read Narac); the third of Annihilation which they call NIBA."—Purchas, Pilgrimage, 506.

c. 1815.—"... the state of NIBAN, which is the most perfect of all states. This consists in an almost perpetual extacy, in which those who attain it are not only free from troubles and miseries of life, from death, illness and old age, but are abstracted from all sensation; they have no longer either a thought or a desire."—Sangermano, Burmese Empire, p. 6.

1858.—"... Transience, Pain, and Unreality ... these are the characters of all existence, and the only true good is exemption from these in the attainment of NIRWĀNA, whether that be, as in the view of the Brahmin or the theistic Buddhist, absorption into the supreme essence; or whether it be, as many have thought, absolute nothingness; or whether it be, as Mr. Hodgson quaintly phrases it, the ubi or the modus in which the infinitely attenuated elements of all things exist, in this last and highest state of abstraction from all particular modifications such as our senses and understandings are cognisant of."—Yule, Mission to Ava, 236.

" "When from between the sál trees at Kusinára he passed into NIRWÁNA, he (Buddha) ceased, as the extinguished fire ceases."—Ibid. 239.

1869.—"What Bishop Bigandet and others represent as the popular view of the NIRVÂNA, in contradistinction to that of the Buddhist divines, was, in my opinion, the conception of Buddha and his disciples. It represented the entrance of the soul into rest, a subduing of all wishes and desires, indifference to joy and pain, to good and evil, an absorption of the soul into itself, and a freedom from the circle of existences from birth to death, and from death to a new birth. This is still the meaning which educated people attach to it, whilst NIRVÂNA suggests rather a kind of Mohammedan Paradise or of blissful Elysian fields to the minds of the larger masses."—Prof. Max Müller, Lecture on Buddhistic Nihilism, in Trübner's Or. Record, Oct. 16.

1875.—"NIBBĀNAM. Extinction; destruction; annihilation; annihilation of being, NIRVĀṆA; annihilation of human passion, Arhatship or final sanctification.... In Trübner's Record for July, 1870, I first propounded a theory which meets all the difficulties of the question, namely, that the word NIRVĀṆA is used to designate two different things, the state of blissful sanctification called Arhatship, and the annihilation of existence in which Arhatship ends."—Childers, Pali Dictionary, pp. 265-266.

" "But at length reunion with the universal intellect takes place; NIRWANA is reached, oblivion is attained ... the state in which we were before we were born."—Draper, Conflict, &c., 122.

1879.—

"And how—in fulness of the times—it fell That Buddha died ... And how a thousand thousand crores since then Have trod the Path which leads whither he went Unto NIRVÂNA where the Silence lives." Sir E. Arnold, Light of Asia, 237.

NIZAM, THE, n.p. The hereditary style of the reigning prince of the Hyderabad Territories; 'His Highness the Nizám,' in English official phraseology. This in its full form, Niz̤ām-ul-Mulk, was the title of Aṣaf Jāh, the founder of the dynasty, a very able soldier and minister of the Court of Aurangzīb, who became Sūbadār (see SOUBADAR) of the Deccan in 1713. The title is therefore the same that had pertained to the founder of the Ahmednagar dynasty more than two centuries earlier, which the Portuguese called that of NIZAMALUCO. And the circumstances originating the Hyderabad dynasty were parallel. At the death of Aṣaf Jāh (in 1748) he was independent sovereign of a large territory in the Deccan, with his residence at Hyderabad, and with dominions in a general way corresponding to those still held by his descendant.

NIZAMALUCO, n.p. IZAM MALUCO is the form often found in Correa. One of the names which constantly occur in the early Portuguese writers on India. It represents Niz̤ām-ul-Mulk (see NIZAM). This was the title of one of the chiefs at the court of the Bāhmani king of the Deccan, who had been originally a Brahman and a slave. His son Ahmed set up a dynasty at Ahmednagar (A.D. 1490), which lasted for more than a century. The sovereigns of this dynasty were originally called by the Portuguese Nizamaluco. Their own title was Niz̤ām Shāh, and this also occurs as Nizamoxa. [Linschoten's etymology given below is an incorrect guess.]

1521.—"Meanwhile (the Governor Diego Lopes de Sequeira) ... sent Fernão Camello as ambassador to the NIZAMALUCO, Lord of the lands of Choul, with the object of making a fort at that place, and arranging for an expedition against the King of Cambaya, which the Governor thought the NIZAMALUCO would gladly join in, because he was in a quarrel with that King. To this he made the reply that I shall relate hereafter."—Correa, ii. 623.

c. 1539.—"Trelado do Contrato que o Viso Rey Dom Garcia de Noronha fez com hu NIZA MUXAA, que d'antes se chamava Hu NIZA MALUQUO."—Tombo, in Subsidios, 115.

1543.—"IZAM MALUCO." See under COTAMALUCO.

1553.—"This city of Chaul ... is in population and greatness of trade one of the chief ports of that coast; it was subject to the NIZAMALUCO, one of the twelve Captains of the Kingdom of Decan (which we corruptly call Daquem).... The NIZAMALUCO being a man of great estate, although he possessed this maritime city, and other ports of great revenue, generally, in order to be closer to the Kingdom of the Decan, held his residence in the interior in other cities of his dominion; instructing his governors in the coast districts to aid our fleets in all ways and content their captains, and this was not merely out of dread of them, but with a view to the great revenue that he had from the ships of Malabar...."—Barros, II. ii. 7.

1563.—"... This King of Dely conquered the Decam (see DECCAN) and the Cuncam (see CONCAM); and retained the dominion a while; but he could not rule territory at so great a distance, and so placed in it a nephew crowned as king. This king was a great favourer of foreign people, such as Turks, Rumis, Coraçonis, and Arabs, and he divided his kingdom into captaincies, bestowing upon Adelham (whom we call Idalcam—see IDALCAN) the coast from Angediva to Cifardam ... and to NIZAMOLUCO the coast from Cifardam to Negotana...."—Garcia, f. 34_v_.

" "R. Let us mount and ride in the country; and by the way you shall tell me who is meant by NIZAMOXA, as you often use that term to me.

"O. At once I tell you he is a king in the Balaghat (see BALAGHAUT) (Bagalate for Balagate), whose father I have often attended, and sometimes also the son...."—Ibid. f. 33_v_.

[1594-5.—"NIZÁM-UL-MULKHIYA." See under IDALCAN.

[1598.—"Maluco is a Kingdome, and Nisa a Lance or Speare, so that Nisa Maluco is as much as to say as the Lance or Speare of the Kingdom."—Linschoten, Hak. Soc. i. 172. As if Neza-ul-mulk, 'spear of the kingdom.']

NOKAR, s. A servant, either domestic, military, or civil, also pl. Nokar-logue, 'the servants.' Hind. naukar, from Pers. and naukar-lōg. Also naukar-chākar, 'the servants,' one of those jingling double-barrelled phrases in which Orientals delight even more than Englishmen (see LOOTY). As regards Englishmen, compare hugger-mugger, hurdy-gurdy, tip-top, highty-tighty, higgledy-piggledy, hocus-pocus, tit for tat, topsy-turvy, harum-scarum, roly-poly, fiddle-faddle, rump and stump, slip-slop. In this case chākar (see CHACKUR) is also Persian. Naukar would seem to be a Mongol word introduced into Persia by the hosts of Chinghiz. According to I. J. Schmidt, Forschungen im Gebiete der Volker Mittel Asiens, p. 96, NÜKUR is in Mongol, 'a comrade, dependent, or friend.'

c. 1407.—"L'Emir Khodaidad fit partir avec ce député son serviteur (NAUKAR) et celui de Mirza Djihanghir. Ces trois personnages joignent la cour auguste...."—Abdurrazzāk, in Notices et Extraits, XIV. i. 146.

c. 1660.—"Mahmúd Sultán ... understood accounts, and could reckon very well by memory the sums which he had to receive from his subjects, and those which he had to pay to his 'NAUKARS' (apparently armed followers)."—Abulghāzi, by Desmaisons, 271.

[1810.—"NOKER." See under CHACKUR.

[1834.—"Its (Balkh) present population does not amount to 2000 souls; who are chiefly ... the remnant of the Kara NOUKUR, a description of the militia established here by the Afgans."—Burnes, Travels into Bokhara, i. 238.]

1840.—"NOKER, 'the servant'; this title was borne by Tuli the fourth son of Chenghiz Khan, because he was charged with the details of the army and the administration."—Hammer, Golden Horde, 460.

NOL-KOLE, s. This is the usual Anglo-Indian name of a vegetable a good deal grown in India, perhaps less valued in England than it deserves, and known here (though rarely seen) as Kol-rabi, kohl-rabi, 'cabbage-turnip.' It is the Brassica oleracea, var. caulorapa. The stalk at one point expands into a globular mass resembling a turnip, and this is the edible part. I see my friend Sir G. Birdwood in his Bombay Products spells it Knolkhol. It is apparently Dutch, 'Knollkool' 'Turnip-cabbage; Chouxrave of the French.'

NON-REGULATION, adj. The style of certain Provinces of British India (administered for the most part under the more direct authority of the Central Government in its Foreign Department), in which the ordinary Laws (or REGULATIONS, as they were formerly called) are not in force, or are in force only so far as they are specially declared by the Government of India to be applicable. The original theory of administration in such Provinces was the union of authority in all departments under one district chief, and a kind of paternal despotism in the hands of that chief. But by the gradual restriction of personal rule, and the multiplication of positive laws and rules of administration, and the division of duties, much the same might now be said of the difference between Regulation and Non-regulation Provinces that a witty Frenchman said of Intervention and Non-intervention:—"La Non-intervention est une phrase politique et technique qui veut dire enfin à-peu-près la même chose que l'Intervention."

Our friend Gen. F. C. Cotton, R.E., tells us that on Lord Dalhousie's visit to the Neilgherry Hills, near the close of his government, he was riding with the Governor-General to visit some new building. Lord Dalhousie said to him: "It is not a thing that one must say in public, but I would give a great deal that the whole of India should be Non-regulation."

The Punjab was for many years the greatest example of a Non-regulation Province. The chief survival of that state of things is that there, as in Burma and a few other provinces, military men are still eligible to hold office in the civil administration.

1860.—"... Nowe what ye ffolke of Bengala worschyppen Sir Jhone discourseth lityl. This moche wee gadere. Some worschyppin ane Idole yclept REGULACIOUN and some worschyppen NON-REGULACION (veluti GOG ET MAGOG)...."—Ext. from a MS. of The Travels of Sir John Mandevill in the E. Indies, lately discovered.

1867.—"... We believe we should indicate the sort of government that Sicily wants, tolerably well to Englishmen who know anything of India, by saying that it should be treated in great measure as a 'NON-REGULATION' province."—Quarterly Review, Jan. 1867, p. 135.

1883.—"The Delhi district, happily for all, was a NON-REGULATION province."—Life of Ld. Lawrence, i. 44.

NORIMON, s. Japanese word. A sort of portable chair used in Japan.

[1615.—"He kept himselfe close in a NEREMON."—Cocks's Diary, i. 164.]

1618.—"As we were going out of the towne, the street being full of hackneymen and horses, they would not make me way to passe, but fell a quarreling with my NEREMONERS, and offred me great abuse...."—Cocks's Diary, ii. 99; [NEREMONNEARS in ii. 23].

1768-71.—"Sedan-chairs are not in use here (in Batavia). The ladies, however, sometimes employ a conveyance that is somewhat like them, and is called a NORIMON."—Stavorinus, E.T. i. 324.

NOR'-WESTER, s. A sudden and violent storm, such as often occurs in the hot weather, bringing probably a 'dust-storm' at first, and culminating in hail or torrents of rain. (See TYPHOON.)

1810.—"... those violent squalls called 'NORTH-WESTERS,' in consequence of their usually either commencing in, or veering round to that quarter.... The force of these NORTH-WESTERS is next to incredible."—Williamson, V. M. ii. 35.

[1827.—"A most frightful NOR' WESTER had come on in the night, every door had burst open, the peals of thunder and torrents of rain were so awful...."—Mrs. Fenton, Diary, 98.]

NOWBEHAR, n.p. This is a name which occurs in various places far apart, a monument of the former extension of Buddhism. Thus, in the early history of the Mahommedans in Sind, we find repeated mention of a temple called Nauvihār (Nava-vihāra, 'New Monastery'). And the same name occurs at Balkh, near the Oxus. (See VIHARA).

NOWROZE, s. Pers. nau-rōz, 'New (Year's) Day'; i.e. the first day of the Solar Year. In W. India this is observed by the Parsees. [For instances of such celebrations at the vernal equinox, see Frazer, Pausanias, iv. 75.]

c. 1590.—"This was also the cause why the NAURÚZ i Jaláli was observed, on which day, since his Majesty's accession, a great feast was given.... The NEW YEAR'S DAY feast ... commences on the day when the Sun in his splendour moves to Aries, and lasts till the 19th day of the month (Farwardīn)."—Āīn, ed. Blochmann, i. 183, 276.

[1614.—"Their NOROOSE, which is an annual feast of 20 days continuance kept by the Moors with great solemnity."—Foster, Letters, iii. 65.

[1615.—"The King and Prince went a hunting ... that his house might be fitted against the NOROSE, which began the first Newe Moon in March."—Sir T. Roe, Hak. Soc. i. 138; also see 142.]

1638.—"There are two Festivals which are celebrated in this place with extraordinary ceremonies; one whereof is that of the first day of the year, which, with the Persians, they call NAURUS, NAUROS, or NOROSE, which signifies nine dayes, though now it lasts eighteen at least, and it falls at the moment that the Sun enters Aries."—Mandelslo, 41.

1673.—"On the day of the Vernal Equinox, we returned to Gombroon, when the Moores introduced their New-Year Æde (see EED) or NOE ROSE, with Banqueting and great Solemnity."—Fryer, 306.

1712.—"Restat NAURUUS, i.e. vertentis anni initium, incidens in diem aequinoctii verni. Non legalis est, sed ab antiquis Persis haereditate accepta festivitas, omnium caeterarum maxima et solennissima."—Kaempfer, Am. Exot. 162.

1815.—"Jemsheed also introduced the solar year; and ordered the first day of it, when the sun entered Aries, to be celebrated by a splendid festival. It is called NAUROZE, or new year's day, and is still the great festival in Persia."—Malcolm, H. of Persia, i. 17.

1832.—"NOW-ROZ (new year's day) is a festival or EED of no mean importance in the estimation of Mussulman society.... The trays of presents prepared by the ladies for their friends are tastefully set out, and the work of many days' previous arrangement. Eggs are boiled hard, some of these are stained in colours resembling our mottled papers; others are neatly painted in figures and devices; many are ornamented with gilding; every lady evincing her own peculiar taste in the prepared eggs for NOW-ROZ."—Mrs. Meer Hassan Ali, Obsns. on the Mussulmans of India, 283-4.

NOWSHADDER, s. Pers. naushādar (Skt. narasāra, but recent), Sal-ammoniac, i.e. chloride of ammonium.

c. 1300.—We find this word in a medieval list of articles of trade contained in Capmany's Memorias de Barcelona (ii. App. 74) under the form NOXADRE.

1343.—"Salarmoniaco, cioè LISCIADRO, e non si dà nè sacco ne cassa con essa."—Pegolotti, p. 17; also see 57, &c.

[1834.—"Sal ammoniac (NOUCHADUR) is found in its native state among the hills near Juzzak."—Burnes, Travels into Bokhara, ii. 166.]

NUDDEEA RIVERS, n.p. See under HOOGLY RIVER, of which these are branches, intersecting the Nadiya District. In order to keep open navigation by the directest course from the Ganges to Calcutta, much labour is, or was, annually expended, under a special officer, in endeavouring during the dry season to maintain sufficient depth in these channels.

NUGGURKOTE, n.p. Nagarkoṭ. This is the form used in olden times, and even now not obsolete, for the name of the ancient fortress in the Punjab Himālaya which we now usually know by the name of Koṭ-kāngra, both being substantially the same name, Nagarkoṭ, 'the fortress town,' or Koṭ-kā-nagara, 'the town of the fortress.' [If it be implied that Kāngra is a corruption of Koṭ-kā-nagara, the idea may be dismissed as a piece of folk-etymology. What the real derivation of Kāngra is is unknown. One explanation is that it represents the Hind. khankhaṛa, 'dried up, shrivelled.'] In yet older times, and in the history of Mahmūd of Ghazni, it is styled Bhīm-nagar. The name Nagarkoṭ is sometimes used by older European writers to designate the Himalayan mountains.

1008.—"The Sultan himself (Mahmūd) joined in the pursuit, and went after them as far as the fort called Bhím-nagar, which is very strong, situated on the promontory of a lofty hill, in the midst of impassable waters."—Al-'Utbi, in Elliot, i. 34.

1337.—"When the sun was in Cancer, the King of the time (Mahommed Tughlak) took the stone fort of NAGARKOT in the year 738.... It is placed between rivers like the pupil of an eye ... and is so impregnable that neither Sikandar nor Dara were able to take it."—Badr-i-chach, ibid. iii. 570.

c. 1370.—"Sultan Firoz ... marched with his army towards NAGARKOT, and passing by the valleys of Nákhach-nuhgarhí, he arrived with his army at NAGARKOT, which he found to be very strong and secure. The idol Jwálámukhi (see JOWAULLA MOOKHEE), much worshiped by the infidels, was situated in the road to Nagarkot...."—Shams-i-Siráj, ibid. iii. 317-318.

1398.—"When I entered the valley on that side of the Siwálik, information was brought to me about the town of NAGARKOT, which is a large and important town of Hindustán, and situated in these mountains. The distance was 30 kos, but the road lay through jungles, and over lofty and rugged hills."—Autobiog. of Timur, ibid. 465.

1553.—"But the sources of these rivers (Indus and Ganges) though they burst forth separately in the mountains which Ptolemy calls Imaus, and which the natives call Dalanguer and NANGRACOT, yet are these mountains so closely joined that it seems as if they sought to hide these springs."—Barros, I. iv. 7.

c. 1590.—"NAGERKOTE is a city situated upon a mountain, with a fort called Kangerah. In the vicinity of this city, upon a lofty mountain, is a place called Mahamaey (Mahāmāyā), which they consider as one of the works of the Divinity, and come in pilgrimage to it from great distances, thereby obtaining the accomplishment of their wishes. It is most wonderful that in order to effect this, they cut out their tongues, which grow again in the course of two or three days...."—Ayeen, ed. Gladwin, ii. 119; [ed. Jarrett, ii. 312].

1609.—"Bordering to him is another great Raiaw called Tulluck Chand, whose chiefe City is NEGERCOAT, 80 c. from Lahor, and as much from Syrinan, in which City is a famous Pagod, called Ie or Durga, vnto which worlds of People resort out of all parts of India.... Diuers Moores also resorte to this Peer...."—W. Finch, in Purchas, i. 438.

1616.—"27. NAGRA CUTT, the chiefe Citie so called...."—Terry, in Purchas, ii.; [ed. 1777, p. 82].

[c. 1617.—"NAKARKUTT."—Sir T. Roe, Hak. Soc. ii. 534.]

c. 1676.—"The caravan being arriv'd at the foot of the Mountains which are call'd at this day by the name of NAUGROCOT, abundance of people come from all parts of the Mountain, the greatest part whereof are women and maids, who agree with the Merchants to carry them, their Goods and provisions cross the Mountains...."—Tavernier, E.T. ii. 183; [ed. Ball, ii. 263].

1788.—"Kote Kangrah, the fortress belonging to the famous temple of NAGORCOTE, is given at 49 royal cosses, equal to 99 G. miles, from Sirhind (northward)."—Rennell, Memoir, ed. 1793, p. 107.

1809.—"At Patancote, where the Padshah (so the Sikhs call Runjeet) is at present engaged in preparations and negotiations for the purpose of obtaining possession of COTE CAUNGRAH (or NAGAR COTE), which place is besieged by the Raja of Nepaul...."—Elphinstone, in Life, i. 217.

NUJEEB, s. Hind. from Ar. najīb, 'noble.' A kind of half-disciplined infantry soldiers under some of the native Governments; also at one time a kind of militia under the British; receiving this honorary title as being gentlemen volunteers.

[c. 1790.—"There were 1000 men, NUDJEEVES, sword men...." Evidence of Sheikh Mohammed, quoted by Mr. Plumer, in Trial of W. Hastings, in Bond, iii. 393.

[1796.—"The NEZIBS are Matchlock men."—W. A. Tone, A Letter on the Mahratta People, Bombay, 1798, p. 50.]

1813.—"There are some corps (Mahratta) styled NUJEEB or men of good family.... These are foot soldiers invariably armed with a sabre and matchlock, and having adopted some semblance of European discipline are much respected."—Forbes, Or. Mem. ii. 46; [2nd ed. i. 343].

[ " "A corps of NUJEEBS, or infantry with matchlocks...."—Broughton, Letters from a Mahratta Camp, ed. 1892, p. 11.

[1817.—"In some instances they are called NUJEEB (literally, Noble) and would not deign to stand sentry or perform any fatiguing duty."—V. Blacker, Mem. of the Operations in India in 1817-19, p. 22.]

NULLAH, s. Hind. nālā. A watercourse; not necessarily a dry watercourse, though this is perhaps more frequently indicated in the Anglo-Indian use.

1776.—"When the water falls in all the NULLAHS...."—Halhed's Code, 52.

c. 1785.—"Major Adams had sent on the 11th Captain Hebbert ... to throw a bridge over Shinga NULLAH."—Carraccioli, Life of Clive, i. 93.

1789.—"The ground which the enemy had occupied was entirely composed of sandhills and deep NULLAHS...."—Munro, Narrative, 224.

1799.—"I think I can show you a situation where two embrasures might be opened in the bank of the NULLAH with advantage."—Wellington, Despatches, i. 26.

1817.—"On the same evening, as soon as dark, the party which was destined to open the trenches marched to the chosen spot, and before daylight formed a NULLAH ... into a large parallel."—Mill's Hist. v. 377.

1843.—"Our march tardy because of the NULLAHS. Watercourses is the right name, but we get here a slip-slop way of writing quite contemptible."—Life of Sir C. Napier, ii. 310.

1860.—"The real obstacle to movement is the depth of the NULLAHS hollowed out by the numerous rivulets, when swollen by the rains."—Tennent's Ceylon, ii. 574.

NUMDA, NUMNA, s. Hind. namda, namdā, from Pers. namad, [Skt. namata]. Felt; sometimes a woollen saddle-cloth, properly made of felt. The word is perhaps the same as Ar. namaṭ, 'a coverlet,' spread on the seat of a sovereign, &c.

[1774.—"The apartment was full of people seated on NÆMETS (felts of camel hair) spread round the sides of the room...."—Hanway, Hist. Account of British Trade, i. 226.]

1815.—"That chief (Temugin or Chingiz), we are informed, after addressing the Khans in an eloquent harangue, was seated upon a black felt or NUMMUD, and reminded of the importance of the duties to which he was called."—Malcolm, H. of Persia, i. 410.

[1819.—"A Kattie throws a NUNDA on his mare."—Trans. Lit. Soc. Bo. i. 279.]

1828.—"In a two-poled tent of a great size, and lined with yellow woollen stuff of Europe, sat Nader Koolee Khan, upon a coarse NUMUD...."—The Kuzzilbash, i. 254.

[1850.—"The natives use (for their tents) a sort of woollen stuff, about half an inch thick, called 'NUMBDA.'... By the bye, this word 'NUMBDA' is said to be the origin of the word nomade, because the nomade tribes used the same material for their tents" (!)—Letter in Notes and Queries, 1st ser. i. 342.]

NUMERICAL AFFIXES, CO-EFFICIENTS, or DETERMINATIVES.[190] What is meant by these expressions can perhaps be best elucidated by an extract from the Malay Grammar of the late venerable John Crawfurd:

"In the enumeration of certain objects, the Malay has a peculiar idiom which, as far as I know, does not exist in any other language of the Archipelago. It is of the same nature as the word 'head,' as we use it in the tale of cattle, or 'sail' in the enumeration of ships; but in Malay it extends to many familiar objects. Alai, of which the original meaning has not been ascertained, is applied to such tenuous objects as leaves, grasses, &c.; Batang, meaning 'stem,' or 'trunk,' to trees, logs, spears, and javelins; Bantak, of which the meaning has not been ascertained, to such objects as rings; Bidang, which means 'spreading' or 'spacious,' to mats, carpets, thatch, sails, skins, and hides; Biji, 'seeds,' to corn, seeds, stones, pebbles, gems, eggs, the eyes of animals, lamps, and candlesticks," and so on. Crawfurd names 8 or 9 other terms, one or other of which is always used in company with the numeral, in ennumerating different classes of objects, as if, in English, idiom should compel us to say 'two stems of spears,' 'four spreads of carpets,' 'six corns of diamonds.' As a matter of fact we do speak of 20 head of cattle, 10 file of soldiers, 100 sail of ships, 20 pieces of cannon, a dozen stand of rifles. But still the practice is in none of these cases obligatory, it is technical and exceptional; insomuch that I remember, when a boy, in old Reform-Bill days, and when disturbances were expected in a provincial town, hearing it stated by a well-informed lady that a great proprietress in the neighbourhood was so alarmed that she had ordered from town a whole stand of muskets!

To some small extent the idiom occurs also in other European languages, including French and German. Of French I don't remember any example now except tête (de betail), nor of German except Stück, which is, however, almost as universal as the Chinese piecey. A quaint example dwells in my memory of a German courier, who, when asked whether he had any employer at the moment, replied: 'Ja freilich! dreizehn Stück Amerikaner!'

The same peculiar idiom that has been described in the extract from Crawfurd as existing in Malay, is found also in Burmese. The Burmese affixes seem to be more numerous, and their classification to be somewhat more arbitrary and sophisticated. Thus oos, a root implying 'chief' or 'first,' is applied to kings, divinities, priests, &c.; Yauk, 'a male,' to rational beings not divine; Gaung, 'a brute beast,' to irrational beings; Pya implying superficial extent, to dollars, countries, dishes, blankets, &c.; Lun, implying rotundity, to eggs, loaves, bottles, cups, toes, fingers, candles, bamboos, hands, feet, &c.; Tseng and Gyaung, 'extension in a straight line,' to rods, lines, spears, roads, &c.

The same idiom exists in Siamese, and traces of it appear in some of the vocabularies that have been collected of tribes on the frontier of China and Tibet, indicated by the fact that the numerals in such vocabularies in various instances show identity of origin in the essential part of the numeral, whilst a different aspect is given to the whole word by a variation in what appears to be the numeral-affix[191] (or what Mr. Brian Hodgson calls the 'servile affix'). The idiom exists in the principal vernaculars of China itself, and it is a transfer of this idiom from Chinese dialects to Pigeon-English which has produced the piecey, which in that quaint jargon seems to be used as the universal numerical affix ("Two piecey cooly," "three piecey dollar," &c.).

This one PIGEON phrase represents scores that are used in the vernaculars. For in some languages the system has taken what seems an extravagant development, which must form a great difficulty in the acquisition of colloquial use by foreigners. Some approximate statistics on this subject will be given below.

The idiom is found in Japanese and Corean, but it is in these cases possibly not indigenous, but an adoption from the Chinese.

It is found in several languages of C. America, i.e. the Quiché of Guatemala, the Nahault of Mexico Proper; and in at least two other languages (Tep and Pirinda) of the same region. The following are given as the co-efficients or determinatives chiefly used in the (Nahualt or) Mexican. Compare them with the examples of Malay and Burmese usage already given:

Tetl (a stone) used for roundish or cylindrical objects; e.g. eggs, beans, cacao beans, cherries, prickly-pears, Spanish loaves, &c., also for books, and fowls:

Pantli (?) for long rows of persons and things; also for walls and furrows:

Tlamantli (from mana, to spread on the ground), for shoes, dishes, basins, paper, &c., also for speeches and sermons:

Olotl (maize-grains) for ears of maize, cacao-pods, bananas: also for flint arrow-heads (see W. v. Humboldt, Kawi-Sprache, ii. 265).

I have, by the kind aid of my friend Professor Terrien de la Couperie, compiled a list of nearly fifty languages in which this curious idiom exists. But it takes up too much space to be inserted here. I may, however, give his statistics of the number of such determinatives, as assigned in the grammars of some of these languages. In Chinese vernaculars, from 33 in the Shanghai vernacular to 110 in that of Fuchau. In Corean, 12; in Japanese, 16; in Annamite, 106; in Siamese, 24; in Shan, 42; in Burmese, 40; in Malay and Javanese, 19.

If I am not mistaken, the propensity to give certain technical and appropriated titles to couples of certain beasts and birds, which had such an extensive development in old English sporting phraseology, and still partly survives, had its root in the same state of mind, viz. difficulty in grasping the idea of abstract numbers, and a dislike to their use. Some light to me was, many years ago, thrown upon this feeling, and on the origin of the idiom of which we have been speaking, by a passage in a modern book, which is the more noteworthy as the author does not make any reference to the existence of this idiom in any language, and possibly was not aware of it:

"On entering into conversation with the (Red) Indian, it becomes speedily apparent that he is unable to comprehend the idea of abstract numbers. They exist in his mind only as associated ideas. He has a distinct conception of five dogs or five deer, but he is so unaccustomed to the idea of number as a thing apart from specific objects, that I have tried in vain to get an Indian to admit that the idea of the number five, as associated in his mind with five dogs, is identical, as far as number is concerned, with that of five fingers."—(Wilson's Prehistoric Man, 1st ed. ii. 470.) [Also see Tylor, Primitive Culture, 2nd ed. i. 252 seqq.].

Thus it seems probable that the use of the numeral co-efficient, whether in the Malay idiom or in our old sporting phraseology, is a kind of survival of the effort to bridge the difficulty felt, in identifying abstract numbers as applied to different objects, by the introduction of a common concrete term.

Traces of a like tendency, though probably grown into a mere fashion and artificially developed, are common in Hindustani and Persian, especially in the official written style of munshīs, who delight in what seemed to me, before my attention was called to the Indo-Chinese idiom, the wilful surplusage (e.g.) of two 'sheets' (fard) of letters, also used with quilts, carpets, &c.; three 'persons' (nafar) of barḳandāzes; five 'rope' (rās) of buffaloes; ten 'chains' (zanjīr) of elephants; twenty 'grips' (ḳabẓa) of swords, &c. But I was not aware of the extent of the idiom in the munshī's repertory till I found it displayed in Mr. Carnegy's Kachahri Technicalities, under the head of Muḥāwara (Idioms or Phrases). Besides those just quoted, we there find 'adad ('number') used with coins, utensils, and sleeveless garments; dāna ('grain') with pearls and coral beads; dast ('hand') with falcons, &c., shields, and robes of honour; jild (volume, lit. 'skin') with books; muhār ('nose-bit') with camels; ḳiṭa ('portion,' piecey!) with precious stones, gardens, tanks, fields, letters; manzil ('a stage on a journey, an alighting place') with tents, boats, houses, carriages, beds, howdas, &c.; sāz ('an instrument') with guitars, &c.; silk ('thread') with necklaces of all sorts, &c. Several of these, with others purely Turkish, are used also in Osmanli Turkish.[192]

NUNCATIES, s. Rich cakes made by the Mahommedans in W. India chiefly imported into Bombay from Surat. [There is a Pers. word, nānḵhat̤āi, 'bread of Cathay or China,' with which this word has been connected. But Mr. Weir, Collector of Surat, writes that it is really nankhaṭāī, Pers. nān, 'bread,' and Mahr. khaṭ, shaṭ, 'six'; meaning a special kind of cake composed of six ingredients—wheat-flour, eggs, sugar, butter or ghee, leaven produced from toddy or grain, and almonds.]

[NUT, s. Hind. nath, Skt. nastā, 'the nose.' The nose-ring worn by Indian women.

[1819.—"An old fashioned NUTH or nose-ring, stuck full of precious or false stones."—Trans. Lit. Soc. Bo. i. 284.

[1832.—"The NUT (nose-ring) of gold wire, on which is strung a ruby between two pearls, worn only by married women."—Mrs. Meer Hassan Ali, Obsns. i. 45.]

NUT PROMOTION, s. From its supposed indigestible character, the kernel of the CASHEW-nut is so called in S. India, where, roasted and hot, it is a favourite dessert dish. [See Linschoten, Hak. Soc. ii. 28.]

NUZZER, s. Hind. from Ar. naẓr or nazar (prop. nadhr), primarily 'a vow or votive offering'; but, in ordinary use, a ceremonial present, properly an offering from an inferior to a superior, the converse of in'ām. The root is the same as that of Nazarite (Numbers, vi. 2).

[1765.—"The congratulatory NAZIRS, &c., shall be set opposite my ordinary expenses; and if ought remains, it shall go to Poplar, or some other hospital."—Letter of Ld. Clive, Sept. 30, in Verelst, View of Bengal, 127.

[c. 1775.—"The Governor lays before the board two bags ... which were presented to him in NIZZERS...."—Progs. of Council, quoted by Fox in speech against W. Hastings, in Bond, iv. 201.]

1782.—"Col. Monson was a man of high and hospitable household expenses; and so determined against receiving of presents, that he would not only not touch a NAZIER (a few silver rupees, or perhaps a gold mohor) always presented by COUNTRY gentlemen, according to their rank...."—Price's Tracts, ii. 61.

1785.—"Presents of ceremony, called NUZZERS, were to many a great portion of their subsistence...."—Letter in Life of Colebrooke, 16.

1786.—Tippoo, even in writing to the French Governor of Pondichery, whom it was his interest to conciliate, and in acknowledging a present of 500 muskets, cannot restrain his insolence, but calls them "sent by way of NUZR."—Select Letters of Tippoo, 377.

1809.—"The Aumil himself offered the NAZUR of fruit."—Ld. Valentia, i. 453.

[1832.—"I ... looked to the Meer for explanation; he told me to accept Muckabeg's 'NUZZA.'"—Mrs. Meer Hassan Ali, Observns. i. 193.]

1876.—"The Standard has the following curious piece of news in its Court Circular of a few days ago:—

'Sir Salar Jung was presented to the Queen by the Marquis of Salisbury, and offered his MUGGUR as a token of allegiance, which her Majesty touched and returned.'"—Punch, July 15.

For the true sense of the word so deliciously introduced instead of NUZZER, see MUGGUR.

O

OART, s. A coco-nut garden. The word is peculiar to Western India, and is a corruption of Port. orta (now more usually horta). "Any man's particular allotment of coco-nut trees in the groves at Mahim or Girgaum is spoken of as his OART." (Sir G. Birdwood).

1564.—"... e me praz de fazer merce a dita cidade emfatiota para sempre que a ortaliça des ORTAS dos moradores Portuguezes o christãos que nesta cidade de Goa e ilha tẽ ... possão vender...." &c.—Proclamation of Dom Sebastian, in Archiv. Port. Orient. fasc. 2, 157.

c. 1610.—"Il y a vn grand nombre de Palmero ou ORTA, comme vous diriez ici de nos vergers, pleins d'arbres de Cocos, plantez bien pres à pres; mais ils ne viennent qu'ès lieux aquatiques et bas...."—Pyrard de Laval, ii. 17-18; [Hak. Soc. ii. 28].

1613.—"E os naturaes habitão ao longo do ryo de Malaca, em seus pomares e ORTHAS."—Godinho de Eredia, 11.

1673.—"Old Goa ... her Soil is luxurious and Campaign, and abounds with Rich Inhabitants, whose Rural Palaces are immured with Groves and HORTOS."—Fryer, 154.

[1749.—"... as well Vargems (Port. vargem, 'a field') lands as HORTAS."—Letter in Logan, Malabar, iii. 48.]

c. 1760.—"As to the OARTS, or Coco-nut groves, they make the most considerable part of the landed property."—Grose, i. 47.

1793.—"For sale.... That neat and commodious Dwelling House built by Mr. William Beal; it is situated in a most lovely OART...."—Bombay Courier, Jan. 12.

OBANG, s. Jap. Oh'o-ban, lit. 'greater division.' The name of a large oblong Japanese gold piece, similar to the KOBANG (q.v.), but of 10 times the value; 5 to 6 inches in length and 3 to 4 inches in width, with an average weight of 2564 grs. troy. First issued in 1580, and last in 1860. Tavernier has a representation of one.

[1662.—"A thousand OEBANS of gold, which amount to forty seven thousand Thayls, or Crowns."—Mandelslo, E.T. Bk. ii. 147 (Stanf. Dict.).

[1859.—"The largest gold coin known is the OBANG, a most inconvenient circulating medium, as it is nearly six inches in length, and three inches and a half in breadth."—Oliphant, Narrative of Mission, ii. 232.]

OLD STRAIT, n.p. This is an old name of the narrow strait between the island of Singapore and the mainland, which was the old passage followed by ships passing towards China, but has long been abandoned for the wider strait south of Singapore and north of Bintang. It is called by the Malays Salāt Tambrau, from an edible fish called by the last name. It is the Strait of Singapura of some of the old navigators; whilst the wider southern strait was known as New Strait or GOVERNOR'S STRAITS (q.v.).

1727.—"... Johore Lami, which is sometimes the Place of that King's Residence, and has the Benefit of a fine deep large River, which admits of two Entrances into it. The smallest is from the Westward, called by Europeans the Streights of Sincapore, but by the Natives Salleta de Brew" (i.e. Salāt Tambrau, as above).—A. Hamilton, ii. 92; [ed. 1744].

1860.—"The OLD STRAITS, through which formerly our Indiamen passed on their way to China, are from 1 to 2 miles in width, and except where a few clearings have been made ... with the shores on both sides covered with dense jungle ... doubtless, in old times, an isolated vessel ... must have kept a good look out against attack from piratical prahus darting out from one of the numerous creeks."—Cavenagh, Rem. of an Indian Official, 285-6.

OLLAH, s. Tam. ōlai, Mal. ōla. A palm-leaf; but especially the leaf of the PALMYRA (Borassus flabelliformis) as prepared for writing on, often, but incorrectly, termed CADJAN (q.v.). In older books the term ola generally means a native letter; often, as in some cases below, a written order. A very good account of the royal scribes at Calicut, and their mode of writing, is given by Barbosa as follows:—

1516.—"The King of Calecut keeps many clerks constantly in his palace; they are all in one room, separate and far from the king, sitting on benches, and there they write all the affairs of the king's revenue, and his alms, and the pay which is given to all, and the complaints which are presented to the king, and, at the same time, the accounts of the collectors of taxes. All this is on broad stiff leaves of the palm-tree, without ink, with pens of iron; they write their letters in lines drawn like ours, and write in the same direction as we do. Each of these clerks has great bundles of these written leaves, and wherever they go they carry them under their arms, and the iron pen in their hands ... and amongst these are 7 or 8 who are great confidants of the king, and men held in great honour, who always stand before him with their pens in their hand and a bundle of paper under their arm; and each of them has always several of these leaves in blank but signed at the top by the king, and when he commands them to despatch any business they write it on these leaves."—Pp. 110-111, Hak. Soc., but translation modified.

1553.—"All the Gentiles of India ... when they wish to commit anything to written record, do it on certain palm-leaves which they call OLLA, of the breadth of two fingers."—Barros, I. ix. 3.

" "All the rest of the town was of wood, thatched with a kind of palm-leaf, which they call OLA."—Ibid. I. iv. vii.

1561.—"All this was written by the king's writer, whose business it is to prepare his OLAS, which are palm-leaves, which they use for writing-paper, scratching it with an iron point."—Correa, i. 212-213. Correa uses the word in three applications: (a) for a palm-leaf as just quoted; (b) for a palm-leaf letter; and (c) for (Coco) palm-leaf thatch.

1563.—"... in the Maldiva Islands they make a kind of vessel which with its nails, its sails, and its cordage is all made of palm; with the fronds (which we call OLLA in Malavar) they cover houses and vessels."—Garcia, f. 67.

1586.—"I answered that I was from Venice, that my name was Gasparo Balbi ... and that I brought the emeralds from Venice expressly to present to his majesty, whose fame for goodness, courtesy, and greatness flew through all the world ... and all this was written down on an OLLA, and read by the aforesaid 'Master of the Word' to his Majesty."—G. Balbi, f. 104.

" "But to show that he did this as a matter of justice, he sent a further order that nothing should be done till they received an OLLA, or letter of his sign manual written in letters of gold; and so he (the King of Pegù) ordered all the families of those nobles to be kept prisoners, even to the women big with child, and the infants in bands, and so he caused the whole of them to be led upon the said scaffolding; and then the king sent the OLLA, ordering them to be burnt; and the Decagini executed the order, and burned the whole of them."—Ibid. f. 112-113.

[1598.—"Sayles which they make of the leaves, which leaves are called OLAS."—Linschoten, Hak. Soc. ii. 45.

[1611.—"Two OLLAHS, one to Gimpa Raya...."—Danvers, Letters, i. 154.]

1626.—"The writing was on leaves of Palme, which they call OLLA."—Purchas, Pilgrimage, 554.

1673.—"The houses are low, and thatched with OLLAS of the Cocoe-Trees."—Fryer, 66.

c. 1690.—"... OLA peculiariter Malabaris dicta, et inter alia Papyri loco adhibetur."—Rumphius, i. 2.

1718.—"... Damulian Leaves, commonly called OLES."—Prop. of the Gospel, &c., iii. 37.

1760.—"He (King Alompra) said he would give orders for OLIOS to be made out for delivering of what Englishmen were in his Kingdom to me."—Capt. Alves, in Dalrymple, Or. Rep. i. 377.

1806.—"Many persons had their OLLAHS in their hands, writing the sermon in Tamil shorthand."—Buchanan, Christian Res. 2nd ed. 70.

1860.—"The books of the Singhalese are formed to-day, as they have been for ages past, of OLAS, or strips taken from the young leaves of the Talipot or the Palmyra palm."—Tennent, Ceylon, i. 512.

1870.—"... Un manuscrit sur OLLES...."—Revue Critique, June 11, 374.

OMEDWAUR, s. Hind. from Pers. ummedwār (ummed, umed, 'hope'); literally, therefore, 'a hopeful one'; i.e. "an expectant, a candidate for employment, one who awaits a favourable answer to some representation or request." (Wilson.)

1816.—"The thoughts of being three or four years an OMEEDWAR, and of staying out here till fifty deterred me."—M. Elphinstone, in Life, i. 344.

OMLAH, s. This is properly the Ar. pl. 'amalat, 'amalā, of 'āmil (see AUMIL). It is applied on the Bengal side of India to the native officers, clerks, and other staff of a civil court or CUTCHERRY (q.v.) collectively.

c. 1778.—"I was at this place met by the OMLAH or officers belonging to the establishment, who hailed my arrival in a variety of boats dressed out for the occasion."—Hon. R. Lindsay, in Lives of the Lindsays, iii. 167.

1866.—"At the worst we will hint to the OMLAHS to discover a fast which it is necessary they shall keep with great solemnity."—Trevelyan, The Dawk Bungalow, in Fraser, lxxiii. 390.

The use of an English plural, omlahs, here is incorrect and unusual; though omrahs is used (see next word).

1878.—"... the subordinate managers, young, inexperienced, and altogether in the hands of the OMLAH."—Life in the Mofussil, ii. 6.

OMRAH, s. This is properly, like the last word, an Ar. pl. (Umarā, pl. of Amīr—see AMEER), and should be applied collectively to the higher officials at a Mahommedan Court, especially that of the Great Mogul. But in old European narratives it is used as a singular for a lord or grandee of that Court; and indeed in Hindustani the word was similarly used, for we have a Hind. plural umarāyān, 'omrahs.' From the remarks and quotations of Blochmann, it would seem that Manṣabdārs (see MUNSUBDAR), from the commandant of 1000 upwards, were styled umarā-i-kabār, or umara-i-'izām, 'Great Amīrs'; and these would be the Omrahs properly. Certain very high officials were styled Amīr-ul-Umarā (Āīn, i. 239-240), a title used first at the Court of the Caliphs.

1616.—"Two OMRAHS who are great Commanders."—Sir T. Roe.

[ " "The King lately sent out two VMBRAS with horse to fetch him in."—Ibid. Hak. Soc. ii. 417; in the same page he writes Vmreis, and in ii. 445, Vmraes.]

c. 1630.—"Howbeit, out of this prodigious rent, goes yearely many great payments: to his Leiftenants of Provinces, and VMBRAYES of Townes and Forts."—Sir T. Herbert, p. 55.

1638.—"Et sous le commandement de plusieurs autres seigneurs de ceux qu'ils appellent OMMERAUDES."—Mandelslo, Paris, 1659, p. 174.

1653.—"Il y a quantité d'elephans dans les Indes ... les OMARAS s'en seruent par grandeur."—De la Boullaye-le-Gouz, ed. 1657, p. 250.

c. 1664.—"It is not to be thought that the OMRAHS, or Lords of the Mogul's Court, are sons of great Families, as in France ... these OMRAHS then are commonly but Adventurers and Strangers of all sorts of Nations, some of them slaves; most of them without instruction, which the Mogul thus raiseth to Dignities as he thinks good, and degrades them again, as he pleaseth."—Bernier, E.T. 66; [ed. Constable, 211].

c. 1666.—"Les OMRAS sont les grand seigneurs du Roiaume, qui sont pour la plupart Persans ou fils de Persans."—Thevenot, v. 307.

1673.—"The President ... has a Noise of Trumpets ... an Horse of State led before him, a Mirchal (see MORCHAL) (a Fan of Ostrich Feathers) to keep off the Sun, as the OMBRAHS or Great Men have."—Fryer, 86.

1676.—

"Their standard, planted on the battlement, Despair and death among the soldiers sent; You the bold OMRAH tumbled from the wall, And shouts of victory pursued the fall." Dryden, Aurengzebe, ii. 1.

1710.—"Donna Juliana ... let the Heer Ambassador know ... that the Emperor had ordered the AMMARAWS Enay Ullah Chan (&c.) to take care of our interests."—Valentijn, iv. Suratte, 284.

1727.—"You made several complaints against former Governors, all of which I have here from several of my UMBRAS."—Firmān of Aurangzīb, in A. Hamilton, ii. 227; [ed. 1744, i. 231].

1791.—"... les OMRAHS ou grands seigneurs Indiens...."—B. de St. Pierre, La Chaumière Indienne, 32.

OMUM WATER, s. A common domestic medicine in S. India, made from the strong-smelling carminative seeds of an umbelliferous plant, Carum copticum, Benth. (Ptychotis coptica, and Ptych. Ajowan of Decand.), called in Tamil omam, [which comes from the Skt. yamāni, yavāni, in Hind. ajwān.] See Hanbury and Flückiger, 269.

OOJYNE, n.p. Ujjayanī, or, in the modern vernacular, Ujjain, one of the most ancient of Indian cities, and one of their seven sacred cities. It was the capital of King Vikramaditya, and was the first meridian of Hindu astronomers, from which they calculated their longitudes.

The name of Ujjain long led to a curious imbroglio in the interpretation of the Arabian geographers. Its meridian, as we have just mentioned, was the zero of longitude among the Hindus. The Arab writers borrowing from the Hindus wrote the name apparently Azīn, but this by the mere omission of a diacritical point became Arīn, and from the Arabs passed to medieval Christian geographers as the name of an imaginary point on the equator, the intersection of the central meridian with that circle. Further, this point, or transposed city, had probably been represented on maps, as we often see cities on medieval maps, by a cupola or the like. And hence the "Cupola of Arin or Arym," or the "Cupola of the Earth" (Al-ḳubba al-arḍh) became an established commonplace for centuries in geographical tables or statements. The idea was that just 180° of the earth's circumference was habitable, or at any rate cognizable as such, and this meridian of Arin bisected this habitable hemisphere. But as the western limit extended to the Fortunate Isles, it became manifest to the Arabs that the central meridian could not be so far east as the Hindu meridian of Arin (or of Lanka, i.e. Ceylon). (See quotation from the Aryabhatta, under JAVA.) They therefore shifted it westward, but shifted the mystic Arin along the equator westward also. We find also among medieval European students (as with Roger Bacon, below), a confusion between Arin and Syene. This Reinaud supposes to have arisen from the Ἐσσινὰ ἐμπόριον of Ptolemy, a place which he locates on the Zanzibar coast, and approximating to the shifted position of Arin. But it is perhaps more likely that the confusion arose from some survival of the real name Azīn. Many conjectures were vainly made as to the origin of Arym, and M. Sedillot was very positive that nothing more could be learned of it than he had been able to learn. But the late M. Reinaud completely solved the mystery by pointing out that Arin was simply a corruption of Ujjain. Even in Arabic the mistake had been thoroughly ingrained, insomuch that the word Arīn had been adopted as a generic name for a place of medium temperature or qualities (see Jorjānī, quoted below).

c. A.D. 150.—"Ὀζηνὴ Βασίλειον Τιαστανοῦ."—Ptol. VII. i. 63.

c. 930.—"The Equator passes between east and west through an island situated between Hind and Habash (Abyssinia), and a little south of these two countries. This point, half way between north and south is cut by the point (meridian?) half way between the Eternal Islands and the extremity of China; it is what is called The Cupola of the Earth."—Maṣ'ūdī, i. 180-181.

c. 1020.—"Les Astronomes ... ont fait correspondre la ville d'ODJEIN avec le lieu qui dans le tableau des villes inséré dans les tables astronomiques a reçu le nom d'ARIN, et qui est supposé situé sur les bords de la mer. Mais entre ODJEIN et la mer, il y a près de cent yodjanas."—Al-Birūnī, quoted by Reinaud, Intro. to Abulfeda, p. ccxlv.

c. 1267.—"Meridianum vero latus Indiae descendit a tropico Capricorni, et secat aequinoctialem circulum apud Montem Maleum et regiones ei conterminos et transit per Syenem, quae nunc ARYM vocatur. Nam in libro cursuum planetarum dicitur quod duplex est Syene; una sub solstitio ... alia sub aequinoctiali circulo, de quâ nunc est sermo, distans per xc gradus ab occidente, sed magis ab oriente elongatur propter hoc, quod longitudo habitabilis major est quam medietas coeli vel terrae, et hoc versus orientem."—Roger Bacon, Opus Majus, ed. London, 1633, p. 195.

c. 1300.—"Sous la ligne équinoxiale, au milieu du monde, là où il n'y a pas de latitude, se trouve le point de la corrélation servant de centre aux parties que se coupent entre elles.... Dans cet endroit et sur ce point se trouve le lieu nommé Coupole de AZIN ou Coupole de ARIN. Là est un château grand, élevé et d'un accès difficile. Suivant Ibn-Alaraby, c'est le séjour des démons et la trône d'Eblis.... Les Indiens parlent également de ce lieu, et débitent des fables à son sujet."—Arabic Cosmography, quoted by Reinaud, p. ccxliii.

c. 1400.—"ARIN (al-arīn). Le lieu d'une proportion moyenne dans les choses ... un point sur la terre à une hauteur égale des deux poles, en sorte que la nuit n'y empiète point sur la durée du jour, ni le jour sur la durée de la nuit. Ce mot a passé dans l'usage ordinaire, pour signifier d'une manière générale un lieu d'une temperature moyenne."—Livre de Definitions du Seïd Scherif Zeineddin ... fils de Mohammed Djordjani, trad. de Silv. de Sacy, Not. et Extr. x. 39.

1498.—"Ptolemy and the other philosophers, who have written upon the globe, thought that it was spherical, believing that this hemisphere was round as well as that in which they themselves dwelt, the centre of which was in the island of ARIN, which is under the equinoctial line, between the Arabian Gulf and the Gulf of Persia."—Letter of Columbus, on his Third Voyage, to the King and Queen. Major's Transl., Hak. Soc. 2nd ed. 135.

[c. 1583.—"From thence we went to VGINI and Serringe...."—R. Fitch, in Hakl. ii. 385.

[1616.—"VGEN, the Cheefe Citty of Malwa."—Sir T. Roe, Hak. Soc. ii. 379.]

c. 1659.—"Dara having understood what had passed at EUGENES, fell into that choler against Kasem Kan, that it was thought he would have cut off his head."—Bernier, E.T. p. 13; [ed. Constable, 41].

1785.—"The City of UGEN is very ancient, and said to have been the Residence of the Prince BICKER MAJIT, whose Æra is now Current among the Hindus."—Sir C. Malet, in Dalrymple, Or. Rep. i. 268.

OOOLOOBALLONG, s. Malay, Ulubalang, a chosen warrior, a champion. [Mr. Skeat notes: "hulu or ulu certainly means 'head,' especially the head of a Raja, and balang probably means 'people'; hence ulu-balang, 'men of the head,' or 'bodyguard.']

c. 1546.—"Four of twelve gates that were in the Town were opened, thorough each of the which sallied forth one of the four Captaines with his company, having first sent out for Spies into the Camp six OROBALONS of the most valiant that were about the King...."—Pinto (in Cogan), p. 260.

1688.—"The 500 gentlemen OROBALANG were either slain or drowned, with all the Janizaries."—Dryden, Life of Xavier, 211.

1784.—(At Acheen) "there are five great officers of state who are named Maha Rajah, Laxamana (see LAXIMANA), Raja Oolah, OOLOO BALLANG, and Parkah Rajah."—Forrest, V. to Mergui, 41.

1811.—"The ULU BALANG are military officers, forming the body-guard of the Sultan, and prepared on all occasions to execute his orders."—Marsden, H. of Sumatra, 3rd ed. 351.

OOPLAH, s. Cow dung patted into cakes, and dried and stacked for fuel. Hind. uplā. It is in S. India called BRATTY (q.v.).

1672.—"The allowance of cowdunge and wood was—for every basket of cowdunge, 2 cakes for the Gentu Pagoda; for Peddinagg the watchman, of every baskett of cowdunge, 5 cakes."—Orders at Ft. St. Geo., Notes and Exts. i. 56.

[Another name for the fuel is kaṇḍā.

[1809.—"... small flat cakes of cow-dung, mixed with a little chopped straw and water, and dried in the sun, are used for fuel; they are called KUNDHAS...."—Broughton, Letters from a Mahratta Camp, ed. 1892, p. 158.]

This fuel which is also common in Egypt and Western Asia, appears to have been not unknown even in England a century ago, thus:—

1789.—"We rode about 20 miles that day (near Woburn), the country ... is very open, with little or no wood. They have even less fuel than we (i.e. in Scotland), and the poor burn cow-dung, which they scrape off the ground, and set up to burn as we do divots (i.e. turf)."—Lord Minto, in Life, i. 301.

1863.—A passage in Mr. Marsh's Man and Nature, p. 242, contains a similar fact in reference to the practice, in consequence of the absence of wood, in France between Grenoble and Briançon.

[For the use of this fuel, in Tartary under the name of ARGOLS, see Huc, Travels, 2nd ed. i. 23. Numerous examples of its use are collected in 8 ser. Notes and Queries, iv. 226, 277, 377, 417.

[c. 1590.—"The plates (in refining gold) having been washed in clean water, are ... covered with cowdung, which in Hindi is called UPLAH."—Āīn, ed. Blochmann, i. 21.

1828.—"We next proceeded to the OOPLEE Wallee's Bastion, as it is most erroneously termed by the Mussulmans, being literally in English a 'BRATTEE,' or 'dried cowdung—Woman's Tower.'..." (This is the Upri Burj, or 'Lofty Tower' of Bijapur, for which see Bombay Gazetteer, xxiii. 638).—Welsh, Military Reminiscences, ii. 318 seq.]

[OORD, OORUD, s. Hind. uṛad. A variety of dāl (see DHALL) or pulse, the produce of Phaseolus radiatus. "Urd is the most highly prized of all the pulses of the genus Phaseolus, and is largely cultivated in all parts of India" (Watt, Econ. Dict. vi. pt. i. 102, seqq.).

[1792.—"The stalks of the OORD are hispid in a lesser degree than those of MOONG."—Asiat. Res. vi. 47.

[1814.—"OORD." See under POPPER.

[1857.—"The OORDH Dal is in more common use than any other throughout the country."—Chevers, Man. of Medical Jurisprudence, 309.]

OORDOO, s. The Hindustani language. The (Turki) word urdū means properly the camp of a Tartar Khān, and is, in another direction, the original of our word horde (Russian orda), [which, according to Schuyler (Turkistan, i. 30, note), "is now commonly used by the Russian soldiers and Cossacks in a very amusing manner as a contemptuous term for an Asiatic"]. The 'Golden Horde' upon the Volga was not properly (pace Littré) the name of a tribe of Tartars, as is often supposed, but was the style of the Royal Camp, eventually Palace, of the Khāns of the House of Batu at Sarai. Horde is said by Pihan, quoted by Dozy (Oosterl. 43) to have been introduced into French by Voltaire in his Orphelin de la Chine. But Littré quotes it as used in the 16th century. Urda is now used in Turkistan, e.g. at Tashkend, Khokhand, &c., for a 'citadel' (Schuyler, loc. cit. i. 30). The word urdū, in the sense of a royal camp, came into India probably with Baber, and the royal residence at Delhi was styled urdū-i-mu'allā, 'the Sublime Camp.' The mixt language which grew up in the court and camp was called zabān-i-urdū, 'the Camp Language,' and hence we have elliptically Urdū. On the Peshawar frontier the word urdū is still in frequent use as applied to the camp of a field-force.

1247.—"Post haec venimus ad primam ORDAM Imperatoris, in quâ erat una de uxoribus suis; et quia nondum videramus Imperatorem, noluerint nos vocare nec intromittere ad ORDAM ipsius."—Plano Carpini, p. 752.

1254.—"Et sicut populus Israel sciebat, unusquisque ad quam regionem tabernaculi deberet figere tentoria, ita ipsi sciunt ad quod latus curie debeant se collocare.... Unde dicitur curia ORDA lingua eorum, quod sonat medium, quia semper est in medio hominum suorum...."—William of Rubruk, p. 267.

1404.—"And the Lord (Timour) was very wroth with his Mirassaes (Mirzas), because he did not see the Ambassador at this feast, and because the Truximan (Interpreter) had not been with them ... and he sent for the Truximan and said to him: 'How is it that you have enraged and vexed the Lord? Now since you were not with the Frank ambassadors, and to punish you, and ensure your always being ready, we order your nostrils to be bored, and a cord put through them, and that you be led through the whole ORDO as a punishment.'"—Clavijo, § cxi.

c. 1440.—"What shall I saie of the great and innumerable moltitude of beastes that are in this LORDO? ... if you were disposed in one daie to bie a thousande or ij.^{ml} horses you shulde finde them to sell in this LORDO, for they go in heardes like sheepe...."—Josafa Barbaro, old E.T. Hak. Soc. 20.

c. 1540.—"Sono diuisi i Tartari in HORDE, e HORDA nella lor lingua significa ragunãza di popolo vnito e concorde a similitudine d'vna città."—P. Jovio, delle Cose della Moscovia, in Ramusio, ii. f. 133.

1545.—"The Tartars are divided into certain groups or congregations, which they call HORDES. Among which the Savola HORDE or group is the first in rank."—Herberstein, in Ramusio, ii. 171.

[1560.—"They call this place (or camp) ORDU bazaar."—Tenreiro, ed. 1829, ch. xvii. p. 45.]

1673.—"L'OURDY sortit d'Andrinople pour aller au camp. Le mot ourdy signifie camp, et sous ce nom sont compris les mestiers que sont necessaires pour la commodité du voyage."—Journal d'Ant. Galland, i. 117.

[1753.—"That part of the camp called in Turkish the ORDUBAZAR or camp-market, begins at the end of the square fronting the guard-rooms...."—Hanway, Hist. Account, i. 247.]

OORIAL, Panj. ūrīal, Ovis cycloceros, Hutton, [Ovis vignei, Blanford (Mammalia, 497), also called the Shā;] the wild sheep of the Salt Range and Sulimānī Mountains.

OORIYA, n.p. The adjective 'pertaining to ORISSA' (native, language, what not); Hind. Uṛiya. The proper name of the country is Odṛa-deśa, and Oṛ-deśa, whence Oṛ-iya and Uṛ-iya. ["The Ooryah bearers were an old institution in Calcutta, as in former days palankeens were chiefly used. From a computation made in 1776, it is stated that they were in the habit of carrying to their homes every year sums of money sometimes as much as three lakhs made by their business" (Carey, Good Old Days of Honble. John Company, ii. 148).]

OOTACAMUND, n.p. The chief station in the Neilgherry Hills, and the summer residence of the Governor of Madras. The word is a corruption of the Badaga name of the site of 'Stone-house,' the first European house erected in those hills, properly Hottaga-mand (see Metz, Tribes of the Neilgherries, 6). [Mr. Grigg (Man. of the Nilagiris, 6, 189), followed by the Madras Gloss., gives Tam. Ottagaimandu, from Can. ottai, 'dwarf bamboo,' Tam. kay, 'fruit,' mandu, 'a Toda village.']

OPAL, s. This word is certainly of Indian origin: Lat. opalus, Greek, ὀπάλλιος, Skt. upala, 'a stone.' The European word seems first to occur in Pliny. We do not know how the Skt. word received this specific meaning, but there are many analogous cases.

OPIUM, s. This word is in origin Greek, not Oriental. [The etymology accepted by Platts, Skt. ahiphena, 'snake venom' is not probable.] But from the Greek ὄπιον the Arabs took afyūn which has sometimes reacted on old spellings of the word. The collection of the ὀπὸς, or juice of the poppy-capsules, is mentioned by Dioscorides (c. A.D. 77), and Pliny gives a pretty full account of the drug as opion (see Hanbury and Flückiger, 40). The Opium-poppy was introduced into China, from Arabia, at the beginning of the 9th century, and its earliest Chinese name is A-FU-YUNG, a representation of the Arabic name. The Arab. afyūn is sometimes corruptly called afīn, of which afīn, 'imbecile,' is a popular etymology. Similarly the Bengalees derive it from afi-heno, 'serpent-home.' [A number of early references to opium smoking have been collected by Burnell, Linschoten, Hak. Soc. ii. 113.]

c. A.D. 70.—"... which juice thus drawne, and thus prepared, hath power not onely to provoke sleepe, but if it be taken in any great quantitie, to make men die in their sleepe: and this our Physicians call OPION. Certes I have knowne many come to their death by this meanes; and namely, the father of Licinius Cecinna late deceased, a man by calling a Pretour, who not being able to endure the intollerable pains and torments of a certaine disease, and being wearie of his life, at Bilbil in Spaine, shortened his owne daies by taking OPIUM."—Pliny, in Holland's transl. ii. 68.

(Medieval).—

"Quod venit a Thebis, opio laudem perhibebis; Naribus horrendum, rufum laus dictat emendum." Otho Cremonensis.

1511.—"Next day the General (Alboquerque) sent to call me to go ashore to speak to the King; and that I should say on his part ... that he had got 8 Guzzarate ships that he had taken on the way because they were enemies of the King of Portugal; and that these had many rich stuffs and much merchandize, and ARFIUN (for so they call opio tebaico) which they eat to cool themselves; all which he would sell to the King for 300,000 ducats worth of goods, cheaper than they could buy it from the Moors, and more such matter."—Letter of Giovanni da Empoli, in Archivio Storico Italiano, 55.

[1513.—"Opium (OAFYAM) is nothing else than the milk of poppies."—Alboquerque, Cartas, p. 174.]

1516.—"For the return voyage (to China) they ship there (at Malacca) Sumatra and Malabar pepper, of which they use a great deal in China, and drugs of Cambay, much anfiam, which we call OPIUM...."—Barbosa, 206.

1563.—"R. I desire to know for certain about AMFIAO, what it is, which is used by the people of this country; if it is what we call OPIUM, and whence comes such a quantity as is expended, and how much may be eaten every day?

* * * * *

"O. ... that which I call of Cambaia come for the most part from one territory which is called Malvi (Mālwā).... I knew a secretary of Nizamoxa (see NIZAMALUCO), a native of Coraçon, who every day eat three tóllas (see TOLA), or a weight of 10½ cruzados ... though he was a well educated man, and a great scribe and notary, he was always dozing or sleeping; yet if you put him to business he would speak like a man of letters and discretion; from this you may see what habit will do."—Garcia, 153_v_ to 155_v_.

1568.—"I went then to Cambaya ... and there I bought 60 parcels of OPIUM, which cost me two thousand and a hundreth duckets, every ducket at foure shillings two pence."—Master C. Frederike, in Hakl. ii. 371. The original runs thus, showing the looseness of the translation: "... comprai sessanta man D'ANFION, che mi costò 2100 ducati serafini (see XERAFINE), che a nostro conto possono valere 5 lire l'vno."—In Ramusio, iii. 396_v_.

1598.—"AMFION, so called by the Portingales, is by Arabians, Mores, and Indians called AFFION, in latine OPIO or OPIUM.... The Indians use much to eat Amfion.... Hee that useth to eate it, must eate it daylie, otherwise he dieth and consumeth himselfe ... likewise hee that hath never eaten it, and will venture at the first to eate as much as those that dayly use it, it will surely kill him...."—Linschoten, 124; [Hak. Soc. ii. 112].

[c. 1610.—"Opium, or as they (in the Maldives) call it, APHION."—Pyrard de Laval, Hak. Soc. i. 195.

[1614.—"The waster washer who to get AFFANAN hires them (the cloths) out a month."—Foster, Letters, ii. 127.

[1615.—"... Coarse chintz, and OPHYAN."—Ibid. iv. 107].

1638.—"Turcae OPIUM experiuntur, etiam in bona quantitate, innoxium et confortativum; adeo ut etiam ante praelia ad fortitudinem illud sumant; nobis vero, nisi in parvâ quantitate, et cum bonis correctivis lethale est."—Bacon, H. Vitae et Mortis (ed. Montague) x. 188.

1644.—"The principal cause that this monarch, or rather say, this tyrant, is so powerful, is that he holds in his territories, and especially in the kingdom of Cambaya, those three plants of which are made the ANFIAM, and the anil (see ANILE), and that which gives the Algodam" (Cotton).—Bocarro, MS.

1694.—"This people, that with amphioen or OPIUM, mixed with tobacco, drink themselves not merely drunk but mad, are wont to fall furiously upon any one whom they meet, with a naked kris or dagger in the hand, and to stab him, though it be but a child, in their mad passion, with the cry of Amock (see A MUCK), that is 'strike dead,' or 'fall on him.'..."—Valentijn, iv. (China, &c.) 124.

1726.—"It will hardly be believed ... that Java alone consumes monthly 350 packs of OPIUM, each being of 136 catis (see CATTY), though the E. I. Company make 145 catis out of it...."—Valentijn, iv. 61.

1727.—"The Chiefs of Calecut, for many years had vended between 500 and 1000 chests of Bengal OPHIUM yearly up in the inland Countries, where it is very much used."—A. Hamilton, i. 315; [ed. 1744, i. 317 seq.].

1770.—"Patna ... is the most celebrated place in the world for the cultivation of OPIUM. Besides what is carried into the inland parts, there are annually 3 or 4000 chests exported, each weighing 300 lbs..... An excessive fondness for opium prevails in all the countries to the east of India. The Chinese emperors have suppressed it in their dominions, by condemning to the flames every vessel that imports this species of poison."—Raynal (tr. 1777), i. 424.

ORANGE, s. A good example of plausible but entirely incorrect etymology is that of orange from Lat. aurantium. The latter word is in fact an ingenious medieval fabrication. The word doubtless came from the Arab. nāranj, which is again a form of Pers. nārang, or nārangī, the latter being still a common term for the orange in Hindustan. The Persian indeed may be traced to Skt. nāgarañga, and nārañga, but of these words no satisfactory etymological explanation has been given, and they have perhaps been Sanscritized from some southern term. Sir W. Jones, in his article on the Spikenard of the Ancients, quotes from Dr. Anderson of Madras, "a very curious philological remark, that in the Tamul dictionary, most words beginning with nar have some relation to fragrance; as narukeradu, to yield an odour; nártum pillei, lemon-grass; nártei, citron; nárta manum (read mārum), the wild orange-tree; nárum panei, the Indian jasmine; nárum alleri, a strong smelling flower; and nártu, which is put for nard in the Tamul version of our scriptures." (See As. Res. vol. ii. 414). We have not been able to verify many of these Tamil terms. But it is true that in both Tamil and Malayalam naṛu is 'fragrant.' See, also, on the subject of this article, A. E. Pott, in Lassen's Zeitschrift f. d. Kunde des Morgenlandes, vii. 114 seqq.

The native country of the orange is believed to be somewhere on the northern border of India. A wild orange, the supposed parent of the cultivated species, both sweet and bitter, occurs in Garhwāl and Sikkim, as well as in the Kāsia (see COSSYA) country, the valleys of which last are still abundantly productive of excellent oranges. [See Watt, Econ. Dict. ii. 336 seqq.] It is believed that the orange first known and cultivated in Europe was the bitter or Seville orange (see Hanbury and Flückiger, 111-112).

From the Arabic, Byzantine Greek got νεράντζιον, the Spaniards naranja, old Italian narancia, the Portuguese laranja, from which last, or some similar form, by the easy detachment of the l (taken probably, as in many other instances, for an article), we have the Ital. arancio, L. Latin aurantium, French orange, the modification of these two being shaped by aurum and or. Indeed, the quotation from Jacques de Vitry possibly indicates that some form like al-arangi may have been current in Syria. Perhaps, however, his phrase ab indigenis nuncupantur may refer only to the Frank or quasi-Frank settlers, in which case we should have among them the birthplace of our word in its present form. The reference to this passage we derived in the first place from Hehn, who gives a most interesting history of the introduction of the various species of citrus into Europe. But we can hardly think he is right in supposing that the Portuguese first brought the sweet orange (Citrus aurantium dulce) into Europe from China, c. 1548. No doubt there may have been a re-introduction of some fine varieties at that time.[193] But as early as the beginning of the 14th century we find Abulfeda extolling the fruit of Cintra. His words, as rendered by M. Reinaud, run: "Au nombre des dependances de Lisbonne est la ville de Schintara; à Schintara on recueille des pommes admirables pour la grosseur et le gout" (244[194]). That these pommes were the famous Cintra oranges can hardly be doubted. For Baber (Autobiog. 328) describes an orange under the name of Sangtarah, which is, indeed, a recognised Persian and Hind. word for a species of the fruit. And this early propagation of the sweet orange in Portugal would account not only for such wide diffusion of the name of Cintra, but for the persistence with which the alternative name of Portugals has adhered to the fruit in question. The familiar name of the large sweet orange in Sicily and Italy is portogallo, and nothing else; in Greece πορτογαλέα, in Albanian protokale, among the Kurds portoghāl; whilst even colloquial Arabic has burtuḳān. The testimony of Maṣ'ūdī as to the introduction of the orange into Syria before his time (c. A.D. 930), even if that were (as it would seem) the Seville orange, renders it quite possible that better qualities should have reached Lisbon or been developed there during the Saracenic occupation. It was indeed suggested in our hearing by the late Sir Henry M. Elliot that sangtarah might be interpreted as sang-tar, 'green stones' (or in fact 'moist pips'); but we hardly think he would have started this had the passage in Abulfeda been brought to his notice. [In the Āīn (ed. Gladwin, 1800, ii. 20) we read: "Sircar Silhet.... Here grows a delicious fruit called Soontara, in colour like an orange, but of an oblong form." This passage reads in Col. Jarrett's translation (ii. 124): "There is a fruit called Súntarah in colour like an orange but large and very sweet." Col. Jarrett disputes the derivation of Sangtarah from Cintra, and he is followed by Mr. H. Beveridge, who remarks that Humayun calls the fruit Sanat̤ra. Mr. Beveridge is inclined to think that Santra is the Indian hill name of the fruit, of which Sangtarah is a corruption, and refers to a village at the foot of the Bhutan Hills called Santrabārī, because it had orange groves.]

A.D. c. 930.—"The same may be said of the orange-tree (Shajr-ul-NĀRANJ) and of the round citron, which were brought from India after the year (A.H.) 300, and first sown in 'Oman. Thence they were transplanted to Basra, to 'Irāk, and to Syria ... but they lost the sweet and penetrating odour and beauty that they had in India, having no longer the benefits of the climate, soil, and water peculiar to that country."—Maṣ'ūdī, ii. 438-9.

c. 1220.—"In parvis autem arboribus quaedam crescunt alia poma citrina, minoris quantitatis frigida et acidi seu pontici (bitter) saporis, quae poma ORENGES ab indigenis nuncupantur."—Jacobus Vitriacus, in Bongars. These were apparently our Seville oranges.

c. 1290.—"In the 18th of Edward the first a large Spanish Ship came to Portsmouth; out of the cargo of which the Queen bought one frail (see FRAZALA) of Seville figs, one frail of raisins or grapes, one bale of dates, two hundred and thirty pomegranates, fifteen citrons, and seven oranges (Poma de ORENGE)."—Manners and Household Expenses of England in the 13th and 15th Centuries, Roxb. Club, 1841, p. xlviii. The Editor deigns only to say that 'the MS. is in the Tower.' [Prof. Skeat writes (9 ser. Notes and Queries, v. 321): "The only known allusion to oranges, previously to 1400, in any piece of English literature (I omit household documents) is in the 'Alliterative Poems,' edited by Dr. Morris, ii. 1044. The next reference, soon after 1400, is in Lydgate's 'Minor Poems,' ed. Halliwell, p. 15. In 1440 we find ORONGE in the 'Promptorium Parvulorum,' and in 1470 we find ORENGES in the 'Paston Letters,' ed. Gairdner, ii. 394."]

1481.—"Item to the galeman (galley man) brought the lampreis and ORANGES ... iiij_d._"—Household Book of John D. of Norfolk, Roxb. Club, 1844, p. 38.

c. 1526.—"They have besides (in India) the NÂRANJ [or Seville orange, Tr.] and the various fruits of the orange species.... It always struck me that the word NÂRANJ was accented in the Arab fashion; and I found that it really was so; the men of Bajour and Siwâd call nâranj nârank" (or perhaps rather NÂRANG).—Baber, 328. In this passage Baber means apparently to say that the right name was nārang, which had been changed by the usual influence of Arabic pronunciation into nāranj.

1883.—"Sometimes the foreign products thus cast up (on Shetland) at their doors were a new revelation to the islanders, as when a cargo of ORANGES was washed ashore on the coast of Delting, the natives boiled them as a new kind of potatoes."—Saty. Review, July 14, p. 57.

ORANG-OTANG, ORANG-OUTAN, &c. s. The great man-like ape of Sumatra and Borneo; Simia Satyrus, L. This name was first used by Bontius (see below). It is Malay, ōrăng-ūtăn, 'homo sylvaticus.' The proper name of the animal in Borneo is mias. Crawfurd says that it is never called orang-utan by 'the natives.' But that excellent writer is often too positive—especially in his negatives! Even if it be not (as is probable) anywhere a recognised specific name, it is hardly possible that the name should not be sometimes applied popularly. We remember a tame HOOLUCK belonging to a gentleman in E. Bengal, which was habitually known to the natives as janglī ādmī, literally = orang-utan. [There seems reason to believe that Crawfurd was right after all. Mr. Scott (Malayan Words in English, p. 87) writes: "But this particular application of ōrang ūtan to the ape does not appear to be, or ever to have been, familiar to the Malays generally; Crawfurd (1852) and Swettenham (1889) omit it, Pijnappel says it is 'Low Malay,' and Klinkert (1893) denies the use entirely. This uncertainty is explained by the limited area in which the animal exists within even native observation. Mr. Wallace could find no natives in Sumatra who 'had ever heard of such an animal,' and no 'Dutch officials who knew anything about it.' Then the name came to European knowledge more than 260 years ago; in which time probably more than one Malay name has faded out of general use or wholly disappeared, and many other things have happened." Mr. Skeat writes: "I believe Crawfurd is absolutely right in saying that it is never called ōrang-ūtan by the natives. It is much more likely to have been a sailor's mistake or joke than an error on the part of the Malays who know better. Throughout the Peninsula ōrang-ūtan is the name applied to the wild tribes, and though the mawas or mias is known to the Malays only by tradition, yet in tradition the two are never confused, and in those islands where the mawas does exist he is never called ōrang-ūtan, the word ōrang being reserved exclusively to describe the human species."]

1631.—"Loqui vero eos easque posse Iavani aiunt, sed non velle, ne ad labores cogantur; ridicule mehercules. Nomen ei induunt OURANG OUTANG, quod 'hominem silvae' significat, eosque nasci affirmant e libidine mulierum Indarum, quae se Simiis et Cercopithecis detestanda libidine uniunt."—Bontii, Hist. Nat. v. cap. 32, p. 85.

1668.—"Erat autem hic satyrus quadrupes: sed ab humanâ specie quam prae se fert, vocatur Indis OURANG-OUTANG: sive homo silvestris."—Licetus de Monstris, 338.

[1701.—"ORANG-OUTANG sive Homo Sylvestris: or the Anatomy of a Pygmie compared with that of a Monkey, an Ape, and a Man...."—Title of work by E. Tyson (Scott).]

1727.—"As there are many species of wild Animals in the Woods (of Java) there is one in particular called the OURAN-OUTANG."—A. Hamilton, ii. 131; [ed. 1744, ii. 136].

1783.—"Were we to be driven out of India this day, nothing would remain to tell that it had been possessed, during the inglorious period of our dominion, by any thing better than the OURANG-OUTANG or the tiger."—Burke, Sp. on Fox's E. India Bill, Works, ed. 1852, iii. 468.

1802.—"Man, therefore, in a state of nature, was, if not the OURANG-OUTANG of the forests and mountains of Asia and Africa at the present day, at least an animal of the same family, and very nearly resembling it."—Ritson, Essay on Abstinence from Animal Food, pp. 13-14.

1811.—"I have one slave more, who was given me in a present by the Sultan of Pontiana.... This gentleman is Lord Monboddo's genuine ORANG-OUTANG, which in the Malay language signifies literally wild man.... Some people think seriously that the ORAN-OUTANG was the original patriarch and progenitor of the whole Malay race."—Lord Minto, Diary in India, 268-9.

1868.—"One of my chief objects ... was to see the ORANG-UTAN ... in his native haunts."—Wallace, Malay Archip. 39.

In the following passage the term is applied to a tribe of men:

1884.—"The Jacoons belong to one of the wild aboriginal tribes ... they are often styled ORANG UTAN, or men of the forest."—Cavenagh, Rem. of an Indian Official, 293.

ORANKAY, ARANGKAIO, &c. s. Malay Orang kāya. In the Archipelago, a person of distinction, a chief or noble, corresponding to the Indian OMRAH; literally 'a rich man,' analogous therefore to the use of riche-homme by Joinville and other old French authors. [Mr. Skeat notes that the terminal o in ARANGKAIO represents a dialectical form used in Sumatra and Java. The Malay leader of the Pahang rising in 1891-2, who was supposed to bear a charmed life, was called by the title of Orang Kāya Pahlawan (see PULWAUN).]

c. 1612.—"The Malay officers of state are classified as 1. Bandahara; 2. Ferdana Mantri; 3. Punghulu Bandari; 4. the chief Hulubalang or champion (see OOLOOBALLONG); 5. the Paramantris; 6. ORANG KAYAS; 7. Chatriyas (Kshatriyas); 8. Seda Sidahs; 9. Bentaras or heralds; 10. Hulubalangs."—Sijara Malayu, in J. Ind. Arch. v. 246.

1613.—"The nobler ORANCAYAS spend their time in pastimes and recreations, in music and in cock fighting, a royal sport...."—Godinho de Eredia, f. 31_v_.

1613.—"An ORAN CAYA came aboord, and told me that a Curra Curra (see CARACOA) of the Flemmings had searched three or foure Praws or Canoas comming aboord vs with Cloues, and had taken them from them, threatening death to them for the next offence."—Saris, in Purchas, i. 348.

[ " "... gave him the title of ORANCAYA PUTE, which is white or clear hearted lord."—Danvers, Letters, i. 270.]

1615.—"Another conference with all the ARRANKAYOS of Lugho and Cambello in the hills among the bushes: their reverence for the King and the honourable Company."—Sainsbury, i. 420.

[ " "Presented by Mr. Oxwicke to the WRANKIAW."—Foster, Letters, iii. 96.

[ " "... a nobleman called ARON CAIE Hettam."—Ibid. iii. 128.]

1620.—"Premierement sur vn fort grand Elephant il y auoit vne chaire couuerte, dans laquelle s'est assis vn des principaux ORANGCAYES ou Seigneurs."—Beaulieu, in Thevenot's Collection, i. 49.

1711.—"Two Pieces of Callico or Silk to the Shabander (see SHABUNDER), and head ORONKOY or Minister of State."—Lockyer, 36.

1727.—"As he was entering at the Door, the ORANKAY past a long Lance through his Heart, and so made an end of the Beast."—A. Hamilton, ii. 97; [ed. 1744, ii. 96].

" "However, the reigning King not expecting that his Customs would meet with such Opposition, sent an ORANGKAYA aboard of my Ship, with the Linguist, to know why we made War on him."—Ibid. 106; [ed. 1744].

1784.—"Three or four days before my departure, Posally signified to me the King meant to confer on me the honour of being made Knight of the Golden Sword, ORANG KAYO derry piddang mas" (orang kaya dări pădang mas).—Forrest, V. to Mergui, 54.

1811.—"From amongst the ORANG KAYAS the Sultan appoints the officers of state, who as members of Council are called mantri (see MUNTREE, MANDARIN)."—Marsden, H. of Sumatra, 350.

[ORGAN, s. An Oriental form of mitrailleuse. Steingass (Dict. 38) has Pers. arghan, arghon, from the Greek ὄργανον, 'an organ.'

1790.—"A weapon called an ORGAN, which is composed of about thirty-six gun barrels so joined as to fire at once."—Letter from De Boigne's Camp at Mairtha, dated Sept. 13, in H. Compton, A particular Account of the European Military Adventurers of Hindustan, from 1784 to 1803, p. 61.]

ORISSA, n.p. [Skt. Oḍrāshtra, 'the land of the Oḍras' (see OORIYA). The word is said to be the Prakrit form of uttara, 'north,' as applied to the N. part of Kalinga.] The name of the ancient kingdom and modern province which lies between Bengal and the Coromandel Coast.

1516.—"Kingdom of ORISA. Further on towards the interior there is another kingdom which is conterminous with that of Narsynga, and on another side with Bengala, and on another with the great Kingdom of Dely...."—Barbosa, in Lisbon ed. 306.

c. 1568.—"ORISA fu già vn Regno molto bello e securo ... sina che regnò il suo Rè legitimo, qual era Gentile."—Ces. Federici, Ramusio, iii. 392.

[c. 1616.—"VDEZA, the Chiefe Citty called Iekanat (JUGGURNAUT)."—Sir T. Roe, Hak. Soc. ii. 538.]

ORMESINE, s. A kind of silk texture, which we are unable to define. The name suggests derivation from Ormus. [The Draper's Dict. defines "ARMOZEEN, a stout silk, almost invariably black. It is used for hat-bands and scarfs at funerals by those not family mourners. Sometimes sold for making clergymen's gowns." The N.E.D. s.v. ARMOZEEN, leaves the etymology doubtful. The Stanf. Dict. gives ORMUZINE, "a fabric exported from Ormuz."]

c. 1566.—"... a little Island called Tana, a place very populous with Portugals, Moores and Gentiles: these have nothing but Rice; they are makers of ARMESIE and weavers of girdles of wooll and bumbast."—Caes. Fredericke, in Hakl. ii. 344.

1726.—"Velvet, Damasks, ARMOSYN, Sattyn."—Valentijn, v. 183.

ORMUS, ORMUZ, n.p. Properly Hurmuz or Hurmūz, a famous maritime city and minor kingdom near the mouth of the Persian Gulf. The original place of the city was on the northern shore of the Gulf, some 30 miles east of the site of Bandar Abbās or GOMBROON (q.v.); but about A.D. 1300, apparently to escape from Tartar raids, it was transferred to the small island of Gerūn or Jerūn, which may be identified with the Organa of Nearchus, about 12 m. westward, and five miles from the shore, and this was the seat of the kingdom when first visited and attacked by the Portuguese under Alboquerque in 1506. It was taken by them about 1515, and occupied permanently (though the nominal reign of the native kings was maintained), until wrested from them by Shāh 'Abbās, with the assistance of an English squadron from Surat, in 1622. The place was destroyed by the Persians, and the island has since remained desolate, and all but uninhabited, though the Portuguese citadel and water-tanks remain. The islands of Hormuz, Kishm, &c., as well as Bandar 'Abbās and other ports on the coast of Kerman, had been held by the Sultans of Omān as fiefs of Persia, for upwards of a century, when in 1854 the latter State asserted its dominion, and occupied those places in force (see Badger's Imams of Omān, &c., p. xciv.).

B.C. c. 325.—"They weighed next day at dawn, and after a course of 100 stadia anchored at the mouth of the river Anamis, in a country called HARMOZEIA."—Arrian, Voyage of Nearchus, ch. xxxiii., tr. by M‘Crindle, p. 202.

c. A.D. 150.—(on the coast of Carmania)

"Ἅρμουζα πόλις. Ἅρμοζον ἄκρον." Ptol. VI. viii. 5.

c. 540.—At this time one Gabriel is mentioned as (Nestorian) Bishop of HORMUZ (see Assemani, iii. 147-8).

c. 655.—"Nobis ... visum est nihilominus velut ad sepulchra mortuorum, quales vos esse video, geminos hosce Dei Sacerdotes ad vos allegare; Theodorum videlicet Episcopum HORMUZDADSCHIR et Georgium Episcopum Susatrae."—Syriac Letter of the Patriarch Jesujabus, ibid. 133.

1298.—"When you have ridden these two days you come to the Ocean Sea, and on the shore you find a City with a harbour, which is called Hormos."—Marco Polo, Bk. i. ch. xix.

c. 1330.—"... I came to the Ocean Sea. And the first city on it that I reached is called ORMES, a city strongly fenced and abounding in costly wares. The city is on an island some five miles distant from the main; and on it there grows no tree, and there is no fresh water."—Friar Odoric, in Cathay, &c., 56.

c. 1331.—"I departed from 'Omān for the country of HORMUZ. The city of Hormuz stands on the shore of the sea. The name is also called Moghistān. The new city of HORMUZ rises in face of the first in the middle of the sea, separated from it only by a channel 3 parasangs in width. We arrived at New HORMUZ, which forms an island of which the capital is called Jaraun.... It is a mart for Hind and Sind."—Ibn Batuta, ii. 230.

1442.—"ORMUS (qu. Hurmūz?), which is now called Djerun, is a port situated in the middle of the sea, and which has not its equal on the face of the globe."—Abdurrazzāk, in India in XV. Cent. p. 5.

c. 1470.—"HORMUZ is 4 miles across the water, and stands on an Island."—Athan. Nikitin, ibid. p. 8.

1503.—"Habitant autem ex eorum (Francorum) gente homines fere viginti in urbe Cananoro: ad quos profecti, postquam ex HORMIZDA urbe ad eam Indorum civitatem Cananorum venimus, significavimus illis nos esse Christianos, nostramque conditionem et gradum indicavimus; et ab illis magno cum gaudio suscepti sumus.... Eorundem autem Francorum regio Portugallus vocatur, una ex Francorum regionibus; eorumque Rex Emanuel appellatur; Emmanuelem oramus ut illum custodiat."—Letter from Nestorian Bishops on Mission to India, in Assemani, iii. 591.

1505.—"In la bocha di questo mare (di Persia) è vn altra insula chiamata AGRAMUZO doue sono perle infinite: (e) caualli che per tutte quelle parti sono in gran precio."—Letter of K. Emanuel, p. 14.

1572.—

"Mas vê a illa Gerum, como discobre O que fazem do tempo os intervallos; Que da cidade ARMUZA, que alli esteve Ella o nome despois, e gloria teve." Camões, x. 103.

By Burton:

"But see yon Gerum's isle the tale unfold of mighty things which Time can make or mar; for of ARMUZA-town yon shore upon the name and glory this her rival won."

1575.—"Touchant le mot ORMUZ, il est moderne, et luy a esté imposé par les Portugais, le nom venant de l'accident de ce qu'ils cherchoient que c'estoit que l'Or; tellement qu'estant arrivez là, et voyans le trafic de tous biens, auquel le pais abonde, ils dirent Vssi esta Or mucho, c'est à dire, Il y a force d'Or; et pource ils donnerẽt le nom d'ORMUCHO à la dite isle."—A. Thevet, Cosmographie Univ., liv. x. i. 329.

1623.—"Non volli lasciar di andare con gl'Inglesi in HORMUZ a veder la forteza, la città, e ciò che vi era in fine di notabile in quell'isola."—P. della Valle, ii. 463. Also see ii. 61.

1667.—

"High on a throne of royal state, which far Outshone the wealth of ORMUS and of Ind, Or where the gorgeous East with richest hand Showers on her kings barbaric pearl and gold." Paradise Lost, ii. 1-4.

OROMBARROS, s. This odd word seems to have been used as GRIFFIN (q.v.) now is. It is evidently the Malay orang-baharu, or orang bharu, 'a new man, a novice.' This is interesting as showing an unquestionable instance of an expression imported from the Malay factories to Continental India. [Mr. Skeat remarks that the form of the word shows that it came from the Malay under Portuguese influence.]

1711.—At Madras ... "refreshments for the Men, which they are presently supply'ed with from Country Boats and Cattamarans, who make a good Peny at the first coming of OROMBARROS, as they call those who have not been there before."—Lockyer, 28.

ORTOLAN, s. This name is applied by Europeans in India to a small lark, Calandrella brachydactyla, Temm., in Hind. bargel and bageri, [Skt. varga, 'a troop']. Also sometimes in S. India to the finch-lark, Pyrrhalauda grisea, Scopoli.

OTTA, OTTER, s. Corruption of āṭā, 'flour,' a Hindi word having no Skt. original; [but Platts gives Skt. ārdra, 'soft']. Popular rhyme:

"Aī terī Shekhāwati Ādhā ĀṬĀ ādhā matī!"

"Confound this Shekhawati land, My bread's half wheat-meal and half sand." Boileau, Tour through Rajwara, 1837, p. 274.

[1853.—"After travelling three days, one of the prisoners bought some OTTAH. They prepared bread, some of which was given him; after eating it he became insensible...."—Law Report, in Chevers, Ind. Med. Jurispr. 166.]

OTTO, OTTER, s. Or usually 'Otto of Roses,' or by imperfect purists 'Attar of Roses,' an essential oil obtained in India from the petals of the flower, a manufacture of which the chief seat is at Ghāzipur on the Ganges. The word is the Arab. 'iṭr, 'perfume.' From this word are derived 'aṭṭār, a 'perfumer or druggist,' 'aṭṭārī, adj., 'pertaining to a perfumer.' And a relic of Saracen rule in Palermo is the Via Latterini, 'the street of the perfumers' shops.' We find the same in an old Spanish account of Fez:

1573.—"Issuing thence to the Cayzerie by a gate which faces the north there is a handsome street which is called of the ATARIN, which is the Spicery."—Marmol, Affrica, ii. f. 88.

['Itr of roses is said to have been discovered by the Empress Nūr-jahān on her marriage with Jahāngīr. A canal in the palace garden was filled with rose-water in honour of the event, and the princess, observing a scum on the surface, caused it to be collected, and found it to be of admirable fragrance, whence it was called 'iṭr-i-Jahāngīrī.]

1712.—Kaempfer enumerating the departments of the Royal Household in Persia names: "Pharmacopoeia ... ATTHAAR choneh, in quâ medicamenta, et praesertim variae virtutis opiata, pro Majestate et aulicis praeparantur...."—Am. Exot. 124.

1759.—

"To presents given, &c. * * * * * "1 OTTER box set with diamonds "Sicca Rs. 3000 3222 3 6." Accts. of Entertainment to Jugget Set, in Long, 89.

c. 1790.—"Elles ont encore une prédilection particulière pour les huiles oderiferantes, surtout pour celle de rose, appelée OTTA."—Haafner, ii. 122.

1824.—"The ATTAR is obtained after the rose-water is made, by setting it out during the night and till sunrise in the morning in large open vessels exposed to the air, and then skimming off the essential oil which floats at the top."—Heber, ed. 1844, i. 154.

OUDH, OUDE, n.p. Awadh; properly the ancient and holy city of Ayodhyā (Skt. 'not to be warred against'), the capital of Rāma, on the right bank of the river Sarayu, now commonly called the Gogra. Also the province in which Ayodhya was situated, but of which LUCKNOW for about 170 years (from c. 1732) has been the capital, as that of the dynasty of the Nawābs, and from 1814 kings, of Oudh. Oudh was annexed to the British Empire in 1856 as a Chief Commissionership. This was re-established after the Mutiny was subdued and the country reconquered, in 1858. In 1877 the Chief Commissionership was united to the Lieut.-Governorship of the N.W. Provinces. (See JUDEA.)

B. C. x.—"The noble city of AYODHYĀ crowned with a royal highway had already cleaned and besprinkled all its streets, and spread its broad banners. Women, children, and all the dwellers in the city eagerly looking for the consecration of Rāma, waited with impatience the rising of the morrow's sun."—Rāmāyaṇa, Bk. iii. (Ayodhya Kanda), ch. 3.

636.—"Departing from this Kingdom (Kanyākubja or Kanauj) he (Hwen T'sang) travelled about 600 li to the S.E., crossed the Ganges, and then taking his course southerly he arrived at the Kingdom of 'OYUT'O (Ayōdhyā)."—Pèlerins Bouddh. ii. 267.

1255.—"A peremptory command had been issued that Malik Kutlugh Khān ... should leave the province of AWADH, and proceed to the fief of Bharā'ij, and he had not obeyed...."—Tabaḳāt-i-Nāsirī, E.T. by Raverty, 107.

1289.—"Mu'izzu-d dín Kai-Kubád, on his arrival from Dehli, pitched his camp at OUDH (Ajudhya) on the bank of the Ghagra. Nasiru-d dín, from the opposite side, sent his chamberlain to deliver a message to Kai-Kubád, who by way of intimidation himself discharged an arrow at him...."—Amīr Khusrū, in Elliot, iii. 530.

c. 1335.—"The territories to the west of the Ganges, and where the Sultan himself lived, were afflicted by famine, whilst those to the east of it enjoyed great plenty. These latter were then governed by 'Ain-ul-Mulk ... and among their chief towns we may name the city of AWADH, and the city of Z̤afarābād and the city of Laknau, et cetera."—Ibn Batuta, iii. 342.

c. 1340.—The 23 principal provinces of India under Mahommed Tughlak are thus stated, on the authority of Sirājuddīn Abu'l-fatah Omah, a native of 'AWADH: "(1) Aḳlīm Dihlī, (2) Multān, (3) Kahrān (Guhrām), and (4) Samān (both about Sirhind), (5) Siwastān (Sehwān in Sind), (6) Waja (Ūja, i.e. Ūch), (7) Hāsī (Hānsī), (8) Sarsati (Sirsa), (9) Ma'bar (Coromandel), (10) Tiling (Kalinga), (11) Gujrāt, (12) Badāūn, (13) 'AWAḌH, (14) Kanauj, (15) Laknautī (N. Bengal), (16) Bahār, (17) Karra (Lower Doāb), (18) Malāwa (Malwa), (19) Lahāwar (Lahore), (20) Kalanūr (E. Punjab), (21) Jajnagar (Orissa), (22) Tilinj (?), (23) Dursamand (Mysore)."—Shihābuddīn, in Notices et Exts. xiii. 167-171.

OUTCRY, s. Auction. This term seems to have survived a good deal longer in India than in England. (See NEELAM). The old Italian expression for auction seems to be identical in sense, viz. gridaggio, and the auctioneer gridatore, thus:

c. 1343.—"For jewels and plate; and (other) merchandize that is sold by OUTCRY (gridaggio), i.e. by auction (oncanto) in Cyprus, the buyer pays the crier (gridatore) one quarter carat per bezant on the price bid for the thing bought through the crier, and the seller pays nothing except," &c.—Pegolotti, 74.

1627.—"OUT-CRIE of goods to be sold. G(allicè) Encánt. Incánt. I(talicè).—Incánto.... H(ispanicè). Almoneda, ab Al. articulus, et Arab. NEDEYE, clamare, vocare.... B(atavicè). UT-ROEP."—Minsheu, s.v.

[1700.—"The last week Mr. Proby made a OUTCRY of lace."—In Yule, Hedges' Diary, Hak. Soc. ii. cclix.]

1782.—"On Monday next will be sold by Public OUTCRY ... large and small China silk Kittisals (KITTYSOL)...."—India Gazette, March 31.

1787.—"Having put up the Madrass Galley at OUTCRY and nobody offering more for her than 2300 Rupees, we think it more for the Company's Int. to make a Sloop of Her than let Her go at so low a price."—Ft. William MS. Reports, March.

[1841.—"When a man dies in India, we make short work with him; ... an 'OUTCRY' is held, his goods and chattels are brought to the hammer...."—Society in India, ii. 227.]

OVERLAND. Specifically applied to the Mediterranean route to India, which in former days involved usually the land journey from Antioch or thereabouts to the Persian Gulf; and still in vogue, though any land journey may now be entirely dispensed with, thanks to M. Lesseps.

1612.—"His Catholic Majesty the King Philip III. of Spain and II. of Portugal, our King and Lord, having appointed Dom Hieronymo de Azevedo to succeed Ruy Lourenço de Tavira ... in January 1612 ordered that a courier should be despatched OVERLAND (por terra) to this Government to carry these orders and he, arriving at Ormuz at the end of May following...."—Bocarro, Decada, p. 7.

1629.—"The news of his Exploits and Death being brought together to King Philip the Fourth, he writ with his own hand as follows. Considering the two Pinks that were fitting for India may be gone without an account of my Concern for the Death of Nunno Alvarez Botello, an Express shall immediately be sent BY LAND with advice."—Faria y Sousa (Stevens), iii. 373.

1673.—"French and Dutch Jewellers coming OVERLAND ... have made good Purchase by buying Jewels here, and carrying them to Europe to Cut and Set, and returning thence sell them here to the Ombrahs (see OMRAH), among whom were Monsieur Tavernier...."—Fryer, 89.

1675.—"Our last to you was dated the 17th August past, OVERLAND, transcripts of which we herewith send you."—Letter from Court to Ft. St. Geo. In Notes and Exts. No. i. p. 5.

1676.—"Docket Copy of the Company's General OVERLAND.

"'Our Agent and Councel Fort St. George.

* * * * *

"'The foregoing is copy of our letter of 28th June OVERLAND, which we sent by three several conveyances for Aleppo.'"—Ibid. p. 12.

1684.—"That all endeavors would be used to prevent my going home the way I intended, by Persia, and so OVERLAND."—Hedges, Diary, Aug. 19; [Hak. Soc. i. 155].

c. 1686.—"Those Gentlemen's Friends in the Committee of the Company in England, acquainted them by Letters OVER LAND, of the Danger they were in, and gave them Warning to be on their guard."—A. Hamilton, i. 196; [ed. 1744, i. 195].

1737.—"Though so far apart that we can only receive letters from Europe once a year, while it takes 18 months to get an answer, we Europeans get news almost every year OVER LAND by Constantinople, through Arabia or Persia.... A few days ago we received the news of the Peace in Europe; of the death of Prince Eugene; of the marriage of the P. of Wales with the Princess of Saxe-Gotha...."—Letter of the Germ. Missionary Sartorius, from Madras, Feb. 16. In Notices of Madras and Cuddalore, &c. 1858, p. 159.

1763.—"We have received OVERLAND the news of the taking of Havannah and the Spanish Fleet, as well as the defeat of the Spaniards in Portugall. We must surely make an advantageous Peace, however I'm no Politician."—MS. Letter of James Rennell, June 1, fr. Madras.

1774.—"Les Marchands à Bengale envoyèrent un Vaisseau à Suès en 1772, mais il fut endommagé dans le Golfe de Bengale, et obligé de retourner; en 1773 le Sr. Holford entreprit encore ce voyage, réussit cette fois, et fut ainsi le premier Anglois qui eut conduit un vaisseau à Suès.... On s'est déjà servi plusieurs fois de cette route comme d'un chemin de poste; car le Gouvernement des Indes envoye actuellement dans des cas d'importance ses Couriers par Suès en Angleterre, et peut presqu'avoir plutôt reponse de Londres que leurs lettres ne peuvent venir en Europe par le Chemin ordinaire du tour du Cap de bonne esperance."—Niebuhr, Voyage, ii. 10.

1776.—"We had advices long ago from England, as late as the end of May, by way of Suez. This is a new Route opened by Govr. Hastings, and the Letters which left Marseilles the 3rd June arrived here the 20th August. This, you'll allow, is a ready communication with Europe, and may be kept open at all times, if we chuse to take a little pains."—MS. Letter from James Rennell, Oct. 16, "from Islamabad, capital of Chittigong."

1781.—"On Monday last was Married Mr. George Greenley to Mrs. Anne Barrington, relict of the late Capt. William B——, who unfortunately perished on the Desart, in the attack that was made on the Carravan of Bengal Goods under his and the other Gentlemen's care between Suez and Grand Cairo."—India Gazette, March 7.

1782.—"When you left England with an intention to pass OVERLAND and by the route of the Red Sea into India, did you not know that no subject of these kingdoms can lawfully reside in India ... without the permission of the United Company of Merchants?..."—Price, Tracts, i. 130.

1783.—"... Mr. Paul Benfield, a gentleman whose means of intelligence were known to be both extensive and expeditious, publicly declared, from motives the most benevolent, that he had just received OVER-LAND from England certain information that Great Britain had finally concluded a peace with all the belligerent powers in Europe."—Munro's Narrative, 317.

1786.—"The packet that was coming to us OVERLAND, and that left England in July, was cut off by the wild Arabs between Aleppo and Bussora."—Lord Cornwallis, Dec. 28, in Correspondence, &c., i. 247.

1793.—"Ext. of a letter from Poonamalee, dated 7th June.

'The dispatch by way of Suez has put us all in a commotion.'"—Bombay Courier, June 29.

1803.—"From the Governor General to the Secret Committee, dated 24th Decr. 1802. Recd. OVERLAND, 9th May 1803."—Mahratta War Papers (Parliamentary).

OVIDORE, s. Port. Ouvidor, i.e. 'auditor,' an official constantly mentioned in the histories of Portuguese India. But the term is also applied in an English quotation below to certain Burmese officials, an application which must have been adopted from the Portuguese. It is in this case probably the translation of a Burmese designation, perhaps of Nekhan-dau, 'Royal Ear,' which is the title of certain Court officers.

1500.—"The Captain-Major (at Melinde) sent on board all the ships to beg that no one when ashore would in any way misbehave or produce a scandal; any such offence would be severely punished. And he ordered the mariners of the ships to land, and his own Provost of the force, with an OUVIDOR that he had on board, that they might keep an eye on our people to prevent mischief."—Correa, i. 165.

1507.—"And the Viceroy ordered the OUVIDOR GENERAL to hold an inquiry on this matter, on which the truth came out clearly that the Holy Apostle (Sanctiago) showed himself to the Moors when they were fighting with our people, and of this he sent word to the King, telling him that such martyrs were the men who were serving in these parts that our Lord took thought of them and sent them a Helper from Heaven."—Ibid. i. 717.

1698.—(At Syriam) "OVIDORES (Persons appointed to take notice of all passages in the Runday (office of administration) and advise them to Ava.... Three OVIDORES that always attend the Runday, and are sent to the King, upon errands, as occasion obliges."—Fleetwood's Diary, in Dalrymple, Or. Rep. i. 355, 360.

[OWL, s. Hind. aul, 'any great calamity, as a plague, cholera,' &c.

[1787.—"At the foot of the hills the country is called Teriani (see TERAI) ... and people in their passage catch a disorder, called in the language of that country AUL, which is a putrid fever, and of which the generality of persons who are attacked with it die in a few days...."—Asiat. Res. ii. 307.

1816.—"... rain brings alone with it the local malady called the OWL, so much dreaded in the woods and valleys of Nepaul."—Asiatic Journal, ii. 405.

1858.—"I have known European officers, who were never conscious of having drunk either of the waters above described, take the fever (OWL) in the month of May in the Tarae."—Sleeman, Journey in Oudh, ii. 103.]

P

PADDY, s. Rice in the husk; but the word is also, at least in composition, applied to growing rice. The word appears to have in some measure, a double origin.

There is a word batty (see BATTA) used by some writers on the west coast of India, which has probably helped to propagate our uses of paddy. This seems to be the Canarese batta or bhatta, 'rice in the husk,' which is also found in Mahr. as bhāt with the same sense, a word again which in Hind. is applied to 'cooked rice.' The last meaning is that of Skt. bhaktā, which is perhaps the original of all these forms.

But in Malay pādī [according to Mr. Skeat, usually pronounced pădi] Javan. pārī, is 'rice in the straw.' And the direct parentage of the word in India is thus apparently due to the Archipelago; arising probably out of the old importance of the export trade of rice from Java (see Raffles, Java, i. 239-240, and Crawfurd's Hist. iii. 345, and Descript. Dict., 368). Crawfurd, (Journ. Ind. Arch., iv. 187) seems to think that the Malayo-Javanese word may have come from India with the Portuguese. But this is impossible, for as he himself has shown (Desc. Dict., u.s.), the word pārī, more or less modified, exists in all the chief tongues of the Archipelago, and even in Madagascar, the connection of which last with the Malay regions certainly was long prior to the arrival of the Portuguese.

1580.—"Certaine Wordes of the naturall language of Jaua ... PAREE, ryce in the huske."—Sir F. Drake's Voyage, in Hakl. iv. 246.

1598.—"There are also divers other kinds of Rice, of a lesse price, and slighter than the other Ryce, and is called BATTE...."—Linschoten, 70; [Hak. Soc. i. 246].

1600.—"In the fields is such a quantity of rice, which they call BATE, that it gives its name to the kingdom of Calou, which is called on that account Batecalou."—Lucena, Vida do Padre F. Xavier, 121.

1615.—"... oryzae quoque agri feraces quam BATUM incolae dicunt."—Jarric, Thesaurus, i. 461.

1673.—"The Ground between this and the great Breach is well ploughed, and bears good BATTY."—Fryer, 67, see also 125. But in the Index he has PADDY.

1798.—"The PADDIE which is the name given to the rice, whilst in the husk, does not grow ... in compact ears, but like oats, in loose spikes."—Stavorinus, tr. i. 231.

1837.—"Parrots brought 900,000 loads of hill-PADDY daily, from the marshes of Chandata,—mice husking the hill-PADDY, without breaking it, converted it into rice."—Turnour's Mahawanso, 22.

1871.—"In Ireland Paddy makes riots, in Bengal raiyats make PADDY; and in this lies the difference between the PADDY of green Bengal, and the Paddy of the Emerald Isle."—Govinda Samanta, ii. 25.

1878.—"Il est établi un droit sur les riz et les PADDYS exportés de la Colonie, excepté pour le Cambodge par la voie du fleuve."—Courrier de Saigon, Sept. 20.

PADDY-BIRD, s. The name commonly given by Europeans to certain baser species of the family Ardeidae or Herons, which are common in the rice-fields, close in the wake of grazing cattle. Jerdon gives it as the European's name for the Ardeola leucoptera, Boddaert, andhā baglā ('blind heron') of the Hindus, a bird which is more or less coloured. But in Bengal, if we are not mistaken, it is more commonly applied to the pure white bird—Herodias alba, L., or Ardea Torra, Buch. Ham., and Herodias egrettoides, Temminck, or Ardea putea, Buch. Ham.

1727.—"They have also Store of wild Fowl; but who have a Mind to eat them must shoot them. Flamingoes are large and good Meat. The PADDY-BIRD is also good in their season."—A. Hamilton, i. 161; [ed. 1744, i. 162-3].

1868.—"The most common bird (in Formosa) was undoubtedly the PADI BIRD, a species of heron (Ardea prasinosceles), which was constantly flying across the padi, or rice-fields."—Collingwood, Rambles of a Naturalist, 44.

PADDY-FIELD, s. A rice-field, generally in its flooded state.

1759.—"They marched onward in the plain towards Preston's force, who, seeing them coming, halted on the other side of a long morass formed by PADDY-FIELDS."—Orme, ed. 1803, iii. 430.

1800.—"There is not a single PADDY-FIELD in the whole county, but plenty of cotton ground (see REGUR) swamps, which in this wet weather are delightful."—Wellington to Munro, in Despatches, July 3.

1809.—"The whole country was in high cultivation, consequently the PADDY-FIELDS were nearly impassable."—Ld. Valentia, i. 350.

PADRE, s. A priest, clergyman, or minister, of the Christian Religion; when applied by natives to their own priests, as it sometimes is when they speak to Europeans, this is only by way of accommodation, as 'church' is also sometimes so used by them.

The word has been taken up from the Portuguese, and was of course applied originally to Roman Catholic priests only. But even in that respect there was a peculiarity in its Indian use among the Portuguese. For P. della Valle (see below) notices it as a singularity of their practice at Goa that they gave the title of Padre to secular priests, whereas in Italy this was reserved to the religiosi or regulars. In Portugal itself, as Bluteau's explanation shows, the use is, or was formerly, the same as in Italy; but, as the first ecclesiastics who went to India were monks, the name apparently became general among the Portuguese there for all priests.

It is a curious example of the vitality of words that this one which had thus already in the 16th century in India a kind of abnormally wide application, has now in that country a still wider, embracing all Christian ministers. It is applied to the Protestant clergy at Madras early in the 18th century. A bishop is known as LORD (see LAT) PADRE. See LAT Sahib.

According to Leland the word is used in China in the form pa-ti-li.

1541.—"Chegando á Porta da Igreja, o sahirão a receber oito PADRES."—Pinto, ch. lxix. (see Cogan, p. 85).

1584.—"It was the will of God that we found there two PADRES, the one an Englishman, and the other a Flemming."—Fitch, in Hakl. ii. 381.

" "... had it not pleased God to put it into the minds of the archbishop and other two PADRES of Jesuits of S. Paul's Colledge to stand our friends, we might have rotted in prison."—Newberrie, ibid. ii. 380.

c. 1590.—"Learned monks also come from Europe, who go by the name of PÁDRE. They have an infallible head called Pápá. He can change any religious ordinances as he may think advisable, and kings have to submit to his authority."—Badāonī, in Blochmann's Āīn, i. 182.

c. 1606.—"Et ut adesse PATRES comperiunt, minor exclamat PADRIGI, PADRIGI, id est Domine Pater, Christianus sum."—Jarric, iii. 155.

1614.—"The PADRES make a church of one of their Chambers, where they say Masse twice a day."—W. Whittington, in Purchas, i. 486.

1616.—"So seeing Master Terry whom I brought with me, he (the King) called to him, PADRE you are very welcome, and this house is yours."—Sir T. Roe, in Purchas, i. 564; [Hak. Soc. ii. 385].

1623.—"I Portoghesi chiamano anche i preti secolari PADRI, come noi i religiosi...."—P. della Valle, ii. 586; [Hak. Soc. i. 142].

1665.—"They (Hindu Jogis) are impertinent enough to compare themselves with our Religious Men they meet with in the Indies. I have often taken pleasure to catch them, using much ceremony with them, and giving them great respect; but I soon heard them say to one another, This Franguis knows who we are, he hath been a great while in the Indies, he knows that we are the PADRYS of the Indians. A fine comparison, said I, within myself, made by an impertinent and idolatrous rabble of Men!"—Bernier, E.T. 104; [ed. Constable, 323].

1675.—"The PADRE (or Minister) complains to me that he hath not that respect and place of preference at Table and elsewhere that is due unto him.... At his request I promised to move it at ye next meeting of ye Councell. What this little Sparke may enkindle, especially should it break out in ye Pulpit, I cannot foresee further than the inflaming of ye dyning Roome w^{ch} sometimes is made almost intollerable hot upon other Acc^{ts}."—Mr. Puckle's Diary at Metchlapatam, MS. in India Office.

1676.—"And whiles the French have no settlement near hand, the keeping French PADRYS here instead of Portugueses, destroys the encroaching growth of the Portugall interest, who used to entail Portugalism as well as Christianity on all their converts."—Madras Consns., Feb. 29, in Notes and Exts. i. p. 46.

1680.—"... where as at the Dedication of a New Church by the French PADRYS and Portugez in 1675 guns had been fired from the Fort in honour thereof, neither PADRY nor Portugez appeared at the Dedication of our Church, nor as much as gave the Governor a visit afterwards to give him joy of it."—Ibid. Oct. 28. No. III. p. 37.

c. 1692.—"But their greatest act of tyranny (at Goa) is this. If a subject of these misbelievers dies, leaving young children, and no grown-up son, the children are considered wards of the State. They take them to their places of worship, their churches ... and the PADRIS, that is to say the priests, instruct the children in the Christian religion, and bring them up in their own faith, whether the child be a Mussulman saiyid or a Hindú bráhman."—Kháfi Khán, in Elliot, vii. 345.

1711.—"The Danish PADRE Bartholomew Ziegenbalgh, requests leave to go to Europe in the first ship, and in consideration that he is head of a Protestant Mission, espoused by the Right Reverend the Lord Archbishop of Canterbury ... we have presumed to grant him his passage."—In Wheeler, ii. 177.

1726.—"May 14. Mr. Leeke went with me to St. Thomas's Mount.... We conversed with an old PADRE from Silesia, who had been 27 years in India...."—Diary of the Missionary Schultze (in Notices of Madras, &c., 1858), p. 14.

" "May 17. The minister of the King of Pegu called on me. From him I learned, through an interpreter, that Christians of all nations and professions have perfect freedom at Pegu; that even in the Capital two French, two Armenian, and two Portuguese PATRES, have their churches...."—Ibid. p. 15.

1803.—"Lord Lake was not a little pleased at the Begum's loyalty, and being a little elevated by the wine ... he gallantly advanced, and to the utter dismay of her attendants, took her in his arms, and kissed her.... Receiving courteously the proffered attention, she turned calmly round to her astonished attendants—'It is,' said she, 'the salute of a PADRE (or priest) to his daughter.'"—Skinner's Mil. Mem. i. 293.

1809.—"The PADRE, who is a half cast Portuguese, informed me that he had three districts under him."—Ld. Valentia, i. 329.

1830.—"Two fat naked Brahmins, bedaubed with paint, had been importuning me for money ... upon the ground that they were PADRES."—Mem. of Col. Mountain, iii.

1876.—"There is PADRE Blunt for example,—we always call them PADRES in India, you know,—makes a point of never going beyond ten minutes, at any rate during the hot weather."—The Dilemma, ch. xliii.

PADSHAW, PODSHAW, s. Pers.—Hind. pādishāh (Pers. pād, pāt 'throne,' shāh, 'prince'), an emperor; the Great MOGUL (q.v.); a king.

[1553.—"PATXIAH." See under POORUB.

[1612.—"He acknowledges no PADENSHAWE or King in Christendom but the Portugals' King."—Danvers, Letters, i. 175.]

c. 1630.—"... round all the roome were placed tacite Mirzoes, Chauns, Sultans, and Beglerbegs, above threescore; who like so many inanimate Statues sat crosse-legg'd ... their backs to the wall, their eyes to a constant object; not daring to speak to one another, sneeze, cough, spet, or the like, it being held in the POTSHAW'S presence a sinne of too great presumption."—Sir T. Herbert, ed. 1638, p. 169. At p. 171 of the same we have POTSHAUGH; and in the edition of 1677, in a vocabulary of the language spoken in Hindustan, we have "King, PATCHAW." And again: "Is the King at Agra?... PUNSHAW Agrameha?" (Pādishāh Agrā meṅ hai?)—99-100.

1673.—"They took upon them without controul the Regal Dignity and Title of PEDESHAW."—Fryer, 166.

1727.—"Aureng-zeb, who is now saluted PAUTSHAW, or Emperor, by the Army, notwithstanding his Father was then alive."—A. Hamilton, i. 175, [ed. 1744].

PAGAR, s.

A. This word, the Malay for a 'fence, enclosure,' occurs in the sense of 'factory' in the following passage:

1702.—"Some other out-PAGARS or Factories, depending upon the Factory of Bencoolen."—Charters of the E.I. Co. p. 324.

In some degree analogous to this use is the application, common among Hindustani-speaking natives, of the Hind.—Arab. word iḥāṭa, 'a fence, enclosure,' in the sense of Presidency: Bombay kī [kā] iḥāṭa, Bangāl kī [kā] iḥāta, a sense not given in Shakespear or Forbes; [it is given in Fallon and Platts. Mr. Skeat points out that the Malay word is pāgar, 'a fence,' but that it is not used in the sense of a 'factory' in the Malay Peninsula. In the following passage it seems to mean 'factory stock':

[1615.—"The King says that at her arrival he will send them their house and PAGARR upon rafts to them."—Foster, Letters, iii. 151.]

B. (pagār). This word is in general use in the Bombay domestic dialect for wages, Mahr. pagār. It is obviously the Port. verb pagar, 'to pay,' used as a substantive.

[1875.—"... the heavy-browed sultana of some Gangetic station, whose stern look palpably interrogates the amount of your monthly PAGGAR."—Wilson, Abode of Snow, 46.]

PAGODA, s. This obscure and remarkable word is used in three different senses.

A. An idol temple; and also specifically, in China, a particular form of religious edifice, of which the famous "Porcelain tower" of Nanking, now destroyed, may be recalled as typical. In the 17th century we find the word sometimes misapplied to places of Mahommedan worship, as by Faria-y-Sousa, who speaks of the "PAGODA of Mecca."

B. An idol.

C. A coin long current in S. India. The coins so called were both gold and silver, but generally gold. The gold pagoda was the varāha or hūn of the natives (see HOON); the former name (fr. Skt. for 'boar') being taken from the Boar avatār of Vishnu, which was figured on a variety of ancient coins of the South; and the latter signifying 'gold,' no doubt identical with sonā, and an instance of the exchange of h and s. (See also PARDAO.)

Accounts at Madras down to 1818 were kept in pagodas, fanams, and kās (see CASH); 8 kās = 1 fanam, 42 fanams = 1 pagoda. In the year named the rupee was made the standard coin.[195] The pagoda was then reckoned as equivalent to 3½ rupees.

In the suggestions of etymologies for this word, the first and most prominent meaning alone has almost always been regarded, and doubtless justly; for the other uses are deduceable from it. Such suggestions have been many.

Thus Chinese origins have been propounded in more than one form; e.g. Pao-t'ah, 'precious pile,' and Poh-kuh-t'ah ('white-bones-pile').[196] Anything can be made out of Chinese monosyllables in the way of etymology; though no doubt it is curious that the first at least of these phrases is actually applied by the Chinese to the polygonal towers which in China foreigners specially call pagodas. Whether it be possible that this phrase may have been in any measure formed in imitation of pagoda, so constantly in the mouth of foreigners, we cannot say (though it would not be a solitary example of such borrowing—see NEELAM); but we can say with confidence that it is impossible pagoda should have been taken from the Chinese. The quotations from Corsali and Barbosa set that suggestion at rest.

Another derivation is given (and adopted by so learned an etymologist as H. Wedgwood) from the Portuguese pagão, 'a pagan.' It is possible that this word may have helped to facilitate the Portuguese adoption of pagoda; it is not possible that it should have given rise to the word. A third theory makes pagoda a transposition of DAGOBA. The latter is a genuine word, used in Ceylon, but known in Continental India, since the extinction of Buddhism, only in the most rare and exceptional way.

A fourth suggestion connects it with the Skt. bhagavat, 'holy, divine,' or Bhagavatī, applied to Durgā and other goddesses; and a fifth makes it a corruption of the Pers. but-kadah, 'idol-temple'; a derivation given below by Ovington. There can be little doubt that the origin really lies between these two.

The two contributors to this book are somewhat divided on this subject:—

(1) Against the derivation from bhagavat, 'holy,' or the Mahr. form bhagavant, is the objection that the word pagode from the earliest date has the final e, which was necessarily pronounced. Nor is bhagavant a name for a temple in any language of India. On the other hand but-kadah is a phrase which the Portuguese would constantly hear from the Mahommedans with whom they chiefly had to deal on their first arrival in India. This is the view confidently asserted by Reinaud (Mémoires sur l'Inde, 90), and is the etymology given by Littré.

As regards the coins, it has been supposed, naturally enough, that they were called pagoda, because of the figure of a temple which some of them bear; and which indeed was borne by the pagodas of the Madras Mint, as may be seen in Thomas's Prinsep, pl. xlv. But in fact coins with this impress were first struck at Ikkeri at a date after the word pagode was already in use among the Portuguese. However, nearly all bore on one side a rude representation of a Hindu deity (see e.g. Kṛishṇarāja's pagoda, c. 1520), and sometimes two such images. Some of these figures are specified by Prinsep (Useful Tables, p. 41), and Varthema speaks of them: "These pardai ... have two devils stamped upon one side of them, and certain letters on the other" (115-116). Here the name may have been appropriately taken from bhagavat (A. B.).

On the other hand, it may be urged that the resemblance between but-kadah and pagode is hardly close enough, and that the derivation from but-kadah does not easily account for all the uses of the word. Indeed, it seems admitted in the preceding paragraph that bhagavat may have had to do with the origin of the word in one of its meanings.

Now it is not possible that the word in all its applications may have had its origin from bhagavat, or some current modification of that word? We see from Marco Polo that such a term was currently known to foreign visitors of S. India in his day—a term almost identical in sound with pagoda, and bearing in his statement a religious application, though not to a temple.[197] We thus have four separate applications of the word pacauta, or pagoda, picked up by foreigners on the shores of India from the 13th century downwards, viz. to a Hindu ejaculatory formula, to a place of Hindu worship, to a Hindu idol, to a Hindu coin with idols represented on it. Is it not possible that all are to be traced to bhagavat, 'sacred,' or to Bhagavat and Bhagavatī, used as names of divinities—of Buddha in Buddhist times or places, of Kṛishṇa and Durgā in Brahminical times and places? (uses which are fact). How common was the use of Bhagavatī as the name of an object of worship in Malabar, may be seen from an example. Turning to Wilson's work on the Mackenzie MSS., we find in the list of local MS. tracts belonging to Malabar, the repeated occurrence of Bhagavati in this way. Thus in this section of the book we have at p. xcvi. (vol. ii.) note of an account "of a temple of Bhagavati"; at p. ciii. "Temple of Mannadi Bhagavati goddess ..."; at p. civ. "Temple of Mangombu Bhagavati ..."; "Temple of Paddeparkave Bhagavati ..."; "Temple of the goddess Pannáyennar Kave Bhagavati ..."; "Temple of the goddess Patáli Bhagavati ..."; "Temple of Bhagavati ..."; p. cvii., "Account of the goddess Bhagavati at, &c. ..."; p. cviii., "Acc. of the goddess Yalanga Bhagavati," "Acc. of the goddess Vallur Bhagavati." The term Bhagavati seems thus to have been very commonly attached to objects of worship in Malabar temples (see also Fra Paolino, p. 79 and p. 57, quoted under C. below). And it is very interesting to observe that, in a paper on "Coorg Superstitions," Mr. Kittel notices parenthetically that Bhadrā Kālī (i.e. Durgā) is "also called POGŎDI, Pavodi, a tadbhava of BAGAVATI" (Ind. Antiq. ii. 170)—an incidental remark that seems to bring us very near the possible origin of pagode. It is most probable that some form like pogodi or pagode was current in the mouths of foreign visitors before the arrival of the Portuguese; but if the word was of Portuguese origin there may easily have been some confusion in their ears between Bagavati and but-kadah which shaped the new word. It is no sufficient objection to say that bhagavati is not a term applied by the natives to a temple; the question is rather what misunderstanding and mispronunciation by foreigners of a native term may probably have given rise to the term?—(H. Y.)

Since the above was written, Sir Walter Elliot has kindly furnished a note, of which the following is an extract:—

"I took some pains to get at the origin of the word when at Madras, and the conclusion I came to was that it arose from the term used generally for the object of their worship, viz., Bhagavat, 'god'; bhagavati, 'goddess.'

"Thus, the Hindu temple with its lofty gopuram or propylon at once attracts attention, and a stranger enquiring what it was, would be told, 'the house or place of Bhagavat.' The village divinity throughout the south is always a form of Durga, or, as she is commonly called, simply 'Devi' (or Bhagavati, 'the goddess').... In like manner a figure of Durga is found on most of the gold Huns (i.e. pagoda coins) current in the Dakhan, and a foreigner inquiring what such a coin was, or rather what was the form stamped upon it, would be told it was 'the goddess,' i.e., it was 'Bhagavati.'"

As my friend, Dr. Burnell, can no longer represent his own view, it seems right here to print the latest remarks of his on the subject that I can find. They are in a letter from Tanjore, dated March 10, 1880:—

"I think I overlooked a remark of yours regarding my observation that the e in Pagode was pronounced, and that this was a difficulty in deriving it from Bhagavat. In modern Portuguese e is not sounded, but verses show that it was in the 16th century. Now, if there is a final vowel in Pagoda, it must come from Bhagavati; but though the goddess is and was worshipped to a certain extent in S. India, it is by other names (Amma, &c.). Gundert and Kittel give 'Pogodi' as a name of a Durga temple, but assuredly this is no corruption of Bhagavati, but Pagoda! Malayālam and Tamil are full of such adopted words. Bhagavati is little used, and the goddess is too insignificant to give rise to pagoda as a general name for a temple.

"Bhagavat can only appear in the S. Indian languages in its (Skt.) nominative form bhagavān (Tamil paγuvān). As such, in Tamil and Malayālam it equals Vishnu or Siva, which would suit. But pagoda can't be got out of bhagavān; and if we look to the N. Indian forms, bhagavant, &c., there is the difficulty about the e, to say nothing about the nt."

The use of the word by Barbosa at so early a date as 1516, and its application to a particular class of temples must not be overlooked.

A.—

1516.—"There is another sect of people among the Indians of Malabar, which is called Cujaven [Kushavan, Logan, Malabar, i. 115].... Their business is to work at baked clay, and tiles for covering houses, with which the temples and Royal buildings are roofed.... Their idolatry and their idols are different from those of the others; and in their houses of prayer they perform a thousand acts of witchcraft and necromancy; they call their temples PAGODES, and they are separate from the others."—Barbosa, 135. This is from Lord Stanley of Alderley's translation from a Spanish MS. The Italian of Ramusio reads: "nelle loro orationi fanno molte strigherie e necromãtie, le quali chiamano PAGODES, differenti assai dall' altre" (Ramusio, i. f. 308_v_.). In the Portuguese MS. published by the Lisbon Academy in 1812, the words are altogether absent; and in interpolating them from Ramusio the editor has given the same sense as in Lord Stanley's English.

1516.—"In this city of Goa, and all over India, there are an infinity of ancient buildings of the Gentiles, and in a small island near this, called Dinari, the Portuguese, in order to build the city, have destroyed an ancient temple called PAGODE, which was built with marvellous art, and with ancient figures wrought to the greatest perfection in a certain black stone, some of which remain standing, ruined and shattered, because these Portuguese care nothing about them. If I can come by one of these shattered images I will send it to your Lordship, that you may perceive how much in old times sculpture was esteemed in every part of the world."—Letter of Andrea Corsali to Giuliano de'Medici, in Ramusio, i. f. 177.

1543.—"And with this fleet he anchored at Coulão (see QUILON) and landed there with all his people. And the Governor (Martim Afonso de Sousa) went thither because of information he had of a PAGODE which was quite near in the interior, and which, they said, contained much treasure.... And the people of the country seeing that the Governor was going to the PAGODE, they sent to offer him 50,000 pardaos not to go."—Correa, iv. 325-326.

1554.—"And for the monastery of Santa Fee 845,000 reis yearly, besides the revenue of the PAGUODES which His Highness bestowed upon the said House, which gives 600,000 reis a year...."—Botelho, Tombo, in Subsidios, 70.

1563.—"They have (at Baçaim) in one part a certain island called Salsete, where there are two PAGODES or houses of idolatry."—Garcia, f. 211_v_.

1582.—"... PAGODE, which is the house of praiers to their Idolls."—Castañeda (by N. L.), f. 34.

1594.—"And as to what you have written to me, viz., that although you understand how necessary it was for the increase of the Christianity of those parts to destroy all the PAGODAS and mosques (pagodes e mesquitas), which the Gentiles and the Moors possess in the fortified places of this State...." (The King goes on to enjoin the Viceroy to treat this matter carefully with some theologians and canonists of those parts, but not to act till he shall have reported to the King).—Letter from the K. of Portugal to the Viceroy, in Arch. Port. Orient., Fasc. 3, p. 417.

1598.—"... houses of Diuels [Divels] which they call PAGODES."—Linschoten, 22; [Hak. Soc. i. 70].

1606.—Gouvea uses PAGODE both for a temple and for an idol, e.g., see f. 46_v_, f. 47.

1630.—"That he should erect PAGODS for God's worship, and adore images under green trees."—Lord, Display, &c.

1638.—"There did meet us at a great POGODO or PAGOD, which is a famous and sumptuous Temple (or Church)."—W. Bruton, in Hakl. v. 49.

1674.—"Thus they were carried, many flocking about them, to a PAGOD or Temple" (pagode in the orig.).—Steven's Faria y Sousa, i. 45.

1674.—"PAGOD (quasi Pagan-God), an Idol or false god among the Indians; also a kind of gold coin among them equivalent to our Angel."—Glossographia, &c., by T. S.

1689.—"A PAGODA ... borrows its Name from the Persian word Pout, which signifies Idol; thence Pout-Gheda, a Temple of False Gods, and from thence PAGODE."—Ovington, 159.

1696.—"... qui eussent élévé des PAGODES au milieu des villes."—La Bruyère, Caractères, ed. Jouast, 1881, ii. 306.

[1710.—"In India we use this word pagoda (PAGODES) indiscriminately for idols or temples of the Gentiles."—Oriente Conquistado, vol. i. Conq. i. Div. i. 53.]

1717.—"... the PAGODS, or Churches."—Phillip's Account, 12.

1727.—"There are many ancient PAGODS or Temples in this country, but there is one very particular which stands upon a little Mountain near Vizagapatam, where they worship living Monkies."—A. Hamilton, i. 380 [ed. 1744].

1736.—"PÁGOD [incert. etym.], an idol's temple in China."—Bailey's Dict. 2nd ed.

1763.—"These divinities are worshipped in temples called PAGODAS in every part of Indostan."—Orme, Hist. i. 2.

1781.—"During this conflict (at Chillumbrum), all the Indian females belonging to the garrison were collected at the summit of the highest PAGODA, singing in a loud and melodious chorus hallelujahs, or songs of exhortation, to their people below, which inspired the enemy with a kind of frantic enthusiasm. This, even in the heat of the attack, had a romantic and pleasing effect, the musical sounds being distinctly heard at a considerable distance by the assailants."—Munro's Narrative, 222.

1809.—

"In front, with far stretch'd walls, and many a tower, Turret, and dome, and pinnacle elate, The huge PAGODA seemed to load the land." Kehama, viii. 4.

[1830.—"... PAGODAS, which are so termed from paug, an idol, and ghoda, a temple (!)...."—Mrs. Elwood, Narrative of a Journey Overland from England, ii. 27.]

1855.—"... Among a dense cluster of palm-trees and small PAGODAS, rises a colossal Gaudama, towering above both, and, Memnon-like, glowering before him with a placid and eternal smile."—Letters from the Banks of the Irawadee, Blackwood's Mag., May, 1856.

B.—

1498.—"And the King gave the letter with his own hand, again repeating the words of the oath he had made, and swearing besides by his PAGODES, which are their idols, that they adore for gods...."—Correa, Lendas, i. 119.

1582.—"The Divell is oftentimes in them, but they say it is one of their Gods or PAGODES."—Castañeda (tr. by N. L.), f. 37.

[In the following passage from the same author, as Mr. Whiteway points out, the word is used in both senses, a temple and an idol:

"In Goa I have seen this festival in a PAGODA, that stands in the island of Divar, which is called Çapatu, where people collect from a long distance; they bathe in the arm of the sea between the two islands, and they believe ... that on that day the idol (PAGODE) comes to that water, and they cast in for him much betel and many plantains and sugar-canes; and they believe that the idol (PAGODE) eats those things."—Castanheda, ii. ch. 34. In the orig., PAGODE when meaning a temple has a small, and when the idol, a capital, P.]

1584.—"La religione di queste genti non si intende per esser differenti sette fra loro; hanno certi lor PAGODI che son gli idoli...."—Letter of Sassetti, in De Gubernatis, 155.

1587.—"The house in which his PAGODE or idol standeth is covered with tiles of silver."—R. Fitch, in Hakl. ii. 391.

1598.—"... The PAGODES, their false and divelish idols."—Linschoten, 26; [Hak. Soc. i. 86].

1630.—"... so that the Bramanes under each green tree erect temples to PAGODS...."—Lord, Display, &c.

c. 1630.—"Many deformed PAGOTHAS are here worshipped; having this ordinary evasion that they adore not Idols, but the Deumos which they represent."—Sir T. Herbert, ed. 1665, p. 375.

1664.—

"Their classic model proved a maggot, Their Directory an Indian PAGOD." Hudibras, Pt. II. Canto i.

1693.—"... For, say they, what is the PAGODA? it is an image or stone...."—In Wheeler, i. 269.

1727.—"... the Girl with the Pot of Fire on her Head, walking all the Way before. When they came to the End of their journey ... where was placed another black stone PAGOD, the Girl set her Fire before it, and run stark mad for a Minute or so."—A. Hamilton, i. 274 [ed. 1744].

c. 1737.—

"See thronging millions to the PAGOD run, And offer country, Parent, wife or son." Pope, Epilogue to Sat. I.

1814.—"Out of town six days. On my return, find my poor little PAGOD, Napoleon, pushed off his pedestal;—the thieves are in Paris."—Letter of Byron's, April 8, in Moore's Life, ed. 1832, iii. 21.

C.—

c. 1566.—"Nell' vscir poi li caualli Arabi di Goa, si paga di datio quaranta due PAGODI per cauallo, et ogni PAGODO val otto lire alia nostra moneta; e sono monete d'oro; de modo che li caualli Arabi sono in gran prezzo in que' paesi, come sarebbe trecento quattro cento, cinque cento, e fina mille ducati l'vno."—C. Federici, in Ramusio, iii. 388.

1597.—"I think well to order and decree that the PAGODES which come from without shall not be current unless they be of forty and three points (assay?) conformable to the first issue, which is called of Agra, and which is of the same value as that of the San Tomes, which were issued in its likeness."—Edict of the King, in Archiv. Port. Orient. iii. 782.

1598.—"There are yet other sorts of money called PAGODES.... They are Indian and Heathenish money with the picture of a Diuell vpon them, and therefore are called PAGODES...."—Linschoten, 54 and 69; [Hak. Soc. i. 187, 242].

1602.—"And he caused to be sent out for the Kings of the Decan and Canara two thousand horses from those that were in Goa, and this brought the King 80,000 PAGODES, for every one had to pay forty as duty. These were imported by the Moors and other merchants from the ports of Arabia and Persia; in entering Goa they are free and uncharged, but on leaving that place they have to pay these duties."—Couto, IV. vi. 6.

[ " "... with a sum of gold PAGODES, a coin of the upper country (Balagate), each of which is worth 500 reis (say 11s. 3d.; the usual value was 360 reis)."—Ibid. VII. i. 11.]

1623.—"... An Indian Gentile Lord called Rama Rau, who has no more in all than 2000 PAGOD [PAYGODS] of annual revenue, of which again he pays about 800 to Venktapà Naieka, whose tributary he is...."—P. della Valle, ii. 692; [Hak. Soc. ii. 306].

1673.—"About this time the Rajah ... was weighed in Gold, and poised about 16,000 PAGODS."—Fryer, 80.

1676.—"For in regard these PAGODS are very thick, and cannot be clipt, those that are Masters of the trade, take a Piercer, and pierce the PAGOD through the side, halfway or more, taking out of one piece as much Gold as comes to two or three Sous."—Tavernier, E.T. 1684, ii. 4; [Ball, ii. 92].

1780.—"Sir Thomas Rumbold, Bart., resigned the Government of Fort St. George on the Mg. of the 9th inst., and immediately went on board the General Barker. It is confidently reported that he has not been able to accumulate a very large Fortune, considering the long time he has been at Madrass; indeed people say it amounts to only 17 Lacks and a half of PAGODAS, or a little more than £600,000 sterling."—Hicky's Bengal Gazette, April 15.

1785.—"Your servants have no Trade in this country, neither do you pay them high wages, yet in a few years they return to England with many lacs of PAGODAS."—Nabob of Arcot, in Burke's Speech on the Nabob's Debts, Works, ed. 1852, iv. 18.

1796.—"La Bhagavadi, moneta d'oro, che ha l'immagine della dea Bhagavadi, nome corrotto in PAGODI O PAGODE dagli Europei, è moneta rotonda, convessa in una parte...."—Fra Paolino, 57.

1803.—"It frequently happens that in the bazaar, the star PAGODA exchanges for 4 rupees, and at other times for not more than 3."—Wellington, Desp., ed. 1837, ii. 375.

PAGODA-TREE. A slang phrase once current, rather in England than in India, to express the openings to rapid fortune which at one time existed in India. [For the original meaning, see the quotation from Ryklof Van Goens under BO TREE. Mr. Skeat writes: "It seems possible that the idea of a coin tree may have arisen from the practice, among some Oriental nations at least, of making CASH in moulds, the design of which is based on the plan of a tree. On the E. coast of the Malay Peninsula the name cash-tree (poko' pitis) is applied to cash cast in this form. Gold and silver tributary trees are sent to Siam by the tributary States: in these the leaves are in the shape of ordinary tree leaves."]

1877.—"India has been transferred from the regions of romance to the realms of fact ... the mines of Golconda no longer pay the cost of working, and the PAGODA-TREE has been stripped of all its golden fruit."—Blackwood's Magazine, 575.

1881.—"It might be mistaken ... for the work of some modern architect, built for the Nabob of a couple of generations back, who had enriched himself when the PAGODA-TREE was worth the shaking."—Sat. Review, Sept. 3, p. 307.

PAHLAVI, PEHLVI. The name applied to the ancient Persian language in that phase which prevailed from the beginning of the Sassanian monarchy to the time when it became corrupted by the influence of Arabic, and the adoption of numerous Arabic words and phrases. The name Pahlavi was adopted by Europeans from the Parsi use. The language of Western Persia in the time of the Achaemenian kings, as preserved in the cuneiform inscriptions of Persepolis, Behistun, and elsewhere, is nearly akin to the dialects of the ZEND-AVESTA, and is characterised by a number of inflections agreeing with those of the Avesta and of Sanskrit. The dissolution of inflectional terminations is already indicated as beginning in the later Achaemenian inscriptions, and in many parts of the Zend-Avesta, but its course cannot be traced, as there are no inscriptions in Persian language during the time of the Arsacidae; and it is in the inscriptions on rocks and coins of Ardakhshīr-i-Pāpaḳān (A.D. 226-240)—the Ardashīr Babagān of later Persian—that the language emerges in a form of that which is known as Pahlavi. "But, strictly speaking, the medieval Persian language is called Pahlavi when it is written in one of the characters used before the invention of the modern Persian alphabet, and in the peculiarly enigmatical mode adopted in Pahlavi writings.... Like the Assyrians of old, the Persians of Parthian times appear to have borrowed their writing from a foreign race. But, whereas the Semitic Assyrians adopted a Turanian syllabary, these later Aryan Persians accepted a Semitic alphabet. Besides the alphabet, however, which they could use for spelling their own words, they transferred a certain number of complete Semitic words to their writings as representatives of the corresponding words in their own language.... The use of such Semitic words, scattered about in Persian sentences, gives Pahlavi the motley appearance of a compound language.... But there are good reasons for supposing that the language was never spoken as it was written. The spoken language appears to have been pure Persian; the Semitic words being merely used as written representatives, or logograms, of the Persian words which were spoken. Thus, the Persians would write malkân malkâ, 'King of Kings,' but they would read shâhân shâh.... As the Semitic words were merely a Pahlavi mode of writing their Persian equivalents (just as 'viz.' is a mode of writing 'namely' in English[198]), they disappeared with the Pahlavi writing, and the Persians began at once to write all their words with their new alphabet, just as they pronounced them" (E. W. West, Introd. to Pahlavi Texts, p. xiii.; Sacred Books of the East, vol. v.).[199]

Extant Pahlavi writings are confined to those of the Parsis, translations from the Avesta, and others almost entirely of a religious character. Where the language is transcribed, either in the Avesta characters, or in those of the modern Persian alphabet, and freed from the singular system indicated above, it is called Pazand (see PAZEND); a term supposed to be derived from the language of the Avesta, paitizanti, with the meaning 're-explanation.'

Various explanations of the term Pahlavi have been suggested. It seems now generally accepted as a changed form of the Parthva of the cuneiform inscriptions, the Parthia of Greek and Roman writers. The Parthians, though not a Persian race, were rulers of Persia for five centuries, and it is probable that everything ancient, and connected with the period of their rule, came to be called by this name. It is apparently the same word that in the form pahlav and pahlavān, &c., has become the appellation of a warrior or champion in both Persian and Armenian, originally derived from that most warlike people the Parthians. (See PULWAUN.) Whether there was any identity between the name thus used, and that of Pahlava, which is applied to a people mentioned often in Sanskrit books, is a point still unsettled.

The meaning attached to the term Pahlavi by Orientals themselves, writing in Arabic or Persian (exclusive of Parsis), appears to have been 'Old Persian' in general, without restriction to any particular period or dialect. It is thus found applied to the cuneiform inscriptions at Persepolis. (Derived from West as quoted above, and from Haug's Essays, ed. London, 1878.)

c. 930.—"Quant au mot dirafeh, en PEHLVI (al-fahlviya) c'est à dire dans la langue primitive de la Perse, il signifie drapeau, pique et étendard."—Maṣ'ūdī, iii. 252.

c. A.D. 1000.—"Gayômarth, who was called Girshâh, because Gir means in PAHLAVÎ a mountain...."—Albîrûnî, Chronology, 108.

PAILOO, s. The so-called 'triumphal arches,' or gateways, which form so prominent a feature in Chinese landscape, really monumental erections in honour of deceased persons of eminent virtue. Chin. pai, 'a tablet,' and lo, 'a stage or erection.' Mr. Fergusson has shown the construction to have been derived from India with Buddhism (see Indian and Eastern Architecture, pp. 700-702). [So the Torii of Japan seem to represent Skt. toraṇa, 'an archway' (see Chamberlain, Things Japanese, 3rd ed. 407 seq.).]

PÁLAGILÁSS, s. This is domestic Hind. for 'Asparagus' (Panjab N. & Q. ii. 189).

PALANKEEN, PALANQUIN, s. A box-litter for travelling in, with a pole projecting before and behind, which is borne on the shoulders of 4 or 6 men—4 always in Bengal, 6 sometimes in the Telugu country.

The origin of the word is not doubtful, though it is by no means clear how the Portuguese got the exact form which they have handed over to us. The nasal termination may be dismissed as a usual Portuguese addition, such as occurs in mandarin, Baçaim (Wasai), and many other words and names as used by them. The basis of all the forms is Skt. paryañka, or palyañka, 'a bed,' from which we have Hind. and Mahr. palang, 'a bed,' Hind. pālkī, 'a palankin,' [Telugu pallakī, which is perhaps the origin of the Port. word], Pali pallanko, 'a couch, bed, litter, or palankin' (Childers), and in Javanese and Malay palañgki, 'a litter or sedan' (Crawfurd).[200]

It is curious that there is a Spanish word palanca (L. Lat. phalanga) for a pole used to carry loads on the shoulders of two bearers (called in Sp. palanquinos); a method of transport more common in the south than in England, though even in old English the thing has a name, viz. 'a cowle-staff' (see N.E.D.). It is just possible that this word (though we do not find it in the Portuguese dictionaries) may have influenced the form in which the early Portuguese visitors to India took up the word.

The thing appears already in the Rāmāyana. It is spoken of by Ibn Batuta and John Marignolli (both c. 1350), but neither uses this Indian name; and we have not found evidence of pālkī older than Akbar (see Elliot, iv. 515, and Āīn, i. 254).

As drawn by Linschoten (1597), and as described by Grose at Bombay (c. 1760), the palankin was hung from a bamboo which bent in an arch over the vehicle; a form perhaps not yet entirely obsolete in native use. Williamson (V. M., i. 316 seqq.) gives an account of the different changes in the fashion of palankins, from which it would appear that the present form must have come into use about the end of the 18th century. Up to 1840-50 most people in Calcutta kept a palankin and a set of bearers (usually natives of Orissa—see OORIYA), but the practice and the vehicle are now almost, if not entirely, obsolete among the better class of Europeans. Till the same period the palankin, carried by relays of bearers, laid out by the post-office, or by private CHOWDRIES (q.v.), formed the chief means of accomplishing extensive journeys in India, and the elder of the present writers has undergone hardly less than 8000 or 9000 miles of travelling in going considerable distances (excluding minor journeys) after this fashion. But in the decade named, the palankin began, on certain great roads, to be superseded by the dawk-GARRY (a PALKEE-GARRY or palankin-carriage, horsed by ponies posted along the road, under the post-office), and in the next decade to a large extent by railway, supplemented by other wheel-carriage, so that the palankin is now used rarely, and only in out-of-the-way localities.

c. 1340.—"Some time afterwards the pages of the Mistress of the Universe came to me with a dūla.... It is like a bed of state ... with a pole of wood above ... this is curved, and made of the Indian cane, solid and compact. Eight men, divided into two relays, are employed in turn to carry one of these; four carry the palankin whilst four rest. These vehicles serve in India the same purpose as donkeys in Egypt; most people use them habitually in going and coming. If a man has his own slaves, he is carried by them; if not he hires men to carry him. There are also a few found for hire in the city, which stand in the bazars, at the Sultan's gate, and also at the gates of private citizens."—Ibn Batuta, iii. 386.

c. 1350.—"Et eciam homines et mulieres portant super scapulas in lecticis de quibus in Canticis: ferculum fecit sibi Salomon de lignis Libani, id est lectulum portatilem sicut portabar ego in Zayton et in India."—Marignolli (see Cathay, &c., p. 331).

1515.—"And so assembling all the people made great lamentation, and so did throughout all the streets the women, married and single, in a marvellous way. The captains lifted him (the dead Alboquerque), seated as he was in a chair, and placed him on a PALANQUIM, so that he was seen by all the people; and João Mendes Botelho, a knight of Afonso d'Alboquerque's making (who was) his Ancient, bore the banner before the body."—Correa, Lendas, II. i. 460.

1563.—"... and the branches are for the most part straight except some ... which they twist and bend to form the canes for PALENQUINS and portable chairs, such as are used in India."—Garcia, f. 194.

1567.—"... with eight Falchines (fachini), which are hired to carry the PALANCHINES, eight for a PALANCHINE (palanchino), foure at a time."—C. Frederike, in Hakl. ii. 348.

1598.—"... after them followeth the bryde between two Commeres, each in their PALLAMKIN, which is most costly made."—Linschoten, 56; [Hak. Soc. i. 196].

1606.—"The PALANQUINS covered with curtains, in the way that is usual in this Province, are occasion of very great offences against God our Lord" ... (the Synod therefore urges the Viceroy to prohibit them altogether, and) ... "enjoins on all ecclesiastical persons, on penalty of sentence of excommunication, and of forfeiting 100 pardaos to the church court[201] not to use the said PALANQUINS, made in the fashion above described."—4th Act of 5th Council of Goa, in Archiv. Port. Orient., fasc. 4. (See also under BOY.)

The following is the remonstrance of the city of Goa against the ecclesiastical action in this matter, addressed to the King:

1606.—"Last year this City gave your Majesty an account of how the Archbishop Primate proposed the issue of orders that the women should go with their PALANQUINS uncovered, or at least half uncovered, and how on this matter were made to him all the needful representations and remonstrances on the part of the whole community, giving the reasons against such a proceeding, which were also sent to Your Majesty. Nevertheless in a Council that was held this last summer, they dealt with this subject, and they agreed to petition Your Majesty to order that the said PALANQUINS should travel in such a fashion that it could be seen who was in them.

"The matter is of so odious a nature, and of such a description that Your Majesty should grant their desire in no shape whatever, nor give any order of the kind, seeing this place is a frontier fortress. The reasons for this have been written to Your Majesty; let us beg Your Majesty graciously to make no new rule; and this is the petition of the whole community to Your Majesty."—Carta, que a Cidade de Goa escrevea a Sua Magestade, o anno de 1606. In Archiv. Port. Orient., fasc. i^o. 2^a. Edição, 2^a. Parte, 186.

1608-9.—"If comming forth of his Pallace, hee (Jahāngīr) get vp on a Horse, it is a signe that he goeth for the Warres; but if he be vp vpon an Elephant or PALANKINE, it will bee but an hunting Voyage."—Hawkins, in Purchas, i. 219.

1616.—"... Abdala Chan, the great governour of Amadauas, being sent for to Court in disgrace, comming in Pilgrim's Clothes with fortie servants on foote, about sixtie miles in counterfeit humiliation, finished the rest in his PALLANKEE."—Sir T. Roe, in Purchas, i. 552; [Hak. Soc. ii. 278, which reads PALANCKEE, with other minor variances].

In Terry's account, in Purchas, ii. 1475, we have a PALLANKEE, and (p. 1481) PALANKA; in a letter of Tom Coryate's (1615) PALANKEEN.

1623.—"In the territories of the Portuguese in India it is forbidden to men to travel in PALANKIN (Palanchino) as in good sooth too effeminate a proceeding; nevertheless as the Portuguese pay very little attention to their laws, as soon as the rains begin to fall they commence getting permission to use the PALANKIN, either by favour or by bribery; and so, gradually, the thing is relaxed, until at last nearly everybody travels in that way, and at all seasons."—P. della Valle, i. 611; [comp. Hak. Soc. i. 31].

1659.—"The designing rascal (Sivají) ... conciliated Afzal Khán, who fell into the snare.... Without arms he mounted the PÁLKÍ, and proceeded to the place appointed under the fortress. He left all his attendants at the distance of a long arrow-shot.... Sivají had a weapon, called in the language of the Dakhin bichúá (i.e. 'scorpion') on the fingers of his hand, hidden under his sleeve...."—Kháfi Khán, in Elliot, vii. 259. See also p. 509.

c. 1660.—"... From Golconda to Maslipatan there is no travelling by waggons.... But instead of Coaches they have the convenience of PALLEKIES, wherein you are carried with more speed and more ease than in any part of India."—Tavernier, E.T. ii. 70; [ed. Ball, i. 175]. This was quite true up to our own time. In 1840 the present writer was carried on that road, a stage of 25 miles in little more than 5 hours, by 12 bearers, relieving each other by sixes.

1672. The word occurs several times in Baldaeus as PALLINKIJN. Tavernier writes PALLEKI and sometimes PALLANQUIN [Ball, i. 45, 175, 390, 392]; Bernier has PALEKY [ed. Constable, 214, 283, 372].

1673.—"... ambling after these a great pace, the PALANKEEN-Boys support them, four of them, two at each end of a Bambo, which is a long hollow Cane ... arched in the middle ... where hangs the PALENKEEN, as big as an ordinary Couch, broad enough to tumble in...."—Fryer, 34.

1678.—"The permission you are pleased to give us to buy a PALLAKEE on the Company's Acct. Shall make use off as Soone as can possiblie meet w^{th} one y^t may be fitt for y^e purpose...."—MS. Letter from Factory at Ballasore to the Council (of Fort St. George), March 9, in India Office.

1682.—Joan Nieuhof has PALAKIJN. Zee en Lant-Reize, ii. 78.

[ " "The Agent and Council ... allowed him (Mr. Clarke) 2 pag^{os} p. mensem more towards the defraying his PALLANQUIN charges, he being very crazy and much weaken'd by his sicknesse."—Pringle, Diary Ft. St. Geo. 1st ser. i. 34.]

1720.—"I desire that all the free Merchants of my acquaintance do attend me in their PALENKEENS to the place of burial."—Will of Charles Davers, Merchant, in Wheeler, ii. 340.

1726.—"... PALANGKYN dragers" (palankin-bearers).—Valentijn, Ceylon, 45.

1736.—"PALANQUIN, a kind of chaise or chair, borne by men on their shoulders, much used by the Chinese and other Eastern peoples for travelling from place to place."—Bailey's Dict. 2nd ed.

1750-52.—"The greater nobility are carried in a PALEKEE, which looks very like a hammock fastened to a pole."—Toreen's Voyage to Suratte, China, &c., ii. 201.

1754-58.—In the former year the Court of Directors ordered that Writers in their Service should "lay aside the expense of either horse, chair, or PALANKEEN, during their Writership." The Writers of Fort William (4th Nov. 1756) remonstrated, begging "to be indulged in keeping a PALANKEEN for such months of the year as the excessive heats and violent rains make it impossible to go on foot without the utmost hazard of their health." The Court, however, replied (11 Feb. 1756): "We very well know that the indulging Writers with PALANKEENS has not a little contributed to the neglect of business we complain of, by affording them opportunities of rambling"; and again, with an obduracy and fervour too great for grammar (March 3, 1758): "We do most positively order and direct (and will admit of no representation for postponing the execution of) that no Writer whatsoever be permitted to keep either PALANKEEN, horse, or chaise, during his Writership, on pain of being immediately dismissed from our service."—In Long, pp. 54, 71, 130.

1780.—"The Nawaub, on seeing his condition, was struck with grief and compassion; but ... did not even bend his eyebrow at the sight, but lifting up the curtain of the PALKEE with his own hand, he saw that the eagle of his (Ali Ruza's) soul, at one flight had winged its way to the gardens of Paradise."—H. of Hydur, p. 429.

1784.—

"The Sun in gaudy PALANQUEEN Curtain'd with purple, fring'd with gold, Firing no more heav'n's vault serene, Retir'd to sup with Ganges old." Plassy Plain, a ballad by Sir W. Jones; in Life and Works, ed. 1807, ii. 503.

1804.—"Give orders that a PALANQUIN may be made for me; let it be very light, with the pannels made of canvas instead of wood, and the poles fixed as for a dooley. Your Bengally PALANQUINS are so heavy that they cannot be used out of Calcutta."—Wellington (to Major Shaw), June 20.

The following measures a change in ideas. A palankin is now hardly ever used by a European, even of humble position, much less by the opulent:

1808.—"PALKEE. A litter well known in India, called by the English PALANKEEN. A Guzerat punster (aware of no other) hazards the Etymology Pa-lakhee [pāo-lākhī] a thing requiring an annual income of a quarter Lack to support it and corresponding luxuries."—R. Drummond, Illustrations, &c.

" "The conveyances of the island (Madeira) are of three kinds, viz.: horses, mules, and a litter, ycleped a PALANQUIN, being a chair in the shape of a bathing-tub, with a pole across, carried by two men, as doolees are in the east."—Welsh, Reminiscences, i. 282.

1809.—

"Woe! Woe! around their PALANKEEN, As on a bridal day With symphony and dance and song, Their kindred and their friends come on, The dance of sacrifice! The funeral song!" Kehama, i. 6.

c. 1830.—"Un curieux indiscret reçut un galet dans la tête; on l'emporta baigné de sang, couché dans un PALANQUIN."—V. Jacquemont, Corr. i. 67.

1880.—"It will amaze readers in these days to learn that the Governor-General sometimes condescended to be carried in a PALANQUIN—a mode of conveyance which, except for long journeys away from railroads, has long been abandoned to portly Baboos, and Eurasian clerks."—Sat. Rev., Feb. 14.

1881.—"In the great procession on Corpus Christi Day, when the Pope is carried in a PALANQUIN round the Piazza of St. Peter, it is generally believed that the cushions and furniture of the PALANQUIN are so arranged as to enable him to bear the fatigue of the ceremony by sitting whilst to the spectator he appears to be kneeling."—Dean Stanley, Christian Institutions, 231.

PALAVERAM, n.p. A town and cantonment 11 miles S.W. from Madras. The name is Pallāvaram, probably Palla-puram, Pallavapura, the 'town of the Pallas'; the latter a caste claiming descent from the Pallavas who reigned at Conjeveram (Seshagiri Śāstrī). [The Madras Gloss. derives their name from Tam. pallam, 'low land,' as they are commonly employed in the cultivation of wet lands.]

PALE ALE. The name formerly given to the beer brewed for Indian use. (See BEER.)

1784.—"London Porter and PALE ALE, light and excellent, Sicca Rupees 150 per hhd."—Advt. in Seton-Karr, i. 39.

1793.—"For sale ... PALE ALE (per hhd.) ... Rs. 80."—Bombay Courier, Jan. 19.

[1801.—"1. PALE ALE; 2. strong ale; 3. small beer; 4. brilliant beer; 5. strong porter; 6. light porter; 7. brown stout."—Advt. in Carey, Good Old Days, i. 147.]

1848.—"Constant dinners, tiffins, PALE ALE, and claret, the prodigious labour of cutchery, and the refreshment of brandy pawnee, which he was forced to take there, had this effect upon Waterloo Sedley."—Vanity Fair, ed. 1867, ii. 258.

1853.—"Parmi les cafés, les cabarets, les gargotes, l'on rencontre çà et là une taverne anglaise placardée de sa pancarte de porter simple et double, d'old Scotch ale, d'East India PALE BEER."—Th. Gautier, Constantinople, 22.

1867.—

"Pain bis, galette ou panaton, Fromage à la pie ou Stilton, Cidre ou PALE-ALE de Burton, Vin de brie, ou branne-mouton." Th. Gautier à Ch. Garnier.

PALEMPORE, s. A kind of chintz bed-cover, sometimes made of beautiful patterns, formerly made at various places in India, especially at Sadras and Masulipatam, the importation of which into Europe has become quite obsolete, but under the greater appreciation of Indian manufactures has recently shown some tendency to revive. The etymology is not quite certain,—we know no place of the name likely to have been the eponymic,—and possibly it is a corruption of a hybrid (Hind. and Pers.) palang-posh, 'a bed-cover,' which occurs below, and which may have been perverted through the existence of SALEMPORE as a kind of stuff. The probability that the word originated in a perversion of palang-posh, is strengthened by the following entry in Bluteau's Dict. (Suppt. 1727.)

"CHAUDUS or CHAUDEUS são huns panos grandes, que servem para cobrir camas e outras cousas. São pintados de cores muy vistosas, e alguns mais finos, a que chamão PALANGAPUZES. Fabricão-se de algodão em Bengala e Choromandel,"—i.e. "Chaudus ou Chaudeus" (this I cannot identify, perhaps the same as Choutar among PIECE-GOODS) "are a kind of large cloths serving to cover beds and other things. They are painted with gay colours, and there are some of a finer description which are called PALANGPOSHES," &c.

[For the mode of manufacture at Masulipatam, see Journ. Ind. Art. iii. 14. Mr. Pringle (Madras Selections, 4th ser. p. 71, and Diary Ft. St. Geo. 1st ser. iii. 173) has questioned this derivation. The word may have been taken from the State and town of Pālanpur in Guzerat, which seems to have been an emporium for the manufactures of N. India, which was long noted for chintz of this kind.]

1648.—"Int Governe van Raga mandraga ... werden veel ... SALAMPORIJ ... gemaeckt."—Van den Broecke, 87.

1673.—"Staple commodities (at Masulipatam) are calicuts white and painted, PALEMPORES, Carpets."—Fryer, 34.

1813.—

"A stain on every bush that bore A fragment of his PALAMPORE, His breast with wounds unnumber'd riven, His back to earth, his face to heaven...." Byron, The Giaour.

1814.—"A variety of tortures were inflicted to extort a confession; one was a sofa, with a platform of tight cordage in network, covered with a PALAMPORE, which concealed a bed of thorns placed under it: the collector, a corpulent Banian, was then stripped of his jama (see JAMMA), or muslin robe, and ordered to lie down."—Forbes, Or. Mem. ii. 429; [2nd ed. ii. 54].

1817.—"... these cloths ... serve as coverlids, and are employed as a substitute for the Indian PALEMPORE."—Raffles, Java, 171; [2nd ed. i. 191].

[1855.—

"The jewelled amaun of thy zemzem is bare, And the folds of thy PALAMPORE wave in the air." Bon Gaultier, Eastern Serenade.]

1862.—"Bala posh, or PALANG POSH, quilt or coverlet, 300 to 1000 rupees."—Punjab Trade Report, App. p. xxxviii.

1880.—"... and third, the celebrated PALAMPORES, or 'bed-covers,' of Masulipatam, Fatehgarh, Shikarpur, Hazara, and other places, which in point of art decoration are simply incomparable."—Birdwood, The Industrial Arts of India, 260.

PALI, s. The name of the sacred language of the Southern Buddhists, in fact, according to their apparently well-founded tradition Magadhī, the dialect of what we now call South Bahar, in which Sakya Muni discoursed. It is one of the Prākrits (see PRACRIT) or Aryan vernaculars of India, and has probably been a dead language for nearly 2000 years. Pāli in Skt. means 'a line, row, series'; and by the Buddhists is used for the series of their Sacred Texts. Pālī-bhāshā is then 'the language of the Sacred Texts,' i.e. Magadhī; and this is called elliptically by the Singhalese PĀLĪ, which we have adopted in like use. It has been carried, as the sacred language, to all the Indo-Chinese countries which have derived their religion from India through Ceylon. Pālī is "a sort of Tuscan among the Prākrits" from its inherent grace and strength (Childers). But the analogy to Tuscan is closer still in the parallelism of the modification of Sanskrit words, used in Pālī, to that of Latin words used in Italian.

Robert Knox does not apparently know by that name the Pālī language in Ceylon. He only speaks of the Books of Religion as "being in an eloquent style which the Vulgar people do not understand" (p. 75); and in another passage says: "They have a language something differing from the vulgar tongue (like Latin to us) which their books are writ in" (p. 109).

1689.—"Les uns font valoir le style de leur Alcoran, les autres de leur BÁLI."—Lettres Edif. xxv. 61.

1690.—"... this Doubt proceeds from the Siameses understanding two Languages, viz., the Vulgar, which is a simple Tongue, consisting almost wholly of Monosyllables, without Conjugation or Declension; and another Language, which I have already spoken of, which to them is a dead Tongue, known only by the Learned, which is called the BALIE Tongue, and which is enricht with the inflexions of words, like the Languages we have in Europe. The terms of Religion and Justice, the names of Offices, and all the Ornaments of the Vulgar Tongue are borrow'd from the BALIE."—De la Loubère's Siam, E.T. 1693, p. 9.

1795.—"Of the ancient PÁLLIS, whose language constitutes at the present day the sacred text of Ava, Pegue, and Siam, as well as of several other countries eastward of the Ganges: and of their migration from India to the banks of the Cali, the Nile of Ethiopia, we have but very imperfect information.[202] ... It has been the opinion of some of the most enlightened writers on the languages of the East, that the PALI, the sacred language of the priests of Boodh, is nearly allied to the Shanscrit of the Bramins: and there certainly is much of that holy idiom engrafted on the vulgar language of Ava, by the introduction of the Hindoo religion."—Symes, 337-8.

1818.—"The TALAPOINS ... do apply themselves in some degree to study, since according to their rules they are obliged to learn the Sadà, which is the grammar of the PALÌ language or Magatà, to read the Vini, the Padimot ... and the sermons of Godama.... All these books are written in the PALÌ tongue, but the text is accompanied by a Burmese translation. They were all brought into the kingdom by a certain Brahmin from the island of Ceylon."—Sangermano's Burmese Empire, p. 141.

[1822.—"... the sacred books of the Buddhists are composed in the BALLI tongue...."—Wallace, Fifteen Years in India, 187.]

1837.—"Buddhists are impressed with the conviction that their sacred and classical language, the Mágadhi or PÁLI, is of greater antiquity than the Sanscrit; and that it had attained also a higher state of refinement than its rival tongue had acquired. In support of this belief they adduce various arguments, which, in their judgment, are quite conclusive. They observe that the very word PÁLI signifies original, text, regularity; and there is scarcely a Buddhist scholar in Ceylon, who, in the discussion of this question, will not quote, with an air of triumph, their favourite verse,—

Sá Mágadhi; múla bhásá (&c.).

'There is a language which is the root; ... men and bráhmans at the commencement of the creation, who never before heard nor uttered a human accent, and even the Supreme Buddhos, spoke it: it is Mágadhi.'

"This verse is a quotation from Kachcháyanó's grammar, the oldest referred to in the Páli literature of Ceylon.... Let me ... at once avow, that, exclusive of all philological considerations, I am inclined, on primâ facie evidence—external as well as internal—to entertain an opinion adverse to the claims of the Buddhists on this particular point."—George Turnour, Introd. to Maháwanso, p. xxii.

1874.—"The spoken language of Italy was to be found in a number of provincial dialects, each with its own characteristics, the Piedmontese harsh, the Neapolitan nasal, the Tuscan soft and flowing. These dialects had been rising in importance as Latin declined; the birth-time of a new literary language was imminent. Then came Dante, and choosing for his immortal Commedia the finest and most cultivated of the vernaculars, raised it at once to the position of dignity which it still retains. Read Sanskrit for Latin, Magadhese for Tuscan, and the Three Baskets for the Divina Commedia, and the parallel is complete.... Like Italian PALI is at once flowing and sonorous; it is a characteristic of both languages that nearly every word ends in a vowel, and that all harsh conjunctions are softened down by assimilation, elision, or crasis, while on the other hand both lend themselves easily to the expression of sublime and vigorous thought."—Childers, Preface to Pali Dict. pp. xiii-xiv.

PALKEE-GARRY, s. A 'palankin-coach,' as it is termed in India; i.e. a carriage shaped somewhat like a palankin on wheels; Hind. pālkī-gāṛī. The word is however one formed under European influences. ["The system of conveying passengers by palkee carriages and trucks was first established between Cawnpore and Allahabad in May 1843, and extended to Allyghur in November of the same year; Delhi was included in June 1845, Agra and Meerut about the same time; the now-going line not being, however, ready till January 1846" (Carey, Good Old Days, ii. 91).]

1878.—"The Governor-General's carriage ... may be jostled by the hired 'PALKI-GHARRY,' with its two wretched ponies, rope harness, nearly naked driver, and wheels whose sinuous motions impress one with the idea that they must come off at the next revolution."—Life in the Mofussil, i. 38.

This description applies rather to the CRANCHEE (q.v.) than to the palkee-garry, which is (or used to be) seldom so sordidly equipt. [Mr. Kipling's account of the Calcutta palki gari (Beast and Man, 192) is equally uncomplimentary.]

PALMYRA, s. The fan-palm (Borassus flabelliformis), which is very commonly cultivated in S. India and Ceylon (as it is also indeed in the Ganges valley from Farrukhābād down to the head of the Delta), and hence was called by the Portuguese par excellence, palmeira or 'the palm-tree.' Sir J. Hooker writes: "I believe this palm is nowhere wild in India; and have always suspected that it, like the tamarind, was introduced from Africa." [So Watt, Econ. Dict. i. 504.] It is an important tree in the economy of S. India, Ceylon, and parts of the Archipelago as producing JAGGERY (q.v.) or 'palm-sugar'; whilst the wood affords rafters and laths, and the leaf gives a material for thatch, mats, umbrellas, fans, and a substitute for paper. Its minor uses are many: indeed it is supposed to supply nearly all the wants of man, and a Tamil proverb ascribes to it 801 uses (see Ferguson's Palmyra-Palm of Ceylon, and Tennent's Ceylon, i. 111, ii. 519 seqq.; also see BRAB).

1563.—"... A ilha de Ceilão ... ha muitas PALMEIRAS."—Garcia, ff. 65_v_-66.

1673.—"Their Buildings suit with the Country and State of the inhabitants, being mostly contrived for Conveniency: the Poorer are made of Boughs and ollas of the PALMEROES."—Fryer, 199.

1718.—"... Leaves of a Tree called PALMEIRA."—Prop. of the Gospel in the East, iii. 85.

1756.—"The interval was planted with rows of PALMIRA, and coco-nut trees."—Orme, ii. 90, ed. 1803.

1860.—"Here, too, the beautiful PALMYRA palm, which abounds over the north of the Island, begins to appear."—Tennent's Ceylon, ii. 54.

PALMYRA POINT, n.p. Otherwise called Pt. Pedro, [a corruption of the Port. Punta das Pedras, 'the rocky cape,' a name descriptive of the natural features of the coast (Tennent, ii. 535)]. This is the N.E. point of Ceylon, the high palmyra trees on which are conspicuous.

PALMYRAS, POINT, n.p. This is a headland on the Orissa coast, quite low, but from its prominence at the most projecting part of the combined Mahānadī and Brāhmaṇī delta an important landmark, especially in former days, for ships bound from the south for the mouth of the Hoogly, all the more for the dangerous shoal off it. A point of the Mahānadī delta, 24 miles to the south-west, is called False Point, from its liability to be mistaken for P. Palmyras.

1553.—"... o CABO Segógora, a que os nossos chamam DAS PALMEIRAS por humas que alli estam, as quaes os navigantes notam por lhes dar conhecimento da terra. E deste cabo ... fazemos fim do Reyno Orixá."—Barros, I. ix. 1.

1598.—"... 2 miles (Dutch) before you come to the POINT OF PALMERIAS, you shall see certaine blacke houels standing vppon a land that is higher than all the land thereabouts, and from thence to the Point it beginneth againe to be low ground and ... you shall see some small (but not ouer white) sandie Downes ... you shall finde being right against the POINT DE PALMERIAS ... that vpon the point there is neyther tree nor bush, and although it hath the name of the Point of Palm-trees, it hath notwithstanding right forth, but one Palme tree."—Linschoten, 3d Book, ch. 12.

[c. 1665.—"Even the Portuguese of Ogouli (see HOOGLY), in Bengale, purchased without scruple these wretched captives, and the horrid traffic was transacted in the vicinity of the island of Galles, near CAPE DAS PALMAS."—Bernier, ed. Constable, 176.]

1823.—"It is a large delta, formed by the mouths of the Maha-Nuddee and other rivers, the northernmost of which insulates CAPE PALMIRAS."—Heber, ed. 1844, i. 88.

[PAMBRE, s. An article of dress which seems to have been used for various purposes, as a scarf, and perhaps as a turban. Mr. Yusuf Ali (Monograph on Silk Fabrics, 81) classes it among 'fabrics which are simply wrapped over the head and shoulders by men and women'; and he adds: "The PAMRI is used by women and children, generally amongst Hindus." His specimens are some 3 yards long by 1 broad, and are made of pure silk or silk and cotton, with an ornamental border. The word does not appear in the Hind. dictionaries, but Molesworth has Mahr. pāmarī, 'a sort of silk cloth.'

[1616.—"He covered my head with his PAMBRE."—Foster, Letters, iv. 344.]

For some of the following quotations and notes I am indebted to Mr. W. Foster.

[1617.—"Antelopes and ramshelles,[203] which bear the finest wool in the world, with which they make very delicate mantles, called PAWMMERYS."—Joseph Salbank to the E. India Co., Agra, Nov. 22, 1617; India Office Records, O. C., No. 568.

[1627.—"L'on y [Kashmír] travaille aussi plusieurs VOMERIS [misprint for POMERIS, which he elsewhere mentions as a stuff from Kashmir and Lahore], qui sont des pieces d'estoffes longues de trois aulnes, et largers de deux, faite de laine de moutons, qui croit au derriere de ces bestes, et qui est aussi fine que de la soye: on tient ces estoffes exposées au froid pendant l'hyver: elles ont un beau lustre, semblables aux tabis de nos cartiers."—François Pelsart, in Thevenot's Rélations de divers Voyages, vol. i. pt. 2.

[1634.—A letter in the India Office of Dec. 29 mentions that the Governor of Surat presented to the two chief Factors a horse and "a coat and PAMORINE" apiece.

[ " O. C., No. 1543A (I. O. Records) mentions the presentation to the President of Surat of a "coat and PAMORINE."

[1673.—"A couple of PAMERINS, which are fine mantles."—Fryer's New Account, p. 79; also see 177; in 112 RAMERIN.

[1766.—"... a lungee (see LOONGHEE) or clout, barely to cover their nakedness, and a PAMREE or loose mantle to throw over their shoulders, or to lye on upon the ground."—Grose, 2nd ed. ii. 81.]

PANCHĀÑGAM, s. Skt. = 'quinque-partite.' A native almanac in S. India is called so, because it contains information on five subjects, viz. Solar Days, Lunar Days, Asterisms, Yogas, and karaṇas (certain astrological divisions of the days of a month). Panchanga is used also, at least by Buchanan below, for the Brahman who keeps and interprets the almanac for the villagers. [This should be Skt. pañchāngī.]

1612.—"Every year they make new almanacs for the eclipses of the Sun and of the Moon, and they have a perpetual one which serves to pronounce their auguries, and this they call PANCHAGÃO."—Couto, V. vi. 4.

1651.—"The Bramins, in order to know the good and bad days, have made certain writings after the fashion of our Almanacks, and these they call PANJANGAM."—Rogerius, 55. This author gives a specimen (pp. 63-69).

1800.—"No one without consulting the PANCHANGA, or almanac-keeper, knows when he is to perform the ceremonies of religion."—Buchanan's Mysore, &c., i. 234.

PANDAL, PENDAUL, s. A shed. Tamil pandal, [Skt. bandh, 'to bind'].

1651.—"... it is the custom in this country when there is a Bride in the house to set up before the door certain stakes somewhat taller than a man, and these are covered with lighter sticks on which foliage is put to make a shade.... This arrangement is called a PANDAEL in the country speech."—Rogerius, 12.

1717.—"Water-BANDELS, which are little sheds for the Conveniency of drinking Water."—Phillips's Account, 19.

1745.—"Je suivis la procession d'un peu loin, et arrivé aux sepultures, j'y vis un PANDEL ou tente dressée, sur la fosse du defunt; elle était ornée de branches de figuier, de toiles peintes, &c. L'intérieur était garnie de petites lampes allumées."—Norbert, Mémoires, iii. 32.

1781.—"Les gens riches font construir devant leur porte un autre PENDAL."—Sonnerat, ed. 1782, i. 134.

1800.—"I told the farmer that, as I meant to make him pay his full rent, I could not take his fowl and milk without paying for them; and that I would not enter his PUNDULL, because he had not paid the labourers who made it."—Letter of Sir T. Munro, in Life, i. 283.

1814.—"There I beheld, assembled in the same PANDAUL, or reposing under the friendly banian-tree, the Gosannee (see GOSAIN) in a state of nudity, the Yogee (see JOGEE) with a lark or paroquet his sole companion for a thousand miles."—Forbes, Or. Mem. ii. 465; [2nd ed. ii. 72. In ii. 109 he writes PENDALL].

1815.—"PANDAULS were erected opposite the two principal fords on the river, where under my medical superintendence skilful natives provided with eau-de-luce and other remedies were constantly stationed."—Dr. M‘Kenzie, in Asiatic Researches, xiii. 329.

PANDÁRAM, s. A Hindu ascetic mendicant of the (so-called) Śūdra, or even of a lower caste. A priest of the lower Hindu castes of S. India and Ceylon. Tamil, paṇḍāram. C. P. Brown says the Paṇḍāram is properly a Vaishnava, but other authors apply the name to Śaiva priests. [The Madras Gloss. derives the word from Skt. pāṇḍu-ranga, 'white-coloured.' Messrs. Cox and Stuart (Man. of N. Arcot. i. 199) derive it from Skt. bhāṇḍagāra, 'a temple-treasury,' wherein were employed those who had renounced the world. "The Pandārams seem to receive numerous recruits from the Śaivite Śúdra castes, who choose to make a profession of piety and wander about begging. They are, in reality, very lax in their modes of life, often drinking liquor and eating animal food furnished by any respectable Śúdra. They often serve in Śiva temples, where they make up garlands of flowers to decorate the lingam, and blow brass trumpets when offerings are made or processions take place" (ibid.).]

1711.—"... But the destruction of 50 or 60,000 pagodas worth of grain ... and killing the PANDARRUM; these are things which make his demands really carry too much justice with them."—Letter in Wheeler, ii. 163.

1717.—"... Bramans, PANTARONGAL, and other holy men."—Phillips's Account, 18. The word is here in the Tamil plural.

1718.—"Abundance of Bramanes, PANTARES, and Poets ... flocked together."—Propn. of the Gospel, ii. 18.

1745.—"On voit ici quelquefois les PANDARAMS ou Penitens qui ont été en pélérinage à Bengale; quand ils retournent ils apportent ici avec grand soin de l'eau du Gange dans des pots ou vases bien formés."—Norbert, Mém. iii. 28.

c. 1760.—"The PANDARAMS, the Mahometan priests, and the Bramins thomselves yield to the force of truth."—Grose, i. 252.

1781.—"Les PANDARONS ne sont pas moins révérés que les Saniasis. Ils sont de la secte de Chiven, se barbouillent toute la figure, la poitrine, et les bras avec des cendres de bouze de vache," &c.—Sonnerat, 8vo. ed., ii. 113-114.

1798.—"The other figure is of a PANDARAM or Senassey, of the class of pilgrims to the various pagodas."—Pennant's View of Hindostan, preface.

1800.—"In Chera the Pújáris (see POOJAREE) or priests in these temples are all PANDARUMS, who are the Súdras dedicated to the service of Siva's temples...."—Buchanan's Mysore, &c., ii. 338.

1809.—"The chief of the pagoda (Rameswaram), or PANDARAM, waiting on the beach."—Ld. Valentia, i. 338.

1860.—"In the island of Nainativoe, to the south-west of Jafna, there was till recently a little temple, dedicated to the goddess Naga Tambiran, in which consecrated serpents were tenderly reared by the PANDARAMS, and daily fed at the expense of the worshippers."—Tennent's Ceylon, i. 373.

PANDARĀNI, n.p. The name of a port of Malabar of great reputation in the Middle Ages, a name which has gone through many curious corruptions. Its position is clear enough from Varthema's statement that an uninhabited island stood opposite at three leagues distance, which must be the "Sacrifice Rock" of our charts. [The Madras Gloss. identifies it with Collam.] The name appears upon no modern map, but it still attaches to a miserable fishing village on the site, in the form PANTALĀNĪ (approx. lat. 11° 26′), a little way north of Koilandi. It is seen below in Ibn Batuta's notice that Pandarāni afforded an exceptional shelter to shipping during the S.W. monsoon. This is referred to in an interesting letter to one of the present writers from his friend Col. (now Lt.-Gen.) R. H. Sankey, C.B., R.E., dated Madras, 13th Feby., 1881: "One very extraordinary feature on the coast is the occurrence of mud-banks in from 1 to 6 fathoms of water, which have the effect of breaking both surf and swell to such an extent that ships can run into the patches of water so sheltered at the very height of the monsoon, when the elements are raging, and not only find a perfectly still sea, but are able to land their cargoes.... Possibly the snugness of some of the harbours frequented by the Chinese junks, such as PANDARANI, may have been mostly due to banks of this kind? By the way, I suspect your 'Pandarani' was nothing but the roadstead of Coulete (Coulandi or Quelande of our Atlas). The Master Attendant who accompanied me, appears to have a good opinion of it as an anchorage, and as well sheltered." [See Logan, Malabar, i. 72.]

c. 1150.—"FANDARINA is a town built at the mouth of a river which comes from Manibár (see MALABAR), where vessels from India and Sind cast anchor. The inhabitants are rich, the markets well supplied, and trade flourishing."—Edrisi, in Elliot, i. 90.

1296.—"In the year (1296) it was prohibited to merchants who traded in fine or costly products with Maparh (Ma'bar or Coromandel), Peï-nan (?) and FANTALAINA, three foreign kingdoms, to export any one of them more than the value of 50,000 ting in paper money."—Chinese Annals of the Mongol Dynasty, quoted by Pauthier, Marc Pol, 532.

c. 1300.—"Of the cities on the shore the first is Sindábúr, then Faknúr, then the country of Manjarúr, then the country of Hílí, then the country of (FANDARAINA[204])."—Rashíduddín, in Elliot, i. 68.

c. 1321.—"And the forest in which the pepper groweth extendeth for a good 18 days' journey, and in that forest there be two cities, the one whereof is called FLANDRINA, and the other Cyngilin" (see SHINKALI).—Friar Odoric, in Cathay, &c., 75.

c. 1343.—"From Boddfattan we proceeded to FANDARAINA, a great and fine town with gardens and bazars. The Musulmans there occupy three quarters, each having its mosque.... It is at this town that the ships of China pass the winter" (i.e. the S.W. monsoon).—Ibn Batuta, iv. 88. (Compare Roteiro below.)

c. 1442.—"The humble author of this narrative having received his order of dismissal departed from Calicut by sea, after having passed the port of BENDINANEH (read BANDARĀNAH, and see MANGALORE, A) situated on the coast of Melabar, (he) reached the port of Mangalor...."—Abdurrazzāk, in India in XVth Cent., 20.

1498.—"... hum lugar que se chama PANDARANY ... por que alii estava bom porto, e que alii nos amarassemos ... e que era costume que os navios que vinham a esta terra pousasem alii por estarem seguros...."—Roteiro de Vasco da Gama, 53.

1503.—"Da poi feceno vela et in vn porto de dicto Re chiamato FUNDARANE amazorno molta gẽte cõ artelaria et deliberorno andare verso il regno de Cuchin...."—Letter of King Emanuel, p. 5.

c. 1506.—"Questo capitanio si trovò nave 17 de mercadanti Mori in uno porto se chima PANIDARAMI, e combattè con queste le quali se messeno in terra; per modo che questo capitanio mandò tutti li soi copani ben armadi con un baril de polvere per cadaun copano, e mise fuoco dentro dette navi de Mori; e tutte quelle brasolle, con tutte quelle spezierie che erano carghe per la Mecha, e s'intende ch'erano molto ricche...."—Leonardo Ca' Masser, 20-21.

1510.—"Here we remained two days, and then departed, and went to a place which is called PANDARANI, distant from this one day's journey, and which is subject to the King of Calicut. This place is a wretched affair, and has no port."—Varthema, 153.

1516.—"Further on, south south-east, is another Moorish place which is called PANDARANI, in which also there are many ships."—Barbosa, 152.

In Rowlandson's Translation of the Tohfat-ul-Majāhidīn (Or. Transl. Fund, 1833), the name is habitually misread Fundreeah for FUNDARAINA.

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