Chapter XVIII

Chapter XVIII

EVENTS PRECEDING THE REVOLUTIONS OF FEBRUARY AND MARCH, 1848, AND THE SUBSEQUENT SOCIAL ADVANCE OF THE JEWS.

Return of Montefiore and Crémieux from the East--Patriotic Suggestions--General Indecision--Gabriel Riesser--Michael Creizenach--Reform Party in Frankfort--Rabbinical Assembly --Holdheim--Reform Association--Zachariah Frankel--The Berlin Reform Temple--Michael Sachs--His Character--His Biblical Exegesis--Holdheim and Sachs--The Jewish German Church--Progress of Jewish Literature--Ewald and his Works --Enfranchisement of English Jews--The Breslau Jewish College --Its Founders--The Mortara Case--Pope Pius IX--The Alliance Israélite--Astruc, Cohn, Caballo, Masuel, Netter-- The American Jews--The "Union of American Hebrew Congregations" --The Anglo-Jewish Association--Benisch, Löwy--The "Israelitische Allianz"--Wertheimer, Goldschmidt, Kuranda-- Rapid Social Advance of the Jews--Rise of Anti-Semitism.

1840-1870 C. E.

The return from the East of the Jewish envoys, who not only had saved a few men from death, but had rescued all Judaism from disgrace, was a veritable triumphal procession. From Corfu to Paris and London, and even to the depths of Poland, the Jewish communities were unanimous in expressions of thanksgiving to the rescuers, and sought by visible signs to evince their gratitude, and at the same time show their patriotic sentiments for Judaism. The tributes took the form of public orations, addresses, articles written in every European language, naturally also in Hebrew, and both in prose and verse. Attentions and gifts were freely bestowed upon the two chief representatives of Judaism, to celebrate in a worthy fashion the momentous events which had occurred in Damascus, and transmit the remembrance of these deeds to posterity. Crémieux, who was the first to set out on the return journey, received enthusiastic homage in Corfu, Trieste, Venice, Vienna, Fürth, Nuremberg, Frankfort, and Mayence (November-December, 1840). The large communities through whose cities he could not pass sent deputations and addresses. It was naïvely touching that old-fashioned orthodox rabbis, at a loss how to show their gratitude, bestowed upon him the title of Rabbi (Morenu), as the highest honor in their gift. Only the Jewish community in Paris behaved in a cool fashion, and prepared no fitting reception for their emissary, as if fearing to wound the sensitiveness of King Louis Philippe, whose ambiguous attitude had been striking.

Montefiore, who had remained in Constantinople a long time, in order to obtain a favorable Firman, and who began his return journey later, and traveled mostly by sea, did not come into contact with so many congregations as Crémieux, hence did not receive so much public homage. He was, however, overwhelmed with letters from all sides. By his watchful care, continually directed to the welfare and honor of his brethren, and without any idea of reward, he had in his simplicity put their enemies to shame. He obtained a promise from Cardinal Rivarola, the protector of all Capuchins in Rome, that the tombstone should be removed which had been erected in the Capuchin church at Damascus recording the murder of Father Tomaso by the Jews, and representing him as a martyr. He also compelled King Louis Philippe to appear pleased with what had occurred. At an audience obtained through the English ambassador, Lord Granville (February 22, 1844), Montefiore handed the king a copy of the Sultan's Firman which testified the innocence of the Damascus Jews, and tacitly condemned the French consul. Louis Philippe was compelled to swallow this humiliation, and assume a gracious manner for the sake of appearances, and congratulate Montefiore on the success of his journey and his mission. Queen Victoria thanked Montefiore all the more sincerely, through Lord Palmerston (who was prime minister at the time, and to whom he was presented on his return), for the succor which he had brought his co-religionists.

The entire body of Jews in Europe were at this time engaged in carrying out three objects: offering to their two rescuers an enduring and striking token of gratitude, perpetuating the memory of the deliverance effected by them, and finally, discovering, through combined action, a means whereby to prevent the recurrence of similar false accusations against Jews and Judaism. The leaders of the German Jews felt themselves especially moved to put on record their interest in the events, and their admiration for the two noble representatives of their race. They, the very ones who had hitherto taken the lead in advocating progress, had done little in connection with the sanguinary events of Damascus. A prominent Jewish scholar, Zunz, had completely refuted the alleged proofs, supposed to be drawn from the Talmud, of the use of blood by the Jews. The Jewish newspapers had boldly fought against anti-Jewish attacks and slanders. But this was all that had been done in Germany towards vindicating the honor of Judaism. Riesser might easily have joined Montefiore and Crémieux, might have accompanied them to Egypt as the representative of the German Jews, and used his eloquence on behalf of the sufferers; but no such idea was even suggested. Geiger, from hatred to the Talmud, had actually admitted that the anti-Semites were right in attributing misanthropical expressions to the Talmud. Certain high-minded Jews in Germany felt it the more necessary to take public action in the matter. Riesser, together with a few friends, desired to found societies, through which the Jews of the four chief countries of Europe were to offer some public recognition to their two representatives. But this plan of acknowledging their indebtedness fell through. In fact, the three objects desired by the people were only imperfectly carried out, because the right means to attain them were not pursued. The services of Montefiore were, however, acknowledged with fervent enthusiasm on his return to London by a public celebration in the synagogues, and a piece of plate was presented to him in remembrance of his success. A still greater distinction awaited him at the hands of Queen Victoria. She rewarded him with an addition to his armorial bearings (June 24), a great honor both to his race and himself. Yet more important than this toy for adults were the words of Her Majesty that accompanied the gracious distinction:

"Inasmuch as it was brought to our notice, that in consequence of tidings from the East, which stated that, on account of the accusation that they had murdered Father Tomaso, Jews in Damascus and Rhodes had been imprisoned and tortured, that many children had been thrown into prison and deprived of almost all nourishment, and that many persons had been so cruelly tortured that death ensued, ... our trusty and well-beloved Sir Moses Montefiore, accompanied by Lady Montefiore, had quite voluntarily journeyed to Alexandria with the view of proving the falsehood of the charge and of conducting the affairs of his unhappy and persecuted brethren; that he succeeded in obtaining from the Pasha, Mehmet Ali, the honorable liberation of the accused who were incarcerated, and the permission for those who had fled the city to return home; that for this purpose he procured a Firman in Constantinople from his Imperial Majesty the Sultan Abdul Meg'id, which declared the innocence of the Jews, and assured equal rights with all other subjects to members of the Jewish religion under Turkish rule --we have taken the above mentioned facts into our royal consideration, and desire to give to Montefiore a special mark of our royal favor, in memory of his persevering efforts on behalf of his suffering and persecuted brethren in the East, and of his nation in general."

It was an extract from the history of modern Jews related by the Queen herself.

In comparison with this distinction, the proposal of certain French congregations of the Upper Rhine to strike a medal in honor of Crémieux appears very trivial. They shared the general idea, "that it was important for future generations to perpetuate the memory of the events of 1840 affecting Israelites." But Crémieux declined the medal. In what manner these joyful, national memories were to be immortalized was a matter concerning which there was general indecision. Crémieux asked the French Jews and others to support the schools that he had established in Alexandria and Cairo by their contributions. Only a small amount, however, was subscribed: the maintenance of the Crémieux schools in Egypt was only accidentally connected with the main question, and was not likely to keep the exaltation of the Jews at a high pitch. One suitable proposition was made, but no notice was taken of it.

"It is not by ostentatious gifts, nor by clamorous celebrations, that we can testify our gratitude. We would offer the finest testimonial to the men who went to the rescue by perpetuating this great historical event in a religious form appropriate to its religious spirit. It should be commemorated by an annual festival equal to the festivals of Chanuka and Purim; for on those days it may be said that Israel was delivered from bodily suffering, whilst on this day it was delivered from spiritual servitude."

Judaism never knew a more effectual way of commemorating its liberation and victories and arousing a spirit of emulation in posterity than by establishing days of memorial, by means of which, time, the destroyer, is made the protector of historical events. If that most skillful master of the Hebrew language, Isaac Erter, had completed the narrative of the persecution and the deliverance in Damascus, which he had commenced in the simple biblical style, and if the heads of the Jewish communities had resolved to commemorate the most important day in the Damascus affair, and to read this "Scroll" (Megillah) in public, the lasting remembrance of these occurrences would have been assured, and at the same time a means would have been found of cementing afresh the bonds of fellowship. The Jews of Asia and Africa and on the whole globe would joyfully have accepted such a festival as an international memorial. Munk, whose voice carried great weight, remarked:

"Would that the sad Damascus incident might at least serve to make us take cognizance of our disorganized condition, which, though mournful to contemplate, is unfortunately a fact. Would that it might show us that in times of danger we must rely upon ourselves, and that the bond that formerly united us might be renewed."

Instead of unity, however, a rupture took place within German Judaism, which, though caused by a trifling dispute that might easily have been settled in the commencement, grew to great proportions. The consciousness of opposition was present, and by chance it asserted itself on this occasion; but it might equally well have shown itself at any other time, so long as it was not allayed, or had not worn off. The Hamburg Temple, which twenty years before had first stirred up dissensions between the old-fashioned orthodox party and the reformers, again brought about a quarrel, which henceforth assumed a fiercer complexion. The congregation of the Temple had largely increased in numbers since its foundation. The younger members of the old-fashioned community had joined, because in the old synagogue they found no satisfaction for their devotional cravings, and they objected to the continual disorder that prevailed. The new congregation had already grown to nearly eight hundred members, and included a man who in his own person was a great attraction. After the death of Bresselau, the secretary of the congregation, Gabriel Riesser had accepted that post. He became closely connected with the Temple, and was elected to the office of second warden. As his name was in extraordinary repute, owing to his untiring zeal for the political and social emancipation of the Jews in Germany, his adhesion to the Temple shed new luster upon it. When the members of the Temple determined to erect a new and larger house of prayer, the old party by complaining to the senate threw obstacles in the way of the undertaking. The authorities of the Temple had also caused a new prayer-book to be compiled.

The altered liturgy of the Temple was published and announced as a general "Prayer-Book for Israelites," but was so objectionable to the orthodox party as to be utterly rejected. The circumstance that the new prayer-book claimed to be used by all Jews gave rise to great annoyance. Chacham Bernays therefore renewed on a Sabbath, in the three synagogues (Marcheshvan 1, October 16, 1841), the proclamation against heretics which the three rabbis had issued on the foundation of the Temple, forbidding any Israelite to use this prayer-book. In the reasons assigned, harsh expressions were employed charging that this prayer-book, even more than the former, gave wanton and frivolous treatment to the religious convictions contained in the Hebrew prayers. This denunciation naturally excited the Temple congregants, and transported even the cautious Riesser to inordinate lengths. Whilst the preachers regarded the insulting expression of opinion from a religious standpoint, Riesser saw in it an encroachment upon their rights, "because the Chacham had no authority over the Temple." The Temple committee then published a counter-declaration (October 24), in which Bernays was charged not alone with "arrogance, impotent partiality, and malicious ignoring of the contents of the book," but with "ignorance of all theological and liturgical literature." There now arose a violent dispute, conducted with such passion, that the senate was compelled to reprove both parties. The Chacham and the leaders of his congregation, who sided with him, circulated thousands of copies of the sentence of condemnation upon the prayer-book in many communities; whilst the authorities of the Temple (November) requested rabbis and preachers holding the same religious views to give their opinions as to the value or worthlessness of the innovations, expecting that the decisions would be in their favor. On this occasion, the changes which had taken place in the German communities during two decades became evident. Whereas formerly only three rabbis had ambiguously given their assent to the ritual of the Temple, and many others had condemned it, at this second discussion only the rabbi of Altona supported Bernays, whilst twelve or thirteen others pronounced judgment adverse to him; this was at the close of 1841, or the beginning of 1842. Then began the aggressive stage of the reform movement. Young rabbis or clergymen, pastors (as they preferred to be called), who had mostly drawn their wisdom from academies, and were enthusiastic for the reform which had become the fashion, now were at the head. The old rabbis, on the other hand, no longer ventured to oppose them. Thus it seemed as if all the Jews of Germany were in favor of innovations in the synagogue, and only a few wanting in spirit struggled against this tendency.

The contest concerning the Hamburg Temple bore no results in the city itself, as a terrible conflagration (May, 1842) transformed a great part of the town into a mass of ruins, and distracted attention from party interests. The flame of reform blazed up from another point, and threatened to spread far and wide. In Frankfort-on-the-Main, for some time past, there had been discontented persons who had broken away from the Judaism of the day. These disturbing elements partly originated in a school called the Philanthropin (which from small beginnings had grown into an important institution), partly in the first Jewish Freemasons' lodge. The managers and teachers of the school and the members of the lodge favored a radicalism repugnant to Judaism. For a long time Michael Creizenach (born 1789, died 1842), a teacher at the Philanthropin, formed the center of an invisible society. Creizenach, who was honest, judicious, but uninteresting, had published many pamphlets combating Rabbinical Talmudical Judaism, but owing to their temperate tone and want of depth, these writings made little impression. By his personal influence, however, he filled the circle of his friends and admirers with a passion for innovation and a deep aversion to antiquity.

After his death several of his adherents endeavored to form a congregation, and to establish a sect, even at the risk of separating from Judaism. Their aim was in a measure to remove the pretext of anti-Jewish politicians, who withheld equal rights from the Jews on the score of attachment to their nationality, to the Talmud, and to old forms, and they also desired to secure freedom of action for themselves. They were educated laymen, who, owing to the prevailing confusion, had lost mental balance, or they may have been misled by false leaders. They constituted themselves a Society of the Friends of Reform (October, 1842), and drew up a confession of faith, which clearly proved the perplexity of the times. They refused to recognize the Talmud as an authority. But the Bible? "They considered the Mosaic religion capable of continual development." First of all they wished to throw off the fetters of the dietary laws, because they "had originated in the ancient constitution of the state," and at the present day had lost their significance as a religious act or symbol. They definitely gave up all hope in the Messiah, or a return to Palestine, "because they regarded their native land as their sole fatherland."

The Creizenach Friends of Reform did not find many supporters. They therefore sought to interest Gabriel Riesser, whose importance was already acknowledged, and who might attract others. He was at first inclined to join them. He appears not to have overcome the excitement into which he had been thrown by Bernays' intervention in the affairs of the Hamburg Temple. He did not even shrink from total secession, although he had hitherto constantly desired to have "the shell of Judaism respected on account of its soul." The idea of freedom, which completely filled his mind, destroyed his emotional attachment to existing Judaism. He was therefore eminently in favor of the paragraph in the Creizenach or Frankfort programme which declared that it was optional with every Jewish father to have his sons circumcised, and that in case of the omission of this rite civil disabilities should not be entailed. Riesser wished to combat any presumptive right of forcing conscience. However, others who had been asked to join, took umbrage at this very question of circumcision. The founders of the Society of the Friends of Reform, therefore, saw themselves obliged to relinquish this point as well as the declaration against the dietary laws, and to adhere to only three out of the five resolutions of their original programme: that against the Talmud, that against the Messiah, and that enunciating the possibility of the development of the "Mosaic religion." This abridgment and enfeebling of the original confession, Riesser considered illogical and cowardly, and he withdrew his support. The power of attraction was lacking in the society, and as only a few joined, it perished at its birth. The question of circumcision was shortly afterwards brought forward from another quarter. Several unfortunate accidents at the circumcision of Jewish boys had induced the health officers in Frankfort-on-the-Main to issue an order (February 8, 1843) with the ambiguous wording, "Israelite citizens and inhabitants, if they desire to have their children circumcised, must employ the services of competent persons." From this it appeared that the Frankfort Senate made it optional with Jewish parents to perform the rite or neglect it, and did not regard it as a necessary mark of the Jewish religion. The Senate at the same time explained that they did not mean thereby to give untrammeled liberty to the innovators. But the reformers seized upon the words in order to have a pretext for abolishing the rite of circumcision. In consequence, Rabbi Solomon Trier invited the opinions of his brother rabbis upon the subject (1843-44) in order to dispose of the question forever. However, it caused but a slight sensation, seeing that even young rabbis favorably disposed to reform had decisively asserted the obligation and necessity of circumcision. Therefore, no seceding sect was formed among the Jews of Germany, although the elements existed, and an uneasy state of feeling was the result.

This feeling was especially noticeable among the younger rabbis, who were not very clear about the purpose and extent of the reforms to be instituted, or met with continual opposition on one side or the other in their congregations, and in their isolation were without support. At this time the fashion of assemblies and societies had come into vogue; railways had already been built between the great cities, and had facilitated personal intercourse. Thus the invitation calling a conference of rabbis met with approval. This meeting of rabbis and preachers who were, to some extent, at one upon the subjects under discussion, at first awakened a certain expectancy; it was a novelty, and this always possesses a certain amount of charm. However, at the first session only twenty-two rabbis assembled in Brunswick, the majority coming from southern and western Germany. The remainder waited until the resolutions of the assembly should be made known, and according as they agreed or disagreed with them, they would decide whether to join or to hold aloof. Few rabbis attended who adhered to the Judaism rooted in the Talmud; most of the members had partially, or wholly, severed themselves from the Talmud, although they did not practically manifest this severance in their religious practices.

The first Rabbinical Assembly was dominated by a man possessing all the qualities calculated to widen the breach and bring about a complete separation. This was Samuel Holdheim (born at Kempen, 1806; died at Berlin, 1860). It is a curious yet natural fact that Talmudism, which had acquired its power and extensive range through Polish students, should be attacked by a Pole with unsparing severity. On emerging from boyhood Holdheim displayed not only extraordinary acquaintance with the Talmud and Rabbinical literature, but also such remarkable versatility in dialectics and the art of discussion that he won the admiration of grey-bearded rabbis, and was considered a highly-skilled Talmudist.

Like Solomon Maimon, Holdheim when he already had a son began his secular education in the academy at Prague, skipping the lower grades. All that he heard in the philosophical lecture-rooms in this not very distinguished university was new to him, astounded and dazzled him, and resulted in great perturbation of mind. He quickly assimilated such elements of knowledge as were connected with his previous acquirements, such as Christian theology and the commonplace philosophy tolerated in Austria under Metternich. But he had no appreciation of solid, disciplining branches of learning, and even the subjects which attracted him he had first to reproduce in a Talmudical form. Holdheim's knowledge therefore was only of a fragmentary nature, and contained numerous gaps. He was, however, sufficiently careful and practical to devote himself to useful work, to acquire a good style, which had been neglected in his education, and cultivate pulpit eloquence. Owing to his poverty, he was compelled to devote himself to professional studies, and was thus unable to spend time upon his favorite subjects. The Bible which had hitherto been a closed book to Holdheim, or had only been examined by him through Talmudical glasses, he studied solely to obtain verses for his sermons. It is not granted to everyone to possess ideals and regulate his conduct by them. There must also exist dry, calm, doubting natures, occupied only with the world of real things, who build themselves huts here below, and look with contempt on all sublime and ideal sentiments as being froth and folly. Such Mephistophelian temperaments, the incarnation of the spirit of doubt, are as necessary in the sphere of moral life as opposition in nature. Holdheim had this tendency, and his Talmudical culture nourished and developed it. He knew of no enthusiasm, neither for the calm light of pale memories, nor for the dim, cloudy dreams of the future. The firm ground of the present was more to his taste. Since Judaism consists of memories and hopes, Holdheim was not heart and soul devoted to it, but sought to remodel and alter it, so that he might not be inconvenienced.

Mecklenburg-Schwerin, where the typical brutality of the Middle Ages had been preserved, and where mere caprice wielded the scepter, was at this time ruled by a prince, who, instead of making his Jews free in action, wished them to be Freethinkers. They were to cast off all old memories and forms and remodel themselves. A superintendent was appointed for the disciplining of the congregations, and Holdheim was made chief rabbi (1840) to assist in reforms, and stamp innovations with the rabbinical seal. Here he felt untrammeled, and could abolish whatever was distasteful to him. He who formerly had had no conception that divine service must possess dignity, now discovered that disorder in the synagogue was unseemly, and determined to remove everything not countenanced by the spirit of the times. As, however, a desire for changes in the synagogue did not originate from any impulse of his own, he looked around for patterns, and introduced the Würtemberg ritual, undisturbed by any consideration as to whether he was forcing the consciences of the mostly old-fashioned orthodox congregations.

But Holdheim was not to win laurels by introducing innovations into the synagogue. He marked out a wider field for himself. He wished to alter the whole of Judaism in its threefold form, with its Biblical, Talmudical, and Rabbinical components, to confuse all ideas and stultify the consciences. Since Paul of Tarsus, Judaism had not known such an enemy in its midst, who shook the whole edifice to its very foundations. But Holdheim possessed no original ideas to use as a lever for overthrowing Judaism: he had only a certain ingenuity which he had gained from the Talmud. He was therefore obliged to make use of such thoughts of others as had become public property. His acute intellect, however, enabled him to piece together these disjointed, half true premises, and give them a coloring of truth. Judaism, he said, consists of a close combination of religious and moral ideas with national and political elements. Holdheim accepted this definition in order to separate the religious from the national ordinances, the latter having lost all significance since the downfall of the Jewish state. Which laws are national and therefore temporary? Holdheim gave a wide application to the term, calling all observances national and political which are inconvenient, and require a certain amount of self-denial, such as keeping the Sabbath, the Jewish laws of marriage, and even the acquisition of the Hebrew language, which he desired to banish from the midst of the Jewish race, because it is a national bond of union; and still more national is a hope in the Messiah. To this sophistry Holdheim added other quibbles. He considered every state, however constituted, even Russian despotism, an all-devouring Moloch which continually demands victims, and whose lust for sacrifices can be satisfied only by the abnegation of independence, freedom, and every religious sentiment. The culminating point of Holdheim's theory was that Talmudical Judaism itself, in the expression "the law of the state is law for the Jews" (in civil relations), obliges every Jew to subordinate his religious affairs to those of the state; Judaism, in other words, prescribes its own suicide, if the state provides it with a silken halter. Had he lived in the time of the Maccabees, Holdheim would have joined the renegade Menelaus in urging the Jews to worship the Greek Zeus, because the state, which was then called Antiochus Epiphanes, had so commanded. In the time of Hadrian, like a second Acher, he would have lauded the cult of Jupiter of the Capitol, and in the days of Philip of Spain and Emanuel of Portugal he would have advocated the worship of the cross. The millions of Jewish martyrs, according to his theory, were malefactors against the state, inasmuch as they had opposed the laws given to them. Holdheim, the son of the Talmud, struck down Talmudical Judaism with the weapons which it had bestowed upon him. The authority and power which the legislative Synhedrion had formerly possessed, or is said to have possessed, Holdheim wished to see transferred to the Christian state, even the right of interfering with matters of conscience. These ideas he propounded with sophistic casuistry, unmistakably according to the method of the Polish Rabbinical school. It was difficult for Holdheim to decide what Judaism actually was, and what would be left of it, after everything in any way connected with national political life had been excluded, and when supreme authority was besides vested in each state, to change, command, or prohibit religious practices.

The majority of the members of the first assemblage of rabbis in Brunswick looked upon Holdheim with awe as a Talmudical scholar and a reckless reformer, and he obtained distinct influence over the discussions and resolutions of the meeting. Less attention was paid to the letter and spirit of Judaism "than to the state, the exalted German governments," and the intangible, whimsical "spirit of the age." The Talmud was sacrificed by most of the delegates as a scapegoat. Yet the debates and conclusions of the Brunswick conference of rabbis (June, 1844) produced but little effect. The congregations troubled themselves as little about it as they did about the protest from seventy-seven rabbis of Germany, Bohemia, Moravia, and Hungary, which, set on foot by an upright, self-sacrificing, disinterested, but bigoted zealot, Hirsch Lehren of Amsterdam, utterly condemned the assembly of Brunswick.

Events in the Christian world at about this time demonstrated more effectually than this laboriously constructed protest, that Judaism with its ancient confession had not yet become superfluous. The exhibition of the pretended holy coat of Jesus in Treves, to which more than a million Catholics from all countries made a pilgrimage and bent the knee (August-October, 1844), showed that the "spirit of the age" was a deceptive standard. In consequence of this excess of mediæval superstition and credulity, there arose in Germany what promised to be an influential anti-Catholic movement. A German Catholic Church was established (January, 1845), and next to it, in the bosom of Protestantism, "Communities of the Friends of Light" were formed, who threatened Christianity, its belief in the Trinity, and the Divine Incarnation, with imminent dissolution. Every period has its delusions, and Jews can always be found ready to imitate strange customs. Here and there voices were raised in favor of founding a German Jewish Church after the pattern of the German Catholic. In Breslau the agitation for this new scheme was only artificially kept alive, but this movement was somewhat more energetic in Berlin. In this city a popular preacher, Stern, had been delivering lectures upon Judaism and Jewish history, and had characterized Jewish doctrines as a capricious system. At his suggestion, some twenty men, whose opinions upon these topics were in accord with his own, assembled for the purpose of establishing a sort of Church system of a peculiar type, called the Reform Association (April 2, 1845). They believed that the majority of German Jews had disowned all attachment to ancient Judaism in their hearts, and would gladly adopt a new creed. The founders of the Berlin Reform Association therefore issued a summons to all Israel to attend a synod, in order to establish a new Jewish religion. In their programme they naturally tabulated only negative principles, such as the rejection of the Talmud and of the Messianic doctrine, because they belonged with body and soul to their Berlin home; they advocated a return to Holy Writ, not to its literal sense, but to its spirit. The affirmative principles were: "We desire faith, positive religion, Judaism." The confusion of ideas at this time was as great as when the Christian communities of old were first originated from semi-Jewish elements, and even clear heads became affected.

The matter did not, however, result in a synod for the discussion of reform, which would indeed have marked the Jews as slavish imitators of the Church and of the "Friends of Light." The speeches in favor of the movement made in various quarters proved full of hollow phrases. The Berlin Society adhered to its programme, and as this found no favor in the eyes of the masses, it was to be ratified by the second Rabbinical Convention held in Frankfort (July, 1845), as being in consonance with Judaism.

This Assembly aroused greater excitement and fiercer passion than the first, because, on the one hand, the Berlin Reform Union participated in it, in order to infuse their own spirit or to effect its downfall, whilst, on the other hand, a skillful leader of the orthodox party temporarily joined it, in order to show how Judaism should be purified, or to throw obstacles in the way, if the Reformers should seem to rush to reckless extremes. The orthodox leader was Zachariah Frankel (born 1801, died 1875). He somewhat resembled Holdheim. Both were profoundly learned in the Talmud, and both acquired their secular education when advanced in years, but their points of dissimilarity were yet more striking. In Holdheim's character the prominent features were his innate or acquired love of scoffing at, and his utter contempt for, the past. In Frankel one is struck by the moral earnestness which, together with his warm-heartedness, rendered him worthy of respect by his true regard for inherited forms, his conscientiousness in every matter, and his firm but somewhat peculiar character. Holdheim loved the present and the practical, Frankel the future and the ideal: the former strove to erase from men's memories all traces of the Talmud and Rabbinical Judaism, if not of Judaism altogether; whilst the latter justified and glorified the Talmud. The main aim of Frankel's scientific activity was to demonstrate that Talmudical tradition was correct, and that another Talmud had been known even before ours. He sought traces of this original tradition in the ancient Greek translation of the Pentateuch, in the compositions of the two Judæo-Greek authors, Philo and Josephus, and especially in non-Talmudical sources. Such comprehensive studies were possible only in a man of his marvelous intellectual power and wonderful constitution.

Although Frankel labored to maintain the glory of the Talmud and to prove that reverence was due to Jewish antiquity, he was not averse to religious reforms, nor was he blind to the necessities of modern times. However, although he would not recognize the claim of an individual to institute reforms, he was ready to appeal to a scientific tribunal and the voice of the people, the whole Jewish world. He did not desire to revive obsolete forms into a semblance of life, even though they had formerly been of importance, and was willing to abolish such existing customs as scientific inquiry pronounced to be unjustified or hurtful. Frankel wished to see a conference of rabbis, or, more correctly, of notables in the foremost rank of Jewish learning, so that the chasm between the old and the new systems might be bridged over. He therefore joined the assembly of rabbis at Frankfort, hoping to counteract the eager desire for reform by the weight of his name, which, owing to his distinguished position as a writer, was already famous, and to aid in guarding against imprudent measures, or at least in modifying them. Like Holdheim and Geiger, who brought their programmes of reform with them, he brought his, and in it he endeavored to reconcile antiquity with progress.

Harassed by the contending influences of Frankel and the reformers, the conference grew vacillating. The first motion brought forward, which was not wholly unexpected, that the Hebrew language should, if possible, be eradicated from the minds and memories of the whole Jewish race, obliged Frankel to sever his connection with the assembly publicly, and the applause that his conduct called forth revealed the fact that the Rabbinical Convention did not represent the entire body of the German Jews, but only a small, active party. Unconsciously the Frankfort Assembly had lost its balance. Its members were obliged to dissemble before the Reform Society. They had to praise its actions, or they would have lost its support. On the other hand, they did not dare openly to espouse its hollow views, or they would have lost favor with the congregations. A subterfuge helped them out of this perplexity; they promised to support the efforts of the Reform Association to the utmost, if the latter would "agree with the principles by which they thought reform in Judaism ought to be guided," which sounded like a hidden reproach.

The Reform Society was not repelled by this partial condemnation; they knew that the leaders of the conference, especially Holdheim, sided with them, and they deceived themselves with the delusion that they were creating an essentially new form of Judaism. They formed themselves into a congregation of about two hundred members, and celebrated a consecration (April 2, 1846), when Holdheim as high priest offered up clouds of incense. The congregation and their pastor were well fitted for each other, and however much they resisted at first, in the end they had to embrace in friendship. Thus a "German Jewish Church" was established with a temple, a preacher, and a ritual of its own. It seemed as if time had gone back some seventeen centuries, and that they were in some town of Syria, or Asia Minor, or in Rome, when, out of the conflict of ancient Judaism with semi-Christian and semi-pagan elements, new congregations had arisen, retaining only faint traces of Judaism. The new customs prevailed in the Reform Temple in Berlin. Praying with uncovered heads especially marked it as of foreign growth, and repulsed even some who otherwise approved of reform. Hebrew was retained only in a few prayers and in the readings from the Pentateuch. The Reform Temple, in fact, assumed a Germanic tinge, and threw off its Jewish cosmopolitan character. The trace of its Jewish origin was visible only in the divine service; in their mode of living the members could not be recognized as the descendants of Jews. Perhaps Holdheim was even more fanatically desirous of seeing every Jewish custom abolished than his free-thinking congregants. He disregarded not alone Rabbinical Judaism and the Talmud, but also duties ordained by the Holy Scripture. But even in the reform community it was evident that Jewish self-reliance had progressed greatly since the time of Friedländer. The reform party had completely overcome its inclination towards Christianity. Of its constituents, who number one thousand souls, not one member nor any of their children joined the Christian Church. They do not desire to be considered a separate sect, but as an integral element of the Jewish race.

The Berlin reformers, however, remained isolated, and found no following in Europe. In their own midst, a lukewarm spirit crept in, sooner even than their opponents had anticipated. From want of visitors to the house of prayer, the Sabbath worship had to be transferred to Sunday, the same change that had been made by the Jewish Christians in the first century. The question of Sunday worship cannot be discussed here; it belongs to the immediate present. Such lukewarmness and lack of interest should have convinced the founders, who lived to witness them, that they had committed some mistake. To give an account of this blunder in its entirety cannot be attempted in this history; it would be overstepping the bounds of a record of events. One circumstance, however, must not be forgotten, that the Berlin Society of Reform had an antagonist in its vicinity. This enemy, of whom it had taken no account, was the more dangerous, as he used his incisive eloquence and every fiber of his being to protest against the new sect founded by the Berlin Committee. This opponent was Michael Sachs, who was born at Glogau, 1808, and died at Berlin at the beginning of 1864.

If bountiful nature had determined to create a thorough contrast to Holdheim, she succeeded in Sachs. Externally, mentally, in appearance, speech, attitude, and tendency of mind, in his learning and character, even in habits and fancies--in everything the two men were so totally opposed, that at first sight they could hardly be recognized as members of the same race, devotees of the same calling. If Holdheim represented the Jewish Polish spirit, strung to the highest pitch by Talmudical dialectics, Michael Sachs called to mind the Jewish emigrants from the Pyrenean peninsula, ennobled by classic forms and æsthetic teachings. He resembled the noble Isaac Cardoso, or Isaac de Pinedo, or any one of the numerous poets and scholars of Marrano lineage in Holland and Italy, who combined deep devotion to Judaism with taste for poetical or philological studies.

Owing to his peculiar nature, and the twofold influence exercised upon his mind by Hebrew and Greek literature, Sachs became an ideal personality, like Gebirol and Jehuda Halevi, who could flourish only upon the clear heights of existence, and felt physical disgust at everything of a mean character. There was no equivocation in him; feeling, thought, and action all flowed from one source. He was, therefore, mercilessly bitter against falsehood, ambiguity, and hypocrisy, against all ostentation and pomposity, against noisy hollowness and vanity; he scourged them with the lash of his words and with his striking, brilliant wit. Noble-minded and self-sacrificing to a fault, humble before God and before man as bearing the impress of the Divine, Sachs was proudly repellent to all who in religion, art, science, or public life use counterfeit coin, and conceal their own self-seeking petty interests under the veil of a general, large purpose. If Sachs in respect to convictions, character, moral elevation, capacity for self-denial, and devotion to duty and his faith, was thoroughly Jewish, in his deep love of beauty he was Hellenic, and in his person contradicted the alleged impossibility of this dual nature, which had been asserted by Heine. Whatever was ugly, inharmonious, or ungainly, was as repugnant to him as the immoral and the untrue.

Judaism was dearest to his heart, for he considered it a revelation from the God who directs mankind, and the embodiment of all that is exalted and sacred; and he would not allow it to be subtly explained away by the philosophy of the times. Sachs did not fail to observe the objectionable excrescences which had arisen on its surface, but he knew their origin, and believed that time, which had produced, would destroy them. He hesitated, however, to lay hands upon them, for fear of injuring the sound, whilst removing the unsound and decayed parts. He would not trust himself, nor any one, with the task of making innovations. This suspicion of decisive reforms originated partly in his aversion to active measures, which was one of his failings. As he was only human he could not be without faults. Another error, which avenged itself upon him and the party he represented, was his unconquerable dislike to uniting for common action even with those who shared his opinions. Sachs would have joyfully subordinated himself to leaders whose loftiness of mind could have inspired him with respect. But as he found no such characters among his contemporaries, he would not attach himself to men in no way superior to himself, or who did not even attain to his own height. Thus he was equally unfit to be a party-leader and a partisan.

Sachs' great qualities and small failings forced his vocation upon him: he was destined for the pulpit. The easy stream of his eloquence, his depth of feeling, warmth of conviction, grace of gesture, the charm that he exercised when interpreting the prophets and Agadists, the brilliant wit at his command, the beauty of his voice and his smooth diction--all combined to make him unsurpassed by the best preachers of his time, and his only equal was Mannheimer. When standing in the pulpit, Sachs appeared to be transfigured and oblivious of himself; it seemed as if one of the prophets of God were exhorting the people, or encouraging the despondent by his tidings of an ideal future. Even those of his hearers who did not share his convictions were carried away by his eloquence, and were compelled to yield him a tribute of praise. Sachs, however, was a persuasive speaker not only in the pulpit, but also in ordinary conversation. His speech overflowed with the warmth of the sentiments which filled his heart. His impressive words, which issued from the depths of his being, attracted many faithful adherents to Judaism. Whosoever came into contact with him was drawn into a magic circle, and absorbed somewhat of his convictions. His influence was the greater because he never made an effort to persuade; he simply spoke out what was in him. Nothing was more hateful to him than the display of official dignity, sham devotional fervor, and the pastoral airs copied from Christian clergymen.

In Prague, where he roused the German-speaking inhabitants, both Christians and Jews, to a high pitch of enthusiasm, a happy chance brought him into contact with Rapoport (1840-44), one of the founders of Jewish science. An intimate friendship sprang up between these two men, whose education had been conducted on such different lines, and Sachs was introduced by his friend into the rich domain of Jewish literature, which had hitherto been only in part accessible to him, as his attention had been concentrated on the study of the Holy Scriptures and on classical literature. His talent of vividly perceiving the essential and excellent elements of a subject and storing them in his brain, soon made him master of this new material, and enabled him to impart it to a wide circle in a refined form. But Sachs never became fully acquainted with the dialectics of the Talmud, which was Holdheim's strong point, and this territory remained foreign to him. Though he deeply lamented this deficiency in his knowledge, it was no real defect, for such studies did not accord with the Hellenic side of his nature, and would have blighted the blossoms of his genius. As though destined to counteract the influence of the Jewish German Church, which was to assume form in Berlin, and to become the opposite pole to Holdheim's endless negations, he was elected by the congregation of Berlin as preacher and rabbi. Here, by instilling into the minds of his congregants the same Jewish confidence with which he was inspired, and a feeling of righteous pride in belonging to so ancient, noble, and cultured a race, he succeeded to some extent in curing them of their inclination to Christianity, and the evil habit of imitation to which they had so long been subject. This change in thought, which affected the most remote circles, weakened the antipathy towards the Jews of Berlin, which since the time of Friedländer had prevailed in other communities. Sachs was included among the most distinguished personages of the Prussian capital; the cultured Christian world lavished attentions on him, although he did not seek them. Had he given vigorous and energetic effect to his words, and created permanent institutions--for which plenty of opportunity would have been given him by the liberal Berlin community--perhaps the reform congregation might not have arisen.

He combated the reform tendency with all his strength. In Holdheim and his allies he beheld only perverters of Judaism and false leaders of the people, and he openly expressed this opinion, for, as he often remarked, "Against insult and harsh words I am hardened and indifferent." From the pulpit he wielded the scourge of his annihilating scorn against the Jewish German Church, which had so limited the development of Judaism, that it could be contained in a nutshell. But even his opponents admitted that he employed only honorable weapons, the use of others being at variance with his noble nature. He did great harm to the Reform Temple. Persons who had heard Sachs' sermons were wearied by those in the reform synagogue. A comparison between Sachs and his opposite, Holdheim, who was a contrast to him in every way, always resulted in favor of the former. Whilst the Temple where Holdheim preached became more and more deserted, the synagogue in which Sachs officiated became more crowded week after week.

As Sachs performed great services in elevating and strengthening Jewish self-respect, so also he promoted Jewish knowledge. His contributions to the latter touch the form rather than the essence. In fact, he merely popularized Jewish subjects, and rendered them accessible to educated Christians. Sachs did not indeed promulgate novel, epoch-making truths, or discover new facts. Nor was he a poetical artist who could create brilliant pictures of ideal worlds. There was more poetry in his life and teachings than in his verses. His refined perceptions enabled him to recognize and reproduce the slightest shades in the beauties which other artists had created, and he idealized what other inquirers had discovered. The most decided bent of his intellect was towards the exegetical interpretation of Holy Writ. His fervent love of Judaism and its ancient scriptures, his profound knowledge of Hebrew, which was the language of his heart, and finally his delicate æsthetic feeling for philology, were all displayed in his exegetical work. Early in life Sachs conceived the idea, to which he ever remained true, of restoring to the Hebrew Scriptures their pure and original sense, and freeing them from all accretions and blemishes. Inspired by the example of Rückert, "the poet of the East and West, the learned master in translation and exposition," he commenced with the Psalms, which might have been the outpourings of his own pious heart. Afterwards, assisted by various fellow-workers, Sachs translated several books of Holy Scripture in an admirable style to form a "Bible for Israelites." But as he worked more with his heart than his brain, his biblical exegesis was wanting in a firm basis. The task of opening up new paths in this direction fell to the lot of Christian scholars.

Sachs took an active part in excavating the buried figures of the Jewish past, cleansing them from disfiguring incrustations, and placing them in their proper light. Three periodicals were particularly devoted to this purpose--the "Kerem Chemed" and the "Zion" in Hebrew, and the "Orient" in German. Young and old assisted in erecting a Jewish temple of fame, and contributions flowed in from all parts of Europe. The "forties" were especially prolific in the cultivation of Jewish science. It was not pedantic scholarship, but their heart that urged Jewish authors to bring forward clear proof that Judaism, in all its ramifications, went hand in hand with civilization. The Judæo-Spanish epoch exercised special attraction upon Jewish inquirers. It showed what the Jews had accomplished, and could accomplish in wealth of thought and beauty of form. Jewish science at the same time was to serve as an apology to the detractors of Jews and Judaism, and as an ideal for arousing emulation. The brilliant Spanish epoch was known to Jewish scholars alone, and to them only in rough fragments. Sachs undertook to reconstruct from these fragments an organic, beautiful whole, and by his eloquent language to attract those who had no religious interest in the subject. His "Religious Poetry of the Jews in Spain" (1845) offers more than the title indicates. Sachs attractively describes the series of the products of Jewish genius, from the time "when in terrible agony the limbs were torn from the living body," after the destruction of the Jewish center by the Romans, until the flourishing period of neo-Hebraic poetry in Spain. The attention of the cultured world was directed by Sachs' work to the wealth and beauty of Jewish literature in the Middle Ages, of which hitherto it had had no suspicion; even Heine was seized with admiration, and employed his golden pen in its cause.

At the same time the literature of the mediæval Jews in France and Germany, and of the Jewish poets of Provence was treated with copious detail, but in a style fitted for a learned audience. Zunz, the author of this work, justly rebuked his contemporaries for their contemptuous neglect of this branch of literature, to which Christian students of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries had devoted so much attention.

Continuous devotion to the literature of the Middle Ages threatened to become too one-sided. That epoch, with its productions, was after all only the offspring of the national activity of bygone days, and the grandchild or great-grandchild of a still more important period. This obscure question, the dual origin of Judaism, from the Bible and the Talmud, was clearly illumined by the light of investigation through Jewish science in the "forties." The Talmud lay under a ban, and was treated with most offensive contempt. It was the scapegoat upon which all the guilt and misery of the Jews were laid. Like a leper it was shunned by respectable investigators. But this did not last; the question was raised whether the very writings which had served as the basis for Christianity had not been inter-penetrated with Talmudic elements. The proof of the affirmative answer to this question was boldly undertaken by Frankel. Yet more important was the fact that it was made apparent that the strong side of the Talmud lies in its ideas of justice and their development. The superiority of the Talmudic penal code over the legislation of ancient times was established. The result of a scientific treatment of the Talmud was that Judaism had no cause to be ashamed of it.

But Judaism, together with its followers, remained an undecipherable hieroglyphic, a dark mystery, which one century transmitted to the other unsolved, so long as the "original rock from which it had been hewn, the depths from which it had been hollowed" continued to be unknown. Only a thorough knowledge of its primary sources, its sacred scriptures, could supply the key to this riddle. Centuries had elapsed, and the solution was not yet found. After Holy Writ, the mother of two or three religions, had so long been deified by the masses that it was regarded as "the all in all," and its explanations of life, nature, and history had been eagerly accepted, it had fallen into contempt since the middle of the eighteenth century. It shared the fate of the Jewish race. The rationalistic school indeed paid a good deal of attention to Hebrew sources, but only with the intention of diminishing their value. Eichhorn, Gesenius, Von Bohlen, De Wette, and Tuch were filled with antipathy to the Jews, and were thereby hindered from arriving at a correct understanding of the Old Testament. The clericals Tholuck and Hengstenberg sought vainglory therein, and what they discovered they claimed for Christianity. In Jewish circles there were only three men who occupied themselves in a scientific manner with the exposition of the Scriptures, namely, Krochmal, Luzzatto, and Sachs; but they were timid, they feared pressing too close to the borders of Sinai. A man of childlike mind was the first to raise the veil, to comprehend the language of the Prophets and Psalmists, and to reveal the ancient history of the Jewish people in its true light. With the appearance of "The Prophets of the Old Testament," and "The History of the People of Israel" (1843-1847) by Heinrich Ewald, a new path was opened up for the comprehension of the Hebrew genius and people. The riddle so long obscured approached its solution by the discovery of the key.

"The nations of antiquity, the Babylonians, Indians, Egyptians, Phoenicians, Greeks, and Romans, each under favorable circumstances, pursued only one particular object, till at length they reached an eminence not attained by later generations.... The people of Israel, on the other hand, from the beginning of its historical consciousness, has so clearly kept in view its ultimate goal, and so strongly striven to attain it, that it could not lose it from sight for any length of time, and after any momentary pause it pursued it only the more perseveringly. Its goal is perfect religion.... The history of this ancient people is the history of true religion showing every stage of development up to perfection."

This new promising school has, as its fundamental idea, that the race which owed its origin to the seed of Abraham is actually and truly a "people of God," that has given the world truths of salvation in abundance. The unfolding of these truths is manifested in the course of the history and in the literature of the Israelites. It is certainly a grave error of this school, the first to unravel the artistic web, to imagine that the last page of the history of God's people was written eighteen centuries ago, and that since that period it has only led a shadowy existence. Great memories bring about resurrections, and what people has a grander or more brilliant past than the Jewish, or Israelite, or Hebrew people? But if this people is still to accomplish work in the world's history, its chains must be removed, not only those which weigh down the limbs, but also those which confine the mind. The nation had to be freed, only then was it possible to find out whether it would continue an independent existence, or whether it would succumb in the conflict of races.

Unexpectedly the hour of freedom for the European Jews dawned with the revolutions of February and March (1848) in Paris, Vienna, Berlin, in Italy, and other countries. An intoxicating desire for liberty came over the nations of Europe, more overpowering and marvelous even than the movement in 1830. With imperious demands the people confronted their princes and rulers. Among the demands was that of the emancipation of the Jews. In all popular assemblies and proclamations, the despised Jews of yesterday were admitted into the bond of "Liberty, Equality, and Fraternity." What the most sanguine had never ventured to hope for suddenly took place. Jews were elected into parliaments with a vote in the reconstruction of states. A member of the Prussian Landtag had expressed aversion to the idea that a Jew should one day sit beside him, and be able to vote. The following day it actually came to pass, for Riesser and Veit took their seats next to this very man, in order to consider the reconstruction of Germany, whilst Mannheimer, together with Meisels, a rabbi of the old school, clad in Polish garb, helped to reorganize Austria. An assembly of Protestant clergymen had declared that the conversion of a Christian to Judaism was a sign of insanity or idiocy, but within a short space of time, the laws were compelled to concede freedom even to that creed.

During the stormy years of the Revolution and those which followed, newly-established constitutions in Germany were plentiful as blackberries. When, however, the first panic of terror had passed away, and the privileges of nations had become greatly restricted, the emancipation of the Jews was nevertheless taken as a matter of course (even in such cases where a constitution had been forced upon the people), as though this unqualified "Vox populi vox dei" should not be in any way infringed.

It is probable that the partisans of the reaction, as also their rulers, did not intend to realize those paragraphs in the conditions, but the written words had unexpectedly worked like a magic rune. On England alone the storm-year had no effect. The disabilities imposed upon the Jews of that country were gradually put aside as occasion offered. Distinguished personages were elected as aldermen and sheriffs. But the last link in the chain, that of opposition to their admission into Parliament, had not yet been removed. When Baron Lionel de Rothschild was elected as representative of the City, in London, a Bill to confirm this election was repeatedly presented (in the years 1847-51), but after passing through the House of Commons with a majority, it was each time thrown out by the Peers. Although their opponents conceded that the Jews were worthy of admission to Parliament, they were excluded by the formulary of the prescribed oath, "on the true faith of a Christian." Great was the sensation created when David Salomons, after having filled the office of Alderman, and on being elected member for Greenwich, was daring enough to enter the House, and on three occasions to take part in the debates. For this conduct he was fined £1,500, being £500 for each breach of the law. The absurdity of such exclusion became the more striking, when the High Court of Appeal confirmed the heavy penalty (1852) as justifiable by law.

From that time the Liberal party determined to effect the abolition of the form of oath. As no prejudice prevailed in England against the descendants of the Patriarchs, but, on the contrary, a tendency existed in their favor, it was to be foreseen that this last limitation would also disappear. In fact, a few years later a resolution was passed in the House of Peers, that Jews should be admitted without taking the prescribed oath, and this vote was immediately approved by Queen Victoria (1858). Since that time several Jews have occupied the post of Lord Mayor, Baron Nathaniel M. de Rothschild has been created a Peer, and the late Sir George Jessel, Master of the Rolls.

Meanwhile Judaism has made marked progress in another direction. A home for Jewish science was founded in Breslau (1854). It was a matter of pressing necessity, although the want was not universally felt. The march of progress surprised Judaism before the needful measures for remodeling its religious life had been determined upon. Talmudical schools, even in Russia and Hungary, had collapsed for want of support. The rabbis were useless in this emergency. Some who adhered to the old forms found that the congregations no longer appreciated their importance; others who visited the universities chiefly studied Christian theology, but were at a loss how to acquire Jewish knowledge. This knowledge existed only in an embryonic state. There certainly were various learned periodicals, both in Hebrew and in modern tongues, which treated of Jewish scientific subjects, but these afforded only fragmentary information. The teachers of Judaism needed first of all to learn, what is Judaism? What justification is there for it in the new phase of the world's history? They did not know, and could only grope about blindly. They were required to teach, and had not yet acquired the rudiments of the subject. Their precious heritage, the Scriptures, was not sufficiently prized, and only a few specialists, Nachman Krochmal, Michael Sachs, and Samuel David Luzzatto, occupied themselves with this study, and even they threw light only upon certain points. Jewish theological students, unable to drink at the pure source of the word, listened to Christian exponents, and were led astray.

Jewish religious philosophy had still fewer representatives, viz., Solomon Steinheim and Solomon Munk. It is true that there existed a species of theological seminary (which was recognized by the state) for French-Jewish students in Metz, and for Italian-Jewish students in Padua, but the instruction given was not based on scientific principles. It was, therefore, an event of no mean importance when a noble donor, Jonas Frankel, determined to supply the necessary funds for establishing a Jewish theological college. Fortunately, the undertaking was organized by men who stood at the summit of scientific knowledge--Zachariah Frankel[A] (died 1875), Jacob Bernays (died 1882), and Emanuel Joel (died 1890). At first they were undecided as to the plan of study to be pursued, and as to the division of subjects, and the distinction to be made between the chief branches and subsidiary matters, and they realized the saying that "one learns by teaching." In a comparatively short space of time the chief posts in the more important communities in Germany, Austria, and Hungary were occupied by students from the Breslau College. So universally was the necessity recognized of having schools, that institutions for the study of Jewish theology were founded in Buda-Pesth, Berlin (two), Amsterdam, Cincinnati, and, in a modified form, in London.

[A] The author of this work was, together with Frankel, one of the original founders. (Note by the Author.)

There is no more striking example of the transformation effected in Judaism itself than by comparing the various institutions, even those conducted in the true orthodox spirit, with the Talmud Torah schools (Beth ha-Midrash) in the Russian, and some in the Hungarian communities. They contrast with each other both internally and externally like an architectural structure with a mud-hut.[B]

[B] A Theological-Jewish Faculty, an offshoot of the University, and a Jewish Academy are still needed. (Note by the Author.)

The occasional recurrence of persecutions against the Jews awakened a feeling of brotherhood unexampled in Jewish history since the separation of Israel from Judah. The chief impulse to this feeling arose from the action taken by Pope Pius IX.

A Christian servant living at Bologna with a Jewish family named Mortara secretly took a sick child to be baptized. Some years later this fact came under the cognizance of the priests. Thereupon the boy Mortara, then six years old, was carried away from his parents, by the officers of the papacy, and placed in a monastery (1858). All steps taken by the father to regain possession of his son were useless. Equally fruitless were the efforts of various governments and even of Emperor Napoleon III, who protested against this act as one likely to injure the papacy, if in the nineteenth century it countenanced so barbarous a proceeding as the abduction of a child. Pius IX at a former time had shown liberal tendencies, but he afterwards revived the narrow-minded course of action which prevailed in the Middle Ages, and even commanded the Roman Jews to be shut up within the dreary walls of the Ghetto. Against all representations Pius IX obstinately maintained his reply of "non-possumus." The boy Mortara was kept hidden away, and brought up in the ways of Catholicism; he eventually learned to curse his parents and his race. But the papacy reaped no advantage. The loss of Rome, or of the so-called Papal States, followed soon.

This event and similar acts of intolerance induced six noble young Frenchmen to establish a sort of brotherhood for bringing help to those of their co-religionists who were oppressed and suffering. By their united efforts they endeavored to ameliorate the condition of Jews who lived under intolerant rulers, and to spread the advantages of education amongst those in need of it. These men were Aristides Astruc, collaborator to the chief rabbi of Paris; Isidore Cohn, professor of the rabbinical college; Jules Caballo, engineer; Narcisse Léven, lawyer; Eugene Masuel, professor at the University of Paris; and Charles Netter, merchant, only two of whom (Astruc and Léven) are still living. They founded an institution which bears the title of the "Alliance Israélite Universelle" (1860), having as its motto, "All Israelites are responsible the one for the other." This institution met with a cordial reception, and members joined from all parts of the globe. The accessions continued to increase, especially after Adolf Crémieux became president, and in 1873 the number of subscribers had attained the high figure of 12,526.

In the United States, where in the year 1775-6, after the War of Independence, the republican form of government was adopted, the equality of the Jews was established as a matter of course. At first there were only a few Jewish immigrants in New York and Newport, but owing to the facilities offered to all industrial pursuits and every species of commercial activity, the number of American Jews rapidly increased. They also formed themselves into a body for the protection of their less favored brethren, under the title of the "Union of American Hebrew Congregations." They earnestly desired to promote the welfare of the Jewish communities, built numerous synagogues, and still continue to take a lively interest in all that concerns their brethren in Europe. In the year 1878 the Jewish-American population numbered about 250,000 souls, and maintained 278 synagogues. In these places of worship the reform ritual is chiefly followed. There being no communal traditions to abolish, the changes which in Europe could be brought about only after severe struggles, were easily introduced. Even so radical a reform as that of transferring the divine service from the Sabbath to Sunday, which had been originated by the insignificant Reform Congregation in Berlin, was copied in various American congregations. The warm sympathy displayed towards Judaism and the Jews by the Americans is to be highly commended, and to such sympathy the Union owed its origin.

The English Jews, to whom the task of leading their brethren seems to have been allotted, were not backward in uniting for the promotion of the well-being of their race. At the instigation of two excellent men, Abraham Benisch, editor of the "Jewish Chronicle" (died 1878), and Albert Löwy, one of the ministers of the Reform Congregation in London (whose unassuming character would be wounded were he to be praised according to his deserts), an institution was founded (1871) in connection with the Alliance Israélite, and was called the "Anglo-Jewish Association." Although the number of English Jews is comparatively small (about forty thousand in London and barely thirty thousand in other towns and the Colonies), yet the members of the Association number four thousand. Active correspondence is maintained through its members between Australia, Canada, India, Gibraltar, and the parent body.

In Vienna, also, through the efforts of Joseph Wertheimer, Ignatz Kuranda, and Moritz Goldschmidt, an association was established under the name of the "Israelitische Allianz." Their main object was to work hand in hand with the "Alliance," but the primary task undertaken by them was to promote an improved condition of affairs amongst the Jews of Galicia. The Jews living in this province of Austria, who number about one million, are for the greater part in the lowest stage of culture. Owing to poverty and the heavy labor required to cultivate so barren a soil, they hardly made further progress than enables them to learn their prayers. Even those who possess the necessary ability and leisure to acquire European culture are kept back by the perversions of Neo-Chassidism, which possesses many followers amongst them. To raise them from their degraded condition is the praiseworthy object of the Viennese Alliance. The Alliance counts about five thousand members.

This union amongst the flower of Judaism for common action, besides its civilizing tendency, has also a defensive purpose, for the prevention of detraction and degradation. It could not, however, have been foreseen at the outset, that so wide a scope would have been presented for the work undertaken.

After the Jews had been emancipated in Western Europe, as they were in America, they labored unceasingly at their own improvement, and could soon point out distinguished co-religionists in the highest ranks in every profession--crown lawyers, councilors of state, members of Parliament, musicians, authors, academicians, and in France even generals.

The Jews of Western Europe became so amalgamated with their surroundings, that timid minds began to fear that Israel might be submerged in the current. But suddenly they were confronted by a bitter enemy who endeavored to exclude and oust them from the positions to which they had attained. This enemy all but challenged them to recall their past, prove their own value in opposition to their detractors, and show that though they are a peculiar people, this peculiarity is as much an agent in the world's history, as a product of it. This enemy, the bitterest Anti-Semitism, the offspring of delusion and falsehood, robs rejuvenated Israel of its peace, plays an active part in the immediate present, and unfortunately cannot as yet be relegated to the domains of History.

THE END.

RETROSPECT.

The history of a people has here been narrated, which, dating from primæval times, continues to possess all the vitality necessary for its continued existence. Having entered the arena of history more than three thousand years ago, it shows no desire to depart therefrom.

This people, then, is both old and young. In its features the traces of hoary age remain indelibly impressed; and yet these very features are fresh and youthful, as if they were but of recent development. A nation, a relic of ages immemorial, which has witnessed the rise and decay of the most ancient empires, and which still continues to hold its place in the present day, deserves, for this fact alone, the closest attention. It must be borne in mind that the subjects of this History--the Hebrews, Israelites, or Jews--did not spend their existence in seclusion and contemplative isolation. Far from it! During all epochs they were dragged along in the fierce whirl of passing events. They struggled much, and suffered severely. The life of the people during more than three thousand years received many shocks and injuries. It still bears the trace of its many wounds, while no one can deny its right to the crown of martyrdom; and nevertheless it lives to the present day! It has accomplished much useful work, a fact that is gainsaid by none except pessimists and malignant cavilers. Had it only succeeded in disillusioning the cultured portion of mankind from those deceptions of idolatry which end in moral and social corruption, it would deserve special attention for this alone; but it has rendered far greater services to the human race. Whence came the high culture, on which the enlightened modern nations pride themselves? Surely they themselves have not originated it. They are simply the fortunate heirs of an ancient heritage, which they have turned to good account and have augmented.

There were but two nations of creative mind who originated this culture and raised humanity from the slough of barbarity and savagery. These two were the Hellenic and the Israelite people. There was no third race of coadjutors. The Romans, indeed, introduced and transmitted far-reaching social rules and a high degree of military science; but only when they had attained to a servile stage did they perform services comparable to those of the insect, which carries the fertilizing pollen to the receptive stigma. The Greeks and the Hebrews were the sole originators of a higher culture. If the modern Roman, German, and Sclavonic nations, both on this side and on the other side of the ocean, could be despoiled of what they received from the Greeks and the Israelites, they would be utterly destitute. This idea, however, is a mere fancy; the nations can no longer be deprived of what they once borrowed, and what has since then become welded into their very nature. The participation of the Greeks in the regeneration of civilized races is conceded without a dissenting voice and without a suspicion of envy. It is freely admitted that the Greeks scattered abroad the budding blossoms of art, and the ripe fruits of a higher intelligence; that they opened up the domain of the beautiful, and diffused the brightness of Olympic ideas. It is also acknowledged that their intellectual genius found its embodiment in their whole literature, and that from this literature and the surviving relics of their ideals in the fine arts, there still issues forth new life-giving energy. These classical Greeks are now long dead, and to the departed, after-comers are prone to be just. Jaundiced malignity and hatred are silent at the grave of the illustrious man; his merits as enumerated there are, in fact, as a rule overrated.

Now this aspect differs in the case of the other creative race. Just because of their continued existence, the merits and moral attainments of the Hebrews are not generally acknowledged, or are subjected to cavil--their qualities are depreciated under wrong designations, with the view of blackening their original character, or of denying altogether the efficacy of that character, and, although candid thinkers admit that the Hebrews introduced the monotheistic principle amongst the nations, and a superior code of morality, yet there are but few who appreciate the wide bearing of these admissions. Even deep thinkers do not carefully consider how it came to pass that the one nation died out notwithstanding its dominant master minds and its rich talents, while the other nation, so often near unto death, still continues to exist in the world of man, and has even succeeded in regaining its pristine youthfulness. Notwithstanding the fascination of the mythology of the Greeks, the loveliness of their productions in art, and their vivifying wisdom, these qualities proved of no avail in the troublous days when the Macedonian phalanxes and the Roman legions, instead of allowing them to behold the joyous side of life, caused them to experience the seamy side. Then they despaired of their bright Olympus, and at best only retained sufficient courage to resort to suicide. In misfortune a nation displays characteristics similar to those of the individual. The Greeks were not gifted with the power of living down their evil fortune, or of remaining true to themselves when dispossessed of their territories; and whether in a foreign country or in their own land they lost their mental balance, and became merged in the medley of barbaric nations. What caused this total collapse? There was a potent reason for the extinction of the Romans, the mightiest nation of the ancient world, and likewise a reason for the extinction of their various powerful predecessors, for all of them relied too much on the sword. Even among nations this law of retribution holds good, "He who relies on the sword becomes the prey of the sword." But how was it that the Greeks succumbed to an analogous fate? The answer is, that they had no decided and clearly defined mission. The Hebrew people, on the other hand, had to fulfill the life-task by which it was held together, and by which in direst misfortune it was comforted and preserved. A nation cognizant of its mission, becomes strong and consolidated, and forbears to spend its existence in futile dreaming and scheming. From a national standpoint it was the mission of the Israelites to work out their self-discipline, to overcome or regulate their selfish desires, to gain the full force of resignation, or, to use the words of the prophet, "to circumcise the heart." Abstinence, regarded from a religious standpoint, induced them to exercise self-restraint, and was combined with duties which sustained the health of body and soul. The history of humanity bears evidence to this. All the nations that polluted themselves by profligacy, and grew callous through violence, were doomed to destruction. Not so with the Israelite race. In the midst of a debauched and sinful world and amid vices with which, in its beginnings, the Jews were also infected, they yet freed themselves, they raised on high an exalted standard of moral purity, and thus formed a striking contrast to other nations.

The practical theory of life amongst ancient nations was intimately connected with their conception of the Divine; the one implied the other. Was their perverted morality the result of perverted theology, or its original cause? Whatever may have been the relationship between cause and effect, the injurious consequences remained the same. Polytheism, however poetically described, produces discord, passion, and hate. In a council of gods, there must be strife. Even when the objects of worship are of a dual nature, the result is an inimical contrast--one god of creation and one of destruction, one god of light and one of darkness. The creative divinity is usually divided into two sexes, and is endowed with all the frailties of sex. Although it has been said that man formed his gods according to his own image, yet when theology was once systematized, morality was demanded from the worshipers of the gods, who nevertheless became as sinful as the images which they adored. The people of Israel proclaimed a God at one with Himself, and unchangeable; a holy God, who requires holiness from mankind, the Creator of heaven and earth, of light and darkness. He, though mighty and exalted, is yet near to humanity, especially protecting the poor and the oppressed, a jealous but not a vengeful God, to whom the moral conduct of man is not a matter of indifference, although he is a God of mercy, and regards all mankind with love as the work of His hands. To this God evil is an abomination, for He is a God of justice, a Father to the orphan, and a Defender of the widow. These words of world-wide import penetrated deep into the heart of man, and, at a later period, were the means of hurling the beautiful gods of the heathen into the dust.

The thought and desire that men should be equal before the law as before God, that the stranger should have equal rights with the native, also grew from the idea of man's resemblance to the divine image, and became established amongst the Israelites as a fundamental law of the state. This was the first recognition of the rights of man, for, among the nations of old, even the leaders of civilization never conceded that right which has now become an established rule. If a stranger, wrecked on a foreign shore, was no longer offered up as a sacrifice, as in the earliest times, he was nevertheless placed under exceptional laws, and only considered to be a degree higher than a slave. This harshness towards the stranger, to the disgrace of nations, actually survived the destruction of the ancient world.

Israel's dominant idea became of far-reaching importance in its ethical tendency. It is by no means a matter of indifference in the moral conduct of man, as regards both great and small things, whether the earth, the scene of action, is governed by one Power or by several mutually antagonistic forces. The one conception ensures unity and peace, the other unveils a picture of dissension and discord, and leads to barbarism. The likeness of man to God--in opposition to the blasphemous idea of God's likeness to man--and the train of thought arising from monotheism impresses man with self-respect and with a regard for his fellow-man. Thereby the life of even the humblest of men is placed under religious and moral protection.

Is the abandonment of the new-born infant by its parents a crime? Amongst the ancients, even amongst the Greeks, it was not so regarded. The mountains resounded with the wailings of female children, and the rivers bore along the corpses of the little creatures, whom their parents (finding it inconvenient to rear them) had cast into the depths of the streams without a pang or regret. The ancients felt no prick of conscience at sighs of a murdered infant, and still less would a tribunal of justice demur at such crime. To kill a slave was of no more consequence than to slay an animal in the chase. Why, then, do cultured persons now shudder at the idea of such misdeeds? Because the people of Israel proclaimed the law, "Thou shalt not kill, for in the image of God has man been created. Thou shalt not take even a young life, nor one whose existence is passed in servitude." It has been asserted that man's intellect has made giant strides, whilst his moral culture has remained far behind, or has progressed but little since primæval times. But it must be remembered that the barbarous state of man declined much later than his ignorance.

Slumbering conscience and a repugnance to crime was aroused only at a later period, and this awakening was due to the people of Israel. Still less did the ancient nations recognize chastity of conduct, for they were sunk in the depths of vice and unchastity. Whilst the nations were still at the pinnacle of their greatness the Jewish Sybilline poets repeatedly uttered warnings that the sinful nations would be given over to death, because of their unnatural vices, their atrocities, and perverted worship, and the abominations which had ensued in consequence.

But they only scoffed at the warning voice, continued to pursue their evil ways, and were destroyed. Their arts and their wisdom could not save them from death. This shows that the Israelite nation alone and solely effected the emancipation of man by proclaiming holiness of life, the equal rights of aliens and home-born, and all that is included in the term humanity. It is not superfluous to point out that the foundation-stone of culture, "Thou shalt love thy neighbor as thyself," was laid by this people. Who prayed that the poor might be raised from the dust; the suffering, the orphan, and the helpless from the dunghill? The Israelite people. Who declared that everlasting peace was the holy ideal of the future, "when one nation should no longer draw sword against the other, and should no longer learn the art of war"? Israel's prophets. That people has been called a wandering mystery, but it should rather be called a wandering revelation. It has revealed the secret of life, and the art of all arts--how a nation may guard itself against being given up to destruction.

This people cannot be charged with having introduced self-mortification, self-torture, and a gloomy view of life, and as having thus paved the way for that monkish asceticism which covers the brightness of life with the pall of death. Quite the contrary; all the nations of antiquity except the Israelites laid especial importance on death, made immolations at the graves of the departed, and gave themselves up to pious melancholy. These were the mysteries which, like all exaggerations, passed to an opposite extreme, and ended in the excesses of orgies. The gods themselves did not escape contact with death; they had to make a death-journey, and here and there might be seen the grave, or the Calvary, of some god. The Israelite conception, which revered in God "the source of life," places so much value on life, that it seeks to banish from the circle of holiness all that recalls death. So little is thought of what lies within and beyond the grave, that the Israelites have been reproached with having indulged in the enjoyments of life. And this is true.

The prophets knew no higher ideal than that the earth should be filled with the knowledge of God as the sea covers its bed. Life is highly prized, but it must be a pure and holy life. Only after a long and unhappy course of history did a gloomy and ascetic theory of life creep in, and produce a sad and misanthropic order, which stamped out pure gladness as a sin, and regarded the earth as a valley of tears, and to this condition it actually became, to some extent, reduced.

The Israelite people have nothing in common with their kindred, who are called Semites, whether in their self-torturing madness in honor of one god, or in their dissipated excesses in honor of another god. The Israelites were severed from the Semitic tribes by hard discipline, and they weaned themselves from the perversions of their alien kinsmen. It is likewise erroneous to endeavor sophistically to attribute the peculiarities of Israel to the Semitic character, or to consider the relationship of the two nations as that of two descendants from one stock. The Israelites and other Orientals, through divergent causes, are the result of a mixed union, and both have lost many traits of their inherited nature.

The Israelites decidedly have great faults; they have greatly erred, and have been severely punished for their shortcomings. History describes and reveals these errors, their origin, their eventful results, and the consequences which resulted from them. Many of these faults were acquired, and were to some extent the effect of their surroundings; but there were also peculiar and original features in the character of this people. Why should they be more perfect than all other nationalities, not one of which has ever attained to perfection in all directions?

Those who eagerly endeavor to show the failings and shortcomings of the Israelite people as through a magnifying glass unconsciously pay them high honor by making greater demands upon them than upon other nations. It is a decided defect on the part of the Israelites that they left behind neither colossal buildings nor architectural memorials. Possibly the race did not possess any talent for architecture; or perhaps, owing to its ideals of equality, the kings and warriors were not so highly esteemed that it was considered necessary to erect in their memory stupendous palaces, pyramids, or marble monuments. The hovels of the poor ranked higher. The Israelites did not even erect a temple to God (Solomon's Temple being built by the Phoenicians), for the heart was God's temple. The Israelites neither sculptured nor painted gods, for they did not consider the Deity a subject for pleasant pastime, but gave Him pious and earnest devotion. Nor did the Israelites excel in artistic epics, and still less in drama or comedy. This may have been a want in their idiosyncrasy, and is also connected with their strong distaste for mythological births and scandals. They evinced a similar dislike to all dramas, public games, and theatrical displays. However, in compensation, they had poetical conceptions which adequately reflect the ideals of life, as these are described in the Psalms and in the poetically fashioned eloquence of the prophets. Both possess this trait in common, that their fundamental quality is truth and not fiction, whereby poetry instead of being a mere toy and plaything for the imagination, became the instrument for attaining ethical culture.

Their literature, though it does not treat of the drama, is yet full of dramatic vigor; and, if not actually humorous, is nevertheless replete with irony, and from its ideal pedestal proudly contemplates all delusions. The Israelite prophets and psalmists, whilst developing a beautiful poetic form, never sacrificed the truth of the subject for the sake of style. The Israelites also introduced a historical style of their own, which pictured events according to the canons of truth, and without any endeavor to excuse or hide the shortcomings of heroes, kings, or nations. This peculiar Hebrew literature, of which no other nation on earth can show the like (at best only an imitation), through its excellence has achieved many moral conquests. The nations capable of culture could not withstand the warmth and truth which pervade these writings. If Greek literature elevated the dominion of art and its perceptions, Hebrew literature idealized the domain of holiness and morality. The history of a nation which has achieved so much has a decided right to full appreciation.

Judged superficially, the course of history from the entry of the Israelites into Canaan until far into the times of the kings may easily give rise to misconception, for the most striking events seem to bear a political character. Invasions, battles, and conquests, occupy the foreground of history. We behold on the scene leaders of nations, heroes, kings, and generals, treaties are made and broken, whilst the prevailing intellectual activity is hardly perceptible in the background. The hero-judges who first form the subjects of history--Ehud, Gideon, his son Abimelech, and especially Jephthah and Samson--evince so few of the national characteristics that they might equally well pass for Canaanites, Philistines, or Moabites. Of Samson it has been asserted that he is cast in the mould of the Syrian Hercules. Most of the kings, and also their sons and courtiers, acted as arbitrarily as if there had been no code of law to set limits to their despotic will, and as if they had never even heard of the Ten Commandments of Sinai.

For centuries the people wore the bonds of wild idolatry, and differed only in a slight degree from the heathen world which surrounded it. Was the race in its beginnings actually of no importance? Did the people for a considerable time keep pace with its Semitic kinsmen, and only at a given period become stamped with those peculiarities which caused it to contrast so strongly with its neighbors? Did not Sinai illumine its very cradle? or was this fact stated to have been the case only in after-days and by historians? Sceptics have said as much, but the fragments of Israelite poetry, dating from primæval times, give the lie to this assertion. Several centuries before the inception of kingly rule, and in the first days of the hero-judges, in the days of Deborah, "the mother in Israel," a poet sang of the marvels of the revelation; at Sinai he described the people of God as contrasting strikingly with their environment, and ascribed their lapses to the fact that they had followed "false gods," and thereby fallen away from their widely different origin. Even if one were inclined to doubt the veracity of history, yet credence must be given to poetry as a trustworthy eye-witness. It is not to be denied, that the spiritual birth of the Israelite people was simultaneous with their actual birth, and that Sinai was the scene of the one event, as Egypt was of the other; and that the Ark of the Covenant with the sacred Ten Commandments was its faithful attendant from the earliest days.

The nucleus of the people's faith in God and in their mission, the fundamental doctrine graven on the tablets of stone, were of hoary antiquity, coeval with their representatives. Men especially chosen, and having no connection with the work-a-day actions and turmoil of the people, like the Cherubim at Shiloh, were to shield the sanctuary. This sanctuary only apparently bears a religious stamp, is only apparently theocratic, but its essence is contained in the laws of morality. God is the origin of the doctrine, but not its end, which lies rather in individual and communal life and its legitimate demands.

In this law God is the Holy Will, determining whatever is ethical and good. He is the sacred Type which indicates the way, but not the cause for which actions are to be performed, in order that some definite advantage may accrue. The Israelite creed is, therefore, by no means a dogmatic doctrine, but one of duty. Though a law of deliverance, it has no mystic admixture. But this religion or law of redemption was certainly beyond the comprehension of the people while yet in its infantine stage, and the ideal which was intended to endow it with significance and vitality remained for a long time an enigma to the people. This enigma was first solved by the prophets. A considerable period elapsed even after the prophets had spoken their burning words of fire, before the nation became the guardian of the teachings heard at Sinai, and before they erected a temple for it in their own hearts.

But as soon as this maturity was attained, and the "heart of stone had become a heart of flesh," as soon as the prophetic body were able to dispense with the intervention of the priesthood, they could depart from the scene; they had become superfluous, for the nation itself had attained to a complete comprehension of its own being and its own mission. History shows how this twofold transformation was effected; how the family of a petty sheik became the nucleus of a people; how this small people was humiliated to the condition of a horde; how this horde was trained to become a nation of God through the law of self-sanctification and self-control; and how these teachings, together with a spiritual ideal of God, became breathed into it as its soul.

This national soul likewise grew into the national body, was developed and took the form of laws, which, though they were not subjected to the fluctuations of time, were yet suited to the occurrences of the age. The transformation was effected only amidst severe struggles; obstacles from within and without had to be overcome, and errors and relapses to be amended, before the nation's body could become a fitting organ for the nation's soul. The hidden things had to be revealed, the obscure to be illumined, vague notions to be brought into the light of certainty, before that ideal Israel (as foreshadowed by the prophets in the far distance of time, and which had been expressly distinguished by them from Israel as it then existed with all its defects) might become a "light unto the nations." Assuredly, there is no second people now dwelling upon the globe, or hidden within the stream of time, which, like Israel, has carried with it a pre-ordained law. This people not alone possessed such a law, but also the full conviction that it existed only on account of this law, and in order to be the exponent of this law, and that its sole importance lay in its vocation to announce the truths of salvation. These were to be inculcated not by violence and compulsion, but by example, by action, and by the realization of those ideals which as a people the Israelites were to proclaim.

The profound insight afforded by History has proved that it was the mission of the Greeks to bring to light the ideals of art and science, but the Greeks themselves had no knowledge of this fact.

It was otherwise with the Israelites. Not only was their task apportioned to them, but the revelation was made to them that it was their task, and that without it they were of no more significance than "a drop in the pitcher, or a mote of dust in the balance." Only on this account did the men of God call the Israelites a chosen people. The fact of being chosen imposed on the nation heavier and more important responsibilities, and a greater measure of duty; and when their mission, as the exponents of a special and religious moral conception, became clear to them, the people prized their task beyond all things--more highly than their fatherland and nationality, and even more than life itself. And because they sacrificed themselves, the idea which dominated them attained to enduring existence and to immortality.

The Israelites were the first people who possessed the courage of their own opinions, and who risked all worldly goods for their convictions. They proved that a propaganda-making truth can be sealed only by the blood of its martyrs. The loyalty of their convictions endowed them with steadfastness and endurance. Their inner core cannot have been utterly corrupt, seeing that they were enabled to bid defiance to the destructive force of nearly four thousand years, and to a host of enemies. The history of the Israelite nation in its beginnings is of a decidedly changeful character. Two distinct factors determined its elevation and decadence, one physical, the other spiritual, one political, the other ethical. Suddenly, there gushed forth a spiritual current, strong and foaming like the mountain spring which has been gradually gathering whilst hidden from sight, and the existence of which commenced only at the moment when it issued from its rocky bed.

The appearance of gifted prophets and psalmists from the days of Amos and Isaiah resembles, in its force and fertilizing power, the outpouring of a mountain spring. The prophets and psalmists who sowed the seed of great and ever true thoughts in a charming and attractive form, and who constitute the flower of the Israelite people, could not have arisen and carried out all that they actually effected, unless the previous conditions had been favorable to their purpose. They arose because the soil had been spiritually fertilized for them, and they were understood only because their exalted moral theories of life did not announce anything novel or strange to the people, but they preached what was already well known, in impassioned and poetically illumined words, and were impelled by self-abnegation, zeal, and manly courage.

Even those who do not believe in wonders must admit and admire the marvelous course of Israel's history. Is it not marvelous that just during the untoward conditions of the Babylonian exile, in a country "full of idols and license," and amongst a Judæan nobility who, untaught and unconverted by their sad experience, continued their evil ways during exile--that amid such surroundings a spiritual movement could be developed which found vent in a peculiarly characteristic manner? During the Babylonian exile the psalmists bewailed in touching strains, and with poetic brilliance, their own sorrows and the national misfortunes, and these strains resound even to-day in the high-places of worship.

During this exile that magnificent didactic poem in semi-dramatic form between the suffering Job and his friends was composed, a poem consisting in dialogues on human destiny and Divine Providence, which is almost unrivaled. During this exile the prophets once more addressed their deaf and blind community in poetic strains. Amongst them was that divinely-favored man, the second Isaiah, who was called the "great unknown." His words of fire pour forth with inimitable power, chastising like a father, yet comforting like a mother, wounding as with a lash, yet healing as with balm. This prophet fully established the fundamental idea for the justification of Israel's continued existence, that, by its submission of martyrdom, it is destined to be the servant of God, to become a light to all nations, and to carry salvation to the ends of the earth. Is it less marvelous that Cyrus accorded to the Babylonian exiles the permission to return to their native land, to cultivate the deserted country, to rebuild Jerusalem and the Temple in honor of their God, and again to enjoy a certain amount of independence? Still more wonderful is it that prophets had predicted with unqualified certainty the regeneration of the nation in a single day, and that the exodus from Egypt would be succeeded by an exodus from Babylon. Even their prophecy that the heathen would join the Judæan people was fulfilled. Thus the Judæan nationality became resuscitated in their own land, the people became filled with ancient recollections and new hopes, and were determined to realize the exhortations of the prophets. The people preserved their independence in their own country during six hundred years. The proneness to idolatry, which, to a great extent, had been found irresistible in the pre-exilic period, suddenly disappeared, and with it also pagan customs and vices. The Torah, as the law book, was to become the guiding-line of the regenerated nation, whose "heart of stone had been changed into a heart of flesh," and not only of the individual but of the whole community. By periodically reading the Torah in the Synagogue--a custom which was now introduced--and by explaining it at least in one of the school-houses, its teachings became the common property of the higher classes. The Torah was the "Magna Charta" of public life in the same way as the Judæan community developed into a species of "Civitas Dei."

The prophets could now withdraw, for the law-givers--Pharisees (Soferim)--relieved them of their duties, and created a Synhedrion, which also possessed a legislative function. Thus post-exilic history received a form entirely different to that of pre-exilic times. The tribunal of the Synhedrion was filled with painful anxiety as to the rigid execution of pentateuchal ordinances. The teachers of the people desired to avoid the repetition of pre-exilic conditions, of idolatry, intercourse with the heathen, and the imitation of pagan customs. Entire separation from the heathen world and total isolation were the consequences. A similar state of things was also maintained against the Samaritans, who defiantly sought to obtain equal rights of citizenship in the "Civitas Dei." This was denied to them. As, however, they would not be prevented from worshiping the God of Israel, they erected a rival temple on Mount Gerizim. Thus there arose the first semi-Judæan sect, that of the Samaritans, who assumed an inimical bearing towards Jerusalem. This was one result of over-punctiliousness. The other consequence was the result of the maxim, "Make a fence round the law." Thereby everything which had formerly been permissible, and which only touched on the fringe of what was forbidden, was interdicted. The members of the Synhedrion, or authorized teachers of the law, on the ground of this maxim, added fresh decisions to the pentateuchal laws. These new sopheric laws, and the prevailing punctiliousness, did not prevent the establishment of Jewish colonies in Alexandria, Antioch, and other Greek centers which had been founded by Alexander of Macedon and his successors. The Jewish colony in Egypt built a special Temple, that of Onias, which rivaled the sanctuary at Jerusalem. There the law was first translated into Greek, and in this language it was read in all Greek-speaking countries. This was a turning-point in the course of Jewish history, although, owing to the practice of reading the law in Greek, public mourning was instituted in Jerusalem. Judaism from this cause became, to some extent, more closely approximated to the pagan world, and the accession of nations into the community of Abraham was promoted. On the other hand, the Hellenizing of Judaism brought the nation close upon the verge of destruction, and exposed it to the persecution of Antiochus Epiphanes, and also to apostasy. From these troubles it was only delivered through the revolt of the Maccabees, whose rising was the cause of many martyrdoms.

These victories were followed by a retrograde movement. The laws which the Hellenist apostates had daringly broken, and on account of which so many martyrs had fallen, even those laws which had been superadded as a fence, were henceforth yet more zealously and scrupulously practiced. Judaism assumed an altered Pharisaic (i.e., punctilious) character. For a portion of the people, the over-scrupulous (Assidæans), even this was not sufficient. They imagined that only by retirement from the world could the laws be strictly followed, and therefore, under the designation of Essenes, they separated from the rest, and followed their particular mode of thought and peculiar observances. The more worldly, such as the warriors and statesmen, offered sharp opposition to such asceticism, and rejected the additional ordinances which were not justified by the letter of the law. Hence arose the division into Pharisees, Essenes, and Sadducees, which was one of the results of the Maccabæan war. Internal dissensions ensued, and facilitated the subjugation of Judæa by Pompey and the Roman legions, and the political independence of the Judæans under their own king, which had been maintained during a century, now came to an end.

Unfortunately, the Romans appointed their protégé, Herod, to be king, and he instilled his venomous ideas into the hearts of the Patriarchs. In order, to some extent, to shield the populace from the alienation desired by the Herodians, the exclusive laws, more particularly the ritual ordinances, were made more stringent. This was the work of Hillel and Shammai. Further, fanatical zeal was displayed in commemorating the liberty which had been disgracefully forfeited; this was the work of the founder of the zealot party--Judah of Galilee--with whom the Shammaites were to some extent connected. The zealots incited the whole nation to wage fierce war against the Roman conquerors of the world, but their attempt ended in the destruction of the community and of Jerusalem, and the greatly-revered Temple was laid waste. It is, however, a marvelous fact that the nationality and the religion did not perish, but survived the destroyers, Vespasian, Titus, and their successors, as they had survived Nebuchadnezzar and his dynasty. The populace was rescued through the law, which had become its very soul. The Synhedrial school-house now became the center, but the law had totally changed in aspect.

Masses of new religious enactments now overlaid the law; fences, Synhedrial enactments, customs dating from more ancient or from recent times, which had been orally delivered, and had accumulated to an immense extent. These oral Halachas, as they were termed, ranked, if not higher than, certainly equal with, the written laws.

The Sadducæan opposition to these laws had ceased; young Christendom, which had sprung from the lap of Judaism, or, to speak more correctly, from Essenism, enhanced the value of the highly-prized and overrated laws, and was indifferent to their origin. In contradistinction to the Judæo-Christians, who thought that they could merge the old laws with the new faith, the apostle Paul created the Pagan-Christian idea, which rejected every prescription of the law as entrammeling, and proclaimed evangelical liberty. This attack on the law, and the mystic formulas evolved by the Gnostics from the letters of Holy Writ, caused all that bordered upon religious precepts to become more precious and to be more rigidly observed in Judæan circles.

The transmission of Halachic doctrines had been endangered by the divergence of opinion between the disciples of Hillel and of Shammai regarding their scope, limits, justification, and applicability, and in consequence of the fatal termination of the disastrous war. Those teachers of the law who had survived the catastrophe were the more eager to hand down such laws, which they claimed to have transmitted faithfully, and to rescue them from oblivion. Youths and men, now rid of political cares, thronged to the celebrated colleges in order to impress on their memories the traditions handed down to them. They vied with each other in teaching and learning. But this eagerness did not crush out zealotism and a desire to take up arms in the cause of freedom. Fiery youths, especially the disciples of the school of Akiba, quitted the school-house in order at an opportune moment to carry on a bloody feud with the Roman legions--in the first instance this occurred under Trajan, scarcely half a century after the fall of Jerusalem, and again two decades later under Hadrian. These attempts ended disastrously; Hadrian instituted a system of persecution directed more against Judaism than against the Judæans, and especially against teachers and disciples, in the hope of destroying the Law, the very soul of the nationality, but he did not succeed in his object. The fiery zeal for the traditional law was increased through the activity of Akiba's disciples, who had returned from exile.

The center was, however, transferred to Galilee, as Judæa, the southern portion of the country, had been laid waste, and was chiefly in the possession of pagan colonists. Here was situated the Patriarchate which represented the unity of the people, the post of Patriarch being occupied by a descendant of Hillel, who, as it was alleged, came from the royal house of David, and who, from the tiny territory of Galilee, from Sepphoris and Tiberias, governed the numerous communities of the Diaspora--beyond the land and the sea, in Egypt, Babylon, Asia Minor, and Europe. His encyclicals, which were sent by special messengers, were greeted with respect, and were obeyed like those of a spiritual chief. The Mishnah, the fundamental text of the voluminous Talmud, a collection of Halachic laws, and species of "corpus juris civilis canonici," which was compiled by the Patriarch Judah I, owed its universal recognition to that cause. This spiritual greatness, however, was destroyed through Byzantium, from the time that the Roman Empire worshiped, or was compelled to worship, Jesus instead of Jupiter, and the fanatical persecution practiced mutually amongst the Christian sects was visited upon the Jews.

The Byzantine emperors, Constantine, Theodosius II, and Justinian, treated the sons of Jacob even more mercilessly than their heathen enemies. They deprived them of their Roman rights of citizenship, of their rights as men, and also encroached upon their freedom in religious practices. This example was followed by the rulers in various European countries, more especially in France and Spain.

Fortunately, there had been formed a new center in another quarter, on the banks of the Euphrates and Tigris, where numerous Judæan communities occupied a favorable position, and lived almost in a state of political independence, under their own Judæan prince, the Exilarch. The schools which were here established replaced those which had been destroyed in the Holy Land. These schools exercised authority over the entire Jewish community, with but few interruptions, during seven hundred years. Here there arose the Babylonian Talmud, which was more fortunate than its companion-work, the Palestinian or Jerusalem Talmud, a religious code of a peculiar kind. This work with its phases of light and shade exercised an influence in Jewish circles (which continues to the present day), and it almost over-shadowed Holy Writ. Here also Talmudical dialectics became developed, and endowed the Jews who stood beneath the spell of the Talmud with peculiar characteristics, especially imbuing them with that love of hair-splitting which afterwards deteriorated into sophistic subtlety. The authority of the Talmud, however, was to some extent lessened through events which occurred on the Arabian Peninsula. Mahomet, the son of Abdallah, from Mecca, had established the Islamite religion on the basis of various fragments of Judaism. The Arabs at first lived on friendly terms with the Judæans who dwelt in their land, and who were warlike, lovers of freedom and of song, and superior to the Arabs by reason of their possession of Holy Writ. Mahomet, however, having been derided by them, afterwards waged war against one Judæan tribe after another, and exiled them from Arabia, which proscription was upheld by Caliph Omar.

The exiles settled in Palestine and Babylon, where they became acquainted with tribesmen and co-religionists, who, having followed the Talmudical precepts, had acquired totally different habits. They found the Talmudical restrictions incompatible with their hereditary and unquenched thirst for liberty. This Judæo-Arabic circle declared war against Talmudism. The contest, which in the first instance was only of a mild character, the needful ability to sustain it being wanting, afterwards became fiercer, when Anan, a connection of the Prince of Captivity, eagerly joined in the fray, asserting Holy Writ to be the sole source of religion, and the Talmud to be only the work of man.

Thus arose a new sect, the Ananites, or Karaites. Although small in numbers, yet by their energy and combativeness they aroused the less active minds, and stimulated the desire for a knowledge of Holy Writ, which had hitherto fallen into neglect. The impulse given to this study was so powerful that Saadiah, the representative of a Talmudical school, devoted his entire attention to it. Through him a philosophical tendency was introduced into Judæan circles. Until this time, as in Christendom and Islam, a belief in existing authorities had caused it to be considered heretical to speculate upon religion.

From Babylon there now emanated a spark of rational thought and scientific inquiry, which traveled as far as the Pyrenean Peninsula. This territory, being under Mahometan rule, was connected in spirit with the East. A long succession of eminent personages had during two centuries fostered and cultivated a spirit of deep research in Spain, whilst in Christendom a fanatical desire for persecution resulted in the destruction of the Jews, or in their banishment from the homes which they had possessed for so long a time. The culminating point of philosophical thought was attained by Moses Maimuni, who for centuries was "the Guide of the Perplexed," and who also, under the sanction of the Church, exercised a powerful influence on Dominican scholasticism. Where there is great light there must also be much shadow. The shadows caused by the light which had proceeded from Maimuni became embodied in the vagaries of the Kabbala, which confused the minds of the multitude by its forgeries, and corrupted the feelings by its excesses.

A deep gulf was created in Spain and Southern France between the Maimunists and anti-Maimunists, between faith based upon intellectuality, and faith based upon authority. This schism would have given rise to sectarianism, had not the accumulated sufferings of the people riveted their attention on what was proximate--the misery of all. Faith in authority proved victorious, under the influence of the Kabbala, and every scientific pursuit, excepting that of medicine, was proscribed in Spain, as if it were intended to undermine the continuance of Judaism. The fourteenth century ignored the tenth century. Solomon ben Adret, who had solemnly pronounced an interdict against philosophy, ranked Saadiah as to some extent a heretic. It seemed as if, with the decay of knowledge, the glory of the Spanish Jews were to be entirely extinguished.

The cup of sorrow, drained by the Jews throughout Central Europe--from the Rhine to the Vistula, and from the Alps to the marsh-lands of the German Ocean--in consequence of the Black Death, as if they had indeed been poisoners, also reached the Spanish Jews. Their grandees, who had been employed at the court as ministers of finance, diplomatists, private secretaries, or court physicians, were powerless to protect them, as they had formerly done.

The horrible massacre in 1391 had driven many Jews, with wild despair in their hearts, into the arms of the Church, and they deceived themselves with the idea that they could outwardly join the Church, whilst remaining inwardly faithful to the God of Israel.

Thus arose the Marranos. Their fanatical persecutors, however, knew no peace until they had succeeded in arousing the thunders of the Inquisition against the Jews, in lighting the stake, in causing them to be banished from Spain by hundreds of thousands, and in enforcing compulsory baptism in Portugal. But the Inquisition and the stake in both of these countries only awoke a deeper love for Judaism in the hearts of the Marranos. Great as was the number of those who perished at the autos-da-fé, or who pined away in prison, yet their offspring, who secretly continued to cherish their own faith at the risk of their lives, after one or two centuries sought to escape from the hell on the Pyrenean Peninsula.

Under the guise of Spanish or Portuguese merchants, they founded large communities in Bordeaux, Amsterdam, London, and in various parts of Italy. From their step-fatherland they brought with them a higher culture and an aristocratic demeanor. Consequently they did not suffer from the contempt with which other Jews were treated in political and social circles. In fact, the Jews of Marrano descent looked down upon their co-religionists as gypsies, on account of their external deterioration. With marvelous rapidity, however, did those who were considered as gypsies regenerate and elevate themselves; and, what was more marvelous, this change did not proceed from the aristocratic Sephardim. The personage to whom this transformation was due sprang from the midst of those who were so despised and contemned. He bore no trace of culture in his youth, but was deformed, awkward, and shy--this was Moses Mendelssohn, from the petty community of Dessau. Had the call reached him to become the leader of his co-religionists, he would have replied, like the great Prophet in Egypt--"Who am I?" It is remarkable that Mendelssohn, without desiring or intending to do so, paved the way for the emancipation of the Jews and the purification of Judaism. The present age has given the lie to the assertion of Jew-haters (who at the close of the eighteenth century and commencement of the nineteenth century were numberless), that generation after generation must pass away before any improvement could be expected in the debased condition of the Jews.

In two decades there appeared on the canvas of History a series of noble, if not of ennobled Jews, in Germany, France, Holland, and Italy, and these ranked as high as if they had been of equal birth with Christians of the aristocratic class.

The historic course of the Israelite nation not only shows, as with other nations, the stages of growth, bloom, and decay, but it exhibits the extraordinary phenomenon that the decay was succeeded, on three different occasions, by a new budding and blossoming time. The history of the crystallization of the Israelite family group into a nation, and their entry into the land of Canaan, until the establishment of a kingdom, constitutes the growth. The stage of bloom was in the days of the kings David and Solomon, who raised the condition of the Israelite people to that of a state of the first rank. The period of blossoming was short, and was followed by loss of power and by the downfall of the nationality. But again it gradually revived under the rule of the Persians and Greeks, developed under the Maccabees, only to decay away under the Romans. This decay, however, was merely superficial, and was destined to give place to a resuscitation in another form.

One of the prophets has represented the growth of the Israelite nation in Egypt by the picture of a deserted female child left lying in the fields, begrimed with blood and filth, but who, notwithstanding her desertion and misery, develops into a blooming maiden. The development of the race in Babylon is described by another prophet under the image of an unhappy and sorrowing widow, who has been robbed of her children, until, on the unexpected return of her numerous offspring from all ends and corners of the earth, she is comforted, and regains her lost youth with them. For the third rejuvenescence of the Jewish race tradition has likewise found a fitting picture.

At the gates of Rome there lies a human form, clothed in rags, leprous, half dead, an object of horror and pity. Suddenly this abject figure is touched with a staff, on which biblical sentences are inscribed. He rises, his hideous coverings and disfigurements vanish, and he stands erect in the beautiful glow of youth. Similes are but lame, and give no adequate representation of a phenomenon to which there is no equal in every-day existence. In any case, the Jewish nation is an extraordinary phenomenon, dating as it does from hoary antiquity, but possessing youthful vigor, having passed through numberless vicissitudes, yet remaining ever true to itself.

INDEX.

Aaron de la Papa, rabbi in Smyrna, anti-Sabbatian, 136.

Abdul Meg'id, sultan of Turkey, 634. and the protection of the Turkish Jews, 662. and the Rhodes accusation, 647. emancipates the Jews of Turkey, 641.

Abendana, Jacob, rabbi in London, 214.

Abensur, Daniel, Jewish millionaire, 205.

Aboab, Immanuel, defends Talmudical Judaism, 55.

Aboab, Isaac, de Fonseca, rabbi at Amsterdam, and Spinoza's unbelief, 92-3. Kabbalist, 52, 54, 88. Sabbatian, 139, 160.

Aboab, Samuel, rabbi at Venice, excommunicates Moses Chayim Luzzatto, 240-1.

Abraham Ibn-Ezra, studied by Spinoza, 88.

Abraham Vita di Cologna. See Vita, Abraham, di Cologna.

Abt, Thomas, rival of Moses Mendelssohn, 303.

Abudiente, Abraham Gideon, Sabbatian, 155.

Abulafia, Moses, arrested on the blood-accusation in Damascus, 636. converted to Islam, 638.

Abydos, Sabbataï Zevi at, 148-9, 151.

Acosta, Gabriel. See Da Costa, Uriel.

Act of Federation for the German states, and the Jews, 518-20.

Adam Kadmon, Kabbalistic term, 121, 143.

Adams, Hannah, historian of the Jews, 593.

Adath Jeshurun, a separatist community in Amsterdam, 457.

Admission of Jews into England, the feeling about, 44-7.

Adrianople, Sabbatians at, 159.

"Advice to the Representatives of the People," by Van Swieden, 453-4.

Aguilar, de, Baron, frees the Moravian Jews from a tax, 252. intercedes for the Austrian exiles, 253.

Ahmed Coprili, grand vizir, and the Sabbatians, 146. imprisons Sabbataï Zevi, 148.

Aix-la-Chapelle, Congress of, and the emancipation of the Jews, 525-7.

Akiba, disciples of, enthusiasm of, 724-5.

Alenu prayer, the, attacked, 185, 191-2.

Alexander I, of Russia, and the improvement of the condition of the Jews, 472-3, 525, 527.

Alexandria, Jews of, and the Damascus blood-accusation, 647, 660.

Algazi, Moses Joseph, rabbi at Cairo, supports Crémieux, 664.

Algazi, Solomon, anti-Sabbatian, 144.

Ali Ibn-Rahmadan, mathematician, 76.

Alliance Israélite Universelle, the, foundation of, 664, 701-2.

"Almansor," by Heine, 548-9.

Almanzi, Jewish scholar, 622.

Alsace, Jews of, appeal to Mendelssohn, 351. attacked, 437. discussed in the French Chamber, 524-5. impoverished by the Revolution, 474-5. money-lenders, 475-6. persecuted, 349-50. protected by the National Assembly, 446. restrictions imposed on, 347-9. taxed, 446.

Amigo, Abraham, Talmudist, 126.

Amschel, representative of the Frankfort Jews, 505.

Amsterdam, Portuguese community of, prosperity of, 166-7. Sabbatians in, 138-41, 155. theological seminary at, 700.

Anan, founder of the Karaites, 727.

Ananites, the, rise of, 727.

Andrade, Abraham, rabbi, member of the Assembly of Notables, 484, 490.

"Anglo-Jewish Association, The," 703.

Anteri, Jacob, rabbi, charged with Father Tomaso's murder, 638.

"Anti-Phædon" by John Balthasar Kölbele, 316.

Anti-Semitism, prevalence of, 704.

Anti-Talmudists. See Frankists.

Anton, Charles, apostate, defender of Eibeschütz, 267.

"Apology for the Honorable Nation of the Jews," by Edward Nicholas, 28-9.

Apostasy among the Jews of Germany, 420-22.

Arari, David, and the Damascus blood-accusation, 636, 637, 638.

"Are there means to make the Jews happier and more useful in France," prize essay in Metz, 434-5.

Argent, d', intercedes for Moses Mendelssohn, 304.

Arias, Joseph Szemach, translator, 113-14.

Arnstein, von, Nathan Adam, husband of Fanny Itzig, 414.

Ascarelli, Deborah, poetess, 68.

Asher, Saul, defends the Jews, 463.

Ashkenazi, Jacob, father of Chacham Zevi, Sabbatian, 150.

Ashkenazi, Jacob Emden. See Emden, Jacob.

Ashkenazi, Zevi, chacham at Amsterdam, father of Jacob Emden, anti-Sabbatian, cause of, espoused by the European rabbis, 227. denounces Chayon, 221-2. excommunicated, 226. excommunicates Chayon, 223-4.

Asiré ha-Tikwah, by Joseph Penso, 112-13.

Asser, Amsterdam deputy to the Synhedrion, 497.

Asser, Carolus and Moses, active in the emancipation of the Dutch Jews, 453, 454.

Astruc, Aristides, founder of the Alliance Israélite Universelle, 701.

Atias, Isaac, da Costa, president of the Batavian National Assembly, 458.

Attaman, Cossack chieftain, 2.

Auerbach, Jacob, preacher at the Leipsic reform synagogue, 573.

August, of Brunswick, and Jacob Jehuda Leon, 114-15.

Augustus III, of Poland, protects the Frankists, 283.

Austria, Jews of, emancipated, 697. establish the "Israelitische Allianz," 703. humiliated condition of, 508-9. legislation friendly to, 357-8. under restrictions, 579-80.

Austrian Succession, War of the, and the Jews, 251-2.

Autobiography by Solomon Maimon, 409.

Ayllon, Solomon, Sabbatian rabbi at Amsterdam, characterization of, 214-15. distrusted by the Portuguese Council, 222. espouses Chayon's cause, 222-3. loose life of, 210. on Chacham Zevi, 221. passes judgment on Chayon's book, 224. repudiates Chayon, 231.

Baal-Shem (Baal-Shemtob). See Israel of Miedziboz.

Babylonian exile, the, changes during, 719-20.

Baden, Jews of, show gratitude to Riesser, 601. the "hep, hep" persecution in, 530.

Bail, defender of the Jews, 522.

Bailly, mayor of Paris, and the emancipation of the Jews, 445.

Baki, Simon, rabbi, superstition of, 201-2.

Bamberg, Jews of, persecuted, 529.

Barebones Parliament, the, Puritan character of, 34.

Barlæus, Caspar, and Manasseh ben Israel, 22.

Barnave favors the emancipation of the Jews, 441.

Barrios, de, Daniel, historian, 202, 204.

Baruch, Jacob, father of Börne, deputy of the Frankfort Jews in Vienna, 513.

Baruch, Löb (Louis). See Börne, Ludwig.

Basnage, Jacob, historian of the Jews, 195-97. banishment of, 196.

Bassan, Isaiah, teacher of Moses Chayim Luzzatto, 235, 238, 239, 241.

Batavian Republic, the. See Holland.

Baudin, secretary of Ratti Menton, 637.

Bavaria, Jews of, partially emancipated, 508.

Bayonne, the Jewish community of, 436.

Bayreuth, the "hep, hep" persecution in, 530.

Beer, Jacob, private synagogue of, 563.

Beer, of Mizricz, founder of the new Chassidim, 375, 379-83. and Solomon Maimon, 407. death of, 392. introduces the Portuguese ritual among the Chassidim, 386-7.

Belgium, Catholic agitation in, hostile to Jews, 655.

"Belief of the Universe, The," by Nehemiah Chayon, 219-20.

Belillos, Jacob, rabbi at Venice, pronounces against Moses Chayim Luzzatto, 239.

"Bellerophon" by Lefrank, 471-2.

Belmonte, Manuel, Marrano poet, 113.

Belmontes, the, Jewish millionaires, 205.

Ben-David, Lazarus, lecturer on Kant's philosophy, 409-10. member of the "Society for the Culture and Science of the Jews," 583.

Benedictus XIV, pope, petitioned to acquit the Jews of the blood-accusation, 282.

Benet, Mordecai, rabbi, orthodox leader, 567. protests against the Temple innovations, 572.

Benisch, Abraham, founder of the Anglo-Jewish Association, 703.

Ben Usiel, disciple of Bernays, opposes the reform movement, 627.

Benvenisti, Chayim, rabbi at Smyrna, Sabbatian, 136, 155.

Ben-Zeeb, one of the Measfim, 400.

Berachya, son of Jacob Querido, accepted successor of Sabbataï Zevi, 211.

Berish. See Beer of Mizricz.

Berlin, Jewish physicians of, restricted, 461.

Berlin, Jews of, apply to be baptized, 421-2. converted, 587. petition for the repeal of anti-Jewish laws, 414-15. under Frederick the Great, 294-5.

"Berlin religion, the," 333.

Berlin, the progressive party in, 418. the reform movement in, 563, 683, 686-7.

Bernal, Abraham Nuñes, martyr, 92.

Bernal, Marcos da Almeyda, martyr, 92.

Bernard, Isaac, employer of Moses Mendelssohn, 296.

Bernays, Isaac, chacham of the Hamburg congregation, 574-8. and the Mendelssohn school, 575. as a preacher, 577. changes introduced by, 577-8. characterization of, 574. denounces the Hamburg Temple liturgy, 673. influences Steinheim, 602.

Bernays, Jacob, organizer of the Breslau seminary, 700.

Bernstorff, Danish minister, decides against Eibeschütz, 265.

Bernstorff, deputy from Holstein to the Congress of Vienna, and the emancipation of the Jews, 519, 527.

Berr, Berr Isaac, representative of the Lorraine Jews, 431. has the Bible translated into French, 449. in the National Assembly, 438, 440, 490. member of the Assembly of Notables, 482, 486, 487. urges improvements upon the French Jews, 448-9.

Berr, Cerf, representative of the Alsatian Jews, 351, 436. and the emancipation of the French Jews, 430-31. spreads Dohm's Apology, 431. spreads Mendelssohn's Pentateuch translation in France, 430.

Berr, Lipmann Cerf, addresses the Assembly of Notables, 487.

Berr, Michael, first Jewish attorney in France, champions the Jews at the Congress of Aix-la-Chapelle, 527. fills a position in Westphalia, 500. intercedes for the Jews with the princes of Europe, 460-61. member of the Assembly of Notables, 482. member of the Westphalian consistory, 501.

Bertolio, abbé, favors the emancipation of the Jews, 445.

Besht. See Israel of Miedziboz.

Beugnot, state councilor under Napoleon, friendly to the Jews, 480. helps to frame the Westphalian constitution, 500.

Beyrout, Jews of, protected by European consuls, 641.

"Bible for Israelites, The," by Sachs, 693.

Bible, the, characterized by Heine, 553-5.

Biblical exegesis, 695-6.

"Biblical Orient, The," ascribed to Isaac Bernays, 575-6.

Biester proposes a statue to Moses Mendelssohn, 372.

Bing, Isaiah Berr, refutes the charges against the Alsatian Jews, 434.

Bloch, Matathias, emissary of Sabbataï Zevi, 133, 137.

Blood-accusation, the, at Damascus. See Chap. XVII. Benedictus XIV petitioned to acquit the Jews of, 282. Clement XIII acquits the Jews of, 285-6.

Blood-accusation, the, groundlessness of, asserted by Moses Germanus, 177. by Neander, 650. by Simon, 176. by the rabbis of London, 654-5. by Wagenseil, 187. by Wülfer, 185.

Blood-accusation, the, in Jülich, 642. in Rhodes, 640-41.

Bohemia, Jews of, banished, 252-3. taxed heavily, 508. under restrictions, 523.

Bonafides, character in "Nathan the Wise," 325.

Bonafoux, Daniel Israel, Sabbatian, 207, 208.

Bonald, Louis Gabriel Ambroise, hostility of, to the Jews, 477-8.

Bonifaccio, Balthasar, accuser of Sarah Sullam, 70.

Bonnet, Caspar, a Geneva author, and Moses Mendelssohn, 309, 313-314.

Bordeaux, Jews of, unrestricted, 499. the Jewish community of, 435, 436. the Portuguese Jewish community of, 341-2.

Börne, Ludwig, a figure in Jewish history, 536-44. and the reaction, 541-2. as a political leader, 556. attitude of, towards Judaism, 538, 540. champions the Jews, 542-4. characterization of, 538. compared with Heine, 544. converted, 542. employed in the ducal police of Frankfort, 505, 541. in German literature, 537. Jewish qualities of, 538-9. publishes a journal, 542. 's love of liberty, 538-9. 's opinion of the Jews, 539-40. style of, 556.

Bourbons, the, and the emancipation of the Jews, 596.

Brancas, de, duc, derives an income from the Jews of Metz, 348, 446.

Brandenburg, Jews settle in, 173-4.

Breidenbach, Wolff, and the abolition of the poll-tax, 466-8, 472.

Bremen, Jews of, emancipated, 507. expelled, 520. under restrictions, 512.

Brendel, professor at Würzburg, friendly to the Jews, 528.

Breslau, a theological seminary founded in, 699, 700. the confirmation ceremony introduced in, 573. the reform movement in, 682.

Bresselau, Mendel J., one of the Measfim, Hebrew stylist, 398-9, 672. opposes the omission of Hebrew from the prayers, 564. writes against the orthodox party, 572.

Brieli, Jehuda Leon, rabbi at Mantua, condemns Chayon, 225, 226. culture of, 200.

Brody, culture strivings in, 612.

Broglie, de, duc, opposes the emancipation of the Jews of Alsace, 447.

Bromet, Herz, active in the emancipation of the Dutch Jews, 453, 454, 458.

Brühl, Saxon minister, and the Eibeschütz controversy, 263.

Brunswick, conference of rabbis at, 677-8, 681-2. Jews of, under restrictions, 512.

Buchholz, a writer hostile to the Jews, 468.

Buda-Pesth, theological seminary at, 700.

Buena, David, de Mesquito, Jewish millionaire, 205.

Buol Schauenstein, von, count, president of the Diet, and the Frankfort Jews, 530.

Buxtorf, John, senior, Hebrew scholar, 21.

Byk, Jacob Solomon, member of the Galician school, 617.

Caballo, Jules, founder of the Alliance Israélite Universelle, 701.

Caceres, de, Simon, Marrano in London, 49.

Cairo, Jewish schools opened at, 664.

Calabrese. See Vital, Chayim.

Campo Formio, peace of, and the poll-tax, 464.

"Can the Jews remain in their present condition without harm to the state?" an anti-Jewish tract, 469-70.

Cansino family, the, dragomans in Oran, 169.

Capo d'Istrias, and the emancipation of the Jews, 527.

"Captives of Hope, The," by Joseph Penso, 112-13.

Cardoso, Abraham Michael, Sabbatian, 163-5. announces himself as the Ephraimite Messiah, 207-8.

Cardoso, Abraham Michael, works of, forbidden, 220-21. studied by Eibeschütz, 248.

Cardoso, Isaac (Fernando), anti-Sabbatian, 163-4. writer, 163, 188.

Carlsruhe, the confirmation ceremony introduced in, 573. the "hep, hep" persecution in, 530.

Carpentras, the Jewish community of, 436.

Carvajal, Fernandez, Marrano in London, 38, 49.

Castellane, de, advocates freedom of conscience in the National Assembly, 439.

Castro, de, speaker at the London meeting in behalf of the Damascus Jews, 653.

Castro, de, Balthasar Orobio, Marrano physician, 115-17.

Castro, de, Bendito (Baruch Nehemiah), Marrano physician, Sabbatian, 140-1, 150.

Castro, de, Isaac Orobio, writer, character of, 199-200. refutes Spinoza's philosophy, 167.

Castro-Tartas, de, Isaac, Marrano martyr, 31-2.

Ceba, Ansaldo, friend of Sarah Sullam, 69-70.

Chacham Zevi. See Ashkenazi, Zevi.

Chages, Jacob, scholar at Jerusalem, 126. teacher of Nathan Ghazati, 130. threatens Sabbataï Zevi with excommunication, 132.

Chages, Moses, and Moses Chayim Luzzatto, 238-9, 241. and Nehemiah Chayon, 222-4, 227. excommunicated, 226. honored in Amsterdam, 231. opposes Eibeschütz, 249-50.

Chamiz, Joseph, disciple of Leo Modena, 67, 74.

Charles VII, emperor, in Prague, 251.

Charles, of Baden, grants civil rights to the Jews, 502-3.

Charles X, of France, and the emancipation of the Jews, 596.

Charles X, of Sweden, against Poland, 15.

Charles XI, of Sweden, and the Karaites, 182-3.

Charles XII, of Sweden, and Karaism, 184.

Chasdaï Crescas, studied by Spinoza, 88.

Chassidim, a Polish Sabbatian sect, 212. converted to Islam and Christianity, 213. excommunicated, 392, 394. writings of, 393.

Chassidism, attacked, 612. founders of, 375. in Wilna, 391. opposed by Elijah Wilna, 394. opposed to secular studies, 611. opposes Talmudism, 379, 386. origin and description of, 374-5. persecuted, 393-4. pilgrimages in the system of, 383-385. propaganda of, 383. ritual of, 386-7. under Beer, of Mizricz, 380-1.

Chateaubriand, and the connection between Judaism and Christianity, 427-8. reactionary, 477, 478.

Chaumette, atheist deputy to the National Assembly, 450.

Chaves, de, Jacob, pupil of Moses Chayim Luzzatto, 242.

Chaves, de, Moses, patron of Moses Chayim Luzzatto, 242.

Chaya, daughter of Elisha Schor, a Sabbatian, 275.

Chayim of Lublin, partisan of Eibeschütz, 261, 263.

Chayon, Nehemiah Chiya, Sabbatian, 215-31. acquitted of the charge of heresy, 225. at Amsterdam, 221-7. at Constantinople, 227-8. at Prague, 218. countenanced by the Amsterdam council, 226. death of, 231. excommunicated, 216, 223-4. freed from the ban, 228. in Europe a second time, 230-1. influences Eibeschütz, 248. Kabbalistic theories of, 216-17, 219-20. son of, converted to Christianity, 231.

Chebrath Dorshe Leshon Eber, society for the promotion of the Hebrew language, 398.

Chelebi, Raphael Joseph, follower of Sabbataï Zevi, 124-5, 127-8, 129, 145, 160.

Chinuch Nearim, free school for Jews in Berlin, 416.

Chmielnicki, Bogdan, Cossack leader, allied with the Russians, 14. and the Jews, 7. cruelty of, 8. his conditions of peace, 12.

Chorin, Aaron, rabbi, and innovations in Judaism, 569, 571.

Chosen people, the, meaning of, 718.

Christian IV, of Denmark, alluded to, 115.

Christian VII, of Denmark, subscribes to Mendelssohn's Pentateuch translation, 334.

"Christian Denunciation, The," by Wagenseil, 186.

Christians study Hebrew, 178, 184.

Christians, the, under Mehmet Ali, 634.

Christina, of Sweden, and Manasseh ben Israel, 22, 23. and the Jews of Vienna, 171. Hebrew scholar, 21.

Cincinnati, theological seminary at, 700.

Circumcision regulated by the Frankfort Senate, 676-7.

"Citizen's Cry against the Jews, The," anti-Jewish pamphlet, 434.

"Claims of the Jews to German Citizenship," by Rühs, 517.

Clement IX, pope, death of, 171.

Clement XIII, pope, acquits the Jews of the blood-accusation, 285-6.

Clermont-Tonnerre, count, favors the emancipation of the Jews, 440, 441.

Cochelet, French consul-general, and the Damascus affair, 647, 649. intrigues against Montefiore, 659, 660.

Coen, David, de Lara, philologist, 115.

Coen Belmonte, Bienvenida, poetess, 203.

Cohen, Malachi, rabbi at Leghorn, partisan of Eibeschütz, 264.

Cohen, Moses Gerson. See Anton, Charles.

Cohen, Naphtali, rabbi at Prague, and Nehemiah Chayon, 217, 218, 219, 227.

Cohen, Nehemiah, Messianic prophet, and Sabbataï Zevi, 152-4.

Cohen, Nehemiah Vital, rabbi at Venice, and Moses Chayim Luzzatto, 239.

Cohen, Raphael, rabbi of the "three communities," biography of, 570. grandfather of Gabriel Riesser, 598. opposed to secular studies, 402. opposes Mendelssohn's Pentateuch translation, 330, 331, 333.

Cohen, Sabbataï, and the Cossack persecutions, 13.

Cohen, Shalom, employed by the orthodox party in Hamburg, 573.

Cohn, Isidore, founder of the Alliance Israélite Universelle, 701.

Collectants. See Rhynsburgians.

Collier, Thomas, defends the Jews, 46.

Commune, the Paris, favors the emancipation of the Jews, 443-445.

"Communities of the Friends of Light," established, 682.

"Conciliador" by Manasseh ben Israel translated, 22.

Conference of rabbis at Brunswick, 677-8, 681-2. at Frankfort, 683-4.

"Confessions" by Heine, 553-5.

Confirmation ceremony, the, in various communities, 573. introduced by Jacobson, 562.

Conforte, David, Jewish historian, 202.

Constantine, emperor, persecutes the Jews, 725.

Constantinople, Sabbataï Zevi in, 146-8.

Conversions to Christianity, 7-8, 13, 213, 420-22, 587. to Judaism, 177-8.

Copenhagen, the "hep, hep" persecution in, 531.

Copia, Sarah. See Sullam, Sarah.

Correa, Isabel (Rebecca), Marrano poetess, 114.

Cossacks, the, ill-treatment of, 6. insurrections of, 6-15. origin of, 2. persecute the Jews, 7-11, 14, 388. religion of, 2-3.

Creizenach, Michael, reformer, 674-675.

Crémieux, Adolf, and the Damascus blood-accusation, 644. appealed to, by the Jews of the East, 651. appeals to Louis Philippe in behalf of the Damascus Jews, 645. attempts to emancipate the Egyptian Jews, 662-4. attends London meetings in behalf of the Damascus Jews, 645, 653. hampered by the French government, 658. influences Mehmet Ali, 660. influences the European consuls in favor of the Damascus Jews, 660. medal struck in honor of, 670-1. ovations to, 667-8. president of the Alliance Israélite Universelle, 702. received by Mehmet Ali, 659. reception of, in France and Italy, 658. 's proposal to commemorate the Damascus affair, 671.

"Critical History of the Old Testament, The," by Richard Simon, 179.

Cromwell, Oliver, and Marrano merchants in London, 49. and the Old Testament, 26-8. favors the admission of Jews into England, 35, 42-3, 44, 45. institutes a commission on the Jewish question, 43-5. invites Manasseh ben Israel, 38.

Cuenqui, Abraham, biographer of Sabbataï Zevi, 212.

Czarnicki, Polish general, 15.

Da Costa, Joseph, president of the Amsterdam community, 34.

Da Costa, Uriel, and the Church, 56-7. characterized, 84. death of, 64. excommunicated, 59, 62. hostile to Judaism, 58-9. humiliation of, 63-4. in prison, 60. philosophical system of, 61. retracts, 60-2. returns to Judaism, 57-8.

D'Aguilar, Raphael Moses, rabbi at Amsterdam, Sabbatian, 139, 160.

Dalberg, von, Karl, imperial chancellor, and the emancipation of the Jews, 468, 504-5.

Damascus affair, the, how to celebrate, 671-2.

Damascus, Jewish women of, tormented, 637.

Damascus, Jews of, accused of the murder of Father Tomaso, 635. antagonized by the Christians, 662. cross-questioned and tortured, 636, 637.

Damascus prisoners, the, liberated, 660, 661.

Damascus, the blood-accusation at. See Chap. XVII. the Jewish community of, 634.

"Danger to the Welfare and Character of the Germans through the Jews," by J. F. Fries, 521.

"Dangerous Courses, The," by Joseph Penso, 113.

Daniel Jehuda. See Oliver y Fullana, de, Nicolas.

Danz, Frankfort deputy to the Congress of Vienna, and the emancipation of the Jews, 519.

Darmstadt, the "hep, hep" persecution in, 530.

Da Silva, Samuel, opponent of Uriel da Costa, 59.

Daub, professor at Heidelberg, protects the Jews, 531.

Daya, character in "Nathan the Wise," 324-5.

Dayanim, assistant rabbis, 566.

"Defense of the Rational Worshipers of God," by Hermann Samuel Reimarus, 320-23.

Delaborde, count, on the Turkish Jews, 649.

De la Vega, Joseph Penso. See Penso, Joseph.

De Lemon, Herz, active in the emancipation of the Dutch Jews, 453-5. deputy to the Batavian National Assembly, 458.

Delitzsch, Franz, devoted to neo-Hebraic literature, 628-9.

Della Volta, Samuel Vita, Jewish scholar, 622.

Delmedigo, Joseph Solomon, scholar, 56, 75-80, 84. as mathematician, 76. attacks the Talmud, 77. defends the Kabbala, 78. wanderings of, 76-80.

Dembowski, Nicolas, bishop of Kamieniec, and the Frankists, 278-280, 281, 282.

Descartes, inconsistency of, 90. studied by Spinoza, 89.

Deutz, Menahem, member of the French central consistory, 502.

De Wette, Bible exegete, 695.

De Witt, John, friend of Spinoza, 107-8.

"Die Waage," journal published by Börne, 542.

Diebitsch, von, Freiherr, a defender of the Jews, 470.

Diez, Prussian ambassador to Turkey, friendly to the Jews, 358-9.

Djabar, Jews of, attacked, 641.

Dob Beer. See Beer of Mizricz.

Dohm, Christian William, military councilor, advocate of the Jews, 336. draws up a memorial in behalf of the Alsatian Jews, 351-8. enlists Mirabeau's sympathy for the Jews, 366. friendship of, with Mendelssohn, 351-2. helps to frame the Westphalian constitution, 500.

Dolmäh, the, a Sabbatian-Mahometan sect, 211.

Dominicus Haman Epiphanes, nom de plume of a Jewish writer, 471.

Donmäh, the. See Dolmäh, the.

Dormido, David Abrabanel, petitions Parliament to admit Jews, 35.

Dresden, Jews of, threatened with expulsion, 344.

Dubno, Solomon, commentator on Mendelssohn's Pentateuch translation, 329-34.

Duchan, Jacob Israel, Sabbatian, 156.

Duport favors the emancipation of the Jews in the National Assembly, 441, 447-8.

Dury, John, opposes the admission of the Jews into England, 46.

Düsseldorf, the "hep, hep" persecution in, 530.

Du Vallié, Paul (Isaac), convert, hostility of, to Jews, 175.

East, the, Jews of, appeal for aid to the European Jews, 651.

Eastern question, the, 634.

Edzardus, Esdras, preacher, and David de Lara, 115. and the Sabbatians, 151.

Eger, Akiba, rabbi, orthodox leader, 567.

Eger, Samuel, rabbi, protest of, against Jacobson's reforms, 562.

Egypt, Jews of, emancipation of, 662-4.

Eibeschütz, Jonathan, addresses a letter to his followers, 261-2. amulets by, 256-7, 260. and his disciples, 249-61. and Rabbinical Judaism, 248. characterization of, 247-8. condemned by the Danish government, 265. declared a secret Christian, 270-71. declared innocent by the Danish government, 268. employs Charles Anton, 267. excommunicated, 263-4. excommunicates his adversaries, 259-60. excommunicates the Sabbatians, 249. exposed as a Sabbatian, 229-30. in communication with the Jesuits, 250. in Metz, 251, 253-4. Kabbalistic studies of, 246-7. publishes an imperfect Talmud, 250-51. rabbi of the "three communities," 254. Sabbatian doctrines of, 248. supposed author of a Kabbalistic work, 229. suspected of Sabbatianism, 250-58. the great Gaon of the Frankists, 289. traitor to Austria, 252-3. triumphs over his opponents, 271.

Eichhorn, Bible exegete, 695.

Eisenmenger, John Andrew, and the Jews, 187-8. suppression of work of, 189-93.

"Eisenmenger the Second, an open letter to Fichte," by Saul Asher, 463.

Eisenstadt, Meïr, teacher of Eibeschütz, 250.

Elijah Wilna. See Wilna, Elijah.

Elijah Zevi, brother of Sabbataï Zevi, 145.

Elizabeth, of Brunswick, and Jacob Jehuda Leon, 114-15.

Emancipation, the, of the European Jews, 696-9. of the French Jews, 596-8.

Emden, Jacob, and Moses Mendelssohn, 318-19. anti-Sabbatian, 256. appealed to by the orthodox Jews of Poland, 277-8. biographer of Sabbataï Zevi, 266. characterization of, 254-5. criticises Eibeschütz's vindication, 270. discovers Eibeschütz's Sabbatian heresy, 257-8. excommunicated, 261. fails to be elected rabbi of the "three communities," 255-6. on the Frankists, 278. persecuted, 260. proves the Zohar a forgery, 278. rebuked by the council of the "three communities," 258-9. returns to Altona, 265. triumphs over Eibeschütz, 289.

Engel proposes a statue to Mendelssohn, 373.

England, civil war in, 25-6.

England, Jews of, emancipated, 698-699. establish the "Anglo-Jewish Association," 703. meet in the interest of the Damascus Jews, 645. petition to be naturalized, 337-8.

England, settlement of Jews in, 18-19, 34-5.

Enriquez, Antonio, de Gomez, the Jewish Calderon, 110-11.

Ensheim, Moses, one of the Measfim, poem by, on the French victories, 450. tutor in Mendelssohn's house, 401.

Ergas, Joseph, Kabbalist, accuses Chayon of heresy, 227.

Erter, Isaac, Hebrew poet, 612-17. and Krochmal, 614. excommunicated, 614. joins the Chassidim, 613. narrative by, of the Damascus affair, 671. satires by, 615. style of, 615-17.

Eskapha, Joseph, teacher of Sabbataï Zevi, 118, 122.

Eskeles, Issachar Berush, rabbi at Vienna, frees the Jews of Moravia from a tax, 252. intercedes for the Austrian exiles, 253.

Essenes, a Jewish sect, 722-3.

Essingen, Samuel, follower of Eibeschütz, 262.

"Esther," by Ansaldo Ceba, 69, 70.

Euchel, Isaac Abraham, one of the Measfim, Hebrew stylist, 398-9.

Ewald, Heinrich, Bible exegete, 696.

Ewald, Johann Ludwig, defends the Jews, 522.

"Examination of the Pharisaic Traditions, An," by Uriel da Costa, 60.

"Example of Human Life, An," Uriel da Costa's autobiography, 64-5.

Exilarchate, the, 726.

Faliachi, Jacob, Sabbatian, 156.

Falk, Jacob Joshua, rabbi at Metz and Frankfort-on-the-Main, 251. against Eibeschütz, 262.

"Familianten," privileged Jews in Austria, 253.

Farchi, Chayim Maalem, minister of the pasha of Acco, 460.

Farchi family, the, charged with the murder of Father Tomaso, 638.

Farchi, Raphael Moses, charged with the murder of Father Tomaso, 639. member of the Damascus city council, 661-2.

Fast of the seventeenth Tammuz abolished by the Sabbatians, 151.

Fast of the tenth of Tebeth abolished by the Sabbatians, 143-4.

Fauma Kadin, Mahometan name of Sarah, wife of Sabbataï Zevi, 154.

February Revolution, the, 696-8.

Felgenhauer, Paul, mystic, and Messianic expectations, 35-6.

Felix Libertate, a Dutch club, 453.

Ferber, von, cabinet councilor, appealed to in behalf of the Jews of Dresden, 344.

Ferrajo, Lucio, proves the blood-accusation from the Talmud, 639.

Fichte, Johann Gottlieb, opposes the granting of civil rights to Jews, 461-3.

Fifth Monarchy, the, and the Jews, 23.

"Five Evidences of the Faith," a Sabbatian work, 162.

Florentin, Solomon, Talmudist, supports Querido as the Messiah, 210.

Fonseca Pinto y Pimentel, de, Sarah, poetess, 203.

Fontanes, de, countess, derives an income from the Jews of Metz, 348, 446.

Fontanes, reactionary politician in France, 477, 479.

"Fool's Voice, The," by Leo Modena, 73-4.

Fould, Achille, questions Thiers on the Damascus affair, 649.

"Fragments of an Unknown, The," by Reimarus, published by Lessing, 320-23.

France, Catholic agitators in, hostile to Jews, 655. Jewish communities of, 435-6.

France, Jews of, and the religion of Reason, 451-2. consistory of, 502. emancipation of, 430-52, 597. establish the Alliance Israélite Universelle, 701-2. in the National Guard, 438. Napoleon's legislation for, 498-9. position of, discussed in Napoleon's council, 479-81. represented by Crémieux, 644. send Crémieux to the East, 651.

France, the protector of Christianity in the East, 634.

Francis I, of Austria, and the emancipation of the Jews, 508, 523.

Franciscus, of Sardinia, a Capuchin, employed against the Damascus Jews, 639-40.

Franconia, Jews of, persecuted, 529.

Frank, Eva, daughter of Jacob Frank, 289.

Frank, Jacob, Sabbatian, advises his followers to accept baptism, 278-9, 284. baptized, 287-8. declares himself the incarnation of the Messiah, 272-4. imprisoned, 275-6, 288-9.

Fränkel, David, rabbi at Berlin, teacher of Moses Mendelssohn, 293-4.

Frankel, Jonas, patron of the Breslau seminary, 700.

Fränkel, Sæckel, opposes the omission of Hebrew from the prayers, 564.

Frankel, Zachariah, and the reform movement, 684-5. characterization of, 684. organizer of the Breslau seminary, 700. Talmudic studies of, 684, 694.

Frankenberg, von, Abraham, mystic, and Manasseh ben Israel, 24.

Frankfort-on-the-Main, conference of rabbis at, 683-4.

Frankfort-on-the-Main, Jews of, and Eisenmenger, 189. emancipated, 505-6. freed from the Ghetto, 504. protected by Karl von Dalberg, 504-5. under restrictions, 503, 512, 520-21.

Frankfort-on-the-Main, seat of the reform movement, 674-5. the "hep, hep" persecution in, 529-30.

Frankfurter, Naphtali, Kabbalist, 55. defends the Talmud, 56.

Frankists, the, a Sabbatian sect in Podolia founded by Jacob Frank, 274-5. accused of dissoluteness, 275-6. baptized, 287-8. believers in the Trinity, 279. condemned by Emden, 278. confession of faith of, 280-81. denounced to the bishop of Kamieniec, 278. disputation of, with Talmudists, 281-2, 286-7. excommunicated, 276-7. persecuted, 283. petition for baptism, 284-5. protected by Augustus III, of Poland, 283. protected by Bishop Dembowski, 279-80.

Frederick Franz, duke of Mecklenburg, grants civil rights to the Jews, 507.

Frederick V, of Denmark, and the Eibeschütz controversy, 265, 267-8, 269, 271.

Frederick I, of Prussia, and the Alenu prayer, 191-2. and the Jews, 190-91. intercedes with the Emperor for "Judaism Unmasked," 192-3. puts a ban on the Midrash Rabba, 195.

Frederick II (the Great), of Prussia, and French literature, 411. and the wealth of the Jews, 396-7. German life under, 410. issues the "general privilege," 304. poetry of, criticised by Moses Mendelssohn, 302-3. refuses Mendelssohn as a member of the Berlin Academy, 308. reputed patron of the Jews, 261. writes against Voltaire, 339.

Frederick William, elector of Brandenburg, admits the Jews, 173-4.

Frederick William II, of Prussia, the emancipation of the Jews expected from, 414-16.

Frederick William III, of Prussia, and the Berlin reform movement, 563. and the emancipation of the Jews, 507, 508, 524. attends Marcus Herz's lectures, 406. forbids Jews to bear Christian names, 630.

French Revolution, the, influence of, on the Jews, 429-30.

Frenks. See Frankists.

Fresco, Moses, grand rabbi of Constantinople, urges the Jews to learn Turkish, 664.

Friedländer, David, advises Israel Jacobson, 502. and conversion to Christianity, 421-2. conducts the Berlin Free School for Jews, 416. house of, a literary center, 412. imitator of Mendelssohn, 397. member of the "Society for the Culture and Science of the Jews," 583. on the ill-treatment of the Jews, 534. representative of the Berlin Jews, 415. urges the repeal of anti-Jewish laws, 414. works for the emancipation of the Jews, 508.

Friedländer family, the, 397.

Friedrichsfeld, David, one of the Measfim, Hebrew stylist, 400-1. work by, defending the Jews, 454.

"Friends of Reform," the, principles of, 675-6.

Fries, J. F., writer against the Jews, 521.

"Fulfillment of Prophecy, The," by Pierre Jurieu, 176.

Furtado, Abraham, acquaints Napoleon with the agitation against the Jews, 498. addresses the Synhedrion, 495, 497. deputy to the National Assembly, 438. member of Malesherbes' Jewish commission, 432. member of the Assembly of Notables, 483. president of the Assembly of Notables, 487. replies to Molé in the Assembly of Notables, 489-90. representative of the French Jews, 436. view of, of Judaism, 496.

Gad, Baruch, emissary from Palestine, 126.

Gaffarelli, Jacob, pupil of Leo Modena, 71.

Gailan, emir, persecutes the Jews, 151.

Galaïgo, Joseph Chayim, of Trieste, addresses Mendelssohn, 369.

Galante, Moses, Sabbatian, 132.

Galicia, Jews of, degradation of, 703. heavily taxed, 508. oppressed, 523.

Galicia, the new culture in, 611-12.

Galician school, the, 607.

Galileo, teacher of Joseph Delmedigo, 75.

Gans, David, criticises Eibeschütz's vindication, 270.

Gans, Edward, and Heine, 551-2. conversion of, 587. founder of the "Society for the Culture and Science of the Jews," 583. on Judaism, 585. on the indifference of the Jews, 586.

"Gaon," title of Elijah Wilna, 389.

"Gate of Heaven, The," by Abraham de Herrera, 54.

"Gatherer, The," a Hebrew journal, 399-400.

Gaza, Jews of, flee before Napoleon, 459. proclaimed the Holy City, 132.

Geiger, Abraham, rabbi and scholar, 626. at the Frankfort conference, 685. editor of the "Scientific Journal," 626. hostility of, to the Talmud, 626, 669.

Geldern, von, Betty, Heine's mother, 545.

"Gemul Athalia," by David Franco Mendes, 401.

Gentz, von, Frederick, frequenter of Henrietta Herz's salon, 423. quoted, 413.

George II, of England, ratifies the naturalization of the Jews, 337.

George, of Hesse, and the Jews, 185.

German Catholic Church, the, established, 682.

"German Jewish Church," a, established, 686.

Germanus, Moses. See Speeth, John Peter.

Germany, Jews of, and citizenship, 465-6, 517. and the Damascus affair, 669-70. apostatize, 420-22. educated rabbis employed by, 582. emancipated, 601. endeavor to have the poll-tax removed, 466-8. hostility to, 468-70, 521, 655. indifference of writers to ill-treatment of, 533. petition the Congress of Ratisbon, 465-6. schism among, 672-91.

Germany, the reform movement in, 627-8, 674-91.

Gerson, Christian, convert, asperses the Talmud, 181.

Gerville, de, Cahier, favors the emancipation of the Jews, 444-5.

Gesenius, Bible exegete, 695.

Ghirondi, rabbi, Jewish scholar, 622.

Gleim, and Mendelssohn's "Phædon," 307.

Gley, a priest, establishes a journal for Jews, 494.

"Glorious Stone, The, or the Image of Nebuchadnezzar," by Manasseh ben Israel, 37-8.

"Glory to the Virtuous," by Moses Chayim Luzzatto, 242-4.

Glynn, Lord Chief Justice, member of Cromwell's Jewish commission, 43.

Godard advocates the cause of the Jews before the National Assembly, 443.

Goldberg, Samuel Löb, founder of the "Kerem Chemed," 621.

Goldbergs, the, members of the Galician school, Hebrew style of, 617.

Goldschmidt, Moritz, founder of the "Israelitische Allianz," 703.

Goldsmid brothers, and the Damascus blood-accusation, 645.

Gomez, Isaac, de Sosa, Marrano poet, 113.

"Good News of the Messiah for Israel!" by Paul Felgenhauer, 36.

Goethe, and Mendelssohn's "Phædon," 307. and Solomon Maimon, 409. intolerant to Jews, 461.

Göze, opponent of Lessing, 322.

Gradis, David, deputy to the National Assembly, 438. member of Malesherbes' Jewish commission, 432. representative of the French Jews, 436.

Granville, Lord, English ambassador at Paris, 668.

Grattenauer, writer, hostile to the Jews, 468.

Grégoire, abbé, advocate of the Jews, 432, 440. favors the emancipation of the Jews, 434-5, 436, 437.

Greeks, creative power of, 706-7. inability of, to resist destruction, 707-8.

Grotius, Hugo, Hebrew scholar, 21. and Manasseh ben Israel, 22.

Grund, Christopher (Christian), defends the Jews at the Congress of Rastadt, 463. draws up a petition for the Jews of Germany, 465-6.

Guarini, Italian dramatist, 114.

"Guide of the Perplexed, The," studied by Mendelssohn, 295. studied by Solomon Maimon, 407.

Guidon, physician to the sultan, charged with the conversion of Sabbataï Zevi, 153-4.

Guldberg, von, Danish minister, appealed to, in behalf of Mendelssohn's Pentateuch translation, 333.

Gumpertz, Aaron Solomon, teacher of Mendelssohn, 295.

Gumprecht, representative of the Frankfort Jews, 505.

Hadrian, persecution by, 725.

Haidamaks, Tartar troops, 8. persecute the Jews, 388.

Halevi, Elia, a Jewish poet in France, 460.

Halfen, Azaria and Solomon, rabbis, charged with the murder of Father Tomaso, 638.

Halle, Aaron, editor of Ha-Meassef, 400.

Hamburg, Dayanim of, oppose the Temple, 569-70. Jews of, emancipated, 506.

Hamburg Temple, the, 564-5. and Chacham Bernays, 673-4. new prayer-book compiled by, 672-3.

Hamburg, the reform movement in, 563-4.

Ha-Meassef, a Hebrew journal, 399-400.

Hanna Bachari Bey, and the Damascus blood-accusation, 633, 635.

Hanover, Jews of, under restrictions, 512.

Hanse Towns, the, Jew-hatred in, 506-8.

Jews of, send deputies to Vienna, 513.

Hardenberg, Prussian chancellor, and the emancipation of the Jews, 507, 520, 527. and the treatment of the Jews in the Hanse Towns, 514. intercedes for Edward Gans, 587.

Harrach, count, patron of Lazarus Ben-David, 410.

Harrison, Puritan general, 34.

Hartmann, Frederick Traugott, opponent of the Jews, 359.

Hasselbauer, bishop of Prague, friend of Eibeschütz, 250.

Hebert, atheist deputy to the National Assembly, 450.

"Hebrew Chrestomathy," by Adam Martinet, 628-9.

Hebrew language, the, renaissance of, 399.

"Hebrew Rites, The," by Leo Modena, 71. translated, 180.

Hebrew scholarship in Holland, 20-21.

Hebrew studied by Christians, 178, 184.

Hegel, influence of, on Young Israel, 585.

Heidelberg, the "hep, hep" persecution in, 530-31.

Heidenheim, Wolf, one of the Measfim, student of the Masora, 400.

Heilmann, rabbi, proceeds against Eibeschütz, 262.

Heilperin, Jechiel, historian, 202.

Heine, Heinrich, a figure in Jewish history, 536. and Edward Gans, 551-2. and Jehuda Halevi, 555. as a political leader, 556. attachment of, to the Jewish race, 546. attitude of, towards Judaism, 546-548. characterization of, 544-5. compared with Börne, 544. conversion of, 550-51. hatred of, towards apostates, 548-549. Hellenism of, 555-6. in German literature, 537. member of the Berlin "Society for Culture," 547. mother of, 545. on Isaac Bernays, 577. on Judaism, 552. on Moses Moser, 583. on Shylock, 552-3. on the Bible, 553-5. on the conversion of Edward Gans, 587. on the journal for the Science of Judaism, 587. on the shortcomings of modern Jews, 547-8. religious education of, 545-6. reverence of, for Judaism, 553-5. studies of, in Jewish history, 549-550. style of, 556.

Hell, persecutes the Jews of Alsace, 349-50.

Hellenism, the, of Heine, 555-6.

Heller, Lipmann, and the Cossack persecutions, 13.

Hengstenberg, Bible exegete, 695.

Hennigs, von, Augustus, Danish state councilor, and Mendelssohn's Pentateuch translation, 333-4.

"Hep, hep" persecutions, the, 528-532.

Herder, and Mendelssohn's "Phædon," 307. feeling of, towards Jews, 462.

Herod, king of the Jews, 723.

Herrera, de, Alonzo (Abraham), Kabbalist, 54-5, 88.

Herschel, Solomon, rabbi in London, swears to the groundlessness of the blood-accusation, 654-5.

Herz, Henrietta, and Schleiermacher, 423. and William von Humboldt, 423. conversion of, 425-6. pernicious influence of, 422-3. salon of, 412-13.

Herz, Leb, Sabbatian, 152.

Herz, Marcus, physician, husband of Henrietta Herz, 412-3. devotee of Kant's philosophy, 405-7. translates Manasseh ben Israel's "Vindiciæ Judæorum," 362.

Heschels, Leb, rabbi, proceeds against Eibeschütz, 262.

Hess, Isaac, introduces Mendelssohn to Lessing, 297.

Hesse, the electorate of, emancipates the Jews, 601.

Hetman, Cossack chieftain, 2.

"High Tower, The, or the Innocence of the Virtuous," by Moses Chayim Luzzatto, 235.

Hildesheim, Jews of, under restrictions, 512.

Hildesheimer, Frankfort deputy to the Synhedrion, 497.

Hillel, work of, 723.

Hirschel, jeweler, and Voltaire, 339.

"History of neo-Hebraic Poetry," by Franz Delitzsch, 628.

"History of the People of Israel, The," by Ewald, 696.

"History of the Religion of the Jews," by Basnage, 197.

Hodges, English consul, and the Damascus blood-accusation, 653, 659.

Hodki, Tartar leader, 9.

Holdheim, Samuel, and Sachs, 691. and Talmudical Judaism, 680-81. and Zachariah Frankel, 684. as reformer, 679-80. at the Frankfort conference, 685. characterization of, 678-9. chief rabbi of Mecklenburg-Schwerin, 679. education of, 678. influence of, over the Brunswick conference, 681-2. rabbi in Berlin, 686-7.

Holland, and the settlement of the Jews in England, 46.

Holland, Jews of, emancipation of, 452-9. restrictions of, 453. the German community of the, 457. the two communities of the, 456-458.

Holland, learning in, 20-21. Portuguese Jews of, averse to emancipation, 454-5.

Holmes, Nathaniel, Puritan, and Messianic expectations, 29-30. and the Jews, 27.

Holst, Dr. Ludwig, a Jew-hater, opposed by Börne, 543.

Holstein, Jews of, protected, 519.

Homberg, Herz, one of the Measfim, 402. discredited with the orthodox, 369. works on Mendelssohn's Pentateuch translation, 334.

"Homilies of the Jews in Divine Worship," by Zunz, 620.

Hooghe, de, Romeine, celebrates the Amsterdam synagogue, 167.

Hoornbeck, John, asperses the Jews, 46.

"House of God, The," by Abraham de Herrera, 54.

Howdon, Lord, addresses the Mansion House meeting in behalf of the Damascus Jews, 656.

Huet, Peter Daniel, Jesuit, and Manasseh ben Israel, 22.

Hufnagel, translates Wessely's "Songs of Glory," 404.

Humboldt, von, William, and Henrietta Herz, 423. framer of the Prussian constitution, 514.

Hundt, Hartwig, writer against the Jews, 532.

Hurwitz, Isaiah, Kabbalist, 52, 55.

Hurwitz, Phineas Levi, rabbi, opposes Mendelssohn's Pentateuch translation, 331.

Hurwitz, Sabbataï, compiler of penitential prayers, 13.

Hurwitz, Salkind, deputy to the General Assembly of the Paris Commune, 443. urges the emancipation of the Jews, 434.

Ibn-Raz of Alkala, character in Leo Modena's work, 73.

Immortality of the soul, the doctrine of the, in the eighteenth century, 305-6.

"Inquiry into Light and Truth," pamphlet against Mendelssohn, 363.

"Inquiry into Probability," by Mendelssohn, 299.

"Investigation into the Evidences of Christianity against Unbelievers," by Bonnet, 309.

"Investigation of Van Swieden's Work in Reference to the Civil Rights of the Jews," by David Friedrichsfeld, 454.

Isaiah Chassid, Sabbatian leader, 213, 229-30.

Isaiah, the second, characterized, 720.

Isambert, on the Damascus accusation, in the Chamber of Deputies, 650.

Israel, Abraham, envoy from Jerusalem, partisan of Eibeschütz, 264.

Israel, of Kozieniza, a prominent Chassidistic leader, 393.

Israel, of Miedziboz, founder of the new Chassidim, 375-9. adherents of, 378-9. occupations of, 377-8. theory of, concerning prayer, 376-377. youth of, 375-6.

"Israelitische Allianz," founded in Vienna, 703.

"Israel's Hope," by Manasseh ben Israel, 31, 32-3.

Isserles, Moses, Talmudist, 4, 51.

Itzig, Daniel, Berlin banker, 397, 415.

Itzig, Fanny, salon of, 413-14.

Itzig, Itzig Daniel, conducts the Berlin Free School for Jews, 416.

Jacob Ashkenazi. See Ashkenazi, Jacob.

Jacob de Perpignan, permitted in Bordeaux, 344.

Jacob Querido, supposed son of Sabbataï Zevi, accepted as the Messiah, 209-10. makes a pilgrimage to Mecca, 211. theory of, of redemption, 210.

Jacob, Syrian priest, antagonizes the Jews of Damascus, 662.

Jacobi, charges Lessing with Spinozism, 372.

Jacobson, Israel, reformer, and the poll-tax, 466-7. characterization of, 500-1. influence of, over the Westphalian consistory, 562. leader of the reform movement, 561-3, 568. organizes the Jews of Westphalia, 501-2. private synagogue of, 562-3. reforms of, 502, 562.

Jacoby, Joel, writer on the Jews, 630-31. quoted, 632.

Jaffa, Marcus Schlesinger, court factor in Vienna, 172.

Jankiev, Lejbovicz. See Frank, Jacob.

Janow, Hirsch, rabbi, opposes Mendelssohn's Pentateuch translation, 330-31.

Jaroslav, Aaron, works on Mendelssohn's Pentateuch translation, 334.

Jehuda Halevi, and Heine, 555.

Jerome (Bonaparte), of Westphalia, friendly to the Jews, 500. reprimands Jacobson, 562.

Jerusalem, Jews of, distress of, 16. Kabbalistic center, 125.

"Jerusalem, or upon Ecclesiastical Power and Judaism," by Mendelssohn, 364-5.

Jeshurun, Isaac, accused of child murder, 42.

Jesse, Henry, and Messianic expectations, 24, 35.

Jessel, Sir George, Master of the Rolls, 699.

Jessica, Shakespeare's, characterized by Heine, 553.

Jesuits, the, in Poland, 1, 2, 3, 6.

Jewish colonies, 722.

Jewish conception, the, of God, 709-710.

"Jewish Curiosities," by Schudt, studied by Heine, 549.

"Jewish Letters," addressed to Voltaire by a Catholic priest, 346-347.

Jewish millionaires, 205.

Jewish morality, 710-12.

Jewish race, the, solidarity of, 632-3.

"Jews' porcelain," 415.

Jews, the, and French literature, 411-12. and the Fifth Monarchy, 23. and the other Semites, 712-13.

"Jews, The, and their Just Claims on the Christian States," by August Krämer, 521-2.

"Jews, The," by Lessing, 297.

Jews, the, cessation of persecution of, 176. chastity of, described by Heine, 553. cognizant of their mission, 708. condition of, at the end of the seventeenth century, 199-200. defects of, 713-14. defended by German and French writers, 521-2. degeneration of, 204-5. emancipation of, opposed by Fichte, 461-3. histories of, 592-3. in the Act of Federation for the German states, 518-20. in the European armies, 511. lack of æsthetic sense in, 300-1. literature of, 714. literary tastes of, 397. maligned by Eisenmenger, 187-8.

Jews, the modern, described by Heine, 547-8.

Jews, the, moral degeneracy of, 419-420, 422-3. persecuted in Spain, 169. poverty of, 205-6. rejoice over the end of the Damascus affair, 661. self-respect awakened in, 590-1, 598. settlement of, in England, 18-19, 49-50. treatment of, in Mahometan countries, 168. wealth of, 205-6, 396-7.

Joel, Emanuel, organizer of the Breslau seminary, 700.

John Casimir, of Poland, and the Jews, 13, 14.

John George, elector of Brandenburg, expels the Jews, 173.

John Sobieski, of Poland, and the Karaites, 182.

Jollivet, French government commissioner, and the poll-tax in Germany, 465.

Jonghe, de, Isaac, active in the emancipation of the Dutch Jews, 455.

Jonghe, de, Lublink, deputy to the Batavian National Assembly, 455-6.

Joseph I, of Austria, refuses to remove the ban from "Judaism Unmasked," 193.

Joseph II, of Austria, abrogates the poll-tax on Jews, 415. forbids anti-Jewish pamphlets, 359. issues laws friendly to Jews, 357-358. praised by Wessely, 368.

Joseph II, of Austria, reforms of, displease the orthodox, 369-70. opposed by the Chassidim, 394.

Joseph Zevi, brother of Sabbataï Zevi, 145.

Jost, Isaac Marcus, historian of the Jews, 594-6.

Jourdan, French general, frees the Frankfort Jews from the Ghetto, 503-4.

Judah Chassid, Polish Sabbatian leader, 212-13.

Judah I, compiler of the Mishna, 725.

Judah of Galilee, chief of the zealot party, 723.

Judaism, a split in, 565-6. characterized by Heine, 553-5. degenerate features of, 558-9. effect of reforms on, 626-7. in the seventeenth century, 51-2. Polonized, 16-17.

Judaism, reform of, begun in Germany, 560. necessary, 559-60.

Judaism, reforms in, 561-3. renaissance of, 291-2, 395-6, 558. the science of, 590, 591-2.

"Judaism Unmasked," by Eisenmenger, contents and title of, 188. second edition of, 193. suppressed, 189-93.

Jülich, the blood-accusation in, 642.

July Revolution, the, and the emancipation of the Jews, 596.

"Jumpers, The," a Christian sect, 378.

Jurieu, Pierre, Huguenot preacher, defends the Jews, 176.

Jussuf Pasha, governor of Rhodes, investigates the charge against the Jews, 640. punishment of, 647.

Justinian, emperor, persecutes the Jews, 725.

Kabbala manuscripts, 53.

Kabbala, the, and Rabbinical Judaism, 144. attacked, 67, 74. defended, 78. in the seventeenth century, 51-2.

Kabbala, the later, 120-1.

Kabbala, the, rise of, 728. study of, forbidden, 277.

Kabbalistic terms, 120-1, 143.

Kabbalists, 52-5.

Kahana, Jacob, rabbi, and Moses Chayim Luzzatto, 241. exposes Moses Meïr Kamenker, 229-30.

Kahtz, Christian, convert, maligns the Jews, 191.

Kamenker, Moses Meïr, Sabbatian emissary, 228-30.

Kant, Immanuel, and Marcus Herz, 405-6. and Mendelssohn, 303, 398. opinion of, of Mendelssohn's "Jerusalem," 365.

Karaism explained by Mordecai ben Nissan, 183-4.

Karaites, the, and Charles XI, of Sweden, 182-3. and Joseph Delmedigo, 76-7. ignorance of, 182-3. reconciled with the Rabbanites in Cairo, 664. rise of, 727.

Karl Ludwig, count palatine, patron of Spinoza, 108.

Karlinians, the, a branch of the Chassidim, 388.

Karo, Joseph, Rabbinical authority, 51.

Katzenellenbogen, Ezekiel, rabbi, denounces Moses Chayim Luzzato, 238. proposes to forbid the study of the Kabbala to young men, 241.

Kelifoth, Kabbalistic term, 120.

Keller, Alexander, reformer of the Galician Jews, 394.

Kerem Chemed, a Hebrew journal, 621, 693.

Kewanoth, Kabbalistic term, 121.

Kley, Edward, introduces reforms in Hamburg, 563-4.

Kofrim (unbelievers), anti-Sabbatians, 144-50.

Kölbele, John Balthasar, writes against Mendelssohn, 316-17.

"Kol Sachal," by Leo Modena, 73-4.

Koniecpolski, a family of the Polish nobility, 3.

Königsberg, Jewish center of culture, 397-8. Jews admitted to the university of, 398. the confirmation ceremony introduced in, 573.

Kosmann, a defender of the Jews, 470.

Kotzebue, murder of, 528.

Krämer, August, a defender of the Jews, 521-2.

Krochmal, Nachman Cohen, Bible exegete, 607-10, 695, 699. and Rapoport, 617-18. charge of heresy against, 608-9. contributor to the "Kerem Chemed," 622. encyclopædic work of, 618. method of teaching of, 609. scientific work of, 609-10.

Krysa, Jehuda Leb, Frankist preacher, 275. makes a Catholic confession of faith, 285.

Kryvonoss, Tartar leader, 9.

Kuranda, Ignatz, founder of the "Israelitische Allianz," 703.

Kussiel. See Yekutiel.

La Fare, bishop of Nancy, opposes the emancipation of the Jews, 441.

Laguna, Lopez, Marrano poet, translates the Psalms, 203.

Landau, Ezekiel, chief rabbi of Prague, leader of the orthodox party, 417. mistrusts Eibeschütz, 289. opposed to secular studies, 402. opposes Mendelssohn's Pentateuch translation, 330. partisan of Eibeschütz, 265-6.

"Language of Truth, The," compiled by Eibeschütz's enemies, 266.

Laniado, Joseph, arrested on the blood-accusation in Damascus, 636. tortured to death, 638.

La Peyrère, Isaac, and Messianic expectations, 24-5.

Lathier, opponent of the Jews of Alsace, 524-5.

Laurilla, the Dutch consul, protects the Jews of Beyrout, 641.

Laurin, Austrian consul-general, and the Damascus affair, 647, 653.

Lavater, John Caspar, apologizes to Mendelssohn, 314. challenges Mendelssohn to refute Bonnet, 308-10. letter addressed to, by Mendelssohn, 311-13.

Law, the, 716-17. translated into Greek, 722.

"La-Yesharim Tehilla," by Moses Chayim Luzzatto, 242-4.

"Lectures upon the Modern History of the Jews," by Solomon Löwisohn, 594.

Lee, Johanna, founder of the Shakers, 378.

Lefrank, a Jewish satirist, 471-2.

Lehren, Hirsch, rabbi, at Amsterdam, and the Damascus affair, 649-51. protests against the Brunswick resolutions, 682.

"Leibzoll." See Poll-tax.

Leipsic, battle of, celebrated in the synagogue, 528. reform synagogue at, 573.

Lemberg, culture strivings in, 612. Jews of, suffer from the Cossack insurrections, 11.

Lemos, de, Henrietta. See Herz, Henrietta.

Leo (Judah) ben Isaac Modena rabbi at Venice, 56, 65-7, 71-4. as author, 71-4. as translator, 70. attacks the Kabbala, 67, 74. attainments of, 66. characterized, 84. convictions of, 66-7. defends the Talmud, 72. position of, 71. youth of, 65.

Leon, Jacob Jehuda, Marrano author, 114-15.

Leon of Filnek, character in "Nathan the Wise," 325.

Leopold I, of Austria, banishes the Jews from Vienna, 169-71. forbids the spread of "Judaism Unmasked," 190. permits Jews to settle in Vienna, 189.

Leopold II, of Austria, hostile to the Jews, 508. refuses to remove the ban from "Judaism Unmasked," 193.

Leopoldstadt, Vienna Jews' quarter, 172.

Lessing, Gotthold Ephraim, advocate of the Jews, 297, 336. and Göze, 322. and Mendelssohn's dispute with Lavater, 319. and "The Fragments of an Unknown," 320-3. characterization of, 296. charged with Spinozism, 372. death of, 326-7. estimate of, of Christianity, 319, 325-6. opinion of, of Mendelssohn, 297. publishes Mendelssohn's "Philosophical Conversations," 299.

"Letter of Zeal," by Jonathan Eibeschütz, 261-2.

Léven, Narcisse, founder of the Alliance Israélite Universelle, 701.

Levi, Aaron. See Montezinos, de, Antonio.

Levi, Elisha, emissary from Jerusalem, 130.

Levi, Gedaliah, and Vital Calabrese, 52.

Levi, Isaiah, Sabbatian, 152.

Levi, Nathan Benjamin. See Nathan Ghazati.

Levi, Raphael, accused of child murder, 175-6.

Levi, Wolf, one of the Chassidim, convert to Christianity, 213.

Levin, Rachel, leader in society and literary circles, 413. immorality of, 425. indifferent to the ill-treatment of the Jews, 533. on Jewish history, 534. scorn of, for Judaism, 546. view of, of Judaism, 425.

Levy, Maurice, acquaints Napoleon with the agitation against the Jews, 498.

Lewin, Hirschel, rabbi at Berlin, and Mendelssohn, 317.

Libermann, Eleazar, reform emissary, 568-9.

Liebmann, Jost, favorite of Frederick I of Prussia, 219. permitted to have a private synagogue in Berlin, 191. wife of, 190-1.

Lipmann, Solomon, temporary chairman of the Assembly of Notables, 487.

Lisbona, Samuel, father-in-law of Nathan Ghazati, 130.

Lissa, Jacob, rabbi, orthodox leader, 567.

London, Jews of, celebrate Montefiore's return from Damascus, 670. determine to aid the Damascus Jews, 651-2, 653-4.

London, Mansion House meeting in, in behalf of the Damascus Jews, 655-7. theological seminary at, 700.

Long Parliament, the, dissolution of, 34.

Lopes-Dubec, deputy to the National Assembly, 438. member of Malesherbes' Jewish commission, 432.

Lopez, Balthasar, martyr, 91-2.

Lorraine, the Jewish community of, 435.

Louis XIV, of France, deeds away the Jews of Metz, 348, 446. praises the Jews of Metz, 174. protects the Jews, 176.

Louis XV, of France, confirms the statute expelling German Jews from Bordeaux, 342.

Louis XVI, of France, abrogates the Jewish poll-tax, 415, 432. and the emancipation of the Jews of France, 431, 448. and the emancipation of the Portuguese Jews, 442. appealed to by the Alsatians against the Jews, 350. grants privileges to Cerf Berr, 431.

Louis XVIII, of France, and the emancipation of the Jews, 524, 596. the clergy influential with, 512.

Louis Philippe, of France, and Montefiore, 668. and the Damascus blood-accusation, 633-4, 645, 651. and the emancipation of the Jews, 596-7. and Thiers, 648.

Löwe, Joel, editor of Ha-Meassef, 400.

Löwisohn, Solomon, historian, 594.

Löwy, Albert, founder of the Anglo-Jewish Association, 703.

Lübeck, Jews of, expelled, 520. under restrictions, 506-7, 512.

Lubienski, Wratislaw, archbishop of Lemberg, and the Frankists, 284.

Lüneville, peace of, and the poll-tax, 464, 465.

Lurya, Isaac, Kabbalist, 51-2. ritual of, introduced among the Chassidim, 386-7.

Lurya, Solomon, Polish Talmudist, 4.

Luzzatto, Moses Chayim, dramatist, 203-4, 234, 235. as Hebrew stylist, 234. as hymn writer, 234. asserts his orthodoxy, 238. at Amsterdam, 242. death of, 244. excommunicated, 240-1. imitates the style of the Zohar, 235. Kabbalistic fancies of, 232-3, 236, 239. promises to abandon Kabbalistic pursuits, 241. replies to Leo Modena's work against the Kabbala, 240.

Luzzatto, Samuel David, Bible exegete, 622-5, 695, 699. historical studies of, 624-5. struggles of, 622. style of, 623.

Luzzatto, Simone, rabbi at Venice, 56, 67, 80-4. as mathematician, 80. defends Judaism, 81-3. defends the Jews, 83-4. opposed to mysticism, 81. parable by, 80-1. quoted by Manasseh ben Israel, 41.

"Maccabee, The," by Miguel Silveyra, 111.

Maccabees, the, victories of, 722.

Mahomet, and the Jews, 726-7.

Maimaran, Joseph, adviser of Muley Ismail, 168.

Maimon, Solomon, and the Chassidim, 407. autobiography by, 409. character of, 408. on Hirsch Janow, 331. studies of, 407.

Maimuni, Moses, philosophy of, 728. studied by Spinoza, 88.

Maimunists, the, 728.

Malach, Chayim, Polish Sabbatian leader, 212, 213-14.

Malesherbes, and the emancipation of the Jews of France, 431-2.

Malka Kadisha, Kabbalistic term, 143.

Manasseh ben Israel, rabbi in Amsterdam. See Chap. II. and Lord Middlesex, 33. and Lord Oliver St. John, 33-4. and Messianic expectations, 24-5, 28-33, 36-8. and the Hebrew studies of Christians, 22. and the Ten Tribes, 31. as author, 20. characterization of, 19-20. death of, 50. defends the Jews, 47-9. in London, 38-49. inclined to mysticism, 55. outlines a history of the Jews, 202. petitions the Protector, 38-9. proposal of, for admission of Jews into England, 44. reasons of, for admitting Jews into England, 39-42. son of, 38. teacher of Spinoza, 87. threatens to leave Amsterdam, 34.

Manchester, Jews of, determine to help the Damascus Jews, 654. meeting at, in behalf of the Damascus Jews, 657.

Mannheimer, Isaac Noah, rabbi at Vienna, 578-82. and the Revolution of 1848, 697. as a preacher, 580, 581. changes introduced by, 580. characterization of, 578-9. personality of, 582.

Mansion House meeting, the, in behalf of the Damascus Jews, 655-7.

Margalita, Aaron, convert, asperses the Midrash Rabba, 194-5.

Margaret, of Austria, and the Jews, 169-71.

Maria Anna, of Austria, banishes the Jews from the Spanish provinces, 169.

Maria Juliana, of Denmark, influenced in favor of Eibeschütz, 267.

Maria Theresa, of Austria, banishes the Jews from Bohemia and Moravia, 252-3. revokes decrees against the Jews, 252, 253.

Marini, Israel, disciple of Moses Chayim Luzzatto, 237.

Marrano authors, 109-18.

Marranos, the, origin of, 729. persecution of, 90-2.

Marshall, lord mayor of London, calls a meeting in behalf of the Damascus Jews, 655-6.

Marten, Harry, urges the admission of the Jews into England, 43.

Martinet, Adam, devotee of neo-Hebraic literature, 628, 629.

Maruni, Catholic patriarch, antagonizes the Damascus Jews, 662.

Masuel, Eugene, founder of the Alliance Israélite Universelle, 701.

Maury, abbé, opponent of the Jews, 441-2, 446.

Maximilian Joseph, of Bavaria, concedes some civil rights to Jews, 508.

Mayo, Moses, excommunicated, 261.

Measfim, the, the Mendelssohn school, 397-404. and Mendelssohn, 403. mediocrity of, 417.

Mecklenburg, Jews of, emancipated, 507.

Medelsheim, Herz. See Berr, Cerf.

Medina, a Jewish capitalist, and Voltaire, 339.

Megerlin, David Frederick, declares Eibeschütz a secret Christian, 270-1.

"Mehemenuta de Cola," by Nehemiah Chayon, 219-20.

Mehmed Effendi, Mahometan name of Sabbataï Zevi, 154.

Mehmet Ali, pasha of Egypt, and the European powers, 647. assents to the execution of the Damascus prisoners, 640. liberates the Damascus prisoners, 660. receives Montefiore, 659. resumes the persecution of the Damascus Jews, 649. surrenders Syria to Turkey, 661. wrests Syria from Turkey, 633.

Meiningen, Jews of, expelled, 530.

Meisels, rabbi, and the Revolution of 1848, 697.

Meldola, David, rabbi, in London, swears to the groundlessness of the blood-accusation, 654-5.

Melo, Francisco, Jewish millionaire, 205.

Mendelssohn, Dorothea, daughter of Moses Mendelssohn, and Schlegel, 424. convert to Christianity, 424. leader in society and literary circles, 413.

Mendelssohn, Henrietta, daughter of Moses Mendelssohn, convert to Catholicism, 424.

Mendelssohn, Joseph, son of Moses Mendelssohn, supports the "Society of Friends," 418.

Mendelssohn, Moses, accused of abandoning Judaism, 363. admired by Mirabeau, 432. æsthetic sense of, 300-1. and the charge of Spinozism against Lessing, 370-1. and the early burial question, 318-19. and the Measfim, 402. as a Talmud student, 294. as a tutor, 296. becomes acquainted with Lessing, 297. challenged to refute Bonnet, 308-310. criticises Dohm's Apology for the Jews, 361-2. criticises Frederick the Great's poetry, 302-3. criticises Reimarus' work adversely, 320. daughters of, leaders in society, 412. death of, 371-3. Hebrew style of, 295-6. house of, a literary center, 412. influence of, 729-30. influenced by Lessing, 297-8. intercedes for the Saxon Jews, 344. Jewish critics of, 317. lacks appreciation for history, 301-302. Lessing's ideal Jew, 323. letter of, to Lavater, 311-13. misunderstood, 417. on the necessity of a Pentateuch translation, 332. pamphlets against, 315-17. proposed as a member of the Berlin Academy, 308. proposed statue to, 372-3. rejuvenates the Jewish race, 292-3. relation of, to Judaism and Christianity, 310-13. "Schutz-Jude," 304. shows the untenability of Christian dogmas, 314-15. studies German, 298. studies "The Guide of the Perplexed," 295. visit of, to Königsberg, 398. wins a prize offered by the Berlin Academy, 303-4. writes a preface to the "Vindiciæ Judæorum," 362-3. youth of, 293-4.

Mendes, David Franco, one of the Measfim, dramatist, 244, 401.

Merari, Moses Menahem, rabbi, and Moses Chayim Luzzatto, 239.

Mérilhou, minister of education, proposes the equalization of Judaism with the other religions in France, 597.

Merkel, secretary of the Westphalian consistory, 502.

Merlato, Austrian consul, and the Damascus blood-accusation, 639, 646, 653.

Messiah, the, Sabbatian view of, 142-143.

Messianic craze, the, in Moravia, 150-1.

Messianic expectations, 23-5, 28-33, 35-8, 120-1.

Metternich, and the Damascus blood-accusation, 646, 647, 653. and the emancipation of the Jews, 519-20, 523, 527. and the treatment of Jews in the Hanse Towns, 514.

Metz, Jews of, accused of child murder, 174-6. deeded away, by Louis XIV, 446. hindered from the Passover celebration, 452. position of, 174-6. taxed, 348.

Metz, the Jewish community of, 435. theological seminary at, 597-8, 699-700.

Metz, Moses, follower of Joseph Delmedigo, 77.

Meyer, Edward, opponent of the Jews, and Riesser, 602.

Meyerbeer, composes the music for the reform synagogue at Leipsic, 573.

Michaelis, John David, Hebrew scholar, and Mendelssohn's "Jerusalem," 365-6. and "The Gatherer," 404. opponent of the Jews, 359-60. quoted, 414.

Michaelis, John Henry, defender of the Jews, 191.

Middlesex, Lord, and Manasseh ben Israel, 33.

Migdal Oz, Sabbataï Zevi's prison at Abydos, 148.

Mikulski, de, canon, and the Frankists, 285.

"Mirror of the Jews, The," by Hartwig Hundt, 532.

Mirabeau, admiration of, for Mendelssohn, 432. and Henrietta Herz, 413. favors the emancipation of the Jews, 432-4, 435, 441. interested in the Jews, 366. protests against a state religion, 439. quoted, 419.

Mises, Jehuda Löb, patron of Galician students, 612-14.

Mishna, the, compiled by Judah I, 725. translated by Surenhuysius, 193.

Mixed marriages, discussed by the Assembly of Notables, 491. by the Synhedrion, 496-7.

Mizriczians, the, a branch of the Chassidim, 388.

Mochiach. See Mordecai of Eisenstadt.

Mochinger, John, mystic, and Manasseh ben Israel, 24.

Modena, Leo. See Leo ben Isaac Modena.

Mohammed, sultan of Turkey, death of, 634.

Mohammed El-Telli, and the Damascus blood-accusation, 633, 635, 636.

Moisling, Jews of, migrate to Lübeck, 506.

Molé, addresses the Assembly of Notables, 489-92. imperial commissioner to the Assembly of Notables, 485. member of Napoleon's council on the Jewish question, 479.

"Moniteur," the, on Jewish history, 485-6.

Montefiore, Judith, accompanies her husband to Damascus, 654.

Montefiore, Moses, addresses a meeting in behalf of the Damascus Jews, 653. and Louis Philippe, 668. appealed to by the Jews of the East, 651. attends a meeting for the Damascus Jews, 645. chosen to go to Damascus, 652. distinguished by Queen Victoria, 670. journey of, to Damascus, 654-7. ovations to, 668-9, 670. received by Abdul Meg'id, 662. received by Lord Palmerston, 669. received by Mehmet Ali, 659.

Montefiore, Moses (continued), reception of, in France and Italy, 658.

Montesquieu, opposes the barbarous treatment of the Jews, 336.

Montezinos, de, Antonio, and the Ten Tribes, 30-31.

Moore, Dorothea, Hebrew scholar, 21.

Moravia, Jews of, banished, 252-3. taxed, 251-2, 508. under restrictions, 523.

Mordecai ben Nissan, explains the origin of Karaism, 183-4.

Mordecai of Eisenstadt, founder of the Polish Sabbatians, 208-9, 212. poses as the Messiah, 208-9.

Mordecai Zevi, father of Sabbataï Zevi, 119-20.

Morpurgo, Elijah, one of the Measfim, 402.

Mortara case, the, 701.

Morteira, Saul, rabbi at Amsterdam, 32. and Manasseh ben Israel, 34. and Spinoza, 87, 92-3.

"Mosaic Law," by John David Michaelis, 359.

Moser, Moses, founder of the "Society for the Culture and Science of the Jews," 583. urges the conversion of the Jews, 587-8.

Moses da Rieti, alluded to, 112.

Muley Arshid, sultan of Morocco, oppresses the Jews, 168.

Muley Ismail, sultan of Morocco, patron of the Jews, 168.

Müller, von, Johannes, Swiss historian, friendly to the Jews, 359. helps to frame the Westphalian constitution, 500.

Mulot, abbé, favors the emancipation of the Jews, 444, 445.

Munk, Solomon, scholar, accompanies Crémieux as interpreter, 658, 660. and the emancipation of the Egyptian Jews, 663-4. characterization of, 664-5. quoted, 671-2. work of, 665-6. writer on Jewish philosophy, 699.

Murad el Fallat, servant of David Arari, accuses himself of the murder of Father Tomaso, 637-638.

Musaphia, Dionysius, (Benjamin), physician and rabbi, 115. Sabbatian, 139, 155, 161.

Mustapha Pasha, deputy-vizir, and Sabbataï Zevi, 147, 153.

Naar, Isaac, companion of Spinoza, 88, 92. Sabbatian, 139, 150, 160.

Nachman ben Samuel Levi, Frankist preacher, 275.

Nancy, Jews of, threatened with pillage, 440.

Napoleon, calls an Assembly of Jewish Notables, 481-2. council of, discusses the Jewish question, 479-81. fall of, 510-11. forms two new political divisions, 500. hostility of, to Jews, 474, 476-7, 480. in Palestine, 459-60. influenced in favor of the Jews, 481. legislation for the Jews proposed by, 498-9. proposes a Synhedrion, 493. return of, from Elba, 518. satisfied with the Assembly of Notables, 492. supremacy of, 474.

Napoleon III, protests against the Mortara abduction, 701.

Nathan Ghazati, follower of Sabbataï Zevi, 130-2, 137. at Adrianople, 158-9. death of, 161-2. excommunicated, 157. in Italy, 161. in the rôle of Elijah, 131-2.

Nathan Nata, father of Jonathan Eibeschütz, 246.

Nathan, the hero of "Nathan the Wise," 323-4.

"Nathan the Wise," influence of, 326-7.

National Assembly, the Batavian, and the poll-tax, 458.

National Assembly, the French, abrogates exceptional regulations against Jews, 448. and freedom of conscience, 439. and the Jewish question, 436, 440-443, 446-8. and the Jews of Alsace, 447. and the naturalization of the Portuguese Jews, 442. considers the question of taxes, 446. petitioned by the Jews, 437. protects the Jews of Alsace, 446.

National Guard, the French, Jews in, 438, 443.

Natkes, member of the Galician school, excommunicated, 614. Hebrew style of, 617.

Neander, Augustus, Church historian, asserts the groundlessness of the blood-accusation, 650.

Neidhard, inquisitor-general, adviser of Maria Anna, of Austria, 169.

Nepi, Graziadio, rabbi, Italian deputy to the Assembly of Notables, 488.

Nesselrode, and the emancipation of the Jews, 527.

Netter, Charles, founder of the Alliance Israélite Universelle, 701.

Neumann, Andrew, ambassador at Vienna from Brandenburg, and the Jews, 173.

Nicholas, Edward, apologist for the Jews, 28-9.

Nicholas I, of Russia, and the Damascus blood-accusation, 657.

Nicolai proposes a statue to Mendelssohn, 372.

Nieto, David, rabbi at London, accuses Chayon of heresy, 227. culture of, 200.

"Nineteen Letters on Judaism," by Ben Usiel, 627.

Nizuzoth, Kabbalistic term, 120.

Noel, French ambassador to the Batavian Republic, and the emancipation of the Jews, 456. interferes with the communal administration in Amsterdam, 457.

Nomologia, by Immanuel Aboab, 55.

Notables, the Assembly of, appoints a commission on the twelve questions, 490. called by Napoleon, 481-2. disbands, 494. discusses mixed marriages, 491. Italian deputies to, 488. meeting of, on the Sabbath, 486-7. members of, 482-4. presents its report to the authorities, 498. proclamation by, 494. purpose of, 484. twelve questions propounded to, 489.

Notables, the Jewish, of Westphalia, 501.

Nuñes, Isaac. See Belmonte, Manuel, 113.

Nuñez da Almeida, Manuela, poetess, 203.

"Observations of an Alsatian upon the Present Quarrels of the Jews of Alsace," by Hell, 350.

O'Connell, Daniel, on the Damascus blood-accusation, 653, 657.

Olam ha-Tikkun, Kabbalistic term, 121.

Old Testament, the, and the Puritans, 26-8. exegesis of, 695-6.

Oldenburg, Heinrich, on Sabbatianism, 139.

Olianow, Elijah, follower of Moses Chayim Luzzatto, 245. partisan of Eibeschütz, 262.

Oliver y Fullana, de, Nicolas, cosmographer, 113, 114.

Omar, caliph, and the Jews, 727.

"On the Speedy Glory of Judah and Israel," by Henry Jesse, 35.

Onias, Temple of, 722.

Oppenheim, painter, alluded to, 601.

Oppenheim, David, chief rabbi of Prague, Kabbalist, 217.

Oppenheim, Joseph, son of the preceding, patron of Nehemiah Chayon, 217.

Oppenheim, Samuel, philanthropist, and Eisenmenger, 189-90. patron of the Chassidim, 213.

Oran, Jews of, banished, 169.

Orenstein, Jacob, rabbi of Lemberg, excommunicates Erter, 614-15.

"Orient, The," a German Jewish journal, 693.

Orthodox party, the, disorganization of, 567-8. protests against the Temple innovations, 571.

Paalzow, a writer hostile to the Jews, 468.

Palestine, Napoleon in, 459-60. wrested from Turkey, 633.

"Palingénésie," by Bonnet, 314.

Palmerston, Lord, and Montefiore, 669. and the Damascus blood-accusation, 645-6, 652.

Pardo, Joseph, rabbi at Amsterdam, 58.

Paris, Jews of, praised by the Carmelites district, 444-5.

Pasquier, imperial commissioner to the Assembly of Notables, 485.

Pastor, a member of the Galician school, excommunicated, 614.

"Pastor Fido," translated, 114.

Patriarchate, the, 725.

Paul, apostle, influence of, 724.

Pauli, Oliger, espouses the cause of the Jews, 176-7.

Peel, Sir Robert, introduces the Damascus affair in the House of Commons, 652-3.

Pelham, English minister, advocates the naturalization of the Jews, 337.

Penso, Isaac, philanthropist, 111.

Penso, Joseph (Felice), Marrano poet, 112-13.

Pentateuch, the, Mendelssohn's translation of, 328-9. burnt, 332. commentary on, 329. in favor with the young, 334-5. influence of, 395-6. opposition to, 330-4.

Penya, Chayim, anti-Sabbatian, 136. Sabbatian, 145.

Pereira, Abraham, Sabbatian, 139, 150, 160.

Pereira, Jacob Rodrigues, representative of the Bordeaux Jewish community, 342-4.

Peringer, Gustavus, studies Karaism, 182-3.

Perl, Joseph, founds a High School in Tarnopol, 612.

Peters, Hugh, Cromwell's secretary, 43. member of Cromwell's Jewish commission, 45.

Pfizer, opponent of the Jews, and Riesser, 602.

"Phædon, or the Immortality of the Soul," by Mendelssohn, 306-8.

Pharisees, the, a Jewish sect, 723. activity of, 721. Jost's view of, 594-5.

Philanthropin, school at Frankfort-on-the-Main, 674.

Philosoph, Joseph, Talmudist, father-in-law of Sabbataï Zevi, 166. supports Jacob Querido as the Messiah, 210.

"Philosophical Conversations," by Mendelssohn, 298-9.

Philip IV, of Spain, and the Jews of Oran, 169.

Philippi, Francis Lothair. See Levi, Wolf, 213.

Picciotto, Isaac Levi, and the Damascus blood-accusation, 638-9.

Pinedo, de, Thomas (Isaac), philologist, 114.

Pinheiro, Moses, Kabbalist, 164. Sabbatian, 123, 160.

Pinto, David, broker, partisan of Eibeschütz, 264.

Pinto, de, Aaron, espouses Chayon's cause, 222. opposes Chacham Zevi, 223, 224, 225.

Pinto, Isaac, answers Voltaire's attack upon the Jews, 344-6. defends the Portuguese Jews in France, 340-1, 345-7. work of, quoted, 455.

Pintos, de, Jewish millionaires in Amsterdam, 205.

Pius VII, pope, and the emancipation of the Jews, 518.

Pius IX, pope, and the Mortara case, 700-1.

"Plaints of a Jew, The," by Joel Jacoby, 630-1.

Plantavicius, Jacob, bishop, pupil of Leo Modena, 71.

Podolia, Sabbatianism in, 228.

Poland, civil war in, 387-8.

Poland, Jews of, butchered by Cossacks, 7-11, 14. character of, 5-6. in the Swedish war, 15. oppress the Cossacks, 3, 6. persecuted by the Cossacks, 388. position of, 1-2, 3-4. revenue farmers, 3. sufferings of, 15-16. wanderings of, 16.

Poland, Rabbinical Judaism in, 385-386. Talmud study in, 4-6, 567.

Poll-tax, the, on Jews, abolished in Austria, 357, 415. abrogated in France, 432. and the Batavian National Assembly, 458. and the peace of Lüneville, 464, 465. at the Peace Congress at Rastadt, 458. efforts to abolish, 466-8. in Germany, 464-5, 472. Louis XVI abrogates, 415, 432.

Polytheism, weakness of, 709.

Poniatowski, Stanislaus Augustus, of Poland, issues laws against the Jews, 387.

Portalis, imperial commissioner to the Assembly of Notables, 485.

Portugal re-admits Jews, 532.

Potocki, a family of the Polish nobility, 3. Polish general, 7.

"Prayer-Book for Israelites" by the Hamburg Temple, 673.

Preteau, president of the National Assembly, defender of the Jews, 441.

Primo, Samuel, secretary of Sabbataï Zevi, 133, 213, 216. activity of, 137. adviser of Sabbataï Zevi, 151. circular letter by, 143. clings to the apostate Sabbataï Zevi, 156. exaggerates the fame of Sabbataï Zevi, 147. explains Sabbataï Zevi's apostasy, 157-8.

"Prophets of the Old Testament, The," by Ewald, 696.

Prophets, the, 719.

"Proposals in Favor of the Jews," by Grégoire, 437.

Prosnitz, Löbele, Sabbatian, and Jonathan Eibeschütz, 248. exposed, 229-30. impostures of, 218.

Prussia, constitution of, promises equality to Jews, 514.

Prussia, Jews of, emancipated partially, 507, 508. emancipated wholly, 697. forbidden to bear Christian names, 630. hostility to, 524. under Frederick I, 190-91. under Frederick the Great, 411-12, 414.

Prynne, William, opposes the admission of Jews into England, 45-46.

Puffendorf, John, and Karaism, 183.

"Punishment of Athalia, The," by David Franco Mendes, 401.

Puritans, the, and the admission of Jews into England, 27-8.

Quadruple Alliance, the, formation of, 658.

Querido, Jacob. See Jacob Querido.

Rabbanites, reconciled with Karaites in Cairo, 664.

"Rabbi of Bacharach, The," by Heine, 549-50, 552.

Rabbinical Judaism. See Talmudical Judaism.

Rabbis, the, disregard of, in Germany, 566. of the seventeenth century, 200-202. Polish, 206.

Ragoczi, Transylvanian general, 15.

Ramson, a defender of the Jews, 470.

Rapoport, Solomon Jehuda, scholar, and Krochmal, 610, 617-18. and Sachs, 690. biographies by, 618. characterization of, 610-11. chief rabbi of Prague, 619. contributor to the "Kerem Chemed," 621. excommunicated, 614. Hebrew style of, 617. scientific research of, 618. secular studies of, 611.

Rastadt, the Peace Congress at, and the emancipation of the Jews, 463. and the poll-tax, 459.

Ratti Menton, the French consul in Damascus, and the blood-accusation, 633. appealed to by the monks, 635. circulates garbled reports, 643. cross-questions the Damascus Jews, 636. intrigues against the Damascus Jews, 639. passes judgment upon the accused, 640. protected by Thiers, 648. tortures the accused, 637-8.

Reaction, the, 512-13.

Reason, the religion of, and the Jews, 450-52.

Rebbe, the, leader of the Chassidim, 392. subordinate to the supreme Zaddik, 393.

Recha, character in "Nathan the Wise," 324.

"Reflections," by Isaac Pinto, 345.

Reform Association, the Berlin, at the Frankfort conference, 684, 685-6. congregation of, 686-7. established, 683.

Reform movement, the, in America, 702.

Reform party, the, aggressiveness of, 568.

Reform Temple Union, the, in Hamburg, 564.

Reformers, attitude of, towards Judaism, 629-30.

Reggio, Jewish scholar, 622.

Regnault, state councilor under Napoleon, favorable to the Jews, 480-81.

Reign of Terror, the, end of, 452. Jews during, 450.

Reimarus, Eliza, friend of Lessing, 320. interested in Mendelssohn's Pentateuch translation, 329.

Reimarus, Hermann Samuel, critic of Christianity, 319-23.

Reischer, Nehemiah, excommunicated, 261.

"Religious Poetry of the Jews in Spain, The," by Michael Sachs, 555, 694.

Rembrandt, illustrates one of Manasseh ben Israel's works, 38.

Renaissance, the, of Judaism, 291-292, 395-6, 558.

"Return of the Jewish Warrior, The," painting by Oppenheim, 601.

"Return of the Jews, The," by Isaac La Peyrère, 25.

Reubell, deputy to the National Assembly, opposes the emancipation of the Jews, 441, 448.

"Revelation according to the System of the Synagogue," by Solomon Ludwig Steinheim, 604-7.

Rhodes, the blood-accusation in, 640-41, 647.

Rhynsburgians, a Christian sect, 94.

Richelieu, de, duc, issues a command against the German Jews of Bordeaux, 343-4.

Richter, Jean Paul, and the Jews, 533.

Riess, David, permitted to have a private synagogue in Berlin, 191.

Riesser, Gabriel, and Chacham Bernays, 673. and the Damascus affair, 669. and the emancipation of the Jews, 599-601. and the Friends of Reform, 675-6. awakens self-respect in the Jews, 602. characterization of, 598-9. honored by the Jews of Baden, 601. member of the Prussian Landtag, 697. opposes the Judæophobists, 601-602. secretary of the Hamburg Temple, 672. view of, of Judaism, 599.

Riesser, Lazarus, father of the preceding, affiliates with the Hamburg Temple Union, 570-71.

Risaat Bey, presides over the inquiry into the Rhodes blood-accusation, 570-71, 647.

Rivarola, cardinal, and the Damascus blood-accusation, 668.

"Roaring Lion, The," by Leo Modena, 74.

"Roaring of the Lion, The," by Leo Modena, 73-4.

Robert, Ludwig, letter to, from his sister, Rachel Levin, 534.

Robert, Rachel. See Levin, Rachel.

Robespierre favors the emancipation of the Jews, 441.

Robles, Antonio, Marrano merchant in London, 49.

Rocamora, de, Vincent, Marrano poet, 109-10, 113.

Rodrigues, Isaac, deputy to the National Assembly, 438. member of Malesherbes' Jewish commission, 432.

Rohrer, Joseph, writer hostile to the Jews, 472.

Romanticism and the Jews, 515-16.

Rome, Jews of, return to the Ghetto, 518.

Rothschild, de, James, services of, in Damascus acknowledged, 653.

Rothschild, de, Lionel, elected member of Parliament, 698.

Rothschild, de, Nathaniel M., and the Damascus blood-accusation, 645. created a peer, 698. visits Rhodes on account of the blood-accusation, 647.

Rothschild, Mayer Amschel, founder of the house of Rothschild, 514. representative of the Frankfort Jews, 505.

Rothschild, the house of, power of, 513-14.

Rothschilds, the, appealed to by the Jews of the East, 651. house of, in Frankfort, attacked, 529-30.

Rubio, Abraham, Sabbatian, 145.

Rückert, poet, the master of Sachs, 692.

Rühs, Friedrich, professor of history, writes against the Jews, 516-17.

Russia, Jews of, 472-3. supports Turkey, 634.

Russians, the, allied with Chmielnicki, 14.

Sabbataï Raphael, emissary of Sabbataï Zevi, 133, 137, 157. poses as prophet in Germany, 160.

Sabbataï Zevi, and Nehemiah Cohen, 152-3. and Rabbinical Judaism, 152. as Messiah, 122, 134, 162-3. asceticism of, 119. at Abydos, 148, 151. brothers of, 145. characterization of, 118. converted to Islamism, 154. death of, 166. duplicity of, 165-6. excommunicated, 122. forms a Turkish-Jewish sect, 163. homage paid to, 141-2. in Cairo, 124-5, 128-9. in Constantinople, 146-8. in Jerusalem, 127, 132-3. in Salonica, 124. in Smyrna, 133-7. marriages of, 128-9, 154, 166. news of conversion of, how received, 155-6. on his conversion, 155. rewards his followers, 145. studies of, 118. wealth of, 123.

Sabbatian view, the, of the Messiah, 142-3.

Sabbatianism among Christians, 151. and Rabbinical Judaism, 142. effect of, on Judaism, 232. in Amsterdam, 150. in Europe, 149-50. in Podolia, 228. spread of, 245.

Sabbatians, converted to Mahometanism, 154, 211. doctrines of the, 274. excommunicated, 157. in Adrianople, 159. in Amsterdam, 138-41, 155. in Constantinople, 146-8. in Hamburg, 138-41, 155. in London, 141. in Poland, 271-2. in Salonica, 211. in Smyrna, 134-5. Polish, emigrate to the Holy Land, 212.

Sabilenki, Zachariah, and Chmielnicki, 7.

Sachs, Michael, rabbi in Berlin, and Holdheim, 691. and Rapoport, 690. and the reform movement, 691-2. as a preacher, 689-90, 692. as a Talmudist, 690-91. Bible exegete, 692, 693, 695, 699. characterization of, 687-9. contributions by, to Jewish literature, 692-4. contributor to the "Kerem Chemed," 622. translation of the Bible by, 693. writer on the Jewish poetry of the Middle Ages, 555, 693-4.

Sadducees, a Jewish sect, 723.

"Sahaduta di Mehemnuta," a Sabbatian work, 162.

Saint Etienne, Rabaud, favors freedom of conscience, 439.

St. John, Oliver, and Manasseh ben Israel, 33-4.

Salins, François, persecutor of the Damascus Jews, 661.

Salman, of Lemberg, spy upon Moses Chayim Luzzatto, 240.

Salman, of Liadi, Chassidistic leader, 393, 394.

Salomon, Gotthold, preacher at the Hamburg Temple, 564-5.

Salomons, and the Damascus blood-accusation, 645.

Salomons, David, elected member of Parliament, 698.

Salonica, Sabbataï Zevi in, 124. Sabbatians in, 211.

Saloniki, Moses, arrested on the blood-accusation in Damascus, 636.

Salvador, Jonah, and Richard Simon, 180. saves the Jews of Metz, 175-6.

"Salvation of the Jews, The," Mendelssohn's preface to the "Vindiciæ Judæorum," 362-3.

Samaritans, the first Judæan sect, 721.

Samson, the Syrian Hercules, 715.

Samuel ben Aaron, on Karaism, 183.

Samuel, son of Manasseh ben Israel, 38.

Samun, rabbi of Leghorn, and the Temple innovations, 571.

Sand, Karl, murderer of Kotzebue, 528.

Sarah, wife of Sabbataï Zevi, 128-9. at Abydos, 149. converted to Islam, 154. influence of, 130, 135.

Saruk, Israel, Kabbalist, 54.

Sason, the Prussian consul, protects the Jews of Beyrout, 641.

Sasportas family, the, dragomans in Oran, 169.

Sasportas, Jacob, scholar and rabbi, anti-Sabbatian, 138, 141, 150, 161. companion of Manasseh ben Israel, 38. rabbi in London, 50.

Sasportas, Jacob, active in the emancipation of the Dutch Jews, 455.

Satanow, Isaac, one of the Measfim, 400.

Saubert, John, and Jacob Jehuda Leon, 115.

Savoy, Jews settle in, 169.

Saxony, Jews of, under restrictions, 509.

Scaliger, Joseph, philologist, 20, 21.

Schiller, and Solomon Maimon, 409.

Schimmelpenink, grand pensioner of the Batavian Republic, and the emancipation of the Jews, 458.

Schlegel, Frederick, and Dorothea Mendelssohn, 423-4.

Schleiermacher, and Henrietta Herz, 423. repudiates the connection between Judaism and Christianity, 426-427.

Schmidt, of Hildburghausen, defends the Jews, 522.

Schmidt, the Bremen deputy to the Congress of Vienna, opposes the emancipation of the Jews, 519.

Schor, Elisha, a Polish Sabbatian, 275. composes the Frankist confession of faith, 280.

Schudt, author of "Jewish Curiosities," 549.

Schurmann, Anna Maria, Hebrew scholar, 21.

"Schutz-Jude," a protected Jew, 304. abolished in Prussia, 507.

Schwager, an author friendly to the Jews, 358.

"Scientific Journal, The," a German-Jewish journal, 625.

Segre, Joshua Benzion, Italian deputy to the Assembly of Notables, 488. member of the commission on the twelve questions, 490. vice-president of the Synhedrion, 495.

Ségur, state councilor under Napoleon, friendly to the Jews, 480-481.

Selden, John, Hebrew scholar, 21.

Selig (Selek), Eliakim, sent to Rome to obtain the acquittal of the Jews from the blood-accusation, 282, 285.

Serach ben Nathan, Karaite, and Joseph Delmedigo, 76-7.

Sermon, the German, introduced into the synagogue, 562.

Serra, Nicolas, papal nuncio, credits the blood-accusation, 285-6. opposed to the Frankist converts, 285.

Serrarius, Peter, and Messianic expectations, 24, 36.

Sèze, de, favors the emancipation of the Jews, 442.

"Shaagath Aryeh," by Leo Modena, 73.

Shäbs. See Sabbatians.

Shach. See Cohen, Sabbataï.

Shachna, Polish Talmudist, 4.

Shakers, the, founded, 378.

Shammai, work of, 723.

Sheloh. See Hurwitz, Isaiah.

Sherif Pasha, governor of Damascus, circulates Lucio Ferrajo's book against the Jews, 639. executed, 661. ordered to stop the persecution of the Jews, 648. orders a translation of Talmudical passages, 640. permits the persecution of suspected Jews, 635. releases the Damascus prisoners, 661. tortures the accused Jews of Damascus, 636, 637.

Shibli Ajub, and the Damascus blood-accusation, 633.

Shlomel, Kabbalist, 55.

"Short Demurrer, A," by William Prynne, 45-6.

Short Parliament, the, dissolution of, 35. Puritan character of, 34.

Sid Gailand, sultan of Morocco, oppresses the Jews, 168.

Sigismund III, of Poland, bigotry of, 2.

Silesia, Jews of, heavily taxed, 508.

Silveira, Isaac, companion of Sabbataï Zevi, 145.

Silveyra, Miguel, Marrano poet, 111.

Simon Episcopius, and Manasseh ben Israel, 22.

Simon, Richard, Father of the Oratory, as Bible critic, 178-9. defends the Jews, 175-6, 180-81. intercourse of, with Jews, 180. scoffs at Kabbalistic superstition, 202. translates Leo Modena's "Rites," 180.

Sinzheim, Joseph David, rabbi, addresses the Synhedrion, 495. answer of, to the twelve questions, 490-91. characterization of, 559. forced to flee from Strasburg, 452. member of the Assembly of Notables, 483-4. member of the commission on the twelve questions, 490. president of the French central consistory, 502. president of the Synhedrion, 495.

Skytte, Swedish royal councilor, plans a university, 174.

Smith, member of parliament, addresses the Mansion House meeting in behalf of the Damascus Jews, 656.

Smyrna, commercial importance of, 119. Sabbataï Zevi in, 133-7.

"Society for the Culture and Science of the Jews, The," aims of, 584-586. dissolution of, 587. founded in Berlin, 583. journal of, 585, 586.

"Society for the Good and the Noble, The," 403.

"Society for the Promotion of Christianity among Jews, The," foundation of, 587.

"Society of Friends, The," and the reform movement in Berlin, 563. union against the orthodox party, 418-19.

Sofer, Moses, rabbi, orthodox leader, 567. protests against the Temple innovations, 572.

Sofino, Raphael, Sabbatian, 160.

Solomon, Kabbalist, 55.

Solomon, of Rohatyn, makes a Catholic confession of faith, 285.

"Songs of Glory," by Wessely, 404.

"Songs of Obadiah ben Amos in Exile, The," by Steinheim, 603-604.

Spain, Jews expelled from, 728-9. Jews of, 727-9. persecution of Jews in, 169.

Spalding, translates Wessely's "Songs of Glory," 404.

Speeth, John Peter, defends the Jews, 177.

Spinoza, Baruch, attacked, 93-4. character of, 107-8. characterization of, 86. death of, 167. defends freedom of thought, 95-7. doubts of, 89-90. excommunicated, 93, 94-5. explains the Jewish state, 103-7. idea of, of God, 98-9. idea of, of Judaism and Christianity, 101-3. idea of, of man, 99-101. studies of, 87-9. theory of, of the state, 96-7. trade of, 95. youth of, 87.

Spira, Nathan, emissary from Palestine, 126.

"Spirit of the Laws, The," by Montesquieu, 336.

Stambuli, Aaron, suspected of the murder of Father Tomaso, 638.

"Stättigkeit," the Frankfort legislation against Jews, 503.

Steel, Lord Chief Baron, member of Cromwell's Jewish commission, 43.

Steinheim, Solomon Ludwig, physician, philosopher, and poet, 602-7, 699. characterization of, 602-3. first production by, 603-4. isolation of, 606-7. view of, of Judaism, 604-6.

Strasburg, Jews excluded from, 349. Jews of, hostility to, 476-7.

Streckfuss, opponent of the Jews, and Riesser, 602.

"Stübel," hermitage of the Zaddik, 382.

Suasso, Isaac (Antonio), and William III, of England, 205.

Sullam, Sarah, poetess, 68-70. and Ansaldo Ceba, 69. on the immortality of the soul, 70.

Sulzer, musician in the Vienna temple, 581.

"Summons," addressed to the princes of Europe by Michael Berr, 460-61.

Surenhuysius, William, Hebrew scholar, and the Jews, 194. translates the Mishna, 193-4.

Synhedrion, a, proposed by Napoleon, 493.

Synhedrion, the, composition of, 493. dissolution of, 498. enactments of, 497. first meeting of, 495-6. work of, 496-7.

Synod, the, of the Four Countries, 3-4. not permitted to assemble, 387.

Syria, returned to Turkey, 661. wrested from Turkey, 633.

"Tables of Testimony, The," by Jonathan Eibeschütz, 270.

Talleyrand, bishop of Autun, on the emancipation of the Jews, 442.

Talmud, the, attacked, 73-4, 77. authority of, 726. burned, 282. denounced by the Frankists, 279, 280. despised, 694. of the Orient, attacked, 651. scientifically treated, 694-5. study of, in Poland, 4-6, 567.

Talmud Torah, the Amsterdam synagogue, 167.

Talmudical Judaism, and Sabbatianism, 142, 152. and the Kabbala, 144. attacked, 213, 727. attacked by Holdheim, 680-81. attacked by the "Moniteur," 485-486. in Poland, 385-6. opposed by Chassidism, 379, 386.

Talmudical schools, the, decay of, 566-7. decline of, 699.

Talmudists, 4.

"Tantalus in the Lawsuit," comedy by Frederick the Great, 339.

Tarnopol, culture strivings in, 612.

Teller, consistorial councilor, and Jews desiring baptism, 421-22.

Temple, the Hamburg, 564-5. opposition to, 569-70, 571-2. prayer-book of, 570.

Templo. See Leon, Jacob Jehuda.

Ten Tribes, the, and Manasseh ben Israel, 31. theories about, 30-31.

Teutomania, and the Jews, 515-16.

Texeira, Isaac (Manuel), appealed to by the Jews of Vienna, 171. Sabbatian, 140.

Texeiras, Jewish millionaires, 205.

Theodosius II, emperor, persecutes the Jews, 725.

Theological seminaries, 699-700.

"Theologico-Political Treatise, The," by Spinoza, 95-109.

Thibaut, professor at Heidelberg, protects the Jews, 531.

Thiers, and Louis Philippe, 648. and the Damascus blood-accusation, 648-50. questioned by Achille Fould on the Damascus affair, 649. reproached for protecting Ratti Menton, 658.

Thiery, favors the emancipation of the Jews, 434.

Tholuck, Bible exegete, 695.

Thompson, chairman of the Mansion House meeting in behalf of the Damascus Jews, 656.

"To the Friends of Lessing," by Jacobi, 372.

Toland, John, champion of the Jews, 197-8.

Toledano, Daniel, adviser of Muley Ismail, 168.

Tomaso, Father, disappearance of, 634-5.

Trajan, persecution by, 725.

"Treatise on the Immortality of the Soul, A," by Samuel da Silva, 59.

"Treatise on the Position of the Hebrews, A," by Simone Luzzatto, 81-4.

Treves, Israel, disciple of Moses Chayim Luzzatto, 237.

Treves, pilgrimage to, 682.

Trier, Solomon, invites discussion on circumcision, 677.

Trieste, Jews of, addressed by Wessely, 370-71. petition for a normal school, 369.

Trigland, Jacob, inquires into Karaism, 183-4.

"True Shepherd, The," translated, 114.

Tuch, Bible exegete, 695.

Tucker, Josiah, attacked for defending the Jews, 338.

Tugaï Bey, Tartar leader, 11.

Tugend-Bund, a Berlin society, 423.

Turkey, and the European powers, 634.

Turkey, Jews of, emancipated, 641. treatment of, 168. urged to learn Turkish, 664.

Tusti, Father, urges the blood-accusation against the Damascus Jews, 635.

Tyrol, Jews excluded from, 523.

Unger, Christian Theophilus, disciple of Basnage, 197.

"Union of American Hebrew Congregations, The," 702.

United States, the, Jews of, 702.

"Upon Mendelssohn and the Political Reform of the Jews," by Mirabeau, 432-3.

"Upon the Aim of Jesus and His Disciples," one of the "Wolfenbüttel Fragments," 321.

"Upon the Civil Amelioration of the Condition of the Jews," by Dohm, 352-8.

"Upon the Inutility of the Jews in the Kingdoms of Bohemia and Moravia," pamphlet against the Jews, 359.

Usque, Solomon, dramatist, alluded to, 70.

Uziel, Isaac, rabbi at Amsterdam, 58.

Vaad Arba Arazoth. See Synod, The, of the Four Countries.

Valensino, an Alexandrian Jew, supports Crémieux in the establishment of schools, 663.

Van den Enden, Franz, teacher of Spinoza, 88-9.

Vanni, mufti, converts Sabbatians, 154. instructs Sabbataï Zevi, 162. proposes to convert Sabbataï Zevi to Islamism, 153.

Van Oven, Bernard, addresses the London meeting in behalf of the Damascus Jews, 653.

Van Swieden, a writer against the Jews, 453.

Vantabiet, Armenian bishop, antagonizes the Damascus Jews, 662.

Varnhagen von Ense, and the Jews, 533, 534.

Vega Enriques, de, Rachel, wife of Jacob de Chaves, 242.

Veit, member of the Prussian Landtag, 697.

Veit, Simon, husband of Dorothea Mendelssohn, 424.

Veitel, Ephraim, jeweler, and Voltaire, 339. founder of a school, 405.

Venice, the Jewish community of, 68.

Victoria, of England, and Montefiore's journey to Damascus, 654. and the emancipation of the Jews, 698. distinguishes Montefiore, 670.

Vienna, Congress of, and the emancipation of the Jews, 513-15, 518-20.

Vienna, Jews of, 170-72. heavily taxed, 508. petition the emperor, 172.

Vienna, the new temple in, 581.

Viennet, proposes the abolition of a state religion in France, 597.

Villa-Real, de, Manuel Fernando, martyr, 91.

"Vindiciæ Judæorum," translated into German, 362.

Vishnioviecki, a family of the Polish nobility, 3. Polish prince, protects the Jews, 10-11.

Vita, Abraham, di Cologna, rabbi, characterization of, 559. Italian deputy to the Assembly of Notables, 488. member of the commission on the twelve questions of the Synhedrion, 490. member of the French central consistory, 502. vice-president of the Synhedrion, 495.

Vital, Chayim, Calabrese, Kabbalist, in Damascus, 52-3.

Vital, Moses, brother of Chayim, and Kabbala Mss., 53.

Vital, Samuel, son of Chayim Vital, 53, 125.

Viva, Isaac, writer, 188.

Vladislav, of Poland, death of, 8.

Voltaire, de, Arouet, and the Jews, 338-40, 345. answered by Isaac Pinto, 344-6. criticises Judaism, 340.

Von Bohlen, Bible exegete, 695.

Voss, von, Julius, writer of comedies, defends the Jews, 533.

Vossius, Dionysius, translator of the "Conciliador," 22.

Vossius, Isaac, and Manasseh ben Israel, 22, 37.

Vossius, John Gerard, senior, and Manasseh ben Israel, 22.

Vries, de, Simon, a friend of Spinoza, 107.

Wagenseil, John Christopher, Hebraist, and the Jews, 185-7.

Way, Lewis, champions the cause of the Jews at the Congress of Aix-la-Chapelle, 525-7.

Wenzel, Francis, convert, maligns the Jews, 191.

Werry, the English consul, and the Damascus blood-accusation, 639.

Wertheimer, Joseph, founder of the "Israelitische Allianz," 703.

Wessely, Hartwig (Naphtali-Herz), Hebrew poet, 366-71. addresses the Jews of Trieste, 370-371. attacked by the orthodox, 369-71. compared with Mendelssohn, 367. on general culture for the Jews, 368-9. praises Emperor Joseph II, 368. works of, 404. works on the Pentateuch translation, 334.

Wessely, Moses, patron of Lessing, 326.

Westphalia, consistory of, Jacobson's influence over, 562.

Westphalia, Jews of, consistorial organization of, 501-2. emancipated, 500. under restrictions, 525.

William III, of England, and Isaac Suasso, 205.

Wilna, Chassidim in, 391.

Wilna, Elijah, scholar, antagonizes Talmudic subtlety, 389. character of, 389. extra-Talmudic studies of, 390. introduces the Mendelssohn Pentateuch translation into Poland, 329. opinion of, on the Kabbala, 390-391. opponent of Chassidism, 391-2, 393-4.

Wolf, Aaron Benjamin, rabbi at Berlin, and Chayon, 219, 220.

Wolf, Christopher, disciple of Basnage, 197.

"Wolfenbüttel Fragments, The," by Reimarus, 320-23.

Wolfssohn, Aaron, editor of Ha-Meassef, 400.

"Wonderworker, The, by means of the Invocation in the Name of God," Israel of Miedziboz, 375.

"Word to the Impartial, A," by Ransom, 470.

"Words of Peace and Truth," by Hartwig Wessely, 368-70.

Wülfer, John, Hebraist, and the Alenu prayer, 184-5.

Würzburg, the "hep, hep" persecution in, 528-9.

Yachini, Abraham, Sabbatian, 123, 145.

Yavan, Baruch, opponent of Eibeschütz, 263.

Yekutiel, of Wilna, disciple of Moses Chayim Luzzatto, 237-8, 245.

Yizchaki, Abraham, anti-Sabbatian, 220.

Young Germany, and the emancipation of the Jews, 602. led by Börne and Heine, 556.

Young Israel, influenced by Hegel, 585.

Zacut, Moses, Kabbalist, companion of Spinoza, 87-8. Sabbatian, 138. superstition of, 201-2.

Zaddik, the, Chassidean leader, 380-383. chosen from the family of Beer of Mizricz, 393. pilgrimages to, 383-5.

Zamosc, Israel, teacher of Mendelssohn, 295.

Zaporogians. See Cossacks.

Zemach, Jacob, Marrano physician, 125-6.

Zevi Ashkenazi. See Ashkenazi, Zevi.

Zevi, Jacob. See Jacob Querido.

Zevi, Joseph. See Joseph Zevi.

Zevi, Mordecai. See Mordecai Zevi.

Zevi, Sabbataï. See Sabbataï Zevi.

Zinzendorf, count, petitioned by the Jews of Trieste, 369.

Zion, a Hebrew journal, 693.

Zohar, the, predictions of, 121-2. proved a forgery, 278.

Zohar Tinyana, by Moses Chayim Luzzatto, 237.

Zoharites. See Frankists.

Zunz, Leopold, Jewish scholar, 619-621. contributor to the "Kerem Chemed," 622. critical work by, 620-21. disproves the blood-accusation, 669. founder of the "Society for the Culture and Science of the Jews," 583. on mediæval Jewish literature, 694. on the science of Judaism, 588.

Transcriber's Notes:

Punctuation, hyphenation, and spelling were made consistent when a predominant preference was found in this book; otherwise they were not changed.

Simple typographical errors were corrected.

Ambiguous hyphens at the ends of lines were retained.

Inconsistent use of small-caps and Proper caps in names unchanged.

Inconsistent use of periods after Regnal numbers not changed.

The Index was not checked for correct page references.

Page 46: "John Hoornbeek" is spelled "John Hoornbeck" on page 747 of the Index.

Page 312: "he ask Lavater" was printed that way.

Page 710: "conscience at sighs of a" is printed as "sight" in another edition of this book.

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