Chapter II (part 3 of 3)

Chapter II (part 3 of 3)

"In the summer of 332 [after the siege and destruction of Tyre--see TYRE: B. C. 332, and MACEDONIA, &c.: B. C. 334-330] Alexander set forward on his march toward Egypt, accompanied by the fleet, which he had placed under the orders of Hephæstion." But, being detained on the way several months by the siege of Gaza, it was not before December that he entered Egypt. "He might safely reckon not merely on an easy conquest, but on an ardent reception, from a people who burnt to shake off the Persian tyranny. ... Mazaces [the Persian commander] himself, as soon as he heard of the battle of Issus, became aware that all resistance to Alexander would be useless, and met him with a voluntary submission. At Pelusium he found the fleet, and, having left a garrison in the fortress, ordered it to proceed up the Nile as far as Memphis, while he marched across the desert. Here he conciliated the Egyptians by the honours which he paid to all their gods, especially to Apis, who had been so cruelly insulted by the Persian invaders. ... He then embarked, and dropt down the western or Canobic arm of the river to Canobus, to survey the extremity of the Delta on that side, and having sailed round the lake Mareotis, landed on the narrow belt of low ground which parts it from the sea, and is sheltered from the violence of the northern gales ... by a long ridge of rock, then separated from the main land by a channel, nearly a mile (seven stades) broad and forming the isle of Pharos. On this site stood the village of Racotis, where the ancient kings of Egypt had stationed a permanent guard to protect this entrance of their dominions from adventurers. ... Alexander's keen eye was immediately struck by the advantages of this position for a city, which should become a great emporium of commerce, and a link between the East and the West. ... He immediately gave orders for the beginning of the work, himself traced the outline, which was suggested by the natural features of the ground itself, and marked the site of some of the principal buildings, squares, palaces and temples" (see ALEXANDRIA: B. C. 332). Alexander remained in Egypt until the spring of 331, arranging the occupation and administration of the country. "The system which he established served in some points as a model for the policy of Rome under the Emperors." Before quitting the country he made a toilsome march along the coast, westward, and thence, far into the desert, to visit the famous oracle of Ammon.

C. Thirlwall, History of Greece, chapter 50.

EGYPT: B. C. 323-30. The kingdom of the Ptolemies.

In the division of the empire of Alexander the Great between his generals, when he died, Ptolemy Lagus--reputed to be a natural son of Alexander's father Philip--chose Egypt (see MACEDONIA: B. C. 323-316), with a modesty which proved to be wise. In all the provinces of the Macedonian conquest, it was the country most easily to be held as an independent state, by reason of the sea and desert which separated it from the rest of the world. It resulted from the prudence of Ptolemy that he founded a kingdom which lasted longer and enjoyed more security and prosperity than any other among the monarchies of the Diadochi. He was king of Egypt, in fact, for seventeen years before, in 307, B. C., he ventured to assume the name (see MACEDONIA: B. C. 310-301). Meantime, he had added to his dominion the little Greek state of Cyrene, on the African coast with Phœnicia, Judæa, Cœle-Syria, and the island of Cyprus. These latter became disputed territory, fought over for two centuries, between the Ptolemies and the Seleucids, sometimes dominated by the one and sometimes by the other (see SELEUCIDÆ: B. C. 281-224, and 224-187). At its greatest extent, the dominion of the Ptolemies, under Ptolemy Philadelphus, son of Ptolemy Lagus, included large parts of Asia Minor and many of the Greek islands. Egypt and Cyrene they held, with little disturbance, until Rome absorbed them. Notwithstanding the vices which the family of Ptolemy developed, and which were as rank of their kind as history can show, Egypt under their rule appears to have been one of the most prosperous countries of the time. In Alexandria, they more than realized the dream of its Macedonian projector. They made it not only the wealthiest city of their day, but the greatest seat of learning,--the successor of Athens as the capital of Greek civilization in the ancient world.

S. Sharpe, History of Egypt, chapter 7-12.

The first Ptolemy abdicated in favor of his son, Ptolemy Philadelphus, in 284 B. C., and died in the second year following.

See MACEDONIA: B. C. 297-280.

"Although the political constitution of Egypt was not greatly altered when the land fell into Greek hands, yet in other respects great changes took place. The mere fact that Egypt took its place among a family of Hellenistic nations, instead of claiming as of old a proud isolation, must have had a great effect on the trade, the manufactures, and the customs of the country. To begin with trade. Under the native kings Egypt had scarcely any external trade, and trade could scarcely spring up during the wars with Persia. But under the Ptolemies, intercourse between Egypt and Sicily, Syria or Greece, would naturally and necessarily advance rapidly. Egypt produced manufactured goods which were everywhere in demand; fine linen, ivory, porcelain, notably that papyrus which Egypt alone produced, and which was necessary to the growing trade in manuscripts. Artificial barriers being once removed, enterprising traders of Corinth and Tarentum, Ephesus and Rhodes, would naturally seek these goods in Egypt, bringing in return whatever of most attractive their own countries had to offer. It seems probable that the subjects of the Ptolemies seldom or never had the courage to sail direct down the Red Sea to India. In Roman times this voyage became not unusual, but at an earlier time the Indian trade was principally in the hands of the Arabs of Yemen and of the Persian Gulf. Nevertheless the commerce of Egypt under the Ptolemies spread eastwards as well as westwards. The important towns of Arsinoë and Berenice arose on the Red Sea as emporia of the Arabian trade. And as always happens when Egypt is in vigorous hands, the limits of Egyptian rule and commerce were pushed further and further up the Nile. The influx into Alexandria and Memphis of a crowd of Greek architects, artists, and artizans, could not fail to produce movement in that stream of art which had in Egypt long remained all but stagnant. ... If we may trust the somewhat over-coloured and flighty panegyrics which have come down to us, the material progress of Egypt under Ptolemy Philadelphus was most wonderful. We read, though we cannot for a moment trust the figures of Appian, that in his reign Egypt possessed an army of 200,000 foot soldiers and 40,000 horsemen, 300 elephants and 2,000 chariots of war. The fleet at the same period is said to have included 1,500 large vessels, some of them with twenty or thirty banks of oars. Allowing for exaggeration, we must suppose that Egypt was then more powerful than it had been since the days of Rameses."

P. Gardner, New Chapters in Greek History, chapter 7.

See, also, ALEXANDRIA: B. C. 282-246; and EDUCATION, ANCIENT: ALEXANDRIA.

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EGYPT: B. C. 80-48. Strife among the Ptolemies. Roman pretensions.

The throne of Egypt being disputed, B. C. 80, between Cleopatra Berenice, who had seized it, and her step-son, Ptolemy Alexander, then in Rome, the latter bribed the Romans to support his claims by making a will in which he named the Roman Republic as his heir. The Senate, thereat, sent him to Alexandria with orders that Berenice should marry him and that they should reign jointly, as king and queen. The order was obeyed. The foully mated pair were wedded, and, nineteen days afterwards, the young king procured the death of his queen. The crime provoked an insurrection in which Ptolemy Alexander was slain by his own guard. This ended the legitimate line of the Ptolemies; but an illegitimate prince, usually called Auletes, or "the piper," was put on the throne, and he succeeded in holding it for twenty-four years. The claim of the Romans, under the will of Ptolemy Alexander, seems to have been kept in abeyance by the bribes which Auletes employed with liberality among the senatorial leaders. In 58 B. C. a rising at Alexandria drove Auletes from the throne; in 54 B. C. he bought the support of Gabinius, Roman pro-consul in Syria, who reinstated him. He died in 51 B. C. leaving by will his kingdom to his elder daughter, Cleopatra, and his elder son, Ptolemy, who, according to the abominable custom of the Ptolemies, were to marry one another and reign together. The Roman people, by the terms of the will were made its executors. When, therefore, Cæsar, coming to Alexandria, three years afterwards, found the will of Auletes set at nought, Ptolemy occupying the throne, alone, and Cleopatra struggling against him, he had some ground for a pretension of right to interfere.

S. Sharpe, History of Egypt, chapter 11.

EGYPT: B. C. 48-47. Civil war between Cleopatra and Ptolemy. Intervention of Cæsar. The rising against him. The Romans besieged in Alexandria. Their ruthless victory.

See ALEXANDRIA: B. C. 48-47.

EGYPT: B. C. 30. Organized as a Roman province.

After the battle of Actium and the death of Cleopatra, Egypt was reduced by Octavius to the rank of a Roman province and the dynasty of the Ptolemies extinguished. But Octavius "had no intention of giving to the senate the rich domain which he tore from its native rulers. He would not sow in a foreign soil the seeds of independence which he was intent upon crushing nearer home. ... In due time he persuaded the senate and people to establish it as a principle, that Egypt should never be placed under the administration of any man of superior rank to the equestrian, and that no senator should be allowed even to visit it, without express permission from the supreme authority."

C. Merivale, History of the Romans, chapter 29.

EGYPT: A. D. 100-500. Roman and Christian.

See ALEXANDRIA: B. C. 48-47 to A. D. 413-415; and CHRISTIANITY: A. D. 33-100, and 100-312.

EGYPT: A. D. 296. Revolt crushed by Diocletian.

See ALEXANDRIA: A. D. 296.

EGYPT: A. D. 616-628. Conquest by Chosroes, the Persian.

The career of conquest pursued by Chosroes, the last Persian conqueror, extended even to Egypt, and beyond it. "Egypt itself, the only province which had been exempt since the time of Diocletian from foreign and domestic war, was again subdued by the successors of Cyrus. Pelusium, the key of that impervious country, was surprised by the cavalry of the Persians: they passed with impunity the innumerable channels of the Delta, and explored the long valley of the Nile from the pyramids of Memphis to the confines of Æthiopia. Alexandria might have been relieved by a naval force, but the archbishop and the præfect embarked for Cyprus; and Chosroes entered the second city of the empire, which still preserved a wealthy remnant of industry and commerce. His western trophy was erected, not on the walls of Carthage, but in the neighbourhood of Tripoli: the Greek colonies of Cyrene were finally extirpated." By the peace concluded in 628, after the death of Chosroes, all of his conquests were restored to the empire and the cities of Syria and Egypt evacuated by their Persian garrisons.

E. Gibbon, Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, chapter 46. https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/25717

See PERSIA: A. D. 226-627.

EGYPT: A. D. 640-646. Moslem conquest.

See MAHOMETAN CONQUEST: A. D. 640-646.

EGYPT: A. D. 967-1171. Under the Fatimite Caliphs.

See MAHOMETAN CONQUEST: A. D. 908-1171.

EGYPT: A. D. 1168-1250. Under the Atabeg and Ayoubite sultans.

See SALADIN, THE EMPIRE OF.

EGYPT: A. D. 1218-1220. Invasion by the Fifth Crusade.

See CRUSADES: A. D. 1216-1229.

EGYPT: A. D. 1249-1250. The crusading invasion by Saint Louis of France.

See CRUSADES: A. D. 1248-1254.

EGYPT: A. D. 1250-1517. The Mameluke Sultans.

The Mamelukes were a military body created by Saladin. "The word means slave (literally, the possessed'), and ... they were brought in youth from northern countries to serve in the South. Saladin himself was a Kurd, and long before his accession to power, Turkish and Kurdish mercenaries were employed by the Caliphs of Bagdad and Cairo, as the Pope employs Swiss. ... Subsequently, however, Circassia became the country which most largely furnished this class of troops. Their apprenticeship was a long and laborious one: they were taught, first of all, to read the Koran and to write; then followed lance-exercise, during which time nobody was allowed to speak to them. At first they either resided in the castle, or were exercised living under tents; but after the time of Sultan Barkouk they were allowed to live in the town [Cairo], and the quarter now occupied by the Jews was at that time devoted to the Circassian Mamelukes. After this period they neglected their religious and warlike exercises, and became degenerate and corrupt. ... The dynasty of Saladin ... was of no duration, and ended in 648 A. H., or 1250 of the Christian era. {760} Then began the so-called Bahrite Sultans, in consequence of the Mamelukes of the sultan Negm-ed-din having lodged in Rodah, the Island in the Nile (Bahr-en-Nil). The intriguer of the period was Sheger-ed-dur, the widow of the monarch, who married one of the Mamelukes, Moez-eddin-aibek-el-Turcomany, who became the first of these Bahrite Sultans, and was himself murdered in the Castle of Cairo through this woman. ... Their subsequent history, until the conquest of Egypt by Sultan Selim in 1517, presents nothing but a series of acts of lust, murder and rapine. So rapidly did they expel each other from power, that the average reign of each did not exceed five or six years. ... The 'fleeting purple' of the decline and fall of the Roman Empire is the spectacle which these Mameluke Dynasties constantly present."

A. A. Paton, History of the Egyptian Revolution, volume 1, chapter 3-5.

EGYPT: A. D. 1516-1517. Overthrow of the Mameluke Sultans. Ottoman conquest by Sultan Selim.

See TURKS: A. D. 1481-1520.

EGYPT: A. D. 1798-1799. The French conquest and occupation by Bonaparte.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1798 (MAY-AUGUST), and 1798-1799 (AUGUST-AUGUST).

EGYPT: A. D. 1798-1799. Bonaparte's organization of government. His victory at Aboukir. His return to France.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1798-1799 (AUGUST-AUGUST), and 1799 (NOVEMBER).

EGYPT: A. D. 1800. Discontent and discouragement of the French. The repudiated Treaty of El Arish. Turkish defeat at Heliopolis. Revolt crushed at Cairo. Assassination of Kleber.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1800 (JANUARY-JUNE).

EGYPT: A. D. 1801-1802. Expulsion of the French by the English. Restoration of the province to Turkey.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1801-1802.

EGYPT: A. D. 1803-1811. The rise of Mohammad 'Aly (or Mehemet Ali) to power. His treacherous destruction of the Mamelukes.

"It was during the French occupation that Mohammad 'Aly [or Mehemet Ali] came on the scene. He was born in 1768 at the Albanian port of Kaballa, and by the patronage of the governor was sent to Egypt in 1801 with the contingent of troops furnished by Kaballa to the Ottoman army then operating with the English against the French. He rapidly rose to the command of the Arnaut or Albanian section of the Turkish army, and soon found himself an important factor in the confused political position which followed the departure of the British army. The Memluk Beys had not been restored to their former posts as provincial governors, and were consequently ripe for revolt against the Porte; but their party was weakened by the rivalry of its two leaders, El-Elfy and El-Bardisy, who divided their followers into two hostile camps. On the other hand, the Turkish Pasha appointed by the Porte had not yet gained a firm grip of the country, and was perpetually apprehensive of a recall to Constantinople. Mohammad 'Aly at the head of his Albanians was an important ally for either side to secure, and he fully appreciated his position. He played off one party against the other, the Pasha against the Beys, so successfully, that he not only weakened both sides, but made the people of Cairo, who were disgusted with the anarchy of Memluk and Turk alike, his firm friends; and at last suffered himself, with becoming hesitation, to be persuaded by the entreaty of the populace to become [1805] their ruler, and thus stepped to the supreme power in the curious guise of the people's friend. A fearful time followed Mohammad 'Aly's election--for such it was--to the governorship of Egypt. The Turkish Pasha, Khurshid, held the citadel, and Mohammad 'Aly, energetically aided by the people of Cairo, laid siege to it. From the minaret of the mosque of Sultan Hasan, and from the heights of Mukattam, the besiegers poured their fire into the citadel, and Khurshid replied with an indiscriminate cannonade upon the city. The firing went on for weeks (pausing on Fridays), till a messenger arrived from Constantinople bringing the confirmation of the popular vote, in the form of a firman, appointing Mohammad 'Aly governor of Egypt. Khurshid shortly afterwards retired, and the soldiery amused themselves in the approved Turkish and (even worse) Albanian fashion by making havoc of the houses of the citizens. Mohammad 'Aly now possessed the title of Governor of Egypt, but beyond the walls of Cairo his authority was everywhere disputed by the Beys. ... An attempt was made to ensnare certain of the Beys, who were encamped north of the metropolis. On the 17th of August, 1805, the dam of the canal of Cairo was to be cut, and some chiefs of Mohammad 'Aly's party wrote informing them that he would go forth early on that morning with most of his troops to witness the ceremony, inviting them to enter and seize the city, and, to deceive them, stipulating for a certain sum of money as a reward. The dam, however, was cut early in the preceding night, without any ceremony. On the following morning these Beys, with their Memluks, a very numerous body, broke open the gate of the suburb El-Hosey-niyeh, and gained admittance into the city. ... They marched along the principal street for some distance, with kettle-drums behind each company, and were received with apparent joy by the citizens. At the mosque called the Ashrafiyeh they separated, one party proceeding to the Azhar and the houses of certain sheykhs, and the other party continuing along the main street, and through the gate called Bab-Zuweyleh, where they turned up towards the citadel. Here they were fired on by some soldiers from the houses; and with this signal a terrible massacre commenced. Falling back towards their companions, they found the by-streets closed; and in that part of the main thoroughfare called Beyn-el-Kasreyn, they were suddenly placed between two fires. Thus shut up in a narrow street, some sought refuge in the collegiate mosque of the Barkukiyeh, while the remainder fought their way through their enemies, and escaped over the city wall with the loss of their horses. Two Memluks had in the meantime succeeded, by great exertions, in giving the alarm to their comrades in the quarter of the Azhar, who escaped by the eastern gate called Bab-el-Ghureyyib. A horrible fate awaited those who had shut themselves up in the Barkukiyeh. Having begged for quarter and surrendered, they were immediately stripped nearly naked, and about fifty were slaughtered on the spot; and about the same number were dragged away. ... The wretched captives were then chained and left in the court of the Pasha's house; and on the following morning the heads of their comrades, who had perished the day before, were skinned and stuffed with straw before their eyes. {761} One Bey and two other men paid their ransom, and were released; the rest, without exception, were tortured, and put to death in the course of the ensuing night. ... The Beys were disheartened by this revolting butchery, and most of them retired to the upper country. Urged by England, or more probably by the promise of a bribe from El-Elfy, the Porte began a leisurely interference in favour of the Memluks; but the failure of El-Elfy's treasury, and a handsome bribe from Mohammad 'Aly, soon changed the Sultan's views, and the Turkish fleet sailed away. ... An attempt of the English Government to restore the Memluks by the action of a force of 5,000 men under General Fraser ended in disaster and humiliation, and the citizens of Cairo had the satisfaction of seeing the heads of Englishmen exposed on stakes in the Ezbekiyeh. Mohammad 'Aly now adopted a more conciliatory policy towards the Memluks, granted them land, and encouraged them to return to Cairo. The clemency was only assumed in order to prepare the way for the act of consummate treachery which finally uprooted the Memluk power. ... Early in the year 1811, the preparations for an expedition against the Wahhabis in Arabia being complete, all the Memluk Beys then in Cairo were invited to the ceremony of investing Mohammad 'Aly's favourite son, Tusun, with a pelisse and the command of the army. As on the former occasion, the unfortunate Memluks fell into the snare. On the 1st of March, Shahin Bey and the other chiefs (one only excepted) repaired with their retinues to the citadel, and were courteously received by the Pasha. Having taken coffee, they formed in procession, and, preceded and followed by the Pasha's troops, slowly descended the steep and narrow road leading to the great gate of the citadel; but as soon as the Memluks arrived at the gate it was suddenly closed before them. The last of those who made their exit before the gate was shut were Albanians under Salih Kush. To those troops their chief now made known the Pasha's orders to massacre all the Memluks within the citadel; therefore having returned by another way, they gained the summit of the walls and houses, that hem in the road in which the Memluks were, and some stationed themselves upon the eminences of the rock through which that road is partly cut. Thus securely placed, they commenced a heavy fire on their defenceless victims, and immediately the troops who closed the procession, and who had the advantage of higher ground, followed their example. ... 470 Memluks entered the citadel, and of these very few, if any, escaped. One of these is said to have been a Bey. According to some, he leaped his horse from the ramparts, and alighted uninjured, though the horse was killed by the fall. Others say that he was prevented from joining his comrades, and discovered the treachery while waiting without the gate. He fled and made his way to Syria. This massacre was the signal for an indiscriminate slaughter of the Memluks throughout Egypt, orders to this effect being transmitted to every governor; and in Cairo itself, the houses of the Beys were given over to the soldiery, who slaughtered all their adherents, treated their women in the most shameless manner, and sacked their dwellings. ... The last of his rivals being now destroyed, Mohammad 'Aly was free to organize the administration of the country, and to engage in expeditions abroad."

S. Lane-Poole, Egypt, chapter 8.

ALSO IN: A. A. Paton, History of the Egyptian Revolution, volume 2.

EGYPT: A. D. 1807. Occupation of Alexandria by the English. Disastrous failure of their expedition.

See TURKS: A. D. 1806-1807.

EGYPT: A. D. 1831-1840. Rebellion of Mehemet Ali. Successes against the Turks. Intervention of the Western Powers. Egypt made an hereditary Pashalik.

See TURKS: A. D. 1831-1840.

EGYPT: A. D. 1840-1869. Mehemet Ali and his successors. The khedives. The opening of the Suez Canal.

"By the treaty of 1840 between the Porte and the European Powers, ... his title to Egypt having been ... affirmed ... Mehemet Ali devoted himself during the next seven years to the social and material improvement of the country, with an aggregate of results which has fixed his place in history as the 'Peter the Great' of Egypt. Indeed, except some additions and further reforms made during the reign of his reputed grandson, Ismail Pasha, the whole administrative system, up till less than ten years ago, was, in the main, his work; and notwithstanding many admitted defects, it was at his death incomparably the most civilised and efficient of then existing Mussulman Governments. In 1848, this great satrap, then verging on his eightieth year, was attacked by a mental malady, induced, as it was said, by a potion administered in mistaken kindness by one of his own daughters, and the government was taken over by his adopted son, Ibrahim Pasha, the hero of Koniah and Nezib. He lingered till August 1849, but Ibrahim had already pre-deceased him; and Abbas, a son of the latter, succeeded to the viceregal throne. Though born and bred in Egypt, Abbas was a Turk of the worst type--ignorant, cowardly, sensual, fanatic, and opposed to reforms of every sort. Thus his feeble reign of less than six years was, in almost everything, a period of retrogression. On a night in July, 1854, he was strangled in his sleep by a couple of his own slaves,--acting, it was variously said, on a secret order from Constantinople, or at the behest of one of his wives. To Abbas succeeded Said, the third son of Mehemet Ali, an amiable and liberal-minded prince who retrieved much of the mischief done by his predecessor, but lacked the vigorous intelligence and force of character required to carry on the great work begun by his father. His reign will be chiefly memorable for the concession and commencement of the Suez Canal, the colossal work which, while benefiting the trade of the world, has cost so much to Egypt. Said died in January 1863, and was succeeded by his nephew Ismail Pasha, the second son of Ibrahim. As most of the leading incidents of this Prince's reign, as also the chief features of his character, are still fresh in the public memory, I need merely recall a few of the more salient of both. Amongst the former, history will give the first place to his creation of the huge public debt which forms the main element of a problem that still confronts Europe. {762} But, for this the same impartial judge will at least equally blame the financial panderers who ministered to his extravagance, with exorbitant profit to themselves, but at ruinous cost to Egypt. On the other hand, it is but historical justice to say that Ismail did much for the material progress of the country. He added more than 1,000 to the 200 miles of railway in existence at the death of Said. He greatly improved the irrigation, and so increased the cultivable area of the country; multiplied the primary schools, and encouraged native industries. For so much, at least, history will give him credit. As memorable, though less meritorious, were the magnificent fetes with which, in 1869, he opened the Suez Canal, the great work which England had so long opposed, but through which--as if by the irony of history--the first ship that passed flew the English flag, and to the present traffic of which we contribute more than eighty per cent. In personal character, Ismail was of exceptional intelligence, but cruel, crafty, and untrustworthy both in politics and in his private relations. ... It may be mentioned that Ismail Pasha was the first of these Ottoman Viceroys who bore the title of 'Khedive,' which is a Perso-Arabic designation signifying rank a shade less than regal. This he obtained in 1867 by heavy bribes to the Sultan and his chief ministers, as he had the year before by similar means ousted his brother and uncle from the succession, and secured it for his own eldest son,--in virtue of which the latter now [1890] nominally reigns."

J. C. M'Coan, Egypt (National Life and Thought, lecture 18).

J. C. M'Coan, Egypt under Ismail, chapter 1-4.

EGYPT: A. D. 1870-1883. Conquest of the Soudan. Measures for the suppression of the slave-trade. The government of General Gordon. Advent of the Mahdi and beginning of his revolt.

In 1870, Ismail Pasha "made an appeal for European assistance to strengthen him in completing the conquest of Central Africa. [Sir Samuel] Baker was accordingly placed in command of 1,200 men, supplied with cannon and steam-boats, and received the title of Governour-General of the provinces which he was commissioned to subdue. Having elected to make Gondokoro the seat of his government, he changed its name to Ismailia. He was not long in bringing the Bari to submission, and then, advancing southwards, he came to the districts of Dufilé and Fatiko, a healthy region endowed by nature with fertile valleys and irrigated by limpid streams, but for years past converted into a sort of hell upon earth by the slave-hunters who had made it their headquarters. From these pests Baker delivered the locality, and having by his tact and energy overcome the distrust of the native rulers, he established over their territory a certain number of small military settlements. ... Baker returned to Europe flattering himself with the delusion that he had put an end to the scourge of slave dealing. It was true that various slave-dealers' dens on the Upper Nile had been destroyed, a number of outlaws had been shot, and a few thousand miserable slaves had been set at liberty; but beyond that nothing had been accomplished; no sooner had the liberator turned his back than the odious traffic recommenced with more vigour than before through the region south of Gondokoro. This, however, was only one of the slave-hunting districts, and by no means the worst. ... Under European compulsion ... the Khedive Ismail undertook to promote measures to put a stop to the scandal. He entered into various conventions with England on the subject; and in order to convince the Powers of the sincerity of his intentions, he consented to put the equatorial provinces under the administration of an European officer, who should be commissioned to carry on the work of repression, conquest and organisation that had been commenced by Baker. His choice fell upon a man of exceptional ability, a brilliant officer trained at Woolwich, who had already gained high renown in China, not only for military talent, but for his adroitness and skill in negotiation and diplomacy. This was Colonel Gordon, familiarly known as 'Chinese Gordon,' who was now to add fresh lustre to his name in Egypt as Gordon Pasha. Gordon was appointed Governour-General of the Soudan in 1874. With him were associated Chaillé-Long, an American officer, who was chief of his staff; the German, Dr. Emin Effendi, medical officer to the expedition; Lieutenants Chippendall and Watson; Gessi and Kemp, engineers. ... Thenceforward the territories, of which so little had hitherto been known, became the continual scene of military movements and scientific excursions. ... The Soudan was so far conquered as to be held by about a dozen military outposts stationed along the Nile from Lake No to Lakes Albert and Ibrahim. ... In 1876 Gordon went back to Cairo. Nevertheless, although he was wearied with the continual struggle of the past two years, worn down by the incessant labours of internal organisation and geographical investigations, disheartened, too, by the jealousies, rivalries, and intrigues of all around him, and by the ill feeling of the very people whom the Khedive's Government had sent to support him, he consented to return again to his post; this time with the title of Governour-General of the Soudan, Darfur, and the Equatorial Provinces. At the beginning of 1877 he took possession of the Government palace at Khartoum. ... Egyptian authority, allied with European civilisation, appeared now at length to be taking some hold on the various districts, and the Cairo Government might begin to look forward to a time when it could reckon on some reward for its labours and sacrifices. The area of the new Egyptian Soudan had now become immense. Geographically, its centre included the entire valley of the Nile proper, from Berber to the great lakes; on the east were such portions of the valleys of the Blue Nile and Atbara as lay outside Abyssinia; and on the west were the districts watered by the Bahr-el-Ghazal, and the Bahr-el-Arab, right away to the confines of Wadai. ... Unfortunately in 1879 Ismail Pasha was deposed, and, to the grievous loss of the Soudan, Gordon was recalled. As the immediate consequence, the country fell back into the hands of Turkish pashas; apathy, disorder, carelessness, and ill feeling reappeared at Khartoum, and the Arab slave-dealers, who had for a period been kept under by Baker, Gessi, and Gordon, came once more to the front. ... It was Raouf Pasha who, in 1879, succeeded Gordon as Governour-General. He had three Europeans as his subordinates--Emin Bey, who before Gordon left, had been placed in charge of the province of the equator; Lupton Bey, an Englishman, who had followed Gessi as Governour on the Bahr-el-Ghazal; and Slatin Bey, an Austrian, in command of Darfur. Raouf had barely been two years at Khartoum when the Mahdi appeared on the scene. {763} Prompted either by personal ambition or by religious hatred, the idea of playing the part of 'Mahdi' had been acted upon by many an Arab fanatic [see MAHDI]. Such an idea, at an early age, had taken possession of a certain Soudanese of low birth, a native of Dongola, by name Mohammed Ahmed. Before openly aspiring to the role of the regenerator of Islam he had filled several subordinate engagements, notably one under Dr. Peney, the French surgeon-general in the Soudan, who died in 1861. Shortly afterwards he received admittance into the powerful order of the Ghelani dervishes, and then commenced his schemes for stirring up a revolution in defence of his creed. His proceedings did not fail to attract the attention of Gessi Pasha, who had him arrested at Shekka and imprisoned for five months. Under the government of Raouf he took up his abode upon the small island of Abba, on the Nile above Khartoum, where he gained a considerable notoriety by the austerity of his life and by the fervour of his devotions, thus gradually gaining a high reputation for sanctity. Not only offerings but followers streamed in from every quarter. He became rich as well as powerful. ... Waiting till May 1881, he then assumed that a propitious time had arrived for the realisation of his plans, and accordingly had himself publicly proclaimed as 'Mahdi,' inviting every fakir and every religious leader of Islam to come and join him at Abba. ... Convinced that it was impolitic to tolerate any longer the revolutionary intrigues of such an adventurer at the very gates of Khartoum, Raouf Pasha resolved to rid the country of Mohammed and to send him to Cairo for trial. An expedition was accordingly despatched to the island of Abba, but unfortunately the means employed were inadequate to the task. Only a small body of black soldiers were sent to arrest the agitator in his quarters, and they, inspired no doubt by a vague and superstitious dread of a man who represented himself as the messenger of Allah, wavered and acted with indecision. Before their officers could rally them to energy, the Mahdi, with a fierce train of followers, knife in hand, rushed upon them, and killing many, put the rest to flight; then, seeing that a renewed assault was likely to be made, he withdrew the insurgent band into a retreat of safety amongst the mountains of Southern Kordofan. Henceforth revolt was openly declared. Such was the condition of things in August 1881. Chase was given, but every effort to secure the person of the pretended prophet was baffled. A further attempt was made to arrest him by the Mudir of Fashoda with 1,500 men, only to be attended with a still more melancholy result. After a desperate struggle the Mudir lay stretched upon the ground, his soldiers murdered all around him. One single officer, with a few straggling cavalry, escaped the massacre, and returned to report the fatal news. The reverse caused an absolute panic in Khartoum, an intense excitement spreading throughout the Soudan.... Meantime the Mahdi's prestige was ever on the increase, and he soon felt sufficiently strong to assume the offensive. His troops overran Kordofan and Sennar, advancing on the one hand to the town of Sennar, which they set on fire, and on the other to El-Obeid, which they placed in a state of siege. In the following July a fresh and more powerful expedition, this time numbering 6,000 men, under the command of Yussuf Pasha, left Fashoda and made towards the Mahdi's headquarters. It met with no better fate than the expeditions that had gone before. ... And then it was that the English Government, discerning danger for Egypt in this insurrection of Islam, set to work to act for the Khedive. It told off 11,000 men, and placed them under the command of Hicks Pasha, an officer in the Egyptian service who had made the Abyssinian campaign. At the end of December 1882 this expedition embarked at Suez for Suakin, crossed the desert, reached the Nile at Berber, and after much endurance on the way, arrived at Khartoum. Before this, El-Obeid had fallen into the Mahdi's power, and there he had taken up his headquarters. Some trifling advantages were gained by Hicks, but having entered Kordofan with the design of retaking El-Obeid, he was, on the 5th of November 1883, hemmed in amongst the Kasgil passes, and after three days' heroic fighting, his army of about 10,000 men was overpowered by a force five or six times their superior in numbers, and completely exterminated. Hicks Pasha himself, his European staff, and many Egyptian officers of high rank, were among the dead, and forty-two guns fell into the hands of the enemy. Again, not a man was left to carry the fatal tidings to Khartoum. Rebellion continued to spread. After being agitated for months, the population of the Eastern Soudan also made a rising. Osman Digna, the foremost of the Mahdi's lieutenants, occupied the road between Suakin and Berber, and surrounded Sinkat and Tokar; then, having destroyed, one after another, two Egyptian columns that had been despatched for the relief of these towns, he finally cut off the communication between Khartoum and the Red Sea. The tide of insurrection by this time had risen so high that it threatened not only to overthrow the Khedive's authority in the Soudan, but to become the source of serious peril to Egypt itself."

A. J. Wauters, Stanley's Emin Pasha Expedition, chapter 1-2.

ALSO IN: Major R. F. Wingate, Mahdiism and the Egyptian Sudan, books 1-4.

Colonel Sir. W. F. Butler, Charles George Gordon, chapters 5-6.

A. E. Hake, The Story of Chinese Gordon, chapters 10-15.

EGYPT: A. D. 1875-1882. Bankruptcy of the state. English and French control of finances. Native hostility to the foreigners. Rebellion, led by Arabi. English bombardment of Alexandria.

"The facilities given by foreign money-lenders encouraged extravagance and ostentation on the part of the sovereign and the ruling classes, while mismanagement and corrupt practices were common among officials, so that the public debt rose in 1875 to ninety-one millions, and in January, 1881, to ninety-eight millions. ... The European capitalists obtained for their money nominally six to nine per cent., but really not less than eight to ten per cent., as the bonds were issued at low rates. ... The interest on these borrowed millions was punctually paid up to the end of 1875, when the Khedive found that he could not satisfy his creditors, and the British government interfered in his favour. Mr. Cave was sent to examine into Egyptian finances, and he reported that loans at twelve and thirteen per cent. were being agreed to and renewed at twenty-five per cent., and that some measure of consolidation was necessary. The two western Powers now took the matter in hand, but they thereby recognized the whole of these usurious demands. {764} The debt, although under their control, and therefore secured, was not reduced by the amount already paid in premiums for risk. Nor was the rate of interest diminished to something more nearly approaching the rate payable on English consols, which was three per cent. A tribunal under the jurisdiction of united European and native judges was also established in Egypt to decide complaints of foreigners against natives, and vice versa. In May, 1876, this tribunal gave judgment that the income of the Khedive Ismail, from his private landed property, could be appropriated to pay the creditors of the state, and an execution was put into the Viceregal palace, Er Ramleh, near Alexandria. The Khedive pronounced the judgment invalid, and the tribunal ceased to act. Two commissioners were now again sent to report on Egyptian finances--M. Joubert, the director of the Paris Bank, for France, and Mr. Goschen, a former minister, for England. These gentlemen proposed to hand over the control of the finances to two Europeans, depriving the state of all independence and governing power. The Khedive, in order to resist these demands, convoked a sort of Parliament in order to make an appeal to the people. From this Parliament was afterwards developed the Assembly of Notables, and the National party, now so often spoken of. In 1877 a European commission of control over Egyptian finance was named. ... Nubar Pasha was made Prime minister in 1878; the control of the finances was entrusted to Mr. Wilson, an Englishman; and later, the French controller, M. de Blignières, entered the Cabinet. Better order was thus restored to the finances. Rothschild's new loan of eight and a half millions was issued at seventy-three, and therefore brought in from six to eight per cent. nett. ... But to be able to pay the creditors their full interest, economy had to be introduced into the national expenditure. To do this, clumsy arrangements were made, and the injustice shown in carrying them out embittered many classes of the population, and laid the foundations of a fanatical hatred of race against race. ... In consequence of all this, the majority of the notables, many ulemas, officers, and higher officials among the Egyptians, formed themselves into a National party, with the object of resisting the oppressive government of the foreigner. They were joined by the great mass of the discharged soldiers and subordinate officials, not to mention many others. At the end of February, 1870, a revolt broke out in Cairo. Nubar, hated by the National party, was dismissed by the Khedive Ismail, who installed his son Tewfik as Prime minister. In consequence of this, the coupons due in April were not paid till the beginning of May, and the western Powers demanded the reinstatement of Nubar. That Tewfik on this occasion retired and sided with the foreigners is the chief cause of his present [1882] unpopularity in Egypt. Ismail, however, now dismissed Wilson and De Blignières, and a Cabinet was formed, consisting chiefly of native Egyptians, with Sherif Pasha as Prime minister. Sherif now raised for the first time the cry of which we have since heard so much, and which was inscribed by Arabi on his banners, 'Egypt for the Egyptians.' The western Powers retorted by a menacing naval demonstration, and demanded of the Sultan the deposition of the Khedive. In June, 1870, this demand was agreed to. Ismail went into exile, and his place was filled br Mahomed Tewfik. ... The new Khedive, with apathetic weakness, yielded the reconstruction of his ministry and the organization of his finances to the western Powers. Mr. Baring and M. de Blignières, as commissioners of the control, aided by officials named by Rothschild to watch over his private interests, now ruled the land. They devoted forty-five millions (about sixteen shillings per head on the entire population) to the payment of interest. The people were embittered by the distrust shown towards them, and the further reduction of the army from fifty to fifteen thousand men threw a large number out of employment. ... Many acts of military insubordination occurred, and at last, on the 8th of November, 1881, the great military revolt broke out in Cairo. ... Ahmed Arabi, colonel of the 4th regiment, now first came into public notice. Several regiments, headed by their officers, openly rebelled against the orders of the Khedive, who was compelled to recall the nationalist, Sherif Pasha, and to refer the further demands of the rebels for the increase of the army, and for a constitution, to the Sultan. Sherif Pasha, however, did not long enjoy the confidence of the National Egyptian party, at whose head Arabi now stood, winning every day more reputation and influence. The army, in which he permitted great laxity of discipline, was entirely devoted to him. ... A pretended plot of Circassian officers against his life he dexterously used to increase his popularity. ... Twenty-six officers were condemned to death by court-martial, but the Khedive, at the instance of the western Powers, commuted the sentence, and they were banished to Constantinople. This leniency was stigmatized by the National party as treachery to the country, and the Chamber of Notables retorted by naming Arabi commander-in-chief of the army and Prime minister without asking the consent of the Khedive. The Chamber soon afterwards came into conflict with the foreign comptrollers. ... This ended in De Blignières resigning his post, and in the May of the present year (1882) the consuls of the European Powers declared that a fleet of English and French ironclads would appear before Alexandria, to demand the disbanding of the army and the punishment of its leaders. The threat was realized, and, in spite of protests from the Sultan, a fleet of English and French ironclads entered the harbour of Alexandria. The Khedive, at the advice of his ministers and the chiefs of the National party, appealed to the Sultan. ... The popular hatred of foreigners now became more and more apparent, and began to assume threatening dimensions. ... On the 30th of May, Arabi announced that a despatch from the Sultan had reached him, promising the deposition of Tewfik in favour of his uncle Halim Pasha. ... On the 3rd of June, Dervish Pasha, a man of energy notwithstanding his years, had sailed from Constantinople. ... His object was to pacify Egypt and to reconcile Tewfik and Arabi Pasha. ... Since the publication of the despatch purporting to proclaim Halim Pasha as Khedive, Arabi had done nothing towards dethroning the actual ruler. But on the 2nd of June he began to strengthen the fortifications of Alexandria with earthworks. ... {765} The British admiral protested, and the Sultan, on the remonstrances of British diplomacy, forbad the continuation of the works. ... Serious disturbances took place in Alexandria on the 11th. The native rabble invaded the European quarter, plundered the shops, and slew many foreigners. ... Though the disturbances were not renewed, a general emigration of foreigners was the result. ... On the 22nd a commission, consisting of nine natives and nine Europeans ... began to try the ringleaders of the riot. ... But events were hurrying on towards war. The works at Alexandria were recommenced, and the fortifications armed with heavy guns. The English admiral received information that the entrance to the harbour would be blocked by sunken storeships, and this, he declared, would be an act of open war. A complete scheme for the destruction of the Suez canal was also discovered. ... The English, on their side, now began to make hostile demonstrations; and Arabi, while repudiating warlike intentions, declared himself ready for resistance. ... On the 27th the English vice-consul advised his fellow-countrymen to leave Alexandria, and on the 3rd of July, according to the 'Times,' the arrangements for war were complete. ... Finally, as a reconnaissance on the 9th showed that the forts were still being strengthened, he [the English admiral] informed the governor of Alexandria, Zulficar Pasha, that unless the forts had been previously evacuated and surrendered to the English, he intended to commence the bombardment at four the next morning. ... As the French government were unable to take part in any active measures (a grant for that purpose having been refused by the National Assembly), the greater part of their fleet, under Admiral Conrad, left Alexandria for Port Said. The ironclads of other nations, more than fifty in number, anchored outside the harbour of Alexandria. ... On the evening of the 10th of July ... and at daybreak on the 11th, the ... ironclads took up the positions assigned to them. There was a gentle breeze from the east, and the weather was clear. At 6.30 a. m. all the ships were cleared for action. At seven the admiral signalled to the Alexandra to fire a shell into Fort Ada. ... The first shot fired from the Alexandra was immediately replied to by the Egyptians; whereupon the ships of the whole fleet and the Egyptian forts and batteries opened fire, and the engagement became general. ... At 8.30 Fort Marsa-el-Kanat was blown up by shells from the Invincible and Monarch, and by nine o'clock the Téméraire, Monarch, and Penelope had silenced most of the guns in Fort Meks, although four defied every effort from their protected situation. By 11.45 Forts Marabout and Adjemi had ceased firing, and a landing party of seamen and marines was despatched, under cover of the Bittern's guns, to spike and blow up the guns in the forts. At 1.30 a shell from the Superb burst in the chief powder magazine of Fort Ada and blew it up. By four o'clock all the guns of Fort Pharos, and half an hour later those of Fort Meks, were disabled, and at 5.30 the admiral ordered the firing to cease. The ships were repeatedly struck and sustained some damage. ... The English casualties were five killed and twenty-eight wounded, a comparatively small loss. The Egyptian loss is not known. ... At 1 p. m. on the 12th of July, the white flag was hoisted by the Egyptians. Admiral Seymour demanded, as a preliminary measure, the surrender of the forts commanding the entrance to the harbour, and the negotiations on this point were fruitlessly protracted for some hours. As night approached the city was seen to be on fire in many places, and the flames were spreading in all directions. The English now became aware that the white flag had merely been used as means to gain time for a hasty evacuation of Alexandria by Arabi and his army. Sailors and marines were now landed, and ships of other nations sent detachments on shore to protect their countrymen. But it was too late; Bedouins, convicts, and ill-disciplined soldiers had plundered and burnt the European quarter, killed many foreigners, and a Reuter's telegram of the 14th said, 'Alexandria is completely destroyed.'"

H. Vogt, The Egyptian War of 1882, pages 2-32.

ALSO IN: J. C. McCoan, Egypt under Ismail, chapter 8-10.

C. Royle, The Egyptian Campaigns, volume 1, chapter 1-20.

Khedives and Pashas.

C. F. Goodrich, Report on British Military and Naval Operations in Egypt, 1882, part 1.

EGYPT: A. D. 1882-1883. The massacre and destruction in Alexandria. Declared rebellion of Arabi. Its suppression by the English. Banishment of Arabi. English occupation.

The city of Alexandria had become "such a scene of pillage, massacre, and wanton destruction as to make the world shudder. It was the old tale of horrors. Houses were plundered and burned; the European quarter, including the stately buildings surrounding the Great Square of Mehemet Ali, was sacked and left a heap of smoldering ruins; and more than two thousand Europeans, for the most part Levantines, were massacred with all the cruelty of oriental fanaticism. This was on the afternoon of the 12th. It was the second massacre that had occurred under the very eyes of the British fleet. The admiral's failure to prevent it has been called unfortunate by some and criminal by others. It seems to have been wholly without excuse. ... The blue-jackets were landed on the 13th, and cleared the way before them with a Gatling gun. The next day, more ships having arrived, a sufficient force was landed to take possession of the entire city. The khedive was escorted back to Ras-el-Tin from Ramleh, and given a strong guard. Summary justice was dealt out to all hostile Arabs who had been captured in the city. In short, English intervention was followed by English occupation. The bombardment of Alexandria had defined clearly the respective positions of Arabi and the khedive toward Egypt and the Egyptian people. ... The khedive was not only weak in the eyes of his people, but he was regarded as the tool of England. ... From the moment the first shot was fired upon Alexandria, Arabi was the real ruler of the people. ... The conference at Constantinople was stirred by the news of the bombardment of Alexandria. It presented a note to the Porte, July 15, requesting the dispatch of Turkish troops to restore the status quo in Egypt. But the sultan had no idea of taking the part of the Christian in what all Islam regarded as a contest between the Moslem and the unbeliever. ... In Egypt, the khedive had been prevailed upon, after some demur, to proclaim Arabi a rebel and discharge him from his cabinet. Arabi had issued a counter-proclamation, on the same day, declaring Tewfik a traitor to his people and his religion. {766} Having received the news of the khedive's proclamation, Lord Dufferin, the British ambassador at Constantinople, announced to the conference that England was about to send an expedition to Egypt to suppress the rebellion and to restore the authority of the khedive. Thereupon the sultan declared that he had decided to send a Turkish expedition. Lord Dufferin feigned to accept the sultan's cooperation, but demanded that the Porte, as a preliminary step, should declare Arabi a rebel. Again the sultan was confronted with the danger of incurring the wrath of the Moslem world. He could not declare Arabi a rebel. ... In his desperation, he sent a force of 3,000 men to Suda bay with orders to hold themselves in readiness to enter Egypt at a moment's notice. ... In the meantime, however, the English expedition had arrived in Egypt and was proceeding to crush the rebellion, regardless of the diplomatic delays and bickerings at Constantinople. ... It was not until the 15th of August that Sir Garnet Wolseley arrived with his force in Egypt. The English at that time held only two points, Alexandria and Suez, while the entire Egyptian interior, as well as Port Said and Ismailia, were held by Arabi, whose force, it was estimated, now amounted to about 70,000 men, of whom at least 50,000 were regulars. The objective point of General Wolseley's expedition to crush Arabi was, of course, the city of Cairo. There were two ways of approaching that city, one from Alexandria, through the Delta, and the other from the Suez canal. There were many objections to the former route. ... The Suez canal was supposed to be neutral water. ... But England felt no obligation to recognize any neutrality, ... acting upon the principle, which is doubtless sound, that 'the neutrality of any canal joining the waters of the Atlantic and Pacific oceans will be maintained, if at all, by the nation which can place and keep the strongest ships at each extremity.' In other words, General Wolseley decided to enter Cairo by way of the Suez canal and Ismailia. But he kept his plan a profound secret. Admiral Seymour alone knew his purpose. ... On the 19th, the transports moved eastward from Alexandria, as if to attack Abukir; but under the cover of darkness that night, they were escorted on to Port Said, where they learned that the entire canal, owing to the preconcerted action of Admiral Seymour, was in the hands of the British. On the 21st, the troops met Sir Henry McPherson's Indian contingent at Ismailia. Two days were now consumed in rest and preparation. The Egyptians cut off the water supply, which came from the Delta by the Sweet Water Canal, by damming the canal. A sortie to secure possession of the dam was therefore deemed necessary, and was successfully made on the 24th. Further advances were made, and on the 26th, Kassassin, a station of some importance on the canal and railway, was occupied. Here the British force was obliged to delay for two weeks, while organizing a hospital and a transport service. This gave Arabi opportunity to concentrate his forces at Zagazig and Tel-el-Kebir. But he knew it was for his interest to strike at once before the British transports could come up with the advance. He therefore made two attempts, one on August 28, and the other on September 9, to regain the position lost at Kassassin. But he failed in both, though inflicting some loss upon his opponents. On the 12th of September preparations were made by General Wolseley for a decisive battle. He had become convinced from daily reconnoissance and from the view obtained in the engagement of September 9, that the fortifications at Tel-el-Kebir were both extensive and formidable. ... It was therefore decided to make the approach under cover of darkness. ... At 1.30 on the morning of the 13th General Wolseley gave the order for the advance, his force consisting of about 11,000 infantry, 2,000 cavalrymen, and sixty field-guns. They had only the stars to guide them, but so accurately was the movement conducted that the leading brigades of each division reached the enemy's outposts within two minutes of each other. 'The enemy (says General Wolseley) were completely surprised, and it was not until one or two of their advanced sentries fired their rifles that they realized our close proximity to their works.' ... The intrenchments were not carried without a severe struggle. The Egyptians fought with a desperate courage and hundreds of them were bayoneted at their posts. ... But what could the rank and file accomplish when 'each officer knew that he would run, but hoped his neighbor would stay.' At the first shot Arabi and his second in command took horse and galloped to Belbeis, where they caught a train for Cairo. Most of the other officers, as the reports of killed and wounded show, did the same. The Egyptians fired their first shot at 4.55 A. M., and at 6.45 the English had possession of Arabi's headquarters and the canal bridge. The British loss was 57 killed, 380 wounded, and 22 missing. The Egyptian army left about 2,000 dead in the fortifications. ... A proof of the completeness of the success was the entire dissipation of Arabi's army. Groups of soldiers, it is true, were scattered to different parts of Egypt; but the army organization was completely broken up with the battle of Tel-el-Kebir. ... 'Major-General Lowe was ordered to push on with all possible speed to Cairo. ... General Lowe [reached] the great barracks of Abbassieh, just outside of Cairo, at 4.45 P. M., on the 14th instant. The cavalry marched sixty-five miles in these two days. ... A message was sent to Arabi Pasha through the prefect of the city, calling upon him to surrender forthwith, which he did unconditionally.' ... Before leaving England, Wolseley had predicted that he would enter Cairo on the 16th of September; but with still a day to spare the feat was accomplished, and Arabi's rebellion was completely crushed. England now stood alone. Victory had been won without the aid of France or the intervention of Turkey. In Constantinople negotiations regarding Turkish expeditions were still pending when Lord Dufferin received the news of Wolseley's success, and announced to the Porte that there was now no need of a Turkish force in Egypt, as the war was ended. France at once prepared to resume her share in the control; but England, having borne the sole burden of the war, did not propose now to share the influence her success had given her. And it was for the interest of Egypt that she should not. ... England's first duty, after quiet was assured, was to send away all the British troops except a force of about 11,000 men, which it was deemed advisable to retain in Egypt until the khedive's authority was placed on a safe footing throughout the land. ... {767} What should be done with Arabi was the question of paramount interest, when once the khedive's authority was re-established and recognized. Tewfik and his ministers, if left to themselves, would unquestionably have taken his life. ... But England was determined that Arabi should have a fair trial. ... It was decided that the rebel leaders should appear before a military tribunal, and they were given English counsel to plead their cause. ... The trial was a farce. Everything was 'cut and dried' beforehand. It was arranged that Arabi was to plead guilty to rebellion, that he was forthwith to be condemned to death by the court, and that the khedive was immediately to commute the sentence to perpetual exile. In fact, the necessary papers were drawn up and signed before the court met for Arabi's trial on December 3. ... On the 26th of December Arabi and his six companions ... upon whom the same sentence had been passed, left Cairo for the Island of Ceylon, there to spend their life of perpetual exile. ... Lord Dufferin ... had been sent from Constantinople to Cairo, early in November, with the special mission of bringing order out of governmental chaos. In two months he had prepared a scheme of legislative reorganization. This was, however, somewhat altered; so that it was not until May, 1883, that the plan in its improved form was accepted by the decree of the khedive. The new constitution provided for three classes of assemblies: the 'Legislative' Council,' the 'General Assembly,' and the 'Provincial Councils,' of which there were to be fourteen, one for each province. ... Every Egyptian man, over twenty years of age, was to vote (by ballot) for an 'elector-delegate' from the village in the neighborhood of which he lived, and the 'electors-delegate' from all the villages in a province were to form the constituency that should elect the provincial council. ... The scheme for reorganization was carried forward to the extent of electing the 'electors-delegate' in September; but by that time Egypt was again in a state of such disquietude that the British advisers of the khedive considered it unwise to put the new institutions into operation. In place of legislative council and general assembly, the khedive appointed a council of state, consisting of eleven Egyptians, two Armenians, and ten Europeans. The reforms were set aside for the time being in view of impending troubles and dangers in the Sudan."

J. E. Bowen, The Conflict of East and West in Egypt, chapter 5-6.

ALSO IN: Colonel J. F. Maurice, Military History of the Campaign of 1882 in Egypt.

C. Royle, The Egyptian Campaigns, volume 1, chapter 22-44.

EGYPT: A. D. 1884-1885. General Gordon's Mission to Khartoum. The town beleaguered by the Mahdists. English rescue expedition. The energy that was too late.

"The abandonment of the Soudan being decided upon, the British Government confided to General Gordon the task of extricating the Egyptian garrisons scattered throughout the country. ... Gordon's original instructions were dated the 18th January, 1884. He was to proceed at once to Egypt, to report on the military situation in the Soudan, and on the measures which it might be advisable to take for the security of the Egyptian garrisons and for the safety of the European population in Khartoum. ... He was to be accompanied by Colonel Stewart. ... Gordon's final instructions were given him by the Egyptian Government in a firman appointing him Governor-General. ... Gordon arrived at Khartoum on the 18th February. ... While Gordon was sending almost daily expressions of his view as to the only way of carrying out the policy of eventual evacuation, it was also becoming clear to him that he would very soon be cut off from the rest of Egypt. His first remark on this subject was to express 'the conviction that I shall be caught in Khartoum'; and he wrote,--'Even if I was mean enough to escape I have no power to do so.' The accuracy of this forecast was speedily demonstrated. Within a few days communications with Khartoum were interrupted, and although subsequently restored for a time, the rising of the riparian tribes rendered the receipt and despatch of messages exceedingly uncertain. ... Long before the summer of 1884, it was evident that the position of Gordon at Khartoum had become so critical, that if he were to be rescued at all, it could only be by the despatch of a British force. ... Early in May, war preparations were commenced in England, and on the 10th of the month the military authorities in Cairo received instructions to prepare for the despatch in October of an expedition for the relief of the Soudanese capital. 12,000 camels were ordered to be purchased and held in readiness for a forward march in the autumn. On the 16th May a half-battalion of English troops was moved up the Nile to Wady Halfa. A few weeks later some other positions on the Nile were occupied by portions of the Army of Occupation. Naval officers were also sent up the river to examine and report upon the cataracts and other impediments to navigation. Still it was not till the 5th August that Mr. Gladstone rose in the House of Commons to move a vote of credit of £300,000 to enable the Government to undertake operations for the relief of Gordon. ... It was agreed that there were but two routes by which Khartoum could be approached by an expedition. One by way of the Nile, and the other via Souakim and Berber. ... The Nile route having been decided on, preparations on a large scale were begun. ... It was at first arranged that not more than 5,000 men should form the Expedition, but later on the number was raised to 7,000. ... The instructions given to Lord Wolseley stated that the primary object of the Expedition was to bring away Gordon and Stewart from Khartoum; and when that purpose should be effected, no further offensive operations of any kind were to be undertaken."

C. Royle, The Egyptian Campaigns, 1882-1885, volume 2, chapter 12-18.

"First, it was said that our troops would be before the gates of Khartoum on January 14th; next it was the middle of February; and then the time stretched out to the middle of March. ... Lord Wolseley offered a hundred pounds to the regiment covering the distance from Sarras to Debbeh most expeditiously and with least damage to boats. ... He also dispatched Sir Herbert Stewart on the immortal march to Gakdul. Stewart's force, composed principally of the Mounted Infantry and Camel Corps, and led by a troop of the 19th Hussars, acting as scouts--numbering about 1,100 in all--set out from Korti on December 30th. Its destination was about 100 miles from headquarters, and about 80 from the Nile at Shendy. {768} The enterprise, difficult and desperate as it was, was achieved with perfect success. ... On the 17th January Sir Herbert Stewart engaged the enemy on the road to Metemneh, and after defeating some 10,000 Arabs--collected from Berber, Metemneh, and Omdurman--pushed forward to the Abu Klea Wells. His tactics were much the same as those of General Graham at Elteb, and those of the Mahdi's men--of attacking when thirst and fatigue had well-nigh prostrated the force--were at all points similar to those adopted against Hicks. Our losses were 65 non-commissioned officers and men killed and 85 wounded, with 9 officers killed--among them Colonel Burnaby--and 9 wounded. Stewart at once pushed on for Metemneh and the Nile. He left the Wells on the 18th January to occupy Metemneh, if possible, but, failing that, to make for the Nile and entrench himself. After a night's march, some five miles south of Metemneh, the column found itself in presence of an enemy said to have been about 18,000 strong. Stewart halted and formed a zareba under a deadly fire. He himself was mortally hurt in the groin, and Mr. Cameron, of the Standard, and Mr. Herbert, of the Morning Post, were killed. The zareba completed, the column advanced in square, and the Arabs, profiting by Abu Klea, moved forward in echelon, apparently with the purpose of charging. At thirty yards or so they were brought to bay, so terrific was the fire from the square, and so splendidly served was Norton's artillery. For two hours the battle raged; and then the Arabs, 'mown down in heaps,' gave way. Meantime Sir Charles Wilson had made a dash for the Nile, where he found steamers and reinforcements from Gordon, and the laconic message, 'An right at Khartoum. Can hold out for years.' ... In the joy at the good news, none had stopped to consider the true meaning of the message, 'All right. Can hold out for years,' for none was aware that nearly two months before Gordon had said he had just provisions enough for 40 days, and that what he really meant was that he had come to his last biscuit. The message--which was written for the enemy--was dated December 20, and Sir Charles Wilson would reach Khartoum on January 28, just a month after its despatch. ... The public, carefully kept in ignorance ... and hopeful beyond their wont, were simply stupefied to hear, on February 5, that Khartoum was in the hands of the Mahdi and Gordon captured or dead."

A. E. Hake, The Story of Chinese Gordon, volume 2, chapter 10.

ALSO IN: H. M. Stanley, In Darkest Africa, chapter 1.

Colonel H. E. Colvile, History of the Soudan Campaign.

Colonel C. W. Wilson, From Korti to Khartoum.

Colonel Sir W. F. Butler, The Campaign of the Cataracts.

W. M. Pimblett, The Story of the Soudan War.

Gen. C. G. Gordon, Journals at Khartoum.

_H. W. Gordon, Events in the Life of Charles George Gordon, chapter 14-20._

EGYPT: A. D. 1893. The reigning khedive.

Mohamed Tewfik died in January, 1802 and was succeeded by his son Abbas, born in 1874.

Statesman's Year-book, 1893.

----------EGYPT: End----------

EGYPTIAN EDUCATION.

See EDUCATION, ANCIENT.

EGYPTIAN TALENT.

See TALENT.

EIDGENOSSEN.

The German word Eidgenossen, signifying "confederates," is often used in a special sense, historically, as applied to the members of the Swiss Confederation/

See SWITZERLAND: THE THREE FOREST CANTONS.

The name of the Huguenots is believed by some writers to be a corruption of the same term.

EIGHT SAINTS OF WAR, The.

See FLORENCE: A. D. 1375-1378.

EIKON BASILIKE, The.

See ENGLAND: A. D. 1649 (FEBRUARY).

EION, Siege and capture of (B. C. 470).

See ATHENS: B. C. 470-466.

EIRE.

See IRELAND: THE NAME.

EKKLESIA.

See ECCLESIA.

EKOWE, Defence of (1879).

See SOUTH AFRICA: A. D. 1877-1870.

ELAGABALUS, Roman Emperor, A. D. 218-222.

ELAM.

"Genesis calls a tribe dwelling on the Lower Tigris, between the river and the mountains of Iran, the Elamites, the oldest son of Shem. Among the Greeks the land of the Elamites was known as Kissia [Cissia], and afterwards as Susiana, from the name of the capital. It was also called Elymais."

M. Duncker, History of Antiquity, book 2, chapter 1.

About 2300 B. C. Chaldea, or Babylonia, was overwhelmed by an Elamite invasion--an invasion recorded by king Asshurbanipal, and which is stated to have laid waste the land of Accad and desecrated its temples. "Nor was this a passing inroad or raid of booty-seeking mountaineers. It was a real conquest. Khudur-Nankhundi and his successors remained in Southern Chaldea. ... This is the first time we meet authentic monumental records of a country which was destined through the next sixteen centuries to be in continual contact, mostly hostile, with both Babylonia and her northern rival, Assyria, until its final annihilation by the latter [B. C. 649, under Asshurbanipal, the Sardanapulus of the Greeks, who reduced the whole country to a wilderness]. Its capital was Shushan (afterwards pronounced by foreigners Susa), and its own original name Shushinak. Its people were of Turanian stock, its language was nearly akin to that of Shumir and Accad. ... Elam, the name under which the country is best known, both from the Bible and later monuments, is a Turanian word, which means, like 'Accad,' 'Highlands.' ... One of Khudur-Nankhundi's next successors, Khudur-Lagamar, was not content with the addition of Chaldea to his kingdom of Elam. He had the ambition of a born conqueror, and the generalship of one. The Chapter xiv, of Genesis--which calls him Chedorlaomer--is the only document we have descriptive of this king's warlike career, and a very striking picture it gives of it, ... Khudur-Lagamar ... lived, according to the most probable calculations, about 2200 B. C."

Z. A. Ragozin, Story of Chaldea, chapter 4.

It is among the discoveries of recent times, derived from the records in clay unearthed in Babylonia, that Cyrus the Great was originally king of Elam, and acquired Persia, as he acquired his later dominions, by conquest.

See PERSIA, B. C. 549-521.

See, also, BABYLONIA.

EL ARISH, Treaty of.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1800 (JANUARY-JUNE).

ELBA: A. D. 1735. Ceded to Spain by Austria.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1733-1735.

ELBA: A. D. 1802. Annexation to France.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1802 (AUGUST-SEPTEMBER).

ELBA: A. D. 1814. Napoleon in exile.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1814 (MARCH-APRIL), and (APRIL-JUNE).

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APPENDIX A.

NOTES TO ETHNOGRAPHICAL MAP, PLACED AT THE BEGINNING OF THIS VOLUME.

To the eye of modern scholarship "language" forms the basis of every ethnic distinction. Physical and exterior features like the stature, the color of the skin, the diversity of habits and customs, the distinctions which once formed in great part the basis of ethnic research have all in our own day been relegated to a subordinate place.

The "language" test is of course subject to very serious limitations. The intermingling of different peoples, more general to be sure in our own day than in past ages, has nevertheless been sufficiently great in every age to make the tracing of linguistic forms a task of great difficulty. In special cases where both the civilization and language of one people have become lost in that of another the test must of course fail utterly.

With all these restrictions however the adoption of the linguistic method by modern criticism has been practically universal. Its defence, if it requires any, is apparent. It is the only method of ethnic study the deductions of which, where successful at all, approach anything like certainty. The points wherein linguistic criticism has failed have been freely admitted; on the other hand the facts which it has established are unassailable by any other school of criticism.

Taking language then as the only tangible working basis the subject resolves itself from the start into a two-fold division: the debatable and the certain. It is the purpose to indicate in the course of these notes, what is merely conjecture and what may be safely accepted as fact.

The ethnology of Europe, studied on this basis, has for its central feature the Indo-Germanic (Indo-European) or Aryan race. The distinction between the races clearly Aryan and those doubtful or non-Aryan forms the primary division of the subject. As the map is intended to deal only with the Europe of the present, a historical distinction must be made at the outset between the doubtful or non-Aryan peoples who preceded the Aryans and the non-Aryan peoples who have appeared in Europe in comparatively recent times. The simple formula, pre-Aryan, Aryan, non-Aryan, affords the key to the historical development of European ethnology.

PRE-ARYAN PEOPLES.

Of the presumably pre-Aryan peoples of western Europe the Iberians occupy easily the first place. The seat of this people at the dawn of history was in Spain and southern France; their ethnology belongs entirely to the realm of conjecture. They are of much darker complexion than the Aryans and their racial characteristic is conservatism even to stubbornness, which places them in marked contrast to their immediate Aryan neighbors, the volatile Celts. Among the speculations concerning the origin of the Iberians a plausible one is that of Dr. Bodichon, who assigns to them an African origin making them, indeed, cognate with the modern Berbers (see R. H. Patterson's "Ethnology of Europe" in "Lectures on History and Art"). This generalization is made to include also the Bretons of the north west. It is clear however that the population of modern Brittany is purely Celtic: made up largely from the immigrations from the British Isles during the fifth century.

To the stubbornness with which the Iberians resisted every foreign aggression and refused intermingling with surrounding races is due the survival to the present day of their descendants, the Basques.

The mountain ranges of northern Spain, the Cantabrians and Eastern Pyrenees have formed the very donjon-keep of this people in every age. Here the Cantabri successfully resisted the Roman arms for more than a century after the subjugation of the remainder of Spain, the final conquest not occurring until the last years of Augustus. While the Iberian race as a whole has become lost in the greater mass of Celtic and Latin intruders, it has remained almost pure in this quarter. The present seat of the Basques is in the Spanish provinces of Viscaya, Alava, Guipuzcoa, and Navarre and in the French department of Basses Pyrénées. The Ivernians of Ireland, now lost in the Celtic population, and the Ligurians along the shores of the Genoese gulf, later absorbed by the Romans, both belong likewise to this pre-Aryan class. (Modern research concerning these pre-Aryan peoples has in large part taken its inspiration from the "Untersuchungen" of Humboldt, whose view concerning the connection between the Basques and Iberians is substantially the one stated.)

Another early non-Aryan race now extinct were the Etruscans of Italy. Their origin was manifestly different from that of the pre-Aryan peoples just mentioned. By many they have been regarded as a branch of the great Ural-Altaic family. This again is conjecture.

ARYAN PEOPLES.

In beginning the survey of the Aryan peoples it is necessary to mention the principal divisions of the race. As generally enumerated there are seven of these, viz., the Sanskrit (Hindoo), Zend (Persian), Greek, Latin, Celtic, Germanic and Slavic. To these may be added two others not definitely classified, the Albanian and the Lithuanian. These bear the closest affinity respectively to the Latin and the Slavic.

Speculation concerning the origin of the Aryans need not concern us. It belongs as yet entirely to the arena of controversy. The vital question which divides the opposing schools is concerning their European or Asiatic origin. Of the numerous writers on this subject the two who perhaps afford the reader of English the best view of the opposing opinions are, on the Asiatic side, Dr. Max Müller (Lectures on the Science of Language); on the other, Professor A. H. Sayce (Introduction to the Science of Language).

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Of the divisions of the Aryan race above enumerated the first two do not appear in European ethnology. Of the other branches, the Latin, Germanic and Slavic form by great odds the bulk of the European population.

THE LATIN BRANCH.

The Latin countries are France, Spain, Portugal, Italy and the territory north of the Danube, between the Dniester and the Theiss. In the strictest ethnic sense however the term Latin can be applied only to Italy and then only to the central part. As Italy first appears in history it is inhabited by a number of different races: the Iapygians and Oenotrians of the south who were thrown in direct contact with the Greek settlers; the Umbrians, Sabines, Latins, Volscians and Oscans in the centre; the Etruscans on the west shore north of the Tiber; while in the north we find the Gauls in the valley of the Po, with the Ligurians and Venetians respectively on the west and east coasts. Of this motley collection the central group bore a close affinity to the Latin, yet all alike received the Latin stamp with the growing power of Rome.

The ethnic complexion of Italy thus formed was hardly modified by the great Germanic invasions which followed with the fall of the West-Roman Empire.

This observation applies with more or less truth to all the Latin countries, the Germanic conquerors becoming everywhere merged and finally lost in the greater mass of the conquered. Only in Lombardy where a more enduring Germanic kingdom existed for over two centuries (568-774), has the Germanic made any impression, and this indeed a slight one, on the distinctly Latin character of the Italian peninsula.

In Spain an interval between the Iberian period and the Roman conquest appears to have existed, during which the population is best described as Celt-Iberian. Upon this population the Latin stamp was placed by the long and toilsome, but for that reason more thorough, Roman conquest. The ethnic character of Spain thus formed has passed without material change through the ordeal both of Germanic and Saracenic conquest. The Gothic kingdom of Spain (418-714) and the Suevic kingdom of northern Portugal (406-584) have left behind them scarcely a trace. The effects of the great Mohammedan invasion cannot be dismissed so lightly.

Conquered entirely by the Arabs and Moors in 714, the entire country was not freed from the invader for nearly eight centuries. In the south (Granada) where the Moors clung longest their influence has been greatest. Here their impress on the pure Aryan stock has never been effaced.

The opening phrase of Cæsar's Gallic war, "all Gaul is divided into three parts," states a fact as truly ethnic as it is geographical or historical. In the south (Aquitania) we find the Celtic blending with the Iberian; in the northeast the Cimbrian Belgae, the last comers of the Celtic family, are strongly marked by the characteristics of the Germans; while in the vast central territory the people "calling themselves Galli" are of pure Celtic race. This brief statement of Caesar, allowing for the subsequent influx of the German, is no mean description of the ethnic divisions of France as they exist at the present day, and is an evidence of the remarkable continuity of ethnological as opposed to mere political conditions.

The four and a half centuries of Roman rule placed the Latin stamp on the Gallic nation, a preparation for the most determined siege of Germanic race influence which any Latin nation was fated to undergo.

In Italy and Spain the exotic kingdoms were quickly overthrown; the Frankish kingdom in northern Gaul was in strictness never overthrown at all.

In addition we soon have in the extreme north a second Germanic element in the Scandinavian Norman. Over all these outside elements, however, the Latin influence eventually triumphed. While the Franks have imposed their name upon the natives, the latter have imposed their language and civilization on the invaders.

The result of this clashing of influences is seen, however, in the present linguistic division of the old Gallic lands. The line running east and west through the centre of France marks the division between the French and the Provençal dialects, the langued'oil and the langued'oc. It is south of this line in the country of the langued'oc that the Latin or Romance influence reigns most absolute in the native speech.

In the northeast, on the other hand, in the Walloon provinces of Belgium, we have, as with the Belgae of classic times, the near approach of the Gallic to the Germanic stems.

Our survey of the Latin peoples must close with a short notice of its outlying members in the Balkan and Danubian lands. The Albanians (Skipetars) and the Roumans (Vlachs or Wallachs) represent as nearly as ethnology can determine the ancient populations respectively of Illyricum and Thrace. The ethnology of the Albanians is entirely uncertain. Their present location, considerably to the south of their supposed pristine seat in Illyricum, indicates some southern migration of the race. This migration occurred at an entirely unknown time, though it is generally believed to have been contemporary with the great southward movement of the Slavic races in the seventh century.

The Albanian migrations of the time penetrated Attica, Aetolia and the entire Peloponnesus; with the Slavs and Vlachs they formed indeed a great part of the population of Greece during the Middle Ages. While the Slavic stems have since been merged in the native Greek population, and the Vlachs have almost entirely disappeared from these southern lands, the Albanians in Greece have shown a greater tenacity. Their part in later Greek history has been a prominent one and they form to-day a great part of the population of Attica and Argolis.

The Roumans or Vlachs, the supposed native population of Thrace, are more closely identified than the Albanians with the other Latin peoples. They occupy at present the vast country north of the Danube, their boundary extending on the east to the Dniester, on the west almost to the Theiss.

Historically these people form a perplexing yet interesting study. The theory once general that they represented a continuous Latin civilization north of the Danube, connecting the classic Dacia by an unbroken chain to the present, has now been generally abandoned. (See Roesler's "Romänische Studien" or Freeman's "Historical Geography of Europe," page 435.)

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The present geographical location of the Vlach peoples is probably the result of a migration from the Thracian lands south of the Danube, which occurred for unexplained causes in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries. The kernel of the race at the present day is the separate state of Roumania; in the East and West they come under the respective rules of Russia and Hungary.

In mediaeval times the part played by them south of the Balkans was an important one, and to this day they still linger in considerable numbers on either side of the range of Pindus. (For a short dissertation on the Vlach peoples, see Finlay, "History of Greece," volume 3, pages 224-230.)

THE GERMANIC BRANCH.

The Germanic nations of modern Europe are _England, Germany, Holland, Denmark, Norway_ and Sweden. The Germanic races also form the major part of the population of Switzerland, the Cis-Leithan division of the Austrian Empire, and appear in isolated settlements throughout Hungary and Russia.

Of the earlier Germanic nations who overthrew the Roman Empire of the West scarcely a trace remains.

The population of the British Isles at the dawn of history furnishes a close parallel to that of Gaul. The pre-Aryan Ivernians (the possible Iberians of the British Isles) had been forced back into the recesses of Scotland and Ireland; next to them came the Celts, like those of Gaul, in two divisions, the Goidels or Gaels and the Britons.

In Britain, contrary to the usual rule, the Roman domination did not give the perpetual Latin stamp to the island; it is in fact the only country save the Pannonian and Rhaetian lands south of the upper Danube, once a Roman possession, where the Germanic element has since gained a complete mastery. The invasion of the Germanic races, the Angles, Saxons and Jutes, from the sixth to the eighth centuries, were practically wars of extermination. The Celtic race is to-day represented on the British Isles only in Wales and the western portions of Scotland and Ireland. The invasions of the Danes, and later the Norman conquest, bringing with them only slight infusions of kindred Germanic nations, have produced in England no marked modification of the Saxon stock.

The German Empire, with the smaller adjoining realms, Holland and Switzerland and the Austrian provinces of Austria, Styria, Carinthia, Salzburg and Tyrol, contain the great mass of the Germanic peoples of the continent.

During the confusion following the overthrow of the West-Roman Empire the Germanic peoples were grouped much further westward than they are at present; the eastward reaction involving the dispossession of the Slavic peoples on the Elbe and Oder, has been going on ever since the days of Charlemagne. Germany like France possesses a linguistic division, Low German (Nieder-Deutsche) being generally spoken in the lands north of the cross line, High German (Hoch-Deutsche) from which the written language is derived, to the south of it, Holland uses the Flemish, a form of the Nieder-Deutsche; Belgium is about equally divided between the Flemish and the Walloon. Switzerland, though predominantly German, is encroached upon by the French in the western cantons, while in the southeast is used the Italian and a form allied to the same, the Romance speech of the Rhaetian (Tyrolese) Alps. This form also prevails in Friuli and some mountainous parts of northern Italy.

The present population of the German Empire is almost exclusively Germanic, the exceptions being the Slavic Poles of Posen, Pomerellen, southeastern Prussia and eastern Silesia, the remnant of the Wends of Lusatia and the French element in the recently acquired Imperial lands of Alsace and Lorraine. Beyond the Empire we find a German population in the Austrian territories already noted, in the border lands of Bohemia, and in isolated settlements further east. The great settlement in the Siebenbürgen was made by German emigrants in the eleventh century and similar settlements dot the map both of Hungary and Russia. On the Volga indeed exists the greatest of them all.

Denmark, Norway and Sweden are peopled by the Scandinavian branch of the Germanic race. Only in the extreme north do we find another and non-Aryan race, the Lapps. On the other hand a remnant of the Swedes still retain a precarious hold on the coast line of their former possession, the Russian Finland.

THE SLAVIC BRANCH.

The Slavs, though the last of the Aryan nations to appear in history, form numerically by far the greatest branch of the Indo-European family. Their present number in Europe is computed at nearly one hundred million souls.

At the time of the great migrations they extended over nearly all modern Germany; their slow dispossession by the Germanic peoples, beginning in the eighth century, has already been noticed. In the course of this dispossession the most westerly Slavic group, the Polabic, between the Elbe and the Oder, were merged in the German, and, barring the remnant of Wends in Lusatia (the Sorabi or Northern Serbs), have disappeared entirely from ethnic geography.

The great Slavic nation of the present day is Russia, but the great number of Slavic peoples who are not Russian and the considerable Russian population which is not Slavic renders impossible the study of this race on strictly national lines.

The Slavic peoples are separated, partly by geographical conditions, into three great divisions: the Eastern, the Western and the Southern. The greatest of these divisions, the Eastern, lies entirely within the boundaries of the Russian Empire. The sub-divisions of the Eastern group are as follows: The Great Russians occupying the vast inland territory and numbering alone between forty and fifty millions, the Little Russians inhabiting the entire south of Russia from Poland to the Caspian, and the White Russians, the least numerous of this division, in Smolensk, Wilna, and Minsk, the west provinces bordering on the Lithuanians and Poles.

The West Slavic group, omitting names of peoples now extinct, are the Poles, Slovaks, Czechs and the remnants of the Lusatian Wends. The Poles, excepting those already mentioned as within the German empire, and the Austrian Poles of Cracow, are all under the domination of Russia. Under the sovereignty of Austria are the Slovaks, Moravians and Czechs of Bohemia, the latter the most westerly as well as historically the oldest of the surviving Slavic peoples, having appeared in their present seats in the last years of the fifth century.

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In connection with this West Slavic group we should also refer to the Lithuanians whose history, despite the racial difference, is so closely allied with that of Poland. Their present location in the Russian provinces of Kowno, Kurland and Livland has been practically the same since the dawn of history.

The South Slavic peoples were isolated from their northern kinsmen by the great Finno-Tatar invasions.

The invasion of Europe by the Avars in the sixth century clove like a wedge the two great divisions of the Slavic race, the southernmost being forced upon the confines of the East-Roman Empire. Though less imposing as conquests than the Germanic invasions of the Western Empire, the racial importance of these Slavic movements is far greater since they constitute, in connection with the Finno-Tatar invasions which caused them, the most important and clearly defined series of ethnic changes which Europe has experienced during the Christian Era. During the sixth and seventh centuries these Slavic emigrants spread over almost the entire Balkan peninsula, including Epirus and the Peloponnesus. In Greece they afterwards disappeared as a separate people, but in the region between the Danube, the Save and the Balkans they immediately developed separate states (Servia in 641, Bulgaria in 678). As they exist at present they may be classed in three divisions. The Bulgarians, so called from the Finno-Tatar people whom they absorbed while accepting their name, occupy the district included in the separate state of Bulgaria and Eastern Roumelia, with a considerable territory to the south of it in Macedonia and Thrace. It was this last named territory or one very nearly corresponding to it that was actually ceded to Bulgaria by the peace of San Stefano, though she unfortunately lost it by the subsequent compromise effected at the Congress of Berlin. The second division includes the Servians, Montenegrans, Bosnians and Croatians, the last two under Austrian control; the third and smallest are the Slovenes of Carniola, likewise under Austrian sovereignty. (Schafarik's "Slawische Alterthümer" is the greatest single authority on the early history and also comparative ethnology of the Slavs.)

The territory occupied by the Greek speaking people is clearly shown on the accompanying map. As in all history, it is the coast lands where they seem to have formed the strongest hold. In free Greece itself and in the Turkish territories immediately adjoining, the Greek population overwhelmingly preponderates.

Nevertheless there is still a considerable Albanian element in Attica and Argolis, a Vlach element in Epirus while the Turk himself still lingers in certain quarters of Thessaly. All these are remnants left over from the successive migrations of the Middle Ages. The Slavs, who also figured most prominently in these migrations, have disappeared in Greece as a distinct race. The question as to the degree of Slavic admixture among the modern Greeks is however another fruitful source of ethnic controversy. The general features of the question are most compactly stated in Finlay, volume 4, pages 1-37.

NON-ARYAN PEOPLES.

The Non-Aryan peoples on the soil of modern Europe, excepting the Jews and also probably excepting those already placed in the unsolved class of pre-Aryan, all belong to the Finno-Tatar or Ural-Altaic family, and all, possibly excepting the Finns, date their arrival in Europe from comparatively recent and historic times. The four principal divisions of this race, the Ugric, Finnic, Turkic and Mongolic, all have their European representatives.

Of the first the only representatives are the Hungarians (Magyars). The rift between the North and South Slavic peoples opened by the Huns in the fifth century, reopened and enlarged by the Avars in the sixth, was finally occupied by their kinsmen the Magyars in the ninth. The receding of this wave of Asiatic invasion left the Magyars in utter isolation among their Aryan neighbors. It follows as a natural consequence that they have been the only one of the Ural-Altaic peoples to accept the religion and civilization of the West. Since the conversion of their king St. Stephen in the year 1000, their geographical position has not altered. Roughly speaking, it comprises the western half of Hungary, with an outlying branch in the Carpathians.

More closely allied to the Magyars than to their more immediate neighbors of the same race are the Finnic stems of the extreme north. Stretching originally over nearly the whole northern half of Scandinavia and Russia they have been gradually displaced, in the one case by their Germanic, in the other by their Slavic neighbors. Their present representatives are the Ehsts and Tschudes of Ehstland, the Finns and Karelians of Finland, the Tscheremissians of the upper Volga, the Siryenians in the basin of the Petchora and the Lapps in northern Scandinavia and along the shores of the Arctic ocean.

East of the Lapps, also bordering the Arctic ocean, lie the Samojedes, a people forming a distinct branch of the Ural-Altaic family though most closely allied to the Finnic peoples. The great division of the Ural-Altaic family known indifferently as Tatar (Tartar) or Turk, has, like the Aryan Slavs, through the accidents of historical geography rather than race divergence been separated into two great divisions: the northern or Russian division commonly comprised under the specific name of Tartar; and the southern, the Turk.

These are the latest additions to the European family of races. The Mongol-Tatar invasion of Russia occurred as late as the thirteenth century, while the Turks did not gain their first foothold in Europe through the gates of Gallipoli until 1353. The bulk of the Turks of the present day are congregated in Asia-Minor.

Barring the Armenians, the Georgians of the northeast, the Greeks of the seacoast and the scattered Circassians, the whole peninsula is substantially Turkish.

In Europe proper the Turks as a distinct people never cut a great figure. Even in the grandest days of Osmanli conquest they were always outnumbered by the conquered nations whose land they occupied, and with the decline of their power this numerical inferiority has become more and more marked. At the present day there are very few portions of the Balkan peninsula where the Turkish population actually predominates; their general distribution is clearly shown on the map.

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The Tartars or Russian Turks represent the siftings of the Asiatic invasions of the thirteenth century.

Their number has been steadily dwindling until they now count scarcely three millions, a mere handful in the mass of their former Slavic subjects.

The survivors are scattered in irregular and isolated groups over the south and east. Prominent among them are the Crim Tartars, the kindred Nogais of the west shores of the Caspian, the Kirghis of the north shore and Ural valley, and the Bashkirs between the upper Ural and the Volga, with an isolated branch of Tartars in the valley of the Araxes south of the Caucasus.

The great Asiatic irruption of the thirteenth century has been commonly known as the Mongol invasion. Such it was in leadership, though the residuum which it has left behind in European Russia proves that the rank and file were mostly Tartars. One Mongol people however, the Kalmucks, did make their way into Europe and still exist in the steppes between the lower Don and the lower Volga.

The ethnology of the Caucasian peoples is the most difficult part of the entire subject. On the steppes of the Black and Caspian seas up to the very limit of the Caucasus we have two races between whom the ethnic distinction is clearly defined, the Mongol-Tartar and the Slav. Entering the Caucasus however we find a vast number of races differing alike from these and from each other.

To enumerate all the different divisions of these races, whose ethnology is so very uncertain, would be useless. Grouped in three general divisions however they are as follows: the so-called Circassians who formerly occupied the whole western Caucasus with the adjoining Black sea coast but who, since the Russian conquest of 1864, have for the most part emigrated to different quarters of the Turkish Empire; the Lesghians, under which general name are included the motley crowd of peoples inhabiting the eastern Caucasus; and the Georgians, the supposed descendants of the ancient Iberians of the Caucasus, who inhabit the southern slope, including all the Tiflis province and the Trapezuntine lands on the southeast coast of the Black sea.

The Tartars are hardly found in the Caucasus though they reappear immediately south of it in the lower basin of the Kura and the Araxes. Here also appear the various Iranian stems of the Asiatic Aryans, the Armenians, the Persians and the Kurds.

R. H. Latham's works on "European Ethnology" are the best general authority in English. Of more recent German guides, map and otherwise, the following are noteworthy: Bastain's "Ethnologisches Bilderbuch," "Das Beständige in den Menschenrassen," "Allgemeine Grundzüge der Ethnologie," Kiepert's "Ethnographische Uebersichtskarte des Europäischen Orients," Menke's "Europa nach seinen Ethnologischen Verhältnissen in der Mitte des 19. Jahrhundert," Rittich's "Ethnographie des europäischen Russland," Sax's "Ethnographische Karte der europäischen Turkei," Berghaus's "Ethnographische Karte vom österreichischen Kaiserstaat," Wendt's "Bilder Atlas der Länder und Völkerkunde," Andree's "Allgemeiner Hand-atlas (Ethnographischen Karten)," Gerland's "Atlas der Ethnographie."

A. C. Reiley.

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APPENDIX B.

NOTES TO FOUR MAPS OF THE BALKAN PENINSULA. (TWELFTH TO THE FIFTEENTH CENTURY.)

There exists to-day upon the map of Europe no section whose historical geography has a greater present interest than the Danubian, Balkan and Levantine states. It is these and the Austro-Hungarian lands immediately adjoining which have formed one of the great fulcrums for those national movements which constitute the prime feature of the historical geography of the present age.

Upon the present map of Europe in this quarter we discover a number of separate and diminutive national entities, the Roumanian, Bulgarian, Servian and Montenegrin, the Greek and Albanian, all struggling desperately to establish themselves on the debris of the crumbling Turkish Empire.

What the issue will be of these numerous and mutually conflicting struggles for separate national existence it is out of our province to forecast.

It is only intended in this map series to throw all possible light on their true character from the lessons and analogies of the past. At first sight the period treated in the four Levantine maps (from the last of the twelfth to the middle of the fifteenth century) must appear the most intricate and the most obscure in the entire history of this region. The most intricate it certainly is, and possibly the most obscure, though the obscurity arises largely from neglect. Its importance, however, arises from the fact that it is the only past period of Levantine history which presents a clear analogy to the present, not alone in its purely transitionary character, but also from the several national movements which during this time were diligently at work.

During the Roman and the earlier Byzantine periods, which from their continuity may be taken as one, any special tendency was of course stifled under the preponderant rule of a single great empire.

The same was equally true at a later time, when all of these regions passed under the rule of the Turk. These four maps treat of that most interesting period intervening between the crumbling of the Byzantine power and the Turkish conquest. That in our own day the crumbling in turn of the Turkish power has repeated, in its general features, the same historical situation, is the point upon which the interest must inevitably centre.

What the outcome will be in modern times forms the most interesting of political studies. Whether the native races of the Danube, the Balkans and the southern peninsula are to work out their full national development, either federately or independently, or whether they are destined to pass again, as is threatened, under the domination of another and greater empire, is one of the most important of the questions which agitates the mind of the modern European statesman. That the latter outcome is now the less likely is due to the great unfolding of separate national spirit which marks so strongly the age in which we live. The reason why the previous age treated in this map series ended in nothing better than foreign and Mohammedan conquest may perhaps be sought in the imperfect development of this same national spirit.

THE BYZANTINE EMPIRE.

The first map (Asia Minor and the Balkans near the close of the twelfth century) is intended to show the geographical situation as it existed immediately prior to the dismemberment of the Byzantine Empire. The Byzantine Empire of this period is in itself an important study. It must be regarded more as the offspring than the direct continuation of the great East-Roman Empire of Arcadius and Justinian; for with the centuries which had intervened the great changes in polity, internal geography, external neighbors and lastly the continual geographical contraction, present us with an entirely new series of relations. It is this geographical contraction which concerns us most vitally, for with it the frontiers of the empire conform more and more closely to the ethnic limits of the Greek nation. The later Byzantine Empire was, therefore, essentially a Greek Empire, and as such it appeals most vividly to the national consciousness of the Greek of our own time. The restoration of this empire, with the little kingdom of free Greece as the nucleus, is the vision which inspires the more aggressive and venturesome school of modern Greek politicians. In the twelfth century the bulk of Asia Minor had been wrested from the Byzantine Empire by the Turks, but it was the Crusaders, not the Turks, who overthrew the first empire. In one view this fact is fortunate, otherwise there would have been no transition period whose study would be productive of such fruitful results.

Owing to the artful policy of the Comnenian emperors, the Byzantine Empire actually profited by the early crusades and was enabled through them to recover a considerable part of Asia Minor from the Turks. This apparent success, however, was only the prelude to final disaster.

Isolated from western Christendom by the schism, the Greeks were an object of suspicion and hatred to the Latin Crusaders and it only required a slight abatement of the original crusading spirit for their warlike ardor to be diverted from Jerusalem to Constantinople. Cyprus was torn away from the Greek Empire and created a separate kingdom under Latin rule, in 1191. Finally, the so-called Fourth Crusade, controlled by Venetian intrigue, ended in the complete dismemberment of the Byzantine Empire (1204).

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This nefarious enterprise forms a dark spot in history: it also ushers in the greatest period of geographical intricacy in Levantine annals, the geography which immediately resulted from it is not directly shown in this Levantine map series, but can be seen on the general map of Europe at the opening of the thirteenth century. Briefly stated, it represented the establishment of a fragmentary and disjointed Latin Empire in the place of the former Greek Empire of Constantinople. Known as the Latin Empire of Romania, this new creation included the Empire of Constantinople proper and its feudal dependencies, the kingdom of Thessalonica, the duchy of Athens, and the principality of Achaia.

Three orphan Greek states survived the fall of the parent power: in Europe, the despotat of Epirus, and in Asia, the empires of Nicæa and Trebizond.

The Latin states of the East are scarcely worthy the historian's notice. They have no place whatever in the natural development, either political or geographical, of the Levantine states. They were not only forced by foreign lances upon an unwilling population, but were clumsy feudalisms, established among a people to whom the feudal idea was unintelligible and barbarous. Like their prototypes, the Crusading states of Syria, they resembled artificial encroachments upon the sea, standing for a time, but with the ordinary course of nature the ocean reclaims its own.

Even the weak little Greek states were strong in comparison and immediately began to recover ground at their expense. The kingdom of Thessalonica was overthrown by the despot of Epirus in 1222; the Latin Empire of Constantinople itself fell before the Greek Emperor of Nicæa in 1261; while the last of the barons of the principality of Achaia submitted to the Byzantine despots of the Morea in 1430.

The duchy of Athens alone of all these Latin states survived long enough to fall at last before the Turkish conquest. The Levantine possessions won by Venice at this and later times were destined, partly from their insular or maritime location, and partly from the greater vitality of trade relations, to enjoy a somewhat longer life.

To the Nicæan emperors of the house of Paleologus belongs the achievement of having restored the Byzantine Empire in the event of 1261. The expression Restored Byzantine Empire has been employed, since it has the sanction of usage, though a complete restoration never occurred. The geography of the Restored Empire as shown on the second map (1265 A. D.) fails to include the greater part of what we may term the cradle of the Greek race. The only subsequent extension was over the balance of the Morea. In every other quarter the frontiers of the Restored Empire soon began to recede until it included only the city of Constantinople and an ever decreasing portion of Thrace. With the commencement of the fourteenth century the Turks, having thrown off the Mongol-Tartar dominion, began under the house of Osmanlis their final career of conquest. This, of course, was the beginning of the end. Their first foothold in Europe was gained in 1353, but over a century was destined to elapse before the completion of their sovereignty in all the lands south of the Danube. There remains, therefore, a considerable period during which whatever separate national tendencies existed had full opportunity to work.

THE FIRST AND SECOND BULGARIAN KINGDOMS.

It was this age which saw not only the highest point in the national greatness of Bulgaria and Servia, but also witnessed the evolution of the Wallachian principalities in the lands north of the Danube.

The separate states of Bulgaria and Servia, born in the seventh century of the great southward migration of the Slavic peoples, had in after times risen or fallen according to the strength or weakness of the Byzantine Empire. Bulgaria had hitherto shown the greatest power. At several different periods, notably under Simeon (883-927), and again under Samuel (976-1014), it developed a strength which fairly overawed the Empire itself. These Slavic states had, however, been subjected by the Byzantine Empire in the first half of the eleventh century, and, though Servia enjoyed another period of independence (1040-1148), it was not until the final crumbling of the Byzantine Empire, the premonition of the event of 1204, that their expansion recommences. The Wallachian, or Second Bulgarian kingdom, which came into existence in 1187 in the lands between the Balkans and the Danube, has been the subject of an ethnic discussion which need not detain us. That it was not purely Slavic is well established, for the great and singular revival of the Vlach or Rouman peoples and their movement from the lands south of Haemus to their present seats north of the Danube, which is one of the great features of this age, had already begun. (The country between the Danube and the Balkans, the seat of the Second Bulgarian kingdom, appears as Aspro or White-Wallachia in some Byzantine writings. So also north of the Danube the later Moldavia and Great Wallachia are known respectively as Mavro [Black] and Hungarowallachia. Still the fact of a continuous Roumnn civilization north of the Danube is not established. The theory of a great northward movement of the Vlach peoples is the one now generally accepted and is ably advocated in Roesler's "Romänische Studien.")

At the present day this movement has been so long completed that scarcely the trace of Vlach population remains in the lands south of the Danube. These emigrants appear, as it were, in passing, to have shared with the native Bulgarians in the creation of this Second Bulgarian kingdom. This realm achieved a momentary greatness under its rulers of the house of Asau. The dismemberment of the Byzantine Empire in 1204 enabled them to make great encroachments to the south, and it seemed for a time that to the Bulgarian, not the Greek, would fall the task of overthrowing the Latin Empire of Roumania (see general map of Europe at the opening of the thirteenth century). With the reëstablishment, however, of the Greek Empire of Constantinople, in 1261, the Bulgarian kingdom began to lose much of its importance, and its power was finally broken in 1285 by the Mongols.

SERVIA.

In the following century it was the turn of Servia to enjoy a period of preeminent greatness. The latter kingdom had recovered its independence under the house of Nemanja in 1183.

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Under the great giant conqueror Stephen Dushan (1321-1355) it enjoyed a period of greater power than has ever before or since fallen to the lot of a single Balkan state. The Restored Byzantine Empire had sustained no permanent loss from the period of Bulgarian greatness: it was by the sudden Servian conquest that it was deprived forever of nearly all its European possessions (see Balkan map III). A Byzantine reaction might have come under other conditions, but already another and greater enemy was at her gates. Dushan died in 1355; and already, in 1353, two years before, the Turk at Gallipoli had made his entrance into Europe. From this time every Christian state of the East grew steadily weaker until Bulgaria, Servia, the Greek Empire, and finally even Hungary, had passed under the Turkish dominion.

THE VLACHS.

Passing on from these Slavic peoples, another national manifestation of the greatest importance belonging to this period, one which, unlike the Greek and Slavic, may be said in one sense to have originated in the period, was that of the Vlachs. This Latin population, which ethnologists have attempted to identify with the ancient Thracians, was, previous to the twelfth century, scattered in irregular groups throughout the entire Balkan peninsula. During the twelfth century their great northward migration began. A single result of this movement has already been noticed in the rise of the Second Bulgarian kingdom. South of the Danube, however, their influence was transitory. It was north of the river that the evolution of the two principalities, Great Wallachia (Roumania) and Moldavia, and the growth of a Vlach population in the Transylvanian lands of Eastern Hungary, has yielded the ethnic and in great part the political geography of the present day.

The process of this evolution may be understood from a comparative study of the four Balkan maps. Upon the first map the Cumanians, a Finno-Tatar people, who in the twelfth century had displaced a kindred race, the Patzinaks or Petschenegs, occupy the whole country between the Danube and the Transylvanian Alps. These were in turn swept forever from the map of Europe by the Mongols (1224). With the receding of this exterminating wave of Asiatic conquest the great wilderness was thrown open to new settlers. The settlements of the Vlachs north of the Danube and east of the Aluta became the principality of Great Wallachia, the nucleus of the modern Roumania. West of the Aluta the district of Little Wallachia was incorporated for a long period, as the banat of Severin, in the Hungarian kingdom.

Finally, the principality of Moldavia came into existence in 1341, in land previously won by the Hungarians from the Mongols, between the Dniester and the Carpathians. Both the principalities of Great Wallachia and Moldavia were in the fourteenth century dependencies of Hungary. The grasp of Hungary was loosened, however, towards the close of the century and after a period of shifting dependence, now on Hungary, now on Turkey, and for a time, in the case of Moldavia, on Poland, we come to the period of permanent Turkish supremacy.

With the presence and influence of the Vlachs south of the Balkans, during this period, we are less interested, since their subsequent disappearance has removed the subject from any direct connection with modern politics. The only quarter where they still linger and where this influence led to the founding of an independent state, was in the country east of the range of Pindus, the Great Wallachia of the Byzantines. Here the principality of Wallachian Thessaly appeared as an offshoot of the Greek despotat of Epirus in 1259 (see map II).

This state retained its independent existence until 1308, when it was divided between the Catalan dukes of Athens and the Byzantine Empire.

ALBANIANS.

The Skipetars (Albanians) during this period appear to have been the slowest to grasp out for a separate national existence. The southern section of Albania formed, after the fall of Constantinople, a part of the despotat of Epirus, and whatever independence existed in the northern section was lost in the revival, first of the Byzantine, then, in the ensuing century, of the Servian power. It was not until 1444 that a certain George Castriot, known to the Turks as Iskander-i-beg, or Scanderbeg, created a Christian principality in the mountain fastnesses of Albania. This little realm stretched along the Adriatic from Butrinto almost to Antivari, embracing, further inland, Kroja and the basin of the Drin (see map IV).

It was not until after Scanderbeg's death that Ottoman control was confirmed over this spirited Albanian population.

THE TURKISH CONQUEST.

The reign of Mohammed II. (1451-1481) witnessed the final conquest of the entire country south of the Danube and the Save. The extent of the Turkish Empire at his accession is shown on map IV. The acquisitions of territory during his reign included in Asia Minor the old Greek Empire of Trebizond (1461) and the Turkish dynasty of Karaman; in Europe, Constantinople, whose fall brought the Byzantine Empire to a close in 1453, the duchy of Athens (1456), the despotats of Patras and Misithra (1460), Servia (1458), Bosnia (1463), Albania (1468), Epirus and Acarnania, the continental dominion of the Counts of Cephalonia (1479), and Herzegovina (1481). In the mountainous district immediately south of Herzegovina, the principality of Montenegro, situated in lands which had formed the southern part of the first Servian kingdom, alone preserved its independence, even at the height of the Turkish domination.

The chronicle of Turkish history thereafter records only conquest after conquest. The islands of the Ægean were many of them won during Mohammed's own reign, the acquisition of the remainder ensued shortly after. Venice was hunted step by step out of all her Levantine possessions save the Ionian Islands; the superiority over the Crim Tartars, Wallachia, Moldavia and Jedisan followed, finally, the defeat at Mohacs (1526), and the subsequent internal anarchy left nearly all Hungary at the mercy of the Ottoman conqueror.

The geographical homogeneity thus restored by the Turkish conquest was not again disturbed until the present century. The repetition of almost the same conditions in our own time, though with the process reversed, has been referred to in the sketch of Balkan geography of the present day. The extreme importance of the period just described, for the purposes of minute historical analogy, will be apparent at once wherever comparison is attempted.

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The thirteenth, fourteenth, and fifteenth centuries were of course periods of far greater geographical intricacy, but the purpose has been rather to indicate the nature of this intricacy than to describe it in detail. The principal feature, namely, the national movements, wherever they have manifested themselves, have been more carefully dwelt upon. The object has been simply to show that the four separate national movements, the Greek, the Slavic, the Rouman, and the Albanian, which may be said to have created the present Levantine problem, were all present, and in the case of the two last may even be said to have had their inception, in the period just traversed.

In the present century the unfolding of national spirit has been so much greater and far-reaching that a different outcome may be looked for. It is sufficient for the present that the incipient existence of these same movements has been shown to have existed in a previous age. The best general text authority in English for the geography of this period is George Finlay's "History of Greece," volumes. III. and IV.; a more exhaustive guide in German is Hopf's "Geschichte Griechenlands." For the purely geographical works see the general bibliography of historical geography.

A. C. Reiley.

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APPENDIX C.

NOTES TO THE MAP OF THE BALKAN PENINSULA. (PRESENT CENTURY.)

The present century has been a remarkable one for the settlement of great political and geographical questions. These questions resolve themselves into two great classes, which indicate the political forces of the present age,--the first, represented in the growth of democratic thought, and the second arising from the awakening of national spirit. The first of these concerns historical geography only incidentally, but the second has already done much to reconstruct the political geography of our time.

RECENT NATIONAL MOVEMENTS.

Within a little over thirty years it has changed the map of central Europe from a medley of small states into a united Italy and a united Germany; it has also led to a reconstruction of the Austro-Hungarian Empire, In Italy, Germany and Austria-Hungary, the national questions may, however, be regarded as settled; and if, in the case of Austria-Hungary, owing to exactly reverse conditions, the settlement has been a tentative one, it has at least removed the question from the more immediate concern of the present. In a different quarter of Europe, however, the rise of the national movements has led to a question, infinitely more complicated than the others, and which, so far from being settled, is becoming ever more pressing year by year. This reference is to the great Balkan problem. That this question has been delayed in its solution for over four centuries, is due, no doubt, to the conquests of the Turk, and it is still complicated by his presence. In the notes to the four previous Balkan maps (1191-1451), attention was especially directed to the national movements, so far as they had opportunity to develop themselves during this period. These movements, feeble in their character, were all smothered by the Turkish conquest. With the decline of this power in the present century these forces once more have opportunity for reappearance. In this regard the history of the Balkans during the nineteenth century is simply the history of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries read backwards.

The Turkish Empire had suffered terrible reverses during the eighteenth century. Hungary (1699), the Crim Tartars (1774), Bukovina (1777), Jedisan (1792), Bessarabia and Eastern Moldavia (1812) were all successively wrested from the Ottomans, while Egypt on one side and Moldavia and Wallachia on another recovered practical autonomy, the one under the restored rule of the Mamelukes (1766), the other under native hospodars.

THE SERVIAN AND GREEK REVOLTS.

All of these losses, though greatly weakening the Ottoman power, did not destroy its geographical integrity. It was with the Servian revolt of 1804 that the series of events pointing to the actual disruption of the Turkish Empire may be said to have begun. The first period of dissolution was measured by the reign of Mahmoud II. (1808-1839), at once the greatest and the most unfortunate of all the later Turkish sultans. Servia, first under Kara Georg, then under Milosch Obrenovitch, the founder of the present dynasty, maintained a struggle which led to the recognition of Servian local autonomy in 1817. The second step in the process of dissolution was the tragic Greek revolution (1821-1828). The Sultan, after a terrible war of extermination, had practically reduced Greece to subjection, when all his work was undone by the intervention of the great powers.

The Turkish fleet was destroyed by the combined squadrons of England, France and Russia at Navarin, October 20, 1827, and in the campaign of the ensuing year the Moscovite arms for the first time in history penetrated south of the Balkans. The treaty of Adrianople, between Russia and Turkey (September 14, 1829), gave to the Czar the protectorate over Moldavia and Wallachia. By the treaty of London earlier in this year Greece was made autonomous under the suzerainty of the Sultan, and the protocol of March 22, 1829, drew her northern frontier in a line between the gulfs of Arta and Volo. The titular sovereignty of the Sultan over Greece was annulled later in the year at the peace of Adrianople, though the northern boundary of the Hellenic kingdom was then curtailed to a line drawn from the mouth of the Achelous to the gulf of Lamia. With the accession of the Bavarian king Otho, in 1833, after the failure of the republic, the northern boundary was again adjusted, returning to about the limits laid down in the March protocol of 1829. Greece then remained for over fifty years bounded on the north by Mount Othrys, the Pindus range and the gulf of Arta. In 1863, on the accession of the Danish king George I., the Ionian Isles, which had been under English administration since the Napoleonic wars, were ceded to the Greek kingdom, and in May, 1881, almost the last change in European geography to the present day was accomplished in the cession, by the Sultan, of Thessaly and a small part of Epirus. The agitation in 1886 for a further extension of Greek territory was unsuccessful.

THE TREATY OF UNKIAR SKELESSI.

A series of still greater reverses brought the reign of the Sultan Mahmoud to a close. The chief of these were the defeats sustained at the hands of his rebellious vassal Mehemet Ali, pacha of Egypt, a man who takes rank even before the Sultan himself as the greatest figure in the Mohammedan world during the present century. The immediate issue of this struggle was the practical independence of Egypt, where the descendants of Mehemet still rule, their title having been changed in 1867 from viceroy to that of khedive. An event incidental to the strife between Mehemet Ali and the Sultan is of far greater importance in the history of European Turkey. {xi} Mahmoud in his distress looked for aid to the great powers, and the final issue of the rival interests struggling at Constantinople was the memorable treaty of Unkiar Skelessi (July, 1833) by which the Sultan resigned himself completely to the interests of his former implacable foe, the Czar of Russia. In outward appearance this treaty was an offensive and defensive alliance; in practical results it gave the Moscovite, in exchange for armed assistance, when needed, the practical control of the Dardanelles. It is no extravagance of statement to say that this treaty forms absolutely the high watermark of Russian predominance in the affairs of the Levant. During the subsequent sixty years, this influence, taken as a whole, strange paradox as it may seem, has rather receded than advanced. The utter prostration of the Turkish Empire on the death of Mahmoud (1839) compelled Russia to recede from the conditions of Unkiar Skelessi while a concert of the European powers undertook the task of rehabilitating the prostrate power; the Crimean war (1854-1855) struck a more damaging blow at the Russian power, and the events of 1878, though they again shattered the Turkish Empire, did not, as will be shown, lead to corresponding return of the Czar's ascendency.

THE CRIMEAN WAR AND TREATY OF PARIS.

The Crimean War was brought on by the attempt of the Czar to dictate concerning the internal affairs of the Ottoman Empire--a policy which culminated in the occupation of Moldavia and Wallachia (1853). All Europe became arrayed against Russia on this question,--Prussia and Austria in tacit opposition, while England, France, and afterwards Piedmont, drifted into war with the northern power.

By the treaty of Paris (1856), which terminated the sanguinary struggle, the Danube, closed since the peace of Adrianople (1829), was reopened; the southern part of Bessarabia was taken from Russia and added to the principality of Moldavia; the treaty powers renounced all right to interfere in the internal affairs of the Porte; and, lastly, the Black Sea, which twenty years before, by the treaty of Unkiar Skelessi, had become a private Russian pond, was swept of the Russian fleets and converted into a neutral sea. The latter condition however was abrogated by the powers (March 13, 1871).

Despite the defeat of Russia, the settlement effected at the congress of Paris was but tentative. The most that the allied powers could possibly have hoped for, was so far to cripple Russia as to render her no longer a menace to the Ottoman Empire. They succeeded only in so far as to defer the recurrence of a Turkish crisis for another twenty years.

The chief event of importance during this interval was the birth of the united Roumania. In 1857 the representative councils of both Moldavia and Wallachia voted for their union under this name. This personal union was accomplished by the choice of a common ruler, John Cuza (1859), whose election was confirmed by a new conference at Paris in 1861. A single ministry and single assembly were formed at Bucharest in 1862. Prince Karl of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen was elected hospodar in 1866, and finally crowned as king in 1881.

THE REVIVED EASTERN QUESTION OF 1875-78.

The Eastern question was reopened with all its perplexities in the Herzegovinian and Bosnian revolt of August, 1875. These provinces, almost cut off from the Turkish Empire by Montenegro and Servia, occupied a position which rendered their subjugation almost a hopeless task. Preparations were already under way for a settlement by joint action of the powers, when a wave of fanatical fury sweeping over the Ottoman Empire rendered all these efforts abortive. Another Christian insurrection in Bulgaria was suppressed in a series of wholesale and atrocious massacres. Servia and Montenegro in a ferment declared war on Turkey (July 2, 1876). The Turkish arms, however, were easily victorious, and Russia only saved the Servian capital by compelling an armistice (October 30). A conference of the representatives of the powers was then held at Constantinople in a final effort to arrange for a reorganization of the Empire, which should include the granting of autonomy to Bosnia, Herzegovina and Bulgaria. These conditions, though subsequently embodied in a general ultimatum, the London protocol of March 31, 1877, were rejected by the Porte, and Russia, who had determined to proceed alone in the event of this rejection, immediately declared war (April 24). Into this war, owing to the horror excited in England by the Bulgarian massacres, and the altered policy of France, the Turk was compelled to go without allies, and thus unassisted his defeat was assured. Then followed the sanguinary campaigns in Bulgaria, the memories of which are still recent and unobscured. Plevna, the central point of the Turkish resistance, fell on December 10th; Adrianople was occupied by the Russians on January 20th, 1878; and on January 31st., an armistice was granted.

Great Britain now seemed roused to a sense of the danger to herself in the Russian approach to Constantinople, and public opinion at last permitted Lord Beaconsfield to send a fleet to the Bosporus.

By the Russo-Turkish peace of San Stephano (March 3, 1878) Turkey recognized the complete independence of Servia, Roumania and Montenegro, while Bulgaria became what Servia and Roumania had just ceased to be, an autonomous principality under nominal Turkish sovereignty. Russia received the Dobrutcha in Europe, which was to be given by the Czar to Roumania in exchange for the portion of Bessarabia lost in 1856. Servia and Montenegro received accessions of territory, the latter securing Antivari on the coast, but the greatest geographical change was the frontier assigned to the new Bulgaria, which was to include all the territory bounded by an irregular line beginning at Midia on the Black Sea and running north of Adrianople, and, in addition, a vast realm in Macedonia, bounded on the west only by Albania, approaching Salonica, and touching the Ægean on either side of the Chalcidice.

It was evident that the terms of this treaty involved the interests of other powers, especially of Great Britain. An ultimate settlement which involved as parties only the conqueror and conquered was therefore impossible. A general congress of the Powers was seen to be the only solvent of the difficulty; but before such a congress was possible it was necessary for Great Britain and Russia to find at least a tangible basis of negotiation for the adjustment of their differences.

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By the secret agreement of May 30th, Russia agreed to abandon the disputed points--chief among these the creation of a Bulgarian seaboard on the Ægean--and the congress of Berlin then assembled (June 13-July 13, 1878).

ARRANGEMENTS OF THE TREATY OF BERLIN.

Great Britain was represented at the congress by the Marquis of Salisbury and the premier, the Earl of Beaconsfield. The treaty of Berlin modified the conditions of San Stephano by reducing the Russian acquisitions in Asia Minor and also by curtailing the cessions of territory to Servia and Montenegro. A recommendation was also made to the Porte to cede Thessaly and a part of Epirus to Greece, a transfer which was accomplished in 1881. A more important provision was the transfer of the administrative control of the provinces of Bosnia and Herzegovina to Austria. This cession was the outcome of the secret agreement between Russia and Austria at Reichstadt, in July of the previous year, by which the former had secured from her rival a free hand in the Turkish war. These districts were at once occupied by Austria, despite the resistance of the Mohammedan population, and the sanjak of Novibazar, the military occupation of which was agreed to by the Porte, was also entered by Austrian troops in September of the following year. England secured as her share of the spoil the control of the island of Cyprus.

The greatest work accomplished at Berlin, however, was the complete readjustment of the boundaries of the new Bulgarian principality. This result was achieved through the agency of Great Britain. The great Bulgarian domain, which by the treaty of San Stephano would have conformed almost to the limits of the Bulgarian Empire of the tenth century, was, with the exception of a small western strip including the capital, Sofia, pushed entirely north of the Balkans. This new principality was to enjoy local autonomy; and immediately south of the Balkans was formed a new province, Eastern Roumelia, also with local autonomy, although under the military authority of the Sultan.

The result of the Berlin Congress was the apparent triumph of the Beaconsfield policy. It is doubtful, however, if the idea of this triumph has been fully sustained by the course of subsequent events. The idea of Beaconsfield appears to have been that the new Bulgaria could not become other than a virtual dependency of Russia, and that in curtailing its boundaries he was checking by so much the growth of Russian influence. If he could have foreseen, however, the unexpected spirit with which the Bulgarians have defended their autonomy, not from Turkish but from Russian aggression, it is doubtful if he would have lent himself with such vigor to that portion of his policy which had for its result the weakening of this "buffer" state. The determination to resist Russian aggression in the Balkans continues to form the purpose of English politicians of nearly all schools; but the idea that this policy is best served by maintaining the integrity of the Ottoman Empire in Europe has been steadily losing adherents since Beaconsfield's day. The one event of importance in Balkan history since 1878 has served well to illustrate this fact.

LATER CHANGES.

In September, 1885, the revolt of Eastern Roumelia partially undid the work of the Berlin treaty. After the usual negotiations between the Powers, the question at issue was settled by a conference of ambassadors at Constantinople in November, by which Eastern Roumelia was placed under the rule of the Bulgarian prince as vassal of the Sultan. This result was achieved through the agency of England, and against the opposition of Russia and other continental powers. England and Russia had in fact exchanged policies since 1878, now that the real temper of the Bulgarian people was more generally understood.

The governments of Greece and Servia, alarmed at the predominance thus given to Bulgaria among the liberated states, sought similar compensation, but were both foiled.

Servia, which sought this direct from Bulgaria, was worsted in a short war (Nov.-Dec. 1885), and Greece was checked in her aspiration for further territorial aggrandizement at the expense of Turkey by the combined blockade of the Powers in the spring of 1886.

Since then, no geographical change has taken place in the old lands of European Turkey. Prince Alexander of Bulgaria was forced to abdicate by Russian intrigue in September 1886; but under his successor, Prince Ferdinand of Saxe-Coburg (crowned in 1887), und his able minister Stambouloff, Bulgaria has successfully preserved its autonomy.

THE PRESENT-DAY PROBLEM.

A general statement of the Balkan problem as it exists to-day may be briefly given. The non-Turkish populations of European Turkey, for the most part Christian, are divided ethnically into four groups: the Roumans or Vlachs, the Greeks, the Albanians and the Slavs. The process of liberation, as it has proceeded during the present century, has given among these people the following separate states. The Vlachs are represented in the present kingdom of Roumania ruled by a Hohenzollern prince; the Greeks are represented in the little kingdom of Greece ruled by a prince of the house of Denmark; while the Slavs are represented by three autonomous realms: Bulgaria under Ferdinand of Saxe-Coburg, Servia under the native dynasty of Obrenovitch, and the little principality of Montenegro, the only one of all which had never yielded to Turkish supremacy, under the Petrovic house, which is likewise native.

The Albanians alone of the four races, owing in part, perhaps, to their more or less general acceptance of Mohammedanism, have not as yet made a determined effort for separate national existence.

To these peoples, under any normal process of development, belongs the inheritance of the Turkish Empire in Europe. The time has long passed when any such process can be effectually hindered on the Turkish side. It will be hindered, if at all, either by the aggressive and rival ambitions of their two great neighbors, Austria and Russia, or by the mutual jealousies and opposing claims of the peoples themselves. The unfortunate part which these jealousies are likely to play in the history of the future was dimly foreshadowed in the events of 1885.

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It is indeed these rival aspirations, rather than the collapse of the Turkish power, which are most likely to afford Russia and even Austria the opportunity for territorial extension over the Balkan lands. A confederation, or even a tacit understanding between the Balkan states, would do much to provide against this danger; but the idea of a confederation, though often suggested and even planned, belongs at present only to the realm of possibilities. On the one hand Servia, menaced by the proximity of Austria, leans upon Russian support; on the other, Bulgaria, under exactly reverse conditions, yields to the influence of Austria. It will be seen at once that these are unfavorable conditions on which to build up any federative action. If at the next crisis, however, the liberated states are fated to act independently, it will be seen at once that Greece and Bulgaria possess the better chance. Not only are they the most remote from any of the great powers, but they alone possess a geography which is entirely open on the Turkish side. Moreover, what is of still greater consequence, it is they who, from an ethnic standpoint, have the most legitimate interest in the still unliberated population of European Turkey. The unliberated Greek population predominates in southern Macedonia, the Chalcidian peninsula and along almost the entire seaboard, both of Thrace and Asia Minor; on the other hand the ethnographical limits of the Bulgarian people conform almost exactly to the boundaries of Bulgaria as provided for at San Stephano. The creation of a political Bulgaria to correspond to the ethnic Bulgaria was indeed the purpose of the Russian government in 1878, though with the repetition of the same conditions it would hardly be its purpose again. Barring, therefore, the Albanians of the west, who as yet have asserted no clearly defined national claim, the Greeks and the Bulgarians are the logical heirs to what remains of European Turkey.

These observations are not intended as a fore-cast; they merely indicate what would be an inevitable outcome, were the question permitted a natural settlement.

Concerning the Turks themselves a popular fallacy has ever been to consider their destiny as a whole. But here again an important division of the subject intrudes itself.

In Asia Minor, where the Turkish population overwhelmingly preponderates, the question of their destiny, barring the ever threatened Russian interference, ought not to arouse great concern in the present. But in European Turkey the utter lack of this predominance seems to deprive the Ottoman of his only legitimate title. The Turkish population in Thrace and the Balkans never did in fact constitute a majority; and with its continual decline, measured indeed by the decline of the Ottoman Empire itself, the greatest of all obstacles to an equitable and final settlement has been removed. (See the ethnic map of Europe at the present day.)

The historical geography of the Balkans during the present century is not so intricate that it may not be understood even from the current literature of the subject. The best purely geographical authority is E. Hertslet's "Map of Europe by Treaty." Of text works A. C. Fyffe's. "History of Modern Europe," and J. H. Rose's "A Century of Continental History" afford excellent general views. The facts concerning the settlement of the first northern boundary of free Greece are given in Finlay's "History of Greece," Volume VII. Of excellent works dealing more or less directly with present Balkan politics there is hardly an end. It is necessary to mention but a few: E. de Laveleye's "The Balkan Peninsula," E. A. Freeman's "The Ottoman Power in Europe," the Duke of Argyll's "The Eastern Question," and James Baker's "Turkey." See also the general bibliography of historical geography.

A. C. Reiley.

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APPENDIX D.

NOTES TO THE DEVELOPMENT MAP OF CHRISTIANITY.

The subject matter contained in this map is of a character so distinct from that of the other maps of this series that the reader must expect a corresponding modification in the method of treatment.

The use of historical maps is confined, for the most part, to the statement of purely political conditions.

This is in fact almost the only field which admits of exact portrayal, within the limits of historical knowledge, by this method. Any other phase of human life, whether religious or social, which concerns the belief or the thought of the people rather than the exact extent of their race or their government, must remain, so far as the limitations of cartography is concerned, comparatively intangible.

Again, it should be noted that, even in the map treatment of a subject as comparatively exact as political geography, it is one condition of exactness that this treatment should be specific in its relation to a date, or at least to a limited period.

The map which treats a subject in its historical development has the undoubted merit of greater comprehensiveness; but this advantage cannot be gained without a certain loss of relation and proportion. Between the "development" map and the "date" map there is this difference: In the one, the whole subject passes before the eye in a sort of moving panorama, the salient points evident, but with their relation to external facts often obscured: in the other, the subject stands still at one particular point and permits itself to be photographed. A progressive series of such photographs, each forming a perfect picture by itself, yet each showing the clear relation with what precedes and follows, affords the method which all must regard as the most logical and the most exact. But from the very intangible nature of the subject treated in this map, the date method, with its demand for exactness, becomes impracticable. These observations are necessary in explaining the limitations of cartography in dealing with a subject of this nature. The notes that follow are intended as a simple elucidation of the plan of treatment.

The central feature in the early development of Christianity is soon stated. The new faith spread by churches from city to city until it became the religion of the Roman Empire; afterwards this spread was continued from people to people until it became the religion of Europe. The statement of the general fact in this crude and untempered form might in an ordinary case provoke criticism, and its invariable historic truth with reference to the second period be open to some question; but within the limits of map presentation it is substantially accurate. It forms, indeed, the key upon which the entire map is constructed.

THE ANTE-NICENE CHURCHES.

During the first three centuries of the Christian era, up to the Constantinian or Nicene period, there is no country, state or province which can be safely described as Christian; yet as early as the second century there is hardly a portion of the Empire which does not number some Christians in its population. The subject of the historical geography of the Christian church during the ante-Nicene period is confined, therefore, to the locating of these Christian bodies wherever they are to be found. On this portion of the subject the map makes its own statement. It is possible merely to elucidate this statement, with the suggestion, in addition, of a few points which the map does not and cannot contain.

Concerning the ante-Nicene churches there is only one division attempted. This division, into the "Apostolic" and "post-Apostolic," concerns merely the period of their foundation. Concerning the churches founded in the Apostolic period (33-100), our knowledge is practically limited to the facts culled from the Acts, the Epistles and the Apocalypse. The churches of the post-Apostolic period afford a much wider field for research, although the materials for study bearing upon them are almost as inadequate. According to the estimate of the late Professor R. D. Hitchcock, there were in the Roman Empire at the close of the persecutions about 1,800 churches, 1,000 in the East and 800 in the West. Of this total, the cities in which churches have been definitely located number only 525. They are distributed as follows: Europe 188, Asia 214, Africa 123 (see volume I, page 443). Through the labors of Professor Henry W. Hulbert, the locations of these 525 cities, so far as established, have been cast in available cartographic form.

It is much to be regretted that, despite the sanction of the author, it has been found impossible, owing to the limitations of space, to locate all of these cities in the present map. The attempt has been limited therefore to the placing of only the more prominent cities, or those whose location is subject to the least dispute.

The Apostolic and post-Apostolic churches, as they appear upon the map, are distinguished by underlines in separate colors. A special feature has been the insertion of double underlines to mark the greater centres of diffusion, so far as their special activity in this respect can be safely assumed. In this class we have as centres in Apostolic times Jerusalem, Antioch, Ephesus, Philippi, Thessalonica and Corinth; in post-Apostolic times, when the widening of the field necessitates special and limited notices, we may name Alexandria, Edessa, Rome and Carthage.

The city of Rome contains a Christian community in Apostolic times, but its activity as a great diffusion centre, prior to early post-Apostolic times, is a point of considerable historical controversy. In this respect it occupies a peculiar position, which is suggested by the special underlines in the map.

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CONVERSION OF THE EMPIRE.

The above method of treatment carries us in safety up to the accession in the West of the first Christian Emperor (311). The attempt, however, to pursue the same method beyond that period would involve us at once in insurmountable difficulties.

The exact time of the advent of the Christian-Roman world it is indeed impossible to define with precision. The Empire after the time of Constantine was predominantly Christian, yet paganism still lingered in formidable though declining strength. A map of religions designed to explain this period, even with unlimited historical material, could hardly be executed by any system, for the result could be little better than a chaos, the fragments of the old religion everywhere disappearing or blending with the new. The further treatment of the growth of Christianity by cities or churches is now impossible; for the rapid increase of the latter has carried the subject into details and intricacies where it cannot be followed: on the other hand, to describe the Roman world in the fourth century as a Christian world would be taking an unwarranted liberty with the plain facts of history.

The last feeble remnants of paganism were in fact burned away in the fierce heat of the barbaric invasions of the fifth century. After that time we can safely designate the former limits of the Roman Empire as the Christian world. From this point we can resume the subject of church expansion by the "second method" indicated at the head of this article. But concerning the transition period of the fourth and fifth centuries, from the time Christianity is predominant in the Roman world until it becomes the sole religion of the Roman world, both methods fail us and the map can tell us practically nothing.

BARBARIANS OF THE INVASION.

Another source of intricacy occurring at this point should not escape notice. It was in the fourth century that Christianity began its spread among the barbarian Teutonic nations north of the Danube. The Goths, located on the Danube, between the Theiss and the Euxine, were converted to Christianity, in the form known as Arianism, by the missionary bishop Ulphilas, and the faith extended in the succeeding century to many other confederations of the Germanic race. This fact represented, for a time, the Christianization, whole or partial, of some peoples beyond the borders of the Empire. With the migrations of the fifth and sixth centuries, however, these converts, without exception, carried their new faith with them into the Empire, and their deserted homes, left open to new and pagan settlers, simply became the field for the renewed missionary effort of a later age. It is a historical fact, from a cartographic standpoint a fortunate one, that, with all the geographic oscillations of this period between Christianity and paganism, the Christian world finally emerged with its boundaries conforming, with only a few exceptions, to the former frontiers of the Roman Empire.

Whether or not this is a historical accident it nevertheless gives technical accuracy from the geographic standpoint to the statement that Christianity first made the conquest of the Roman world; from thence it went out to complete the conquest of Europe.

CONVERSION OF EUROPE.

With the view, as afforded on the map, of the extent of Christianity at the commencement of the seventh century, we have entered definitely upon the "second method." Indeed, in Ireland, Wales and Scotland, where the Celtic church has already put forth its missionary effort, the method has, in point of date, been anticipated; but this fact need cause no confusion in treatment. Henceforth the spread of Christianity is noted as it made its way from "people to people." At this point, however, occurs the greatest intangibility of the subject. The dates given under each country represent, as stated in the key to the map, "the approximate periods of conversion." It is not to be inferred, however, that Christianity was completely unknown in any of these countries prior to the periods given, or that the work of conversion was in each case entirely completed within the time specified. But it is an absolute necessity to give some definiteness to these "periods of conversion"; to assign with all distinctness possible the time when each land passed from the list of pagan to the list of Christian nations. The dates marking the limits to these periods are perhaps chosen by an arbitrary method. The basis of their selection, however, has been almost invariably some salient point, first in the introduction and finally in the general acceptance of the Christian faith. In order that the reader may possess the easy means of independent opinion or critical judgment, the explanation is appended of the dates thus used, concerning which a question might legitimately arise.

Goths. Converted to Arian Christianity by Ulphilas, 341-381.

These dates cover the period of the ministry of Ulphilas, whose efforts resulted in the conversion of the great body of the Danubian Goths. He received his ordination and entered upon his work in 341, and died at Constantinople in 381. (See C. A. A. Scott's "Ulfilas.")

Suevi, Burgundians and Lombards.

These people, like the Goths, passed from paganism through the medium of Arian Christianity to final Orthodoxy. Concerning the first process, it is possible to establish nothing, save that these Teutonic peoples appeared in the Empire in the fifth century as professors of the Arian faith. The exact time of the acceptance of this faith is of less consequence. The second transition from Arianism to Orthodoxy occurred at a different time in each case. The Suevi embraced the Catholic faith in 550; the Visigoths, through their Catholic king Reccared, were brought within the church at the third council of Toledo (589). Further north the Burgundians embraced Catholicism through their king Sigismond in 517, and, finally, the Lombards, the last of the Arians, accepted Orthodoxy in the beginning of the seventh century. The Vandals, another Arian German nation of this period, figured in Africa in the fourth century.

They were destroyed, however, by the arms of Belisarius in 534, and their early disappearance renders unnecessary their representation on the present map.

Franks. Christianity introduced in 496.

This is the date of the historic conversion of Clovis and his warriors on the battlefield of Tolbiac. The Franks were the first of the Germanic peoples to pass, as a nation, to orthodoxy direct from paganism, and their conversion, as we have seen, was soon followed by the progress from Arianism to Orthodoxy of the other Germanic nations within the borders of the Empire.

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Ireland. Christianity introduced by Patrick, 440-493.

St. Patrick entered upon his missionary work in Ireland in 440; he died on the scene of his labors in 493. This period witnessed the conversion of the bulk of the Irish nation.

Picts. Christianity introduced from Ireland by Columba, 563-597.

These dates cover the period of St. Columba's ministry. The work of St. Ninian, the "apostle of the Lowlands" in the previous century, left very few enduring results. The period from 563, the date of the founding of the famous Celtic monastery of Iona, to the death of Columba in 597, witnessed, however, the conversion of the great mass of the Pictish nation.

Strathclyde. Christianity introduced by Kentigern, 550-603.

These dates, like the two preceding, cover the period of the ministry of a single man, Kentigern, the "apostle of Strathclyde." The date marking the commencement of Kentigern's labors is approximate. He died in 603.

England.

The Celtic church had been uprooted in England by the Anglo-Saxon invasions of the fifth and sixth centuries. While its missionary efforts were now being expended on Scotland, Strathclyde, and Cornwall, its pristine seat had thus fallen away to complete paganism. The Christianization of England was the work of the seventh century, and in this work the Celtic church, though expending great effort, was anticipated and ultimately outstripped by the church of Rome.

Kent. Christianity introduced by Augustine, 597-604.

These dates cover the ministry of St. Augustine, the apostle of Kent. This was the first foothold gained by the Roman church on the soil of Britain.

Northumbria.--627-651.

Edwin (Eadwine), king of Northumbria, received baptism from the Kentish missionary Paulinus on Easter Eve, 627.

The process of conversion was continued by the Celtic missionary, Aidin, who died in 651. The Christianity of Northumbria had begun before the latter date, however, to influence the surrounding states.

East Anglia.--630-647.

East Anglia had one Christian king prior to this period; but it was only with the accession of Sigebert (630) that great progress was made in the conversion of the people. The reign of king Anna witnesses the practical completion of this work. In 647 the efforts of this sovereign led to the baptism of Cenwalch, king of the West Saxons.

Wessex.--634-648.

The conversion of the West Saxons was begun by the missionary Birinus in 634. The year 648 witnessed the restoration of the Christian king Cenwalch.

Mercia.--654-670.

Mercia was one of the last of the great English kingdoms to accept the faith. Their king, Penda, was indeed the most formidable foe the church encountered in the British Isles. The conversion of Penda's son Peada admitted the gospel to the Middle Angles, who accepted Christianity in 653. The East Saxons embraced the faith at about the same time. Finally in 654 the defeat and death of Penda at the hand of Oswy, the Christian king of Northumbria, opened the doors of Mercia as well. The conversion of the realm was practically accomplished during the next few years.

Sussex.--681.

The leaders of the South Saxons received baptism at the hands of the apostle Wilfred in 681. Sussex was the last retreat of paganism on the English mainland, and five years later the conversion of the inhabitants of the Isle of Wight completed the spread of Christianity over every portion of the British Isles.

Frisians. Christianity introduced by Willibrord, 690-739.

The work of St. Willibrord among the Frisians was one of many manifestations of the missionary activity of the Celtic church. Willibrord introduced Christianity among these people during the years of his ministry, but to judge by the subsequent martyrdom of Boniface in Friesland (755) the work of conversion was not fully completed in all quarters until a later time.

Mission Field of Boniface.--722-755.

The object of the map is not merely to locate the mission field of the great "apostle of Germany," but also to give the location and date of the various bishoprics which owed their foundation to his missionary efforts.

Saxons.--787-805.

Of all the nations converted to Christianity up to this time the Saxons were the first conquest of the sword. The two most powerful Saxon chiefs were baptized in 787; but it was not until their complete defeat and subjugation by Charlemagne in 805 that the work of conversion showed a degree of completeness. With the Christianization of the Saxons the cordon of the church was completed around the Germanic nations.

Moravia. Christianity introduced by Cyrillus and Methodius, 863-900.

St. Cyrillus, the "apostle of the Slavs," entered upon his mission in Moravia in 863. The political Moravia of the ninth century, under Rastislav and Sviatopluk, exceeded greatly the limits of the modern province; but the missionary labor of the brothers Cyrillus and Methodius seems to have produced its principal results in the modern Moravian territory, as indicated on the map. Methodius, the survivor of the brothers, died about 900. In the tenth century Moravia figures as Christian.

Czechs.--880-1039.

The door to Bohemia was first opened from Moravia in the time of Sviatopluk. The reactions in favor of paganism were, however, unusually prolonged and violent. Severus, Archbishop of Prague, finally succeeded in enforcing the various rules of the Christian cultus (1039).

Poles.--966-1034.

The Polish duke Mieczyslav was baptized in 966. Mieczyslav II. died in 1034. These dates cover the active missionary time when, indeed, the efforts of the clergy were backed by the strong arm of the sovereign. Poland did not, however, become completely Christian until a somewhat later period.

Bulgarians.--863-900.

The Bulgarian prince Bogoris was baptized in 863. Again, as in so many other cases, the faith was compelled to pass to the people through the medium of the sovereign. The second date is arbitrary, although Bulgaria appears definitely as a Christian country at the commencement of the tenth century.

Magyars.--950-1050.

Missionaries were admitted into the territory of the Magyars in 950.

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The coronation of St. Stephen, the "apostolic king," (1000) marked the real triumph of Christianity in Hungary. A number of pagan reactions occurred, however, in the eleventh century, so that it is impossible to place the conversion of the Magyars at an earlier date than the last one assigned.

Russians.--988-1015.

The Russian grand-duke Vladimir was baptized on the occasion of his marriage to the princess Anne, sister of the Byzantine Emperor, in 988. Before his death in 1015 Christianity had through his efforts become the accepted religion of his people.

Danes.--Converted by Ansgar and his successors, 827-1035.

The Danes had been visited by missionaries prior to the ninth century, but their work had left no permanent result. The arrival of Ansgar, the "apostle of the North" (827), marks the real beginning of the period of conversion. This period in Denmark was an unusually long one. It was not fully complete until the reign of Canute the Great (1019-1035).

Swedes (Gothia). Christianity introduced by Ansgar and his successors, 829-1000.

Ansgar made his first visit to Sweden in 829, two years after his arrival in Denmark. The period of conversion, as in Denmark, was a long one; but by the year 1000 the southern section, Gothia or Gothland, had become Christian. The conversion of the northern Swedes was not completed for another century.

Norwegians.--935-1030.

The period of conversion in Norway began with the reign of the Christian king Hakon the Good. The faith made slow progress, however, until the reign of Olaf Trygveson, who ascended the throne near the end of the tenth century. The work of conversion was completed in the reign of Olaf the Saint (1014-1030).

Pomeranians. Christianity introduced by Otho of Bamberg, 1124-1128.

The attempt of the Poles to convert the Pomeranians by the sword prior to these dates had proven unavailing, and missionaries had been driven from the country. Within the short space of four years, however, Otho of Bamberg succeeded in bringing the great mass of the people within the pale of the church.

Abotrites.--1125-1162.

The conversion of these people was clearly the work of the sword. It was accomplished within the time specified by Albert the Bear, first margrave of Brandenburg, and Henry the Lion, duke of Saxony. The last heathen king became the first Christian duke of Mecklenburg in 1162. Further south the kindred Wend nations between the Elbe and the Oder had been the object of German effort, both missionary and military, for over two centuries, but had generally come within the church before this time.

Lives and Prussians. Christianity introduced by the Sword Brothers, 1202-1236, and by the Teutonic Knights, 1230-1289.

These conversions, the work of the transplanted military orders of Palestine, were direct conquests of the sword, and as such possess a definiteness which is so unfortunately lacking in so many other cases.

So much for the character and the purpose of the dates which appear on this map. In the employment of the colors, the periods covered are longer, and as a consequence the general results are somewhat more definite. The use of a color system directly over a date system is intended to afford an immediate though general view, From this to the special aspects presented by the date features is a simple step in the development of the subject.

Another feature of the map which may not escape notice is the different systems used, respectively, in the Roman and Mediæval period for the spelling of urban names. A development map covering a long period of history cannot be entirely free from anachronisms of this nature; but a method has nevertheless been followed in the spelling of these place names:--to give in each case the spelling current at the period of conversion. The fact that the labors of the Christian missionaries were confined mostly to the Roman world in the Roman period, and did not extend to non-Roman lands until the Middle Ages, enables us to limit our spelling of civic names to a double system. The cities of the Roman and of the Mediæval period are shown on the map and in the key in two different styles of type. Only in the cases of cities like Rome, Constantinople and Antioch, where the current form has the absolute sanction of usage even for classic times, has there been any deviation from the strict line of this method.

In conclusion, the general features of the subject present themselves as follows: Had the advance of Christianity, like Mohammedanism, been by conquest, had the bounds of the Christian faith been thus rendered ever conterminous with the limits of a people or an empire, then, indeed, the subject of church expansion would possess a tangibility and coherency concerning which exact statement would be possible. The historical geography of the Christian church would then partake of some of the precision of political division. But the non-political element in the Christian cultus deprives us, in the study of the subject, of this invaluable aid. At a later time, when the conquests of the soul were backed by the strong arm of power, and when the new faith, as often happened, passed to the people from the sovereign, a measure of this exactness is perhaps possible.

We have witnessed an indication of these tendencies in many cases, as we approached the termination of the period covered by this map. But the fact remains that the fundamental character of the Christian faith precludes, in the main, the possibility of its growth being measured by the rules which govern ordinary political expansion.

This being then a subject on which definiteness is well nigh impossible, it has been treated by a method correspondingly elastic. A working basis for the study of the subject is, however, afforded by this system. This basis secured, the student may then systematically pursue his theme.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.

The historical geography of the Christian church, if studied only within narrow limits, can be culled from the pages of general church history. All of these accounts, however, are brief--those in the smaller histories extremely so. If studied thus, the reader will derive the most help from:

Neander's "History of the Christian Religion and Church," volume I, pages 68-86. volume II, pages 1-84, 93-129;

Schaff's "History of the Christian Church," volume I, pages 224-406, volume II, pages 13-84, volume III, pages 10-71, volume IV, pages 17-142,

Moeller's "History of the Christian Church."

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These works may be supplemented by a vast number of books treating of special phases of church history, though the number in English dealing specifically with geographical expansion is very small.

The most recent, dealing with the ante-Nicene period, is Ramsey's "Church in the Roman Empire before A. D. 170," to which the same author's "Historical Geography of Asia Minor" forms a most indispensible prelude.

Entering the mediæval period, the best general guides are the little books of G. F. Maclear, entitled respectively the conversion of the Celts, English, Continental Teutons, Northmen and Slavs. These works may be supplemented by Thomas Smith's "Mediæval Missions," and for special subjects by G. T. Stokes' "Ireland and the Celtic Church," W. F. Skene's "Celtic Scotland" (volume II), and S. Baring Gould's "The Church in Germany."

The texts of the Councils as contained in Harduin, Labbe, and Mansi are indispensible original aids in the study of church geography.

Of German Works, J. E. T. Wiltsch's "Atlas Sacer," and the same author's "Church Geography and Statistics," translated by John Leitch, have long remained the standard guides for a study of the historical geography of the church. The Atlas Sacer, containing five large plates, is the only pure atlas guide to the subject. The "Church Geography and Statistics," being an ecclesiastical work, dwells with great fulness on the internal facts of church geography, but the outward expansion, barring the early growth of the church, is not so concisely treated. For the history of mediæval missions the reader will be better served elsewhere. To the reader using German, C. G. Blumhardt's "Die Missionsgeschichte der Kirche Christi" (3 volumes, 1828-1837), and a later work, "Handbuch der Missionsgeschichte und Missionsgeographie" (2 volumes, 1863), may be noted.

For modern missions there is a very full literature. Comprehensive works on this subject are Grundemann's "Allgemeine Missions Atlas," Burkhardt and Grundemann's "Les Missions Evangéliques" (4 vols.), and in English the "Encyclopædia of Missions." Several articles in the "Encyclopædia of Missions" should not escape notice. Among them are "Mediæval Missions," and the "Historical Geography of Missions," the latter by Dr. Henry W. Hulbert. The writer is glad at this point to return his thanks to Dr. Hulbert for the valued aid extended in the location of the Church of the ante-Nicene period.

A. C. Reiley

{xix}

APPENDIX E.

THE FOLLOWING NOTES AND CORRECTIONS TO MATTER RELATING TO AMERICAN ABORIGINES.

(PP. 76-108) HAVE BEEN KINDLY MADE BY MAJOR J. W. POWELL AND MR. J. OWEN DORSEY, OF THE BUREAU OF ETHNOLOGY.

Adai.

This tribe, formerly classed as a distinct family--the Adaizan--is now regarded by the Bureau of Ethnology as but a part of the Caddoan or Pawnee.

Apache Group.

Indians of different families are here mentioned together: (A) the Comanches, etc., of the Shoshonean Family; (B) the Apaches (including the Chiricaguis, or Chiri cahua, Coyoteros, etc., but excluding the Tejuas who are Tañoan) of the Athapascan Family, the Navajos of the same family; and (C) the Yuman Family, including the Cosninos, who are not Apache (Athapascan stock).

Athapascan Family.

Not an exact synonym of "Chippewyans, Tinneh and Sarcees." The whole family is sometimes known as Tinneh, though that appellation is more frequently limited to part of the Northern group, the Chippewyans. The Surcees are an offshoot of the Beaver tribe, which latter form part of one of the subdivisions of the Northern group of the Athapascan Family. The Sarcees are now with the Blackfeet.

Atsinas (Caddoes).

The Atsinas are not a Caddoan people, but they are Algonquian, as are the Blackfeet (Sik-sik-a). The Atsinas are the "Fall Indians," "Minnetarees of the Plains," or "Gros Ventres of the Plains," as distinguished from the Hidatsa, who are sometimes called the "Minnetarees of the Missouri," "Gros Ventres of the Missouri."

Blackfeet or Siksikas.

The Sarcee are a Tinneh or Athapascan tribe, but they are not the Tinneh (see above). The "Atsina" are not a Caddo tribe (see above).

Cherokees.

These people are now included in the Iroquoian Family. See Powell, in Seventh Annual Report, Bureau of Ethnology, page 79.

Flatheads (Salishan Family).

The "Cherakis," though included among the Flatheads by Force, are of the Iroquoian Family. The "Chicachas" or Chickasaws, are not Salishan, but Muskhogean. See Powell, Seventh Annual Report, Bureau of Ethnology, page 95. The Totiris of Force, are the Tutelos, a tribe of the Siouan Family. See Powell, Seventh, Annual Report, Bureau of Ethnology, page 116. The Cathlamahs, Killmucks (i. e., Tillamooks), Clatsops, Chinooks and Chilts are of the Chinookan Family. See Powell, Seventh Annual Report, Bureau of Ethnology, pages 65, 66.

Gros Ventres (Minnetaree; Hidatsa).

There are two distinct tribes which are often confounded, both being known as the Gros Ventres or Minnetarees. 1. The Atsina or Fall Indians, an Algonquian tribe, the "Gros Ventres of the Plains," or the "Minnetarees of the Plains." 2. The Hidatsa, a Siouan tribe, the "Gros Ventres of the Missouri," or the "Minnetarees of the Missouri." The former, the Atsina, have been wrongly styled "Caddoes" on page 81.

Hidatsa, or Minnetaree, or Gros Ventres.

Often confounded with the Atsina, who belong to the Algonquian Family, the Hidatsa being a tribe of the Siouan Family. The Hidatsa have been called Gros Ventres, "Big Paunches," but this nickname could have no reference to any personal peculiarities of the Hidatsa. It seems to have originated in a quarrel between some Indians over the big paunch of a buffalo, resulting in the separation of the people into the present tribes of Hidatsas and Absarokas or Crows, the latter of whom now call the Hidatsa, "Ki-kha-tsa," from ki-kha, a paunch.

Hupas.

They belong to the Athapascan Family: the reference to the Modocs is misleading.

Iroquois Tribes of the South. "The Meherrins or Tuteloes."

These were not identical, the Tutelos being a Siouan tribe, the Meherrins being now identified with the Susquehannocks.

Kenai or Blood Indians.

The Kenai are an Athapascan people inhabiting the shores of Cook's Inlet and the Kenai Peninsula, Southern Alaska; while the Blood Indians are a division of the Blackfeet (Siksika), an Algonquian tribe, in Montana.

Kusan Family.

The villages of this family were on Coos River and Bay, and on both sides of Coquille River, near the mouth. See Powell, Seventh, Annual Report, Bureau of Ethnology, page 80.

ALSO IN: J. Owen Dorsey, The Gentile System of the Siletz Tribes, in Journal American Folk-Lore, July-Sept., 1890, page 231.

Minnetarees.

See above, ATSINA and HIDATSA.

Modocs (Klamaths) and their California and Oregon neighbors.

The Klamaths and Modocs are of the Lutuamian Family; the Shastas of the Sastean; the Pit River Indians of the Palaihnihan; the Eurocs of the Weitspekan; the Cahrocs of the Quoratean; the Hoopahs, Tolewas, and the lower Rogue River Indians of the Athapascan; the upper Rogue River Indians of the Takilman.

Muskhogean Family.

The Biloxi tribe is not Muskhogean but Siouan. See Dorsey (James Owen), "The Biloxi Indians of Louisiana," reprinted from volume 42, Proc. American Association Advancement of Science., Madison meeting, 1893.

Natchitoches.

A tribe of the Caddoan Family.

Dorsey (J. Owen), MS. in the Bureau of Ethnology, 1882.

ALSO IN: Powell, Seventh Annual Report, Bureau of Ethnology, page 61.

Pueblos.

"That Zuni was Cibola it is needless to attempt to prove any further."

A. F. Bandelier, Journal of American Eth. and Arch., volume 3, page 19, 1892.

{xx}

Rogue River Indians.

This includes tribes of various families: the upper Rogue River Indians being the Takelma, who are assigned to a special family, the Takilman; and the lower Rogue River Indians, who are Athapascan tribes.

See _Dorsey (J. Owen), "The Gentile System of the Siletz Tribes," in Journal of American Folk-Lore, July-September., 1890, pages 228, 232-236._

Santees.

Two divisions of the Siouan Family are known by this name: 1. The I san-ya-ti or Dwellers on Knife Lake, Minnesota, identical with the Mdewakantonwan Dakota. These figured in the Minnesota outbreak of 1862. The survivors are in Knox County, Nebraska, on what was once the Santee reservation, and near Flandreau, South Dakota. 2. The Santees of South Carolina were part of the Catawba confederacy. The Santee river is named after them.

Sarcee.

These are not all of the Tinneh, nor are they really Blackfeet, though living with them. The Sarcees are an offshoot of the Beaver Indians, a tribe of one of the divisions of the Northern group of the Athapascan Family.

Siouan Family.

All the tribes of this family do not speak the Sioux language, as is wrongly stated on page 103. Those who speak the "Sioux" language are the Dakota proper, nicknamed Sioux, and the Assiniboin. There are, or have been, nine other groups of Indians in this family: to the Cegiha or Dhegiha group belong the Omahas, Ponkas, Osages, Kansas or Kaws, and Kwapas or Quapaws; to the Tchiwere group belong the Iowas, Otos, and Missouris; the Winnebago or Hochangara constitute another group; the fifth group consists of the survivors of the Mandan nation; to the sixth group belong the Hidatsa and the Absarokas or Crows; the Tutelos, Keyauwees, Aconeechis, etc., constituted the seventh group; the tribes of the Catawba confederacy, the eighth; the Biloxis, the ninth; and certain Virginia tribes the tenth group. The Winnebagos call themselves Hochangara, or First Speech (not "Trout Nation"), they are not called Horoje ("fish-eaters") by the Omahas, but Hu-tan-ga, Big Voices, a mistranslation of Hochangara. The Dakotas proper sometimes speak of themselves as the "O-che-ti sha-ko-win," or the Seven Council-fires. Their Algonquian foes called them Nadowe-ssi-wak, the Snake-like ones, from nadowe, a snake; this was corrupted by the Canadian French to Nadouessioux, of which the last syllable is Sioux. The seven primary divisions of the Dakota are as follow: Mdewakantonwan, Wakhpekute, Sisitonwan or Sisseton, Wakhpetonwan or Warpeton, Ihanktonwan or Yankton, Ihanktonwanna or Yanktonnai, and Titonwan or Teton.

The Sheyennes or Cheyennes, mentioned in connection with the Sioux by Gallatin and Carver, are an Algonquian people. Gallatin styles the "Mandanes" a Minnetaree tribe; but as has just been stated, the survivors of the Mandan nation, a people that formerly inhabited many villages (according to Dr. Washington Matthews and others) belong to a distinct group of the Siouan Family, and the Hidatsa (including the Amakhami or "Annahawas" of Gallatin) and the Absaroka, Upsaroka or Crows constitute the sixth group of that family. The "Quappas or Arkansas" of Gallatin are the Kwapas or Quapaws of recent times. The Osages call themselves, not "Wausashe," but Wa-sha-she.

Takilman Family.

"The Takilma formerly dwelt in villages along upper Rogue River, Oregon, all the latter, with one exception, being on the south side, from Illinois River on the southwest, to Deep Rock, which was nearer the head of the stream. They are now included among the 'Rogue River Indians,' and they reside on the Siletz Reservation, Tillamook County, Oregon, where Dorsey found them in 1884."

Powell, Seventh Annual Report, Bureau of Ethnology, page 121.

They call themselves, Ta-kel-ma

Dorsey.

Dorsey had their chief make a map showing the locations of all their villages.

{xxi}

[Transcriber's note: The internet links listed were active at the time of this production in 2021. The link may be to a different edition than listed. Most are to archive.org or gutenberg.org, both excellent repositories of free books. An internet search (duckduckgo, google, bing, ...) will provide links to many other sources. These were produced by entering the author and title, as shown in the list, eg.,

BANCROFT, GEORGE. History of the United States of America, site:archive.org

Without the site restriction (site:archive.org) the search results are flooded with links to commercial sites, hiding the actual targets.

Results can be extended by noting the sequence number in a link such as: (Volume 4) https://archive.org/details/historyofuniteds04banciala (Volume 5) https://archive.org/details/historyofuniteds05banciala Try modifying the number for adjacent volumes of the same title.]

APPENDIX F. BIBLIOGRAPHY.

THE BETTER LITERATURE OF HISTORY IN THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE ON SUBJECTS NAMED BELOW.

In the following Classified List, the date of the first appearance of each one among the older works is given in parentheses, if ascertained. The period covered by the several memoirs, and other works limited in time, is stated in brackets.

AMERICA. DISCOVERY. EXPLORATION. SETTLEMENT. ARCHÆOLOGY. ETHNOLOGY.

GENERAL.

BANCROFT, GEORGE. History of the United States of America, part 1. (Author's last revision.) New York: D. Appleton & Company 1883-5. 6 volumes. https://archive.org/details/historyoftheunit037605mbp (Volume 1) https://archive.org/details/historyofusa01bancrich (Volume 2) https://archive.org/details/historyofunited32banc (Volume 3) https://archive.org/details/historyofusa03bancrich (Volume 4) https://archive.org/details/historyofuniteds04banciala (Volume 5) https://archive.org/details/historyofuniteds05banciala (Volume 6) https://archive.org/details/historyofuniteds06banciala (Volume 2) https://archive.org/details/historyoftheunit037606mbp (Volume 4) https://archive.org/details/historyofuniteds0004banc/page/n7/mode/2up

BANCROFT, HUBERT HOWE. History of the Pacific States of North America: Central America, volumes 1-2; Mexico, volumes 1-2. San Francisco: A. L. Bancroft & Company 1882-3. (Volume 1) https://archive.org/details/historypacifics11bategoog (Volume 2) https://archive.org/details/historypacifics15bategoog (Volume 2) https://archive.org/details/historypacifics16bategoog (Volume 2) https://archive.org/details/historypacifics26bategoog (Volume 4) https://archive.org/details/historypacifics24bategoog (Volume 5) https://archive.org/details/historypacifics13bategoog (Volume 6) https://archive.org/details/historypacifics30bategoog (Volume 7) https://archive.org/details/historypacifics02bategoog (Volume 7) https://archive.org/details/historypacifics23bategoog (Volume 8) https://archive.org/details/historypacifics04bategoog (Volume 8) https://archive.org/details/historypacifics29bategoog (Volume 9) https://archive.org/details/historypacifics03bategoog (Volume 10) https://archive.org/details/historypacifics06bategoog (Volume 11) https://archive.org/details/historypacifics07bategoog (Volume 12) https://archive.org/details/historypacifics05bategoog (Volume 13) https://archive.org/details/historyofpacific13bancrich (Volume 14) https://archive.org/details/historyofpacific14bancrich (Volume 14) https://archive.org/details/historypacifics09bategoog (Volume 15) https://archive.org/details/historypacifics01bategoog (Volume 16) https://archive.org/details/historypacifics10bategoog (Volume 17) https://archive.org/details/historyofpacific17bancrich (Volume 17) https://archive.org/details/historypacifics22bategoog (Volume 18) https://archive.org/details/historypacifics08bategoog (Volume 19) https://archive.org/details/historypacifics20bategoog (Volume 19) https://archive.org/details/historypacifics27bategoog (Volume 20) https://archive.org/details/historypacifics31bategoog (Volume 21) https://archive.org/details/historypacifics17bategoog (Volume 22) https://archive.org/details/historypacifics18bategoog (Volume 23) https://archive.org/details/historypacifics28bategoog (Volume 24) https://archive.org/details/historypacifics19bategoog (Volume 25) https://archive.org/details/historypacifics26bategoog (Volume 26) https://archive.org/details/historypacifics12bategoog (Volume 27) https://archive.org/details/historypacifics21bategoog (Volume 31) https://archive.org/details/historypacifics25bategoog (Volume 32) https://archive.org/details/historypacifics15bategoog (Volume 33) https://archive.org/details/historypacifics14bategoog

BANVARD, REVEREND JOSEPH. Novelties of the new world. Boston: Gould & Lincoln. 1851. https://archive.org/details/noveltiesofnew00banv

BELKNAP, JEREMY. American biography, volume 1. (1794-8.) New York: Harper & Brothers. 3 volumes. (Volume 1) https://archive.org/details/americanbiograph185101belk (Volume 1) https://archive.org/details/cihm_48978 (Volume 2) https://archive.org/details/cihm_37965

BOSTON PUBLIC LIBRARY. Notes of Americana. (Bulletins, volume 3. pages 205-209.)

BROWNELL, HENRY. North and South America Illustrated, from its first discovery. Hartford: Hurlbut, Kellogg & Company 1800. 2 volumes. https://archive.org/details/northsouthameric11brow (Volume 1) https://archive.org/details/northsouthamill01browrich (Volume 1) https://archive.org/details/northandsoutham00browgoog

BRYANT, WILLIAM CULLEN, and SIDNEY H. GAY. Popular history of the United States, volume 1. New York: Scribner, Armstrong & Co. 1870-81. 4 volumes. https://archive.org/details/3704730.1-4

BUMP, C. W. Bibliographies of America. Baltimore. 1892. (Johns Hopkins University studies in historical and political science. 10th series, nos. 10-11. appendix)

CARVER, ELVIRA, and MARA L. PRATT. Our fatherland. [Juvenile.] Boston: Educational Publication Company. 1890. volume 1-. (Volume 1) https://archive.org/details/ourfatherland00carv (Volume 1) https://archive.org/details/ourfatherlandvol01carvuoft

FISKE, JOHN. The discovery of America: with some account of ancient America and the Spanish conquest. Boston: Houghton, Mifflin & Company. 1892. 2 volumes. (Volume 1) https://archive.org/details/discoveryamerica01fisk (Volume 2) https://archive.org/details/discoveryofameri02fisk

GORDON, THOMAS F. History of America, volumes. 1-2; containing the history of the Spanish discoveries prior to 1520. Philadelphia. 1832. 2 volumes. (Volume 2) https://archive.org/details/historyamericab00gordgoog

HAKLUYT, RICHARD. collection Divers voyages touching the discovery of America and the Islands adjacent (1582); with notes by John W. Jones. London: Hakluyt Society. 1850. https://archive.org/details/diversvoyagesto00thorgoog

HARRISSE, HENRY. The discovery of North America: a critical, documentary, and historic investigation. London: H. Stevens & Son. 1892.

HIGGINSON, THOMAS WENTWORTH. A book of American explorers. Boston: Lee & Shepard. 1877.

Larger history of the United States of America, chapters 1-5. New York: Harper & Brothers. 1880.

HOLMES, ABIEL. The annals of America, 1492-1826 (1805); 2d edition. Cambridge: Hilliard & Brown. 1829. 2 volumes. https://archive.org/details/annalsamer00holmrich (Volume 1) https://archive.org/details/annalsamerica02holmgoog (Volume 2) https://archive.org/details/cihm_47269 (Volume 2) https://archive.org/details/americanannals00unkngoog

HUMBOLDT, ALEXANDER VON. Cosmos (1845-58), translated by E. C. Otté, part 2, section 6 (volume 2). London: H. Bohn. 1847-58. 5 volumes (Audio) https://archive.org/details/cosmos_1603_librivox (Volume 1) https://archive.org/details/cosmosasketchap00dallgoog (Volume 2) https://archive.org/details/cosmossketchofph0002humb/page/n5/mode/2up (Volume 3) https://archive.org/details/cosmosofph03humbrich (Volume 4) https://archive.org/details/sketchofphcosmos04humbrich

New York: Harper & Brothers 1850-. 5 volumes. https://archive.org/details/cosmos01humbgoog

KERR, ROBERT, ed. General history and collection of voyages and travels (1811-1824). volumes 1-6. Edinburgh: W. Blackwood. 18 volumes. (Volume 1) https://archive.org/details/ageneralhistory06kerrgoog (Volume 2) https://archive.org/details/generalhistoryco02kerrrich (Volume 2) https://archive.org/details/ageneralhistory02kerrgoog (Volume 3) https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_zb46AAAAIAAJ (Volume 3) https://archive.org/details/ageneralhistory07kerrgoog (Volume 4) https://archive.org/details/ageneralhistory08kerrgoog (Volume 5) https://archive.org/details/generalhistoryco05kerrrich (Volume 6) https://archive.org/details/ageneralhistory15kerrgoog (Volume 7) https://archive.org/details/ageneralhistory10kerrgoog (Volume 8) https://archive.org/details/ageneralhistory12kerrgoog (Volume 9) https://archive.org/details/ageneralhistory09kerrgoog (Volume 10) https://archive.org/details/ageneralhistory11kerrgoog (Volume 11) https://archive.org/details/ageneralhistory04kerrgoog (Volume 11) https://archive.org/details/dli.granth.18187 (Volume 12) https://archive.org/details/ageneralhistory14kerrgoog (Volume 13) https://archive.org/details/ageneralhistory05kerrgoog (Volume 15) https://archive.org/details/ageneralhistory13kerrgoog (Volume 18) https://archive.org/details/ageneralhistory10unkngoog/page/n5/mode/2up (Volume 18) https://archive.org/details/ageneralhistory03kerrgoog

KINGSLEY, CHARLES. The first discovery of America. (Lectures delivered in America in 1874. London: Longmans, Green & Company. 1875. Philadelphia: Porter & Coates. 1875.) http://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/1360 https://archive.org/details/lecturesdelivere00king

LODGE, H. C. Gravier's Découverte de l'Amérique. (North American Review 119: 166. 1874.)

MACGREGOR, JOHN. Progress in America. London: Whittaker & Company. 1847. 2 volumes. (Volume 1) https://archive.org/details/progressofameric01macguoft (Volume 2) https://archive.org/details/progressamerica02macggoog

MACKENZIE, ROBERT. America; a history. London: Nelson & Sons. 1882. https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.87679

MAVOR, WILLIAM. Historical account of the most celebrated voyages. volumes 1 and 17. London: 1790-7. 20 volumes. (Volume 1) https://archive.org/details/historicalaccou01conggoog/page/n9/mode/2up (Volume 5) https://archive.org/details/historicalaccou02conggoog/page/n6/mode/2up (Volume 6) https://archive.org/details/historicalaccou13conggoog (Volume 7) https://archive.org/details/cihm_37601 (Volume 10) https://archive.org/details/cihm_37604 (Volume 10) https://archive.org/details/anhistoricalacc03mavogoog (Volume 13) https://archive.org/details/historicalaccou11conggoog (Volume 16) https://archive.org/details/historicalaccou09conggoog (Volume 17) https://archive.org/details/historicalaccou17mavogoog (Volume 19) https://archive.org/details/historicalaccou09mavogoog (Volume 20) https://archive.org/details/cihm_37614 (Volume 21) https://archive.org/details/cihm_37615 (Volume 22) https://archive.org/details/anhistoricalacc10mavogoog (Volume 23) https://archive.org/details/cihm_37617 (Volume 24) https://archive.org/details/historicalaccou08mavogoog/page/n8/mode/2up (Volume 24) https://archive.org/details/cihm_37618

PALFREY, JOHN G. History of New England, volume 1, chapter 2. Boston: Little, Brown & Company. 1858-90. (Volume 1) https://archive.org/details/historynewengla23palfgoog (Volume 2) https://archive.org/details/historyofnewengl02palf (Volume 2) https://archive.org/details/historyofnewengl0002palf/page/n5/mode/2up (Volume 3) https://archive.org/details/historyofnewengl00palf

PAYNE, EDWARD JOHN. History of the new world called America. Oxford: Clarendon Press. 1892-. volume 1-. New York: Macmillan & Company. 1892-. volume 1-. (Volume 1) https://archive.org/details/histnewworld01paynrich (Volume 2) https://archive.org/details/histnewworld02paynrich

PINKERTON, JOHN, ed. General collection of the best and most interesting voyages and travels, volume 14. London: Longman. 1808-14. 17 volumes. (Volume 1) https://archive.org/details/cihm_18698 (Volume 1) https://archive.org/details/generalcollectio01pink (Volume 2) https://archive.org/details/generalcollectio02pink (Volume 4) https://archive.org/details/generalcollectio04pink (Volume 4) https://archive.org/details/generalcollectio04pinkuoft (Volume 5) https://archive.org/details/ageneralcollect05pinkgoog/page/n15/mode/2up (Volume 6) https://archive.org/details/cihm_18703 (Volume 7) https://archive.org/details/generalcollectio07pink (Volume 8) https://archive.org/details/ageneralcollect03unkngoog/page/n11/mode/2up (Volume 9) https://archive.org/details/generalcollectio09pink (Volume 10) https://archive.org/details/generalcollectio10pink (Volume 11) https://archive.org/details/generalcollectio11pink (Volume 13) https://archive.org/details/generalcollectio12pink (Volume 14) https://archive.org/details/generalcollectio14pink (Volume 16) https://archive.org/details/dli.bengal.10689.5489 (Volume 17) https://archive.org/details/dli.bengal.10689.1668

ROBERTSON, WILLIAM. History of America (1777-96). (Works, volumes 6-8. Oxford: Talboys & Wheeler. 1825.) (Volume 1) https://archive.org/details/historyamerica12robegoog (Volume 2) https://archive.org/details/americarobertson00willrich/page/n3/mode/2up (Volume 3) https://archive.org/details/historyamericab00robegoog (Volume 3) https://archive.org/details/historyofamerica03robe (Volume 4) https://archive.org/details/historyamerica01unkngoog

SCAIFE, WALTER B. America, its geographical history, 1492-1892. (Johns Hopkins University studies in historical and political science, extra volume 13.) Baltimore. 1892. https://archive.org/details/americaitsgeogra00scairich

SNOWDEN, RICHARD. History of North and South America, from its discovery to the death of General Washington. (1806.) Philadelphia: B. Warner. 2 volumes. (Volume 1, 2) /phttps://archive.org/details/historynorthand00snowgoog

STEVENS, HENRY. Historical and geographical notes on the earliest discoveries in America, 1453-1530. London: Henry Stevens. 1869. New Haven: American Journal of Science. 1869. https://archive.org/details/historicalandge00stevgoog

WILLSON, MARCIUS. American history. New York: Mark H. Newman & Company. 1847. https://archive.org/details/americanhistory00will

WINSOR, JUSTIN. Harrisse's Discovery of North America Nation, 55: 244. 264. https://archive.org/details/jstor-196715/page/n11/mode/2up

Editor, Narrative and critical history of America Boston: Houghton, Mifflin & Company 1886. 8 volumes. (Volume 1) https://archive.org/details/narrativecritica01wins/page/n11/mode/2up (Volume 1, 1)https://archive.org/details/narrativecritica51wins (Volume 1, 2) https://archive.org/details/narrativecritica12wins (Volume 2 )https://archive.org/details/narrcrithistamerica02winsrich (Volume 2, 1) https://archive.org/details/narrativecritica21wins (Volume 2, 2) https://archive.org/details/narrativecritica22wins (Volume 3) https://archive.org/details/narrativecritica0003wins/page/n7/mode/2up (Volume 3, 1) https://archive.org/details/narrativecritica31wins (Volume 3, 2) https://archive.org/details/narrativecritica32wins (Volume 4 ) https://archive.org/details/narrativecritica04wins (Volume 4, 1) https://archive.org/details/narrativecritica41wins (Volume 4, 2) https://archive.org/details/narrativecritica42wins (Volume 5 ) https://archive.org/details/narrativecritica0005wins/page/n7/mode/2up (Volume 5, 2) https://archive.org/details/narrativecritica52wins (Volume 6, 1) https://archive.org/details/narrativecritica61wins (Volume 6, 2) https://archive.org/details/narrativecritica62wins/page/n7/mode/2up (Volume 7) https://archive.org/details/narrativecritica0007wins/page/n5/mode/2up (Volume 7, 2) https://archive.org/details/narrativecritica72wins (Volume 8) https://archive.org/details/narrativecritica0008wins/page/n7/mode/2up (Volume 8, 2) https://archive.org/details/narrativecritica82wins

YATES, JOHN V. N., and MOULTON, JOS. W. History of the state of New York, volume 1, part 1. New York: A. T. Goodrich. 1924-6. 2 volumes. (Volume1, 1)https://archive.org/details/historyofstateof12moul_0 (Part 2)https://archive.org/details/historyofstateof02moul/page/n3/mode/2up

PRE-COLUMBIAN DISCOVERIES.

ANDERSON, RASMUS B. America not discovered by Columbus. Chicago: S. C. Griggs & Company. 1874. https://archive.org/details/americanotdiscov00andeiala

BEAMISH, NORTH LUDLOW. The discovery of America by the Northmen in the 10th century. London: T. & W. Boone 1841. https://archive.org/details/discoveryameric00beamgoog

BOWEN, Reverend BENJ. F. America discovered by the Welsh in 1170. A. D. Philadelphia: J. B. Lippincott & Company. 1876. https://archive.org/details/americadiscovere00boweuoft

DALL, W. H. Alleged early Chinese voyages to America. (Science, 8: 402. 1886.)

DAVIS, ASAHEL. Discovery of America by the Northmen. Rochester: D. Hoyt. 1839. https://archive.org/details/lectureondiscove00davi

DE COSTA, Reverend BENJAMIN FRANKLIN, editor. The pre-Columbian discovery of America by the Northmen, illustrated by translations from the Icelandic sagas. Albany: Joel Munsell. 1868. https://archive.org/details/precolumbiandisc00deco http://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/41221

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DIMAN, J. L. De Costa's Pre-Columbian discovery of America, (North American Review, 109: 205. 1869.) http://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/41221

DISCOVERY OF AMERICA BY THE NORTHMEN. (Atlantic Monthly, 54: 282. 1884.)

DU BOIS, B. H. Did the Norse discover America? (Magazines of American History, 27: 369. 1892.)

ELLIOTT, CHARLES W. The New England history, chapter 1. New York: Charles Scribner. 1857. 2 volumes. https://archive.org/details/newenglandhisto04elligoog

EVERETT, EDWARD. Discovery of America by the Northmen. (North American Review, 46: 161. 1838.)

FISKE, JOHN. How America came to be discovered. (Harper's Magazine, 64: 111. 1881.)

HIGGINSON, THOMAS W. The visit of the Vikings, (Harper's Magazine, 65: 515. 1882.)

HORSFORD, EBEN NORTON. The problem of the Northmen. Cambridge: J. Wilson & Son. 1889. https://archive.org/details/problemofnorthme00hors

LEGENDS OF OLD America. (Cornhill Magazine 26: 452. 1872.)

LELAND, CHARLES GODFREY. The ante-Norse discoverers of America (Continental Monthly, 1: 389,530. 1862)

Fusang: or the discovery of America by Chinese Buddhist priests in the 5th century. London: Trübner. 1875. New York: J. W. Bouton, 1875. http://link.archive.org/portal/Fusang-or-The-discovery-of-America-by-Chinese/ZD2URRe5Nbs/

MacLEAN, J. P. Pre-Columbian discovery of America (American Antiquarian, 14, 1892)

MAJOR, RICHARD HENRY. The life of prince Henry of Portugal, surnamed the navigator, and its results. London: A. Asher & Company, 1868. https://archive.org/details/lifeofprincehenr00majo

On the voyages of the Venetian brothers Zeno. (Massachusetts History Society Proceedings, 1873-75.)

Translator and editor. Voyages of the Venetian brothers, Nicolò and Antonio Zeno, to the northern seas, in the 14th century. London: Hakluyt Society. 1873. https://archive.org/details/voyagesofvenetia00zenorich

ONDERDONK, J. L. Pre-Columbian discoveries of America, (National Quarterly Review, 33: 1. 1876.) https://archive.org/details/precolumbiandis00ondegoog/page/n4/mode/2up

PILON, M. R. Visits of Europeans to America in the 10th and 11th centuries. (Potter's American Monthly, 5: 903. 1875.)

RANKING, JOHN, Historical researches on the conquest of Peru, Mexico, etc., in the 13th century, by the Mongols. London: Longman. 1827. https://archive.org/details/historicalresear00rank

REEVES, ARTHUR MIDDLETON. The finding of Wineland the good. London: Henry Frowde. 1890. https://archive.org/details/winelandthegood00reevrich

ROPES, A. R. Early explorations of America, real and imaginary. (English Historical Review, 2: 78. 1887.)

SHORT, JOHN T. Claims to the discovery of America (Galaxy, 20: 509. 1875.)

SLAFTER, Rev. EDMUND F. The discovery of America by the Northmen 985-1015: a discourse delivered before the New Hampshire Historical Society, April 24, 1888. https://archive.org/details/winelandthegood00reevrich

Editor. Voyages of the Northmen to America; including extracts from the Icelandic sagas in an English translation by N. L. Beamish, opinion of Professor Rafn, etc. Boston: Prince Society. 1877. https://archive.org/details/voyagesofnorthme00slafiala

SMITH, JOSHUA TOULMIN. The discovery of America by the Northmen In the 10th century; comprising translations of all the most important original narratives (1839). 2d edition. London: William S. Orr & Company 1842. https://archive.org/details/discoveryofameri00smit

SOUTHEY, ROBERT. Madoc (1805). London: Longmans. Boston: Houghton, Mifflin & Company (Volume 1) https://archive.org/details/madoc03soutgoog/page/n11/mode/2up (Volume 2) https://archive.org/details/madoc00soutgoog/page/n6/mode/2up

STEPHENS, THOMAS. Madoc; an essay on the discovery of America by Madoc ap Owen Gwynedd in the 12th century. London: Longmans, Green & Company. 1893. https://archive.org/details/madocessayondisc00stepuoft

STORM, GUSTAV. Studies on the Vineland voyages. Copenhagen: Thiele. 1889.

VINING, EDWARD P. An inglorious Columbus; or, evidence that Hwui Shán and a party of Buddhist monks from Afghanistan discovered America in the 5th century. New York: D. Appleton & Company. 1885. https://archive.org/details/ingloriouscolumb00vini

VOYAGES TO VINLAND, THE; from the saga of Eric the red. Boston: D. C. Heath & Company. (Old South leaflets, general series, No.31.) https://archive.org/details/cihm_07112/page/n5/mode/2up

WATSON, PAUL B. Bibliography of the pre-Columbian discoveries of America. (Library Journal, 6: 227. 1881.)

WINSOR, JUSTIN. America prefigured: an address at Harvard, October 21, 1892. Cambridge. 1893. https://archive.org/details/prefiguredamerica00winsrich/page/4/mode/2up

COLUMBUS

ADAMS, CHARLES KENDALL. Christopher Columbus, his life and work. ("Makers of America.") New York: Dodd, Mead & Company. 1892. http://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/54929 https://archive.org/details/christophercolum00adamrich

Some recent discoveries concerning Columbus. (Magazine of American History, 27: 161, 1892.)

ADAMS, HERBERT B., and HENRY WOOD. Columbus and his discovery of America. (Johns Hopkins University studies in historical and political science, 10th series, Numbers 10-11,) Baltimore, October-November, 1892. https://archive.org/details/columbusandhisd00woodgoog

BLIND, K. The forerunners of Columbus. (New Review, 7: 346, Living Age, 195: 387. 1892.)

CASTELAR, EMILIO. Christopher Columbus. (Century, 22: 123-921. 1892.) https://archive.org/details/centuryillustrat44newyuoft

COLUMBUS, CHRISTOPHER. Journal, 1492-3; and documents relating to the voyages of John [and Sebastian] Cabot and Gaspar Corte Real; translated by C. R. Markham. London: Hakluyt Society. 1893. https://archive.org/details/cihm_05312

The letter on the discovery of America; a facsimile of the pictorial edition, with a new and literal translation. Printed by the Lenox Library. New York. 1882. https://archive.org/details/letterofcolumbus00colum

Letter to Gabriel Sanchez, 1493. Boston: D. C. Heath & Company. (Old South leaflets, general series, No. 33.) https://archive.org/details/spanishletterco00kerngoog

Select letters, with other original documents; translated and edited by R. H. Major. London: Hakluyt Society. 1847.

Writings descriptive of the discovery and occupation of the new world; edited by Paul Leicester Ford. New York: C. L. Webster & Company. 1892.

COLUMBUS, FERDINAND. The discovery of America; from the life of Columbus. Boston: D. C. Heath & Company. (Old South leaflets, general series, No. 29.)

ELTON, CHARLES. The career of Columbus. New York: Cassell Publishing Company. 1892. https://archive.org/details/careercolumbus00eltogoog

GOODRICH, AARON. History of the character and achievements of the so-called Christopher Columbus. New York: D. Appleton & Company, 1874. https://archive.org/details/historyofcharact00good

HELPS, Sir ARTHUR, and H. P. Thomas. Life of Columbus. London: Bell & Daldy. 1869. https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/15336

IRVING, WASHINGTON. Life and voyages of Christopher Columbus (1828); to which are added those of his companions (1831). New York: G. P. Putnam. 3 volumes. https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/8519 (Volume 1) https://archive.org/details/historyoflifeand01irviiala (Volume 2) https://archive.org/details/historyoflifeand02irviiala (Volume 3) https://archive.org/details/historyoflifeand03irviiala (Volume 3) https://archive.org/details/lifeandvoyagesc05irvigoog

LORGUES, ROSELLY DE. Life of Christopher Columbus, from Spanish and Italian documents; comp. from the French by J. J. Barry. Boston: P. Donahoe. 1870. https://archive.org/details/lifeofchristophe00rose

MACKIE, CHARLES PAUL. The last voyages of the Admiral of the Ocean Sea, as related by himself and his companions. Chicago: A. C. McClurg & Company. 1892. https://archive.org/details/lastvoyagesadmi00paulgoog

MACKINTOSH, J. The discovery of America by Columbus and the origin of the North American Indians. Toronto. 1836. https://archive.org/details/discoveryameric00mcingoog

MARKHAM, CLEMENTS R. Life of Christopher Columbus. London: George Philip & Son. 1892. https://archive.org/details/cu31924020393413

MAURY, M. An examination of the claims of Columbus. (Harper's Magazines, 42: 425, 527. 1871.)

OBER, FREDERICK A. In the wake of Columbus; adventures of the special commissioner sent by the World's Columbian Exposition to the West Indies. Boston: D. Lothrop Company. 1893. https://archive.org/details/inwakecolumbusa00obergoog

SEELYE, ELIZABETH EGGLESTON. The story of Columbus; with introduction by Edward Eggleston. New York: D. Appleton & Company. 1892. https://archive.org/details/storyofcolumbus00seel

SPALDING, J. L., Columbus, (Catholic World, 56: 1. 1892.)

TARDUCCI, FRANCESCO. The life of Christopher Columbus; translated from the Italian by H. F. Brownson. Detroit: H. F. Brownson. 1890. 2 volumes. (Volume 1) https://archive.org/details/lifechriscolum01tardrich (Volume 2) https://archive.org/details/lifechristopher00browgoog

WINSOR, JUSTIN. Christopher Columbus, and how he received and imparted the spirit of discovery. Boston: Houghton, Mifflin & Company. 1891. https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.158654

Columbiana. (Nation, 52: 297. 1891.)

POST-COLUMBIAN DISCOVERIES.

ARBER, EDWARD. editor. The first three English books on America (?1511)-1555 A. D.; being chiefly translations, compilations, &c., by Richard Eden, from the writings of Pietro Martire, Sebastian Münster, Sebastian Cabot. Birmingham. 1885. https://archive.org/details/firstthreeenglis00arberich

ASHER, G. M., editor Henry Hudson the navigator: original documents in which his career is recorded. London: Hakluyt Society. 1860. https://archive.org/details/henryhudsonnavig27ashe

BIDDLE, RICHARD. Memoir of Sebastian Cabot. Philadelphia: Carey & Lea. 1831. https://archive.org/details/sebastiancabot00biddrich

BOSTON PUBLIC LIBRARY. America in the 16th century (bibliographical note in Bulletins, volume 3, pages 130-141).

Early English explorations in America (bibliographical note in Bulletins, volume 3, pages 241-244).

Early explorations in America (bibliographical note in Bulletins, volume 3, pages 103-100).

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BREVOORT, J. C. Verrazano the navigator [from report of the American Geographical Society of New York for 1873]. New York. 1874. https://archive.org/details/verrazanonavigator00brevrich

CHAMPLAIN, SAMUEL DE. Voyages (1603-1610): translated Charles P. Otis, [editor] with memoir by E. F. Slafter. Boston: Prince Society. 1878-82. 3 volumes. (Volume 1) https://archive.org/details/cihm_26911 (Volume 2) https://archive.org/details/voyagessamuelde00massgoog (Volume 3) https://archive.org/details/voyagessamuelde00unkngoog

DE VRIES. D. P. Extracts from the voyages; translated from a Dutch ms. in the Philadelphia Library, by Dr. G. Troost. (Collections of the New York Historical Society., 2d series, volume 1. New York. 1841.)

Voyages from Holland to America, 1632-1644; translated by H. C. Murphy. (Collections of the New York Historical Society, 2d series, volume 3. New York. 1857.) https://archive.org/details/cu31924028729402/page/n25/mode/2up

FISKE, JOHN. The romance of the Spanish and French explorers. (Harper's Magazines, 64: 438. 1882.)

FORCE, M. F. Some observations on the letters of Amerigo Vespucci (1879). Cincinnati: Robert Clarke & Company 1885. https://archive.org/details/someobservation01forcgoog

HAKLUYT, RICHARD, editor. The principal navigations, voyages, traffiques and discoveries of the English nation (1589); edited by E. Goldsmid. volume 12-15. Edinburgh: E. & G. Goldsmid. 1889-90. (Volume 1) https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.178849 (Volume 2) https://archive.org/details/principalnavigat02hakluoft (Volume 5) https://archive.org/details/principalnaviga00haklgoog (Volume 6) https://archive.org/details/principalnaviga06hakl (Volume 8) https://archive.org/details/principalnaviga00unkngoog (Volume 9) https://archive.org/details/cihm_33125 (Volume 10) https://archive.org/details/principalnavigat10hakl (Volume 11) https://archive.org/details/principalnavigat11hakl (Volume 12) https://archive.org/details/principalnavigat12hakl (Volume 13) https://archive.org/details/theprincipalnavi25645gut (Volume 13) https://www.gutenberg.org/files/25645/ (Volume 16) https://archive.org/details/cihm_33132

HIGGINSON, THOMAS W. The old English seamen. (Harper's Mag., 66: 217. 1883)

The Spanish discoverers. (Harper's Magazine. 65: 729. 1882.)

HUDSON, HENRY. Divers voyages and northern discoveries. (Purchas his pilgrimes, volume 3. Collections of the New York Historical Society, volume 1. New York. 1811.)

JUET, ROBERT. Extract from the journal of the voyage of the Half-Moon, Henry Hudson, master, 1609. (Collections of the New York Historical Society, 2d series, volume 1. New York. 1841.) http://halfmoon.mus.ny.us/Juets-journal.pdf

KOHL, J. G. History of the discovery of Maine; with an appendix on the voyages of the Cabots. (Collections of the Maine Historical Society., 2d series, volume 1. Portland: 1869.) (Volume 1) https://archive.org/details/historyofdiscove00kohl

LESTER, C. EDWARDS, and A. FOSTER. Life and voyages of Americus Vespucius. New York: Baker & Scribner. 1846. https://archive.org/details/lifeandvoyages00lestrich/page/n3/mode/2up https://archive.org/details/lifevoyagesofame00lestiala https://archive.org/details/cu31924020421867

NICHOLLS, J. F. Remarkable life, adventures and discoveries of Sebastian Cabot. London: Sampson Low, Son & Marston. 1869. https://archive.org/details/remarkablelifead00nich

PARKMAN, FRANCIS. Pioneers of France in the New World. Boston: Little. Brown & Company. 1865. https://archive.org/details/pioneers_of_france_in_new_world_0908_librivox1

PAYNE, EDWARD JAMES. Voyages of the Elizabethan seamen to America; 13 original narratives from the collection of Hakluyt. London: Thomas de la Rue & Company. 1880. https://archive.org/details/voyagesofelizabe02hakluoft

READ, JOHN MEREDITH, Jr. Historical inquiry concerning Henry Hudson. Albany: J. Munsell. 1866. https://archive.org/details/historicalinquir00readuoft

SANTAREM, Viscount. Researches respecting Americus Vespucius and his voyages (1842); translated by E. V. Childe. Boston: C. C. Little & Jas. Brown. 1850. https://archive.org/details/researchesrespe02conggoog

STANLEY OF ALDERLEY. Lord. The first voyage round the world, by Magellan; translated from the accounts of Pigafetta and other contemporary writers; with documents, notes, etc. London: Hakluyt Society. 1874. https://archive.org/details/firstvoyageround00piga

TARDUCCI, FRANCESCO. John and Sebastian Cabot, biographical notice, with documents; translated from the Italian by Henry F. Brownson. Detroit: H. F. Brownson. 1893. https://archive.org/details/johnsebast00tardrich

TOWLE, GEORGE M. Magellan. Boston: Lee & Shepard. 1880. https://archive.org/details/magellan00towl/page/n5/mode/2up

VERRAZANO, JOHN DE. The relation of. (Collections of the New York Historical Society., volume 1. New York. 1811.)

The same: a new translation, by J. G. Cogswell. (Collections of the New York Historical Society, 2d series, volume 1. New York. 1841.)

Voyage, 1524. (Old South leaflets, general series, No. 17.) Boston: D. C. Heath & Company.

VESPUCCI, AMERIGO. Account of his first voyage; letter to Pier Soderini. (Old South leaflets, general series, No. 34.) Boston: D. C. Heath & Company.

The first four voyages; reprinted in facsimile and translated from the rare original edition. (1505-6). London: Bernard Quaritch. 1893.

https://archive.org/details/lettersofamerigo00vesp https://archive.org/details/lettersofamerigo00vesprich

VOYAGES OF THE CABOTS, THE. From Hakluyt's "Principal navigations." Boston: D. C. Heath & Company. (Old South leaflets, general series, No. 37.)

SPANISH AND PORTUGUESE CONQUEST AND OCCUPATION.

ANDAGOYA, PASCUAL DE. Narrative of the proceedings of Pedrarias Davila [1514-1541]; translated and edited by C. R. Markham. London: Hakluyt Society. 1865. https://archive.org/details/narrativeofproce00anda

BANDELIER, ADOLF F. A. Discovery of New Mexico [Cibola] by Fray Marcos of Nizza. (Magazine of Western History, 4: 659. 1886.)

BENZONI, GIROLAMO. History of the new world, shewing his travels in America, 1541-1556; translated and edited by W. H. Smyth. London: Hakluyt Society. 1857. https://archive.org/details/historynewworld00smytgoog/page/n10/mode/2up

BLACKMAR, FRANK W. Spanish Institutions of the southwest. Baltimore. 1801. (Johns Hopkins University studies in history and political science. Extra volume 10.) https://archive.org/details/spanishinstituti00blac

CHARLEVOIX, Father F. P. X. DE. History of Paraguay (1756); [translated from the French]. London: L. Davis. 1769. 2 volumes. (French) https://archive.org/details/histoireduparag04chargoog (English) https://books.google.com/books?id=40sIAAAAQAAJ&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_ge_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=false

CHEVALIER, MICHEL. Mexico, ancient and modern; translated by T. Alpass. London: J. Maxwell & Company. 1864. 2 volumes. (Volume 1) https://archive.org/details/gri_33125000251625/page/n3/mode/2up (Volume 2) https://archive.org/details/mexicoancientan01alpagoog

CIEZA DE LEON, PEDRO DE. Travels, A. D. 1532-50, contained in the first and second parts of his Chronicle of Peru (1553-): translated an edited by C. R. Markham. London: Hakluyt Society 1864-83. https://archive.org/details/travelsofpedrode33ciez/page/n31/mode/2up

CLAVIGERO, Abbé D. FRANCESCO SAVERIO. History of Mexico, collected from Spanish and Mexican historians, from MSS. and ancient paintings of the Indians; translated from the Italian by Charles Cullen. Philadelphia: Thomas Dobson. 1804. 3 volumes. https://archive.org/details/historyofmexicoc03clav

CORTEZ, HERNANDO. Despatches addressed to the emperor Charles V. during the conquest: translated from the Spanish, with introduction and notes by George Folsom. New York: Wiley & Putnam. 1843. https://archive.org/details/despatchesofhern0cort

DIAZ DEL CASTILLO, BERNAL. Memoirs, containing a true and full account of the discovery and conquest of Mexico and New Spain (1612): translated from the Spanish by John I. Lockhart. London: J. Hatchard & Son. 1844. 2 volumes. (Volume 1) https://archive.org/details/memoirsofconquis01dauoft (Volume 1) https://archive.org/details/memoirsconquist01lockgoog (Volume 2) https://archive.org/details/dli.granth.40349/page/n3/mode/2up (Volume 2) https://archive.org/details/memoirsofconquis02di

DISCOVERY and conquest of Terra Florida, by Don Fernando de Solo; written by a gentleman of Elvas (1557), and translated out of Portuguese by Richard Hakluyt: edited by W. B. Rye. London: Hakluyt Society 1851. https://archive.org/details/discoveryandcon00haklgoog

FANCOURT, CHARLES. ST. J. History of Yucatan. London: J. Murray. 1854. https://archive.org/details/historyofyucatan00fanc

HELPS, Sir ARTHUR. Life of Hernando Cortes. London: Bell & Son. 1871. 2 volumes. (Volume 1) https://archive.org/details/lifehernandocor00goog/page/n9/mode/2up (Volume 1) https://archive.org/details/dli.granth.85399/page/ii/mode/2up (Volume 1) https://archive.org/details/lifeofhernandoco01helpuoft (Volume 2) https://archive.org/details/lifeofhernandoco02helpuoft (Volume 2) https://archive.org/details/dli.granth.86033

Life of Las Casas. London: Bell & Son. 1868. https://archive.org/details/lifeoflascasasth00help/page/n7/mode/2up

Life of Pizarro. London: Bell & Son. 1869. https://archive.org/details/lifeofpizarrowit00help

The Spanish conquest In America. London: Parker & Son. (1855-61.) New York: Harper & Brothers. 1867. 4 volumes. (Volume 1) https://archive.org/details/spanishconquesti01helpuoft (Volume 1) https://archive.org/details/spanishconquest00conggoog (Volume 2) https://archive.org/details/spanishconquest06oppegoog (Volume 3) https://quod.lib.umich.edu/m/moa/agf7071.0003.001 (Volume 4) https://archive.org/details/spanish_conquest_in_america_vol4/page/n3/mode/2up

IRVING, THEODORE. History of De Soto's conquest of Florida (1835). New York: G. P. Putnam's Sons. (Volume 1) https://archive.org/details/conquestflorida01irvirich/page/n5/mode/2up (Volume 2) https://archive.org/details/conquestflorida01irvigoog

MARKHAM, CLEMENTS R. History of Peru, chapters 1-4. Chicago: C. H. Sergel & Co. 1892. https://archive.org/details/ahistoryperu01markgoog

Edited and translated. Reports on the discovery of Peru. London: Hakluyt Society 1872. https://archive.org/details/reportsondiscove04mark

MAYER, BRANTZ. Mexico, Aztec, Spanish and republican, book. 1. Hartford: S. Drake & Company. 1851. 2 volumes. https://books.google.com/books/about/Mexico_Aztec_Spanish_and_republican.html?id=4QNQAQAAIAAJ (Volume 1) https://archive.org/details/mexicoaztecspan01mayegoog (Volume 2) https://archive.org/details/mexicoaztecspani02maye

RESCOTT, WILLIAM H. History of the conquest of Mexico (1843); edited by J. F. Kirk. Philadelphia: J. B. Lippincott & Company. 3 volumes. (Volume 1) https://archive.org/details/conquestofmexico01presrich (Volume 2) https://archive.org/details/conquestmexico02presuoft (Volume 3) https://archive.org/details/historyconmex03pres (Volume 4) https://archive.org/details/historyofconques04pres

History of the conquest of Peru (1847); edited by J. F. Kirk. Philadelphia: J. B. Lippincott & Company. 2 volumes. (Volume 1) https://archive.org/details/historyofconques01presiala (Volume 2) https://archive.org/details/historyofconques02presiala (Volume 3) https://archive.org/details/historyofconques03presiala

RAYNAL, Abbé. A philosophical and political history of the settlements and trade of the Europeans in the east and west Indies (1770); translated from the French by J. O. Justamond. London. 1788. 8 volumes. (Volume 1) https://archive.org/details/philosophicalpol01rayn (Volume 2) https://archive.org/details/philosophicalpol02rayn (Volume 3) https://archive.org/details/philosophicalpol03rayn (Volume 4) https://archive.org/details/philosophicalpol04rayn (Volume 5) https://archive.org/details/philosophicalpol06rayn (Volume 6) https://archive.org/details/philosophicalpol05rayn (Volume 7) https://archive.org/details/philosophicalpol07rayn (Volume 8) https://archive.org/details/philosophicalpol08rayn/

RIVERO, M. E., and TSCHUDI, J. J. VON. Peruvian antiquities: translated from the Spanish by F. L. Hawks. New York: G. P. Putnam & Company. 1853. https://archive.org/details/peruvianantiqui01tschgoog/page/n10/mode/2up

SIMPSON, J. H. Coronado's march in search of the "Seven cities of Cibola." Washington. 1871. https://archive.org/details/coronadosmarchin00simprich/page/n11/mode/2up

SOLIS, Don ANTONIO DE History of the conquest of Mexico by the Spaniards (1684); translated from the Spanish by T. Townsend, revised and corrected by N. Hook. London: T. Woodward. 1738. 2 volumes. (Volume 1) https://books.google.com/books/about/The_History_of_the_Conquest_of_Mexico.html?id=ejQVAAAAQAAJ

SOUTHEY, ROBERT. History of Brazil, volume 1. London: Longman. 1810-19. 3 volumes. (Volume 1) https://archive.org/details/historyofbrazil01sout (Volume 1) https://archive.org/details/historyofbrazil02sout (Volume 3) https://archive.org/details/historyofbrazil03sout

SOUTHEY, THOMAS. Chronological history of the West Indies, volume 1. London: Longman. 1827. 3 volumes. (Volume 1) https://archive.org/details/chronologicalhis01sout (Volume 2) https://archive.org/details/chronologicalhis02sout (Volume 3) https://archive.org/details/chronologicalhis03sout

TOWLE, GEORGE M. Pizarro. Boston: Lee & Shepard. 1879. https://archive.org/details/pizarrohisadvent00towlrich/page/n5/mode/2up

TYLOR, EDWARD B. Anahuac; or Mexico and the Mexicans, ancient and modern. London: Longman, Green & Company. 1861. https://archive.org/details/b24883360

WASHBURN, CHARLES A. History of Paraguay, chapters 1-4. Boston: Lee & Shepard. 1871. 2 volumes. (volume 1) https://archive.org/details/historyofparagua01washuoft/page/n3/mode/2up (volume 2) https://archive.org/details/historyofparagua02wash

WATSON, ROBERT G. The Spanish and Portuguese in South America during the colonial period, volume 1. London: Trübner & Company. 1884. 2 volumes. (volume 1) https://archive.org/details/spanishportugues01watsuoft (volume 1) https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/50990 (volume 2) https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/52252

WILSON, ROBERT A. A new history of the conquest of Mexico, in which Las Casas' denunciations of the popular historians of that war are vindicated. Philadelphia: Jas. Challen & Son. 1859. https://archive.org/details/anewhistoryconq00goog

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ENGLISH AND FRENCH COLONIZATION.

ACRELIUS, ISRAEL. History of New Sweden. (Memoirs of the Pennsylvania Historical Society, volume 11. Philadelphia. 1876.) https://archive.org/details/historyofnewswed11acre https://archive.org/details/historyofnewswed00acre https://archive.org/details/cihm_12822/page/n5/mode/2up

ADAMS, CHARLES FRANCIS. Three episodes of Massachusetts history. Boston: Houghton, Mifflin & Company. 1892 2 volumes. (Volume 1) https://archive.org/details/threeepisodesofm01adamuoft (Volume 2) https://archive.org/details/threeepisodesofm02adam

BAYLIES, FRANCIS. Historical memoir of the colony of New Plymouth (1830). Boston: Wiggin & Lunt. 1866. 2 volumes. (Volume 1) https://archive.org/details/historicalmemoir11bayl (Volume 2) https://archive.org/details/historicalmemoir02bayl

BEVERLEY, ROBERT. History of Virginia (1705). Richmond: J. W. Randolph. 1855. https://archive.org/details/historyvirginia00campgoog

BOZMAN, JOHN LEEDS History of Maryland, 1633-1660. Baltimore: Lucas & Deaver. 1837 (introduction 1811.) Baltimore: John Murphy & Co. (Volume 1) https://archive.org/details/historyofmarylan00bozm (Volume 2) https://archive.org/details/historymaryland02bozmgoog

BRADFORD, WILLIAM. History of Plymouth Plantation. (Collections of the Massachusetts Historical Society, 4th series, volume 3. Boston. 1856.) (Volume 1) https://archive.org/details/historyofplymout1162brad (Volume 2) https://archive.org/details/historymaryland02bozmgoog

BRIDGES, GEORGE W. Annals of Jamaica, volume 1. London: J. Murray. 1827. 2 volumes. (Volume 1) https://archive.org/details/annalsofjamaica01briduoft (Volume 2 )https://archive.org/details/annalsjamaica05bridgoog

BRODHEAD, JOHN R., editor Documents relating to the colonial history of the state of New York. Albany. 1856-87. 14 volumes. (Volume 1) https://archive.org/details/documentsrelativ01brod (Volume 2) https://archive.org/details/documentsrelativ02brod/page/n9/mode/2up (Volume 3) https://archive.org/details/documentsrelativ03brod/page/n7/mode/2up (Volume 4) https://archive.org/details/documentsrelativ04brod/page/n7/mode/2up (Volume 5) https://archive.org/details/documentsrelativ05brod/page/n9/mode/2up (Volume 6) https://archive.org/details/documentsrelativ06brod/page/n7/mode/2up (Volume 7) https://archive.org/details/documentsrelativ07brod/page/n9/mode/2up (Volume 8) https://archive.org/details/documentsrelativ08brod/page/n5/mode/2up (Volume 9) https://archive.org/details/documentsrelativ09brod/page/n7/mode/2up (Volume 10) https://archive.org/details/documentsrelativ10brod/page/n7/mode/2up

History of the state of New York, volume 1. New York: Harper & Brothers. 1853. 2 volumes. (Volume 1) https://archive.org/details/documentsrelativ01brod (Volume 2) https://archive.org/details/documentsrelativ02brod (Volume 3) https://archive.org/details/documentsrelativ03brod (Volume 4) https://archive.org/details/documentsrelativ04b/page/n7/mode/2up (Volume 5) https://archive.org/details/documentsrelativ05brod/ (Volume 6) https://archive.org/details/documentsrelativ06brod/ (Volume 7) https://archive.org/details/documentsrelativ07brod/ (Volume 8) https://archive.org/details/documentsrelativ08brod/ (Volume 9) https://archive.org/details/documentsrelativ09brod/ (Volume 10) https://archive.org/details/documentsrelativ10brod/ (Index) https://archive.org/details/documentsrelativ11brod/page/n7/mode/2up

BROWN, ALEXANDER editor The genesis of the United States [a collection of historical mss. and tracts, with notes, etc.]. Boston: Houghton, Mifflin & Company. 1890. 2 volumes. (Volume 1) https://archive.org/details/genesisofuniteds01brow (Volume 2) https://archive.org/details/genesisofuniteds02brow

BROWN, WILLIAM HAND, editor. Archives of Maryland. Baltimore. 1883-. https://msa.maryland.gov/megafile/msa/speccol/sc2900/sc2908/000001/000021/html/am21p--1.html Has links to other volumes.

BURKE, EDMUND. An account of the European settlements in America. London: R. & J. Dodsley. 1757. 2 volumes. (Volume 1) https://archive.org/details/accountofeuropea01burk (Volume 2) https://archive.org/details/accountofeuropea02burk

BURY, Viscount. Exodus of the western nations. London: Richard Bentley. 1865. 2 volumes. (Volume 1) https://archive.org/details/exodusofwesternn01albeuoft (Volume 2) https://archive.org/details/exodusofwesternn02albeuoft (Volume 2) https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.82499

CAMPBELL, CHARLES. Introduction to the history of the colony and ancient dominion of Virginia. Richmond: D. B. Minor. 1847. https://archive.org/details/introductiontohi00campb

History of the colony and ancient dominion of Virginia. Philadelphia: J. B. Lippincott & Company. https://archive.org/details/historyofcolonya00camp

CAMPBELL, DOUGLAS. The Puritan in Holland, England and America. New York: Harper & Brothers. 1892. 2 volumes. (Volume 1) https://archive.org/details/puritaninholland01camp (Volume 2) https://archive.org/details/puritaninholland02camp

CARROLL, B. R., editor. Historical collections of South Carolina. New York: Harper & Brothers. 1836. 2 volumes. (Volume 1) https://archive.org/details/historicalcolle00carrgoog/page/n9/mode/2up (Volume 2) https://archive.org/details/historicalcolle02carrgoog/page/n6/mode/2up

CHARLEVOIX, Father PIERRE F. X. DE. History and general description of New France (1744): translated, with notes, by John G. Shea. New York: J. G. Shea. 1866-7.2. 6 volumes. (Volume 1) https://archive.org/details/cihm_32251 (Volume 2) https://archive.org/details/cihm_32765 (Volume 3) https://archive.org/details/historygeneralde03char (Volume 4) https://archive.org/details/historygeneralde04char (Volume 5) https://archive.org/details/historygenerald05achar (Volume 6) https://archive.org/details/historygeneralde06char

CHEEVER, GEORGE B., editor Journal of the Pilgrims at Plymouth in 1620. New York: J. Wiley. 1848. https://archive.org/details/journalofpilgrim00mouruoft

DALTON, HENRY G. History of British Guiana, chapter 2. London: Longmans. 1855. 2 volumes. (Volume 1) https://archive.org/details/historybritishg01daltgoog (Volume 1) https://archive.org/details/historybritishg02daltgoog (Volume 2) https://archive.org/details/historybritishg03daltgoog (Volume 2) https://archive.org/details/historybritishg00daltgoog/page/n10/mode/2up

DOUGLASS, WILLIAM. Summary, historical and political, of the British settlements in North America. London: R. Baldwin. 1755. 2 volumes. (Volume 1) https://archive.org/details/summaryhistorica01doug/page/n7/mode/2up (Volume 2) https://archive.org/details/McGillLibrary-rbsc_lc_summary-historical-political_Lande00193_v2-15869

DOYLE, JOHN A. The American colonies (Arnold prize essay). London: Rivingtons. 1869.

The English In America: Virginia. Maryland and the Carolinas (1882). The Puritan colonies (1887), 2 volumes. London: Longmans, Green & Company. New York: Henry Holt & Co.

https://archive.org/details/englishcoloniesi01doyl (Volume 3) https://archive.org/details/englishcoloniesi03doyl (Volume 4) https://archive.org/details/englishcoloniesi04doyl/page/n7/mode/2up/page/n7/mode/2up

DRAKE, SAMUEL ADAMS. The making of New England, 1580-1643. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons. 1886. https://archive.org/details/makingofnewengla00drakrich

The making of Virginia and the middle colonies. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons. 1893. https://archive.org/details/makingofvirginia00drak

DRAKE, SAMUEL G. History and antiquities of Boston, 1630-1770. Boston: L. Stevens. 1856. https://archive.org/details/historyantiquiti00dra

EDWARDS, BRYAN. History, civil and commercial, of the British colonies in the West Indies. [Caribs, etc.] London: J. Stockdale. 1793-1801. 3 volumes. (Volume 1) https://archive.org/details/cihm_44458 (Volume 2) https://archive.org/details/historycivilcomm04edwa https://archive.org/details/historycivilcomm06edwa/page/n5/mode/2up

FERRIS, BENJAMIN. History of the original settlements on the Delaware. Wilmington: Wilson & Heald. 1846. https://archive.org/details/historyoforigina00ferr

FISHER. GEORGE P. The colonial era (American History series). New York: Charles Scribner's Sons. 1892. (1906) https://archive.org/details/colonialera00fishuoft (1910) https://archive.org/details/colonialerabygeo00fish

FISKE, JOHN. The beginnings of New England. Boston: Houghton, Mifflin & Company. 1889. (1897) https://archive.org/details/beginningsofne00fisk

FORCE, PETER. editor. Tracts and other papers relating principally to the origin, settlement and progress of the colonies in North America. Washington. 1886-47. 4 volumes. (Volume 1) https://archive.org/details/tractsotherpaper01forc (Volume 2) https://archive.org/details/tractsotherpaper02forc (Volume 3) https://archive.org/details/tractsotherpaper1844forc (Volume 4) https://archive.org/details/tractsotherpaper04forc

GAYARRÉ, CHARLES. History of Louisiana; the French domination (1851-4). New York: William J. Widdleton. 1861. (1867) https://archive.org/details/historyoflouisia03gaya

GOODWIN, JOHN A. The pilgrim republic. Boston: Ticknor & Company. 1888. https://archive.org/details/pilgrimrepublich00good/page/n11/mode/2up

GRAHAME, JAMES. History of the rise and progress of the United States of North America. till 1688, volume 1. London: Longman. 1827. 2 volumes. (Volume 1) https://archive.org/details/historyofrisepro01grah/page/n5/mode/2up (Volume 2) https://archive.org/details/historyofrisepro02grah/page/n5/mode/2up (Volume 4, 1836) https://archive.org/details/historyriseandp01grahgoog/page/n8/mode/2up

The same, enlarged [to 1776] and amended [edited by Josiah Quincy, and published under the title of "History of the United States"]. Philadelphia: Lea & Blanchard. 1846.

HAWKS, FRANCIS L. History of North Carolina [to 1729] (1857-60). Fayetteville: Hale & Son. 2 volumes. (Volume 1) https://archive.org/details/cu31924028788374 (Volume 1) https://archive.org/details/historynorthcar00lillgoog (Volume 1) https://archive.org/details/historynorthcar00pittgoog (Volume 2) https://archive.org/details/historynorthcar00unkngoog (Volume 2) https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_MzgTAAAAYAAJ/page/n3/mode/2up

HIGGINSON, THOMAS W. The French Voyageurs. (Harper's Mag., 66: 505. 1883.)

HUBBARD, Rev. WILLIAM. General history of New England, to 1680 (1815). (Collections of the Massachusetts History Society, 2d series, volumes 5-11. Boston. 1848.) https://archive.org/details/generalhistoryof00hubb

HUTCHINSON, THOMAS. History of the colony [and province] of Massachusetts-Bay [to 1749]. Boston: T. & J. Fleet. 1764-7. 2 volumes. https://archive.org/details/historyofcolonyo00hutc

LAMBRECHTSEN, N. C. Short description of the discovery and subsequent history of the New Netherlands (1818): [translated from the Dutch]. (Collections of the New York Historical Society, 2d series, volume 1. New York. 1841.)

LODGE, HENRY CABOT. Short history of the English colonies in America. New York: Harper & Brothers. 1881. https://archive.org/details/histenglishcolonies00lodgrich

MARSHALL, JOHN. History of the colonies planted by the English on the continent of North America. Philadelphia: A. Small. 1824. https://archive.org/details/plantedcolonies00marsrich

MOORE, N. Pilgrims and Puritans: the story of the planting of Plymouth and Boston. Boston: Ginn & Co. 1888. https://archive.org/details/pilgrimspuritans00tiff

MOURT, GEORGE. Relation, or journal of the plantation at Plymouth (1622); with introduction and notes by H. M. Dexter. Boston: J. K. Wiggin. 1865. https://archive.org/details/mourtsrelationo00dextgoog

NEILL, EDWARD D. English colonization of America during the 17th century. London: Strahan & Company. 1871. https://archive.org/details/cu31924032746145

History of the Virginia Company of London. Albany: J. Munsell. 1869. https://archive.org/details/cu31924028784738

Virginia vetusta [Supplement to above]. Albany: J. Munsell's Sons. 1885. https://archive.org/details/virginiavetusta00neilgoog

O'CALLAGHAN, E. B. Register of New Netherland, 1626-1674. Albany: J. Munsell. 1865. https://archive.org/details/registerofnewnet00ocal

PALFREY, JOHN G. History of New England during the Stuart dynasty. Boston: Little, Brown & Company. 1858-1864. 3 volumes. (Volume 1) https://archive.org/details/historyofnewengl01bost (Volume 2) https://archive.org/details/historynewengla19palfgoog (Volume 3) https://archive.org/details/historynewengla18palfgoog/page/n6/mode/2up

PRINCE, THOMAS. Chronological history of New England [to 1633] (1736-55). Boston: Cummings, Hilliard & Company. 1826. https://archive.org/details/achronologicalh00halegoog/page/n6/mode/2up

SAINSBURY, W. N. editor. Calendar of state papers: colonial series [America and the West Indies]. London: Longman. 1860-89. 3 volumes. 1860-84. 6 volumes. (1675-1676) https://archive.org/details/calendarstatepa19offigoog (1677-1680) https://archive.org/details/calendarstatepa08offigoog/page/n11/mode/2up (1685-1688) https://archive.org/details/calendarstatepa18offigoog/page/n9/mode/2up (1689-1692) https://archive.org/details/calendarstatepa14offigoog (1696-1697) https://archive.org/details/cu31924087794685 (1719-1720) https://archive.org/details/colonialrecordsc31greauoft/page/n3/mode/2up (1699) https://archive.org/details/calendarstatepa15offigoog

SHURTLEFF, N. B., editor. Records of the governor and Company of the Massachusetts Bay, 1628-86. Printed by order of the Legislature. Boston. 1853-4; 5 volumes in 6. (Volume 1) https://archive.org/details/recordsofgoverno01mass (Volume 4, Part 1) https://archive.org/details/cu31924091024590 (Volume 4, Part 2) https://archive.org/details/recordsofgoverno42mass

SHURTLEFF, N. B., and D. PULSIFER. editors. Records of the colony of New Plymouth. Printed by order of the Legislature. Boston. 1855-61. 12 volumes. in 10. (Volume 1) https://archive.org/details/recordsofcolonyo0102newp/page/n5/mode/2up (Volume 5) https://archive.org/details/recordsofcolonyo05newp https://www.plymouthcolony.net/resources/pcr.html#pcrarchive

STITH, WILLIAM. History of the first discovery and settlement of Virginia (1747). New York: Reprinted for Jos. Sabin. 1865. https://archive.org/details/101292821.nlm.nih.gov/page/n3/mode/2up

TARBOX, Rev. INCREASE N. Sir Walter Raleigh and his colony in America. Boston: Prince Society. 1884. https://archive.org/details/sirwalterralegh00lanegoog

TRUMBULL, BENJAMIN. General history of the United States of America to 1792. Boston: Farrand, Mallory & Company. 1810. volume 1. https://archive.org/details/generalhistoryof03trum (Volume 1 of 3) https://archive.org/details/ageneralhistory01trumgoog/page/n8/mode/2up https://archive.org/details/generalhistoryof03trum/page/n13/mode/2up

TYTLER, PATRICK F. Historical view of the progress of discovery on the more northern coasts of America; with natural history, by Jas. Wilson. Edinburgh: Oliver & Boyd. 1832. New York: Harper Brothers. https://archive.org/details/historicalviewp00goog

WHITEFIELD, WILLIAM A., editor. Documents relating to the colonial history of the state of New Jersey. Newark. 1880-. 11 volumes. (Volume 1) https://archive.org/details/documentsrelati01socigoog/page/n10/mode/2up (Volume 1) https://archive.org/details/documentsrelati04socigoog/page/n12/mode/2up (Volume 3) https://archive.org/details/documentsrelati05socigoog/page/n6/mode/2up

(William Nelson) (Volume 10) https://archive.org/details/documentsrelati03socigoog/page/n10/mode/2up (Volume 19) https://archive.org/details/documentsrelati02socigoog/page/n4/mode/2up (Volume 22) https://archive.org/details/documentsrelati00socigoog/page/n10/mode/2up

WILSON, JAMES GRANT, editor Memorial history of the city of New York, volume 1. New York: History Co. 1892. 4 volumes. (Volume 2) https://archive.org/details/cu31924024757290 (Volume 1) https://archive.org/details/memorialhistoryo01wilsuoft (Volume 2) https://archive.org/details/memorialhistoryo02wilsuoft/page/n9/mode/2up (Volume 3) https://archive.org/details/memorialhistoryo03wilsuoft/page/n7/mode/2up (Volume 4) https://archive.org/details/memorialhistoryo04wilsuoft/page/n13/mode/2up

WINTHROP, JOHN. History of New England, 1630-1649 (1825-6). New edition. Boston: Little, Brown & Company. 1853. 2 volumes. (Volume 1) https://archive.org/details/winthropsjournal00wint/page/n11/mode/2up (Volume 2) https://archive.org/details/winthropsjournal02wint

YOUNG, ALEXANDER. Chronicles of the first planters of the colony of Massachusetts Bay, 1623-1636. Boston: Little & Brown. 1846. https://archive.org/details/chroniclesoffirs00younuoft https://archive.org/details/chroniclesoffirs00youn https://archive.org/details/chroniclesoffirs00youn_0

Chronicles of the pilgrim fathers, 1602-1625. Boston: Little & Brown. 1841. https://archive.org/details/chroniclesofpilg00youn

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AMERICAN ARCHÆOLOGY.

ABBOTT, CHARLES. C. Primitive Industry; or illustrations of the handiwork, in stone, bone and clay, of the native races of the northern Atlantic seaboard of America. Salem: G. A. Bates. 1881. https://archive.org/details/primitiveindustry00abborich

Traces of an American autocthon. (American Naturalist, 10: 329. 1876.)

AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN AND ORIENTAL JOURNAL. Chicago. 1878-.

AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN SOCIETY. Proceedings. Boston.

AMERICAN JOURNAL OF ARCHÆOLOGY. Baltimore. 1885-7. Boston: Ginn & Company. 1888-.

ANTHROPOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON. Proceedings (1879-). (Smithsonian miscellaneous collections, volume 25-. Washington. 1882-.)

ATWATER, CALEB. Description of the antiquities discovered in Ohio and other western states. (Archæologia Americana, volume 1. Worcester: American Antiquities Society. 1820.) https://archive.org/details/descriptionofant0000atwa/page/n3/mode/2up

BACON, A. T. Ruins of the Colorado valley. (Lippincott's Magazine, 20: 521. 1880.)

BAILEY, Rev. JACOB. Observations and conjectures on the antiquities of America. (Collections of the Massachusetts Historical Society., volume 4. Boston. 1795.)

BALDWIN, JOHN D. Ancient America. New York: Harper & Brothers. 1872. https://archive.org/details/ancientamericain00bald/page/n7/mode/2up

Pre-historic nations. New York: Harper & Brothers. 1869. https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.115963

BANDELIER, ADOLF A historical introduction to studies among the sedentary Indians of New Mexico. Report on the ruins of the Pueblo of Pecos. Boston: A. Williams & Company. 1881. (Papers Archæological Institute of America.) https://archive.org/details/historicalintrod00bandrich/page/n7/mode/2up

Report of an archæological tour in Mexico, in 1881. Boston: Cupples, Upham & Company. 1884. https://archive.org/details/archaeologmexico02bandrich/page/n5/mode/2up

BARBER, EDWIN A. Ancient pueblos, Rio San Juan. (American Naturalist, 12: 526, 606. 1878.) https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/pdfplus/10.1086/272184

Pueblo pottery. (American Naturalist, 15: 453. 1881.)

Rock inscriptions of the "ancient pueblos." (American Naturalist, 10: 716. 1876.)

BAXTER, SYLVESTER. The father of the pueblos [Zuni]. (Harper's Magazine, 65: 72. 1882.)

BEAUCHAMP, W. M. Indian occupation of New York. (Science, 19: 76. 1892.) https://archive.org/details/aboriginaloccupa00beau https://archive.org/details/aboriginaloccupa00beau_0

BOSTON PUBLIC LIBRARY. America before Columbus. (Bibliographical note in Bulletins, volume 3, pages 65-71.)

BOSTON SOCIETY OF NATURAL HISTORY. Palæolithic implements of the valley of the Delaware; by C. C. Abbott and others (from Proceedings, volume 21). Cambridge. 1881.

BRINTON, DANIEL G. The books of Chilan Balam, the prophetic and historic records of the Mayas of Yucatan. Philadelphia: Edw. Stern & Company. 1882. https://archive.org/details/bookschilanbala00bringoog/page/n6/mode/2up https://archive.org/details/cu31924020440115

Essays of an Americanist. Philadelphia: Porter & Coates. 1890. https://archive.org/details/essaysofamerican00brin/page/n5/mode/2up

Prehistoric chronology of America. (Science, 10: 76. 1887.)

BRYANT, W. C. Interesting archæological studies in and about Buffalo. [Buffalo. 1890.]

BRYCE, GEORGE. The mound builders. Winnipeg Historical Society. 1884-5. https://archive.org/details/moundbuilders00bryc

CARR, LUCIEN. The mounds of the Mississippi valley, historically considered. Cincinnati: Robert Clarke & Company. 1883. https://archive.org/details/cu31924104076934

CHARNAY, DÉSIRÉ. Ancient cities of the new world, being voyages and explorations in Mexico and Central America, 1857-82; translated from the French by J. Gonino and H. S. Conant. New York: Harper & Brothers. 1887. https://archive.org/details/ancientcitiesofn00char_1

CONANT, A. J. Footprints of vanished races in the Mississippi valley. St. Louis: C. R. Barns. 1879. https://archive.org/details/footprintsvanrace00conarich

CUSHING, FRANK H. The nation of the willows [Zunis]. (Atlantic Monthly, 50: 362,541. 1882.)

Zuni social, mythic and religious systems. (Popular Science Monthly, 21: 186. 1882.)

DALL, W. H. On the remains of later pre-historic man obtained from caves in the Catherina Archipelago, Alaska (1876). (Smithsonian contributions to knowledge, volume 22. Washington. 1880.) https://archive.org/details/cu31924104074822/page/n3/mode/2up https://archive.org/details/ontheremains00dallrich/page/n5/mode/2up

EVERETT, J. T. The earliest American people. (Magazine of American History, 22: 114. 1889.) https://archive.org/details/magazineamerica05stevgoog https://archive.org/stream/magazineamerica05stevgoog/magazineamerica05stevgoog_djvu.txt

FISKE, JOHN. The discovery of America. Boston: Houghton, Mifflin & Company 1892. 2 volumes. (Volume 1) https://archive.org/details/discoveryamerica01fisk (Volume 2) https://archive.org/details/discoveryofameri02fisk

FORCE, M. F. Some early notices of the Indians of Ohio; to what race did the mound builders belong. Cincinnati: Robert Clarke & Company. 1879. https://archive.org/details/someearlynotice00ohiogoog

FOSTER, J. W. Prehistoric races of the United States of America: Chicago: S. C. Griggs & Company. 1873. https://archive.org/details/prehistoricraces00fostiala/page/n5/mode/2up

GANNETT, HENRY. Prehistoric ruins in southern Colorado. (Popular Science Monthly, 16: 666. 1880.)

HABEL, S. The sculptures of Santa Lucia Cosumalwhuapa in Guatemala (1878). (Smithsonian contributions to knowledge, volume 22. Washington. 1880.) (French) https://archive.org/details/sculpturesdesant00habe

HALE, HORATIO. Indian migrations, as evidenced by language; comprising the Huron-Cherokee stock, Dakota, Algonkins, Chahta-Muskoki, mound-builders, Iberians. Chicago. 1883. (American Association for the Advancement of Science., 1882, American Antiquarian, January, April, 1883.) https://archive.org/details/indianmigrations00halerich

HARVARD UNIVERSITY. Peabody Museum of American archæology and ethnology. Reports. Cambridge. 1868-.

HAVEN, SAMUEL F. Archæology of the United States. (1855). (Smithsonian contributions to knowledge, volume 8. Washington. 1856.) https://archive.org/details/archologyunited00havegoog/page/n5/mode/2up https://archive.org/details/archaeologyus00haverich

HIGGINSON, T. W. The first Americans. (Harper's Magazine, 65: 342. 1882.)

HUMBOLDT, ALEXANDER von. Researches concerning the Institutions and monuments of the ancient inhabitants of America; translated by Helen M. Williams. London: Longman 1814. 2 volumes. https://archive.org/details/researchesconcer01humb

JACKSON, W. H. Ancient ruins in southwestern Colorado. (American Naturalist, 10: 31. 1876.)

JONES, CHARLES C. Jr. Antiquities of the southern Indians, particularly of the Georgia tribes. New York: D. Appleton & Company. 1873. https://archive.org/details/antiquitiesofsou00jone_0/antiquitiesofsou00jone_0?view=theater

Monumental remains of Georgia, part 1. Savannah: J. M. Cooper & Company. 1861. https://archive.org/details/monumentalremain01jone

JONES, JOSEPH Explorations of the aboriginal remains of Tennessee (1876). (Smithsonian contributions to knowledge, volume 22. Washington. 1880.)

JOURNAL OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY AND ARCHÆOLOGY. Boston: Houghton, Mifflin & Co. 1891-.

KINGSBOROUGH, Lord. Antiquities of Mexico: comprising fac-similes of ancient Mexican paintings and hieroglyphics, etc., illustrated by many valuable inedited mss. London. R. Havell. 1830-48. 9 volumes. (Volume 1) https://archive.org/details/AntiquitiesMexi1King (Volume 2) https://archive.org/details/AntiquitiesMexiv2King (Volume 3) https://archive.org/details/AntiquitiesMexiv3King (Volume 4) https://archive.org/details/AntiquitiesMexi4King (Volume 5) https://archive.org/details/AntiquitiesMexi5King (Volume 6) https://archive.org/details/AntiquitiesMexi6King (Volume 7) https://archive.org/details/AntiquitiesMexi7King (Volume 8) https://archive.org/details/AntiquitiesMexiv8King (Volume 9) https://archive.org/details/AntiquitiesMexiv9King

LAPHAM, I. A. The antiquities of Wisconsin (1853), (Smithsonian contributions to knowledge, volume 7. Washington 1855.) https://archive.org/details/antiquitiesofwis00laph

LARKIN, FREDERICK. Ancient man in America. 1880.

MacLEAN, J. P. The mound builders. Cincinnati: Robert Clarke & Company. 1879. https://archive.org/details/moundbuilders00maclgoog/page/n10/mode/2up

MINDELEFF, V. Origin of pueblo architecture. (Science, 9: 593. 1887.) http://www.gutenberg.org/files/19856/19856-h/19856-h.htm

MITCHILL, Dr. SAMUEL. Communications [on American antiquities, ethnology, etc.]. (Archæologia Americana, volume 1. Worcester: American Antiquarian Society, 1820.)

MOOREHEAD, WARREN K. Fort Ancient, the great prehistoric earthwork of Warren County, Ohio; compiled from a careful survey. Cincinnati: Robert Clarke & Company. 1890. https://archive.org/details/fortancientgrea00moorgoog

NADAILLAC, Marquis de. Prehistoric America (1882); translated by N. d'Anvers. edited by W. H. Dall. New York: G. W. Putnam's Sons. 1884. https://archive.org/details/cihm_52727/page/n7/mode/2up

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READ, Matthew Canield Archæology of Ohio. Cleveland: Western Reserve History Society. [1888.] https://archive.org/details/archaeologyohio00readrich

REISS, W., and A. STÜBEL. The necropolis of Ancon in Peru. Berlin: A. Asher & Company. 1880-7. 8 volumes. https://archive.org/details/gri_33125012875635

RIO, Don ANTONIO DEL. Description of the ruins of an ancient city, discovered near Palengue, Guatemala (1787); translated: [also] Teatro Critico Americano, by Dr. Paul Felix Cabrera. London: Henry Berthoud. 1822. https://archive.org/details/descriptionofrui00roan_0

RIVERO, MARIANO EDW., and JOHN JAMES VON TSCHUDI. Peruvian antiquities: translated from the Spanish by Francis L. Hawks. New York: G. P. Putnam. 1853. https://archive.org/details/peruvianantiqui01tschgoog

ST. LOUIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE. Contributions to the archæology of Missouri, part 1: Pottery. Salem: George A. Bates. 1880.

SHORT, JOHN T. The North Americans of antiquity; their origin, migrations and type of civilization considered. New York: Harper & Brothers. 1880. https://archive.org/details/northamericansof00shorrich

STEPHENS, JOHN L. Incidents of travel in Central America, Chiapas, and Yucatan. New York: Harper & Brothers. 1843. 2 volumes. (Volume 1) https://archive.org/details/incidentsoftrave11841step (Volume 1) https://archive.org/details/incidentstravel07stepgoog (Volume 1) https://archive.org/details/b2935030x_0001 (Volume 2) https://archive.org/details/b2935030x_0002

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SQUIER E. G. Aboriginal monuments of New York. (1849). (Smithsonian contributions to knowledge, volume 2. Washington. 1851.) https://archive.org/details/aboriginalmonume0000squi/page/n5/mode/2up

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Nicaragua: its people, scenery, monuments. New York: D. Appleton & Company. 1852. 2 volumes. (Volume 1) https://archive.org/details/gri_nicaraguaits01squi (Volume 2) https://archive.org/details/nicaraguaitspeo05squigoog/page/n8/mode/2up

SQUIER E. G., and E. H. DAVIS. Ancient monuments of the Mississippi valley (1847). (Smithsonian contributions to knowledge, volume 1. Washington. 1848.) https://archive.org/details/ancientmonuments00squi

THOMAS, CYRUS. Catalogue of prehistoric works east of the Rocky Mountains. Washington. 1891. (Smithsonian Institute Bureau of Ethnology.) https://archive.org/details/catalogueprehis01thomgoog

The Cherokees In pre-Columbian times. New York: N. D. C. Hodges. 1800. https://archive.org/details/cherokeesinpreco00thom

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THRUSTON, GATES P. The antiquities of Tennessee and the adjacent states, and the state of aboriginal society in the scale of civilization represented by them. Cincinnati: Robert Clarke & Company. 1890. https://archive.org/details/antiquitiestenn00thurrich

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ADAIR, JAMES. The history of the American Indians, particularly those nations adjoining to the Mississippi, East and West Florida, Georgia, South and North Carolina, and Virginia. London: E. & C. Dilly. 1775. https://archive.org/details/historyofamerica00adairich

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BARROWS, William. The Indian's side of the Indian question. Boston: D. Lothrop & Company. 1887. https://archive.org/details/cihm_03383

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CHARLEVOIX, Father. Letters to the Dutchess of Lesdiguieres [containing account of the North American tribes, 1720-22; translated] London. 1763. https://archive.org/details/letterstodutche00char

COLDEN, CADWALLADER. History of the five Indian nations of Canada, which are dependent on the province of New York in America. New York. 1727. [Enlarged edition]. London. 1747. https://archive.org/details/McGillLibrary-131832-5200

COLTON, C. Tour of the American lakes in 1830. London: F. Westley & A. H. Davis. 1833. 2 volumes. (Volume 1) https://archive.org/details/tourofamericanla0000colt/page/n1/mode/2up (Volume 1) https://archive.org/details/touramericanlak00coltgoog (Volume 2) https://archive.org/details/touramericanlak01coltgoog

CRAIG, NEVILLE B., editor. The olden time. Pittsburg. 1846-8. Cincinnati: Robert Clarke & Company. 1876. 2 volumes. (Volume 1) https://archive.org/details/GR_3089-1/page/n5/mode/2up (Volume 2) https://archive.org/details/oldentimeamonth00craigoog

DODGE, Colonel RICHARD I. Our wild Indians: thirty-three years' personal experience among the red men of the great west; with an introduction by Gen. Sherman. Hartford: A. D. Worthington & Company. 1882. https://archive.org/details/ourwildindiansth00dodgrich

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HUMBOLDT ALEXANDER VON. Personal narrative of travels to the equinoctial regions of the new continent, 1799-1804, by Alexander de Humboldt and Aimé Bonpland; translated by Helen Maria Williams, volume 5, pages 315-334. London: Longman. 1826. 7 volumes. (Volume 1) https://archive.org/details/personalnarrati00humbgoog/page/n6/mode/2up (Volume 1, 2) https://archive.org/details/personalnarrati01humbgoog/page/n10/mode/2up

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KIP, Reverend WILLIAM INGRAHAM. The early Jesuit, missions in North America; composed and translated from the letters of the French Jesuits. New York: Wiley & Putnam. 1846. 2 volumes. https://archive.org/details/earlyjesuitmissi00kip/page/n7/mode/2up (Part 1) https://archive.org/details/earlyjesuitmissi00kipw_0 (Part 1) https://archive.org/details/earlyjesuitmissi02kipw

LAHONTAN, Baron. New voyages to North America, containing an account of the several nations of that vast continent, 1683-1694 (1703): [translated from the French.] 2d edition. London. 1735. 2 volumes. (Volume 1, 1905) https://archive.org/details/newvoyagestonort01laho (Volume 2, 1905) https://archive.org/details/newvoyagestonort02laho/page/n7/mode/2up

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LAKE MOHONK annual conference of friends of the Indian. Proceedings. Philadelphia. https://www.maquah.net/Historical/Mohonk.html (17th, 1890)https://archive.org/details/proceedingsannu00unkngoog (1896) https://archive.org/details/proceedingsannu01unkngoog/page/n6/mode/2up (17th, 1899) https://archive.org/details/proceedingsannu39unkngoog

McKENNEY, THOMAS L., and JAMES HALL. History of the Indian tribes of North America, with 120 portraits from the Indian gallery at Washington (1838-44). Philadelphia: D. Rice & A. N. Hart. 1854. 3 volumes. (Volume 1, 1872) https://archive.org/details/historyofindiant01mckerich/page/n7/mode/2up (Volume 2, 1872) https://archive.org/details/historyofindiant02mckerich/page/n7/mode/2up

MANYPENNY, GEORGE W. Our Indian wards. Cincinnati: Robert Clarke & Company. 1880. https://archive.org/details/Ayer_155_M25_1880

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MORGAN, LEWIS H. Houses and house-life of the American aborigines. Washington. 1881. (U. S. geographic and geological survey, Contributions to North American ethnology, volume 4.) https://archive.org/details/houseshouselifeo00morg_0

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NOTT, J. C., GEORGE. R. GLIDDON, and others. Indigenous races of the earth. Philadelphia: J. B. Lippincott & Co. 1857. https://archive.org/details/indigenousraceso01nott

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PARKMAN, FRANCIS. History of the conspiracy of Pontiac (1851). Boston: Little, Brown & Company. 1888. 2 volumes. https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/39253

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RADISSON, PETER ESPRIT. Voyages, being an account of his travels and experiences among the North American Indians, 1652-1684; with historical illustrations and an introduction by Gideon D. Scull. Boston: Prince Society. 1885. https://archive.org/details/voyagespeteresp00sculgoog/page/n14/mode/2up

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BENSON, HENRY C. Life among the Choctaw Indians. Cincinnati: L. Swormstedt & A. Poe. 1860. https://archive.org/details/lifeamongchoctaw00bens

BIART, LUCIEN. The Aztecs, their history, manners and customs (1885); translated from the French, by J. L. Garner. Chicago: A. C. McClurg & Co. 1887. (1919) https://archive.org/details/aztecstheirhist01garngoog

BLACKBIRD, ANDREW J. (MACK-AW-DE-BE-NESSY). History of the Ottawa and Chippewa Indians of Michigan, a grammar of their language, etc. Ypsilanti, Michigan. 1887. https://archive.org/details/completebothearl01blac

BLAKE, Lady. The Beothuks of Newfoundland. (Nineteenth Century, 24: 899. 1888.)

BRETT, Reverend W. H. The Indian tribes of Guiana. London: Bell & Daldy. 1868. https://archive.org/details/indiantribesofgu00bret

BRINTON, DANIEL G., editor. The annals of the Cakchiquels; the original text, with a translation, notes and introduction. Philadelphia. 1885. https://archive.org/details/bp_684862

The Lenâpé and their legends, with the complete text and symbols of the Walam Olum. Philadelphia. 1885. https://archive.org/details/lenptheirleg00brin

Editor. The Maya chronicles. Philadelphia: D. G. Brinton. 1882. https://archive.org/details/mayachronicles00briniala

Notes on the Floridian peninsula. Philadelphia: Jos. Sabin. 1859. https://archive.org/details/notesonfloridia01bringoog

The Shawnees and their migrations. (Historical magazine, volume. 10, January, 1866.)

BRODHEAD, JOHN Romeyn History of the state of New York., volume 1. New York: Harper & Brothers. 1853-71. 2 volumes. (Volume 1) https://archive.org/details/historyofstateof01brod_0 (Volume 1) https://archive.org/details/documentsrelativ01brod (Volume 2) https://archive.org/details/documentsrelativ02brod (Volume 3) https://archive.org/details/documentsrelativ03brod (Volume 4) https://archive.org/details/documentsrelativ04brod (Volume 5) https://archive.org/details/documentsrelativ05brod (Volume 6) https://archive.org/details/documentsrelativ06brod (Volume 7) https://archive.org/details/documentsrelativ07brod (Volume 8) https://archive.org/details/documentsrelativ08brod (Volume 9) https://archive.org/details/documentsrelativ09brod

CASWELL, Mrs. HARRIET S. Our life among the Iroquois Indians. Boston: Congregational Sunday School and Publishing Society. 1892. https://archive.org/details/ourlifeamongiroq00caswiala

CATON, JOHN D. The last of the Illinois, and a sketch of the Pottawatomies (1870). (Fergus historical series.) Chicago: Fergus Printing Company. 1876. https://archive.org/details/cihm_04014

CLAIBORNE, J. F. H. Mississippi, as a province, territory and state. Jackson, Mississippi: Power & Barksdale. 1880. volume 1. (Volume 1) https://archive.org/details/cu31924028795405

CLARKE, PETER D. Origin and traditional history of the Wyandotts, etc. Toronto: Hunter, Rose & Company. 1870. https://archive.org/details/origintraditiona00clar

COPWAY, GEORGE (KAH-GE-GA-GAH-BOWH), Chief. Traditional history and characteristic sketches of the Ojibway nation. London: C. Gilpin. 1850. https://archive.org/details/traditionalhist00bookgoog

COX, ROSS. Adventures on the Columbia River. London. 2 volumes. New York: J. & J. Harper. 1832. (Volume 1) https://archive.org/details/adventuresoncolu00coxr (Volume 1) https://archive.org/details/dli.bengal.10689.7215 (Volume 2) https://archive.org/details/cihm_33605

COZZENS, SAMUEL W. The marvellous country; or, three years in Arizona and New Mexico, the Apaches' home (1873). Boston: Lee & Shepard. https://archive.org/details/marvellouscountry00cozzrich/page/n9/mode/2up https://archive.org/details/marvellouscountr00cozz_0 https://archive.org/details/marvellouscountr00cozzrich

CRANTZ, DAVID. History of Greenland, book 4 (volume 1). London: 1767. 2 volumes. (Volume 1) https://archive.org/details/historyofgree01cran (Volume 2) https://archive.org/details/historyofgreen02cran

CRUISE OF THE REVENUE-STEAMER CORWIN IN ALASKA AND THE North West ARCTIC OCEAN IN 1881. Washington. 1883. (H. of Rep's, 47th congress, 2d session. Ex. doc. 105.) https://archive.org/details/cruiseofrevenues00muir

CUSHING, FRANK HAMILTON. My adventures in Zuni. (Century, volumes 3-4, December, 1882, February, May, 1883.) https://archive.org/details/zunifolktales00cushrich https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/48342 (Volume 8) https://archive.org/details/zuibreadstuff00cush/page/n3/mode/2up https://archive.org/details/zuifetiches00cush/page/n3/mode/2up https://archive.org/details/cu31924104094010

CUSTER, General. G. A. My life on the plains. New York: Sheldon & Co. 1874. https://archive.org/details/mylifeonplainsor00cust

DALL, WILLIAM. H. Tribes of the extreme northwest. (United States geography and geology survey. Contributions to North American ethnology, volume 1. Washington. 1877.) https://archive.org/details/tribesextremeno01dallgoog/page/n8/mode/2up

DALTON, HENRY G. History of British Guiana, volume 1. London: Longman. 1855. 2 volumes. (Volume 1) https://archive.org/details/historybritishg02daltgoog (Volume 2) https://archive.org/details/historybritishg03daltgoog https://archive.org/details/historybritishg01daltgoog/mode/2up

DEFOREST, JOHN W. History of the Indians of Connecticut (1853). Albany: J. Munsell. 1871. (1851) https://archive.org/details/historyindiansc00darlgoog (1851) https://archive.org/details/historyindiansc01darlgoog

DENTON, DANIEL. A brief description of New York; likewise a brief relation of the customs of the Indians there (1670). New York: William Gowans. 1845. https://archive.org/details/briefdescription11dent/page/n13/mode/2up

DOBRIZHOFFER, MARTIN An account of the Abipones, an equestrian people of Paraguay (1784); from the Latin. London: John Murray. 1822. 3 volumes. (Volume 1) https://archive.org/details/accountofabipone04dobr (Volume 2) https://archive.org/details/accountofabipone05dobr (Volume 3) https://archive.org/details/accountofabiponex03dobr (Volume 1) http://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/50629 (Volume 2) http://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/50621 (Volume 3) http://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/50623

DODGE. J. R. Red men of the Ohio valley, 1650-1795. Springfield, Ohio: Ruralist Publishing Company. 1860. https://archive.org/details/redmenofohiovall00dodg

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DORSEY, JAMES OWEN. The Biloxi Indians of Louisiana. Salem. 1893. https://archive.org/details/dictionaryofbilo0047dors/page/n5/mode/2up https://archive.org/details/jstor-534279/page/n1/mode/2up

The gentile system of the Siletz tribes. https://archive.org/details/jstor-532806/page/n1/mode/2up

Migrations of Siouan tribes. (American Naturalist, volume 20, March, 1886.) https://archive.org/details/jstor-2449921/page/n1/mode/2up

DUNBAR, J. B. The Pawnee Indians. (Magazine of American History, volume 4, April, 1880.)

EASTMAN, Mrs. MARY. Dahcotah; or life and legends of the Sioux around Fort Snelling. New York: John Wiley. 1849. https://archive.org/details/cihm_35037

EELLS, MYRON. Indians of Puget Sound. (American Antiquarian, 9: 1,271. 10: 26, 174. 1887-8.)

EGGLESTON, EDWARD, and LILLIE E. SEELYE. Pocahontas. New York: Dodd, Mead & Company. [1879.] https://archive.org/details/pocahontas00seel

GATSCHET, ALBERT S. The Klamath Indians of southwestern Oregon. Washington. 1890. 2 volumes. (United States geographical and geological survey. Contributions to North American ethnology, volume 2.) https://archive.org/details/klamathindiansof02gatsuoft https://archive.org/details/cihm_52744/page/n7/mode/2up

A migration legend of the Creek Indians, with a linguistic, historic and ethnographic introduction. Philadelphia: D. G. Brinton. 1884. volume 1. (Volume 1) http://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/49031 (Volume 1) https://archive.org/details/cu31924096785484 (Volume 1) https://archive.org/details/migrationcreek00gatsrich

GIBBS, GEORGE. Tribes of western Washington and northwestern Oregon. (United States geographical and geological survey. Contributions to North American ethnology, volume 1. Washington. 1877.) https://archive.org/details/cihm_14847/page/n9/mode/2up https://archive.org/details/tribesextremeno00dallgoog/page/n8/mode/2up

GOOKIN, DANIEL. Historical account of the doings and sufferings of the Christian Indians of New England. (Archæologia Americana, volume 2. Cambridge: American Antiquarian Society. 1886.) https://books.google.com/books/about/Historical_Account_of_the_Doings_and_Suf.html?id=Qmhumu27RG0C

Historical collections of the Indians in New England. (Collections of the Mass. Historical Society, volume 1. Boston. 1792.)

GRANT, Mrs. ANNE (of Laggan). Memoirs of an American lady [Mrs. Philip Schuyler] (1808). (Mohawks.) New York. https://archive.org/details/memoirsanameric03grangoog

GRINNELL, GEORGE BIRD. Pawnee hero stories and folk-tales, with notes on the origin, customs and character of the Pawnee people. New York: Forest and Stream Pub. Company, 1889. (1893) https://archive.org/details/pawneeherostorie00grinrich/page/n3/mode/2up

GWYTHER, G. Pueblo Indians. (Overland Monthly, 6: 260. 1871.)

HALE, HORATIO, editor. The Iroquois book of rites. Philadelphia: D. G. Brinton. 1883. https://archive.org/details/cu31924099385514

HARDACRE, EMMA C. The cliff-dwellers. (Scribner's Monthly, 17: 266. 1878.)

HAUGHTON, JAMES Additional memoir of the Moheagans. (Collections of the Massachusetts Historical Society, volume 9. Boston. 1804.) https://archive.org/details/memoirjameshaug00hauggoog

HEALY, Capt. M. A. Report of the cruise of the revenue marine steamer Corwin in the Arctic Ocean in 1885. Washington. 1887. (House of Representatives, 49th congress, 1st session. Ex. doc. 153.) https://archive.org/details/cihm_04426

HEARNE, SAMUEL. A journey from Hudson's Bay to the Northern Ocean, 1769-72. London: A. Strahan & T. Cadell. 1795. http://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/38404 https://archive.org/details/journeyfromprin00hear

HECKEWELDER, Reverend JOHN. History of the manners and customs of the Indian nations who once inhabited Pennsylvania, etc. (1818; new edition, with introduction by Reverend William C. Reichel. Memoirs of the Pennsylvania Historical Society, volume 12. Philadelphia. 1876). https://archive.org/details/histmannerscust00heckrich

Narrative of the mission of the United Brethren among the Delaware and Mohegan Indians, 1740-1808. Philadelphia: M'Carthy & Davis. 1820. https://archive.org/details/narrativeofmissi00heck

HENRY, ALEXANDER Travels and adventures in Canada and the Indian territories, 1760-76. New York: I. Riley. 1809. (1809) https://archive.org/details/travelsandadven00henrgoog/page/n8/mode/2up (1901) https://archive.org/details/travelsadventur00henr (1901) https://archive.org/details/travelsadventure00henr/page/n7/mode/2up

HILLARD, G. S. Life of captain John Smith. (Library of American biography: conducted by Jared Sparks. 1884. New York: Harper & Brothers. 10 volumes.) https://archive.org/details/lifeofcaptainjoh00simms https://archive.org/details/lifecaptainsmith00simmrich

HIND, HENRY YOULE. Explorations in the interior of the Labrador peninsula; the country of the Montagnais and Nasquapee Indians. London: Longman, Green & Company. 1863. 2 volumes. (Volume 1) https://archive.org/details/cihm_42676 (Volume 2) https://archive.org/details/explorationsinin021863hind (Volume 2) https://archive.org/details/cihm_42677

Narrative of the Canadian Red River exploring expedition of 1857, and of the Assinniboine and Saskatchewan expedition of 1858. London: Longman, Green & Company. 1860. 2 volumes. (Volume 1) https://archive.org/details/cihm_35699 (Volume 2) https://archive.org/details/narrativeofcanad02hind

HOWARD, OLIVER OTIS. Nez Percé Joseph; an account of his ancestors, his lands, etc. Boston: Lee & Shepard. 1881. https://archive.org/details/nezpercejoseph01howa https://archive.org/details/nezpercejosepha01howagoog

HUBBARD, J. NILES. An account of Sa·go-ye-wat·ha, or Red Jacket and his people, 1750-1830. Albany: Joel Munsell's Sons. 1886. https://archive.org/details/accountofsagoyew00hubbuoft http://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/7339

HUNTER, JOHN D. Manners and customs of several Indian tribes located west of the Mississippi. Philadelphia. 1823. https://archive.org/details/mannerscustoms00huntrich

Memoirs of a captivity among the Indians. London: Longman. 1824. https://archive.org/details/memoirsacaptivi01huntgoog https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.82979

HURT, Dr. GARLAND. Indians of Utah. (Simpson's Report of explorations, 1850. Washington. 1876.)

HUTCHINSON, THOMAS. J. The Parana. London: Edward Stanford. 1868. https://archive.org/details/paranwithincide00hutcgoog

IM THURN, EVERARD FERDINAND. Among the Indians of Guiana. London: Kegan Paul, Trench & Company. 1883. https://archive.org/details/amongindiansgui00thurgoog

IRVING, JOHN TREAT. Indian sketches taken during a United States expedition to make treaties with the Pawnee and other tribes of Indians in 1833 (1833). New York. G. P. Putnam's Sons. 1888. (Volume 1) https://archive.org/details/indiansketchest01irvigoog (Volume 2) https://archive.org/details/GR_2157-2 https://archive.org/details/indiansketchesta00irvirich/page/ii/mode/2up

JAMES, EDWIN, comp. Account of an expedition from Pittsburgh to the Rocky Mountains., 1819-20, under command of Major Long. Philadelphia: Carey & Lea. 1823. 2 volumes, with atlas. (Volume 1) https://archive.org/details/accountofexpedit01jame (Volume 2) https://archive.org/details/account02ofexpeditjame

JEWITT, JOHN R. Narrative of adventures and sufferings among the Indians of Nootka Sound. Ithaca, New York: Andrus, Gauntlett & Company. 1851. https://archive.org/details/narrativeofadven00jewi

JOGUES PAPERS, THE (1642-6); translated, with a memoir, by J. G. Shea. (Collections of the New York Historical Society, 2d series, volume 3. New York, 1857.)

JOHNSON, ELIAS, Tuscarora chief. Legends, traditions and laws of the Iroquois or six nations, and history of the Tuscarora Indians. Lockport. 1881. https://archive.org/details/cihm_24792 https://archive.org/details/bp_583763/page/3/mode/2up

JONES, Reverend PETER (KAHKEWAQUONABY). History of the Ojebway Indians. London: A. W. Bennett. 1861. https://archive.org/details/historyofojebway00jone

KEATING, WILLIAM H., comp. Narrative of an expedition to the source of St. Peter's River, Lake Winnepeek, &c., in 1823, under command of Major Long. Philadelphia: Carey & Lea. 1824. 2 volumes. (Volume 1) https://archive.org/details/narrativeofexped01keat https://archive.org/details/narrativeofanexp010860mbp/page/n7/mode/2up

KETCHUM, WILLIAM. Authentic and comprehensive history of Buffalo, with some account of its early inhabitants; comprising historic notices of the six nations [Senecas, chiefly]. Buffalo: Rockwell, Baker & Hill. 1864. 2 volumes. (Volume 1) https://archive.org/details/anauthenticandc01ketcgoog (Volume 1) https://archive.org/details/anauthenticandc00ketcgoog (Volume 2) https://archive.org/details/authenticcompreh02ketc

KIDDER, FREDERIC. The Abenaki Indians. (Collections of the Main Historical Society., volume 6. Portland: 1859.) http://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/25416 https://archive.org/details/abenakiindiansw00kiddgoog https://archive.org/details/cihm_36479

KIP, Reverend. WILLIAM INGRAHAM, compo. and translator. The early Jesuit missions in North America; from the letters of the Fr. Jesuits, with notes. New York: Wiley & Putnam. 1846. 2 volumes. Albany: J. Munsell. 1873. https://archive.org/details/earlyjesuitmissi00kip https://archive.org/details/earlyjesuitmissi00kipwrich

KOHL, J. G. Kitchi-gami; wanderings round Lake Superior [translated from the German]. [Ojibbewas.] London: Chapman & Hall. 1860. https://archive.org/details/kitchigamiwander00kohl/page/n7/mode/2up

LA ROCHEFOUCAULT LIANCOURT, Duc de. Travels through the United States, the country of the Iroquois and upper Canada, 1795-7. London. 1799. (Volume 1) https://archive.org/details/travelsthroughun01larorich

LE CLERCQ, Father CHRISTIAN. First establishment of the faith in New France (1691); now first translation, with notes, by John G. Shea. New York: J. G. Shea. 1881. 2 volumes. (Volume 1) https://archive.org/details/firstestablishme01lecl (Volume 2) https://archive.org/details/firstestablishme02lecl

LEWIS AND CLARKE. Journal to the Rocky Mountains., 1804-6, as related by Patrick Gass (1807). Dayton: Ells, Claflin & Company. 1847. https://archive.org/details/lewisclarksjourn00gassrich

LORD, JOHN K. The naturalist in Vancouver's Island and British Columbia, volume 2. London: Richard Bentley. 1866. 2 volumes. (Volume 1) https://archive.org/details/naturalistinvanc01lord (Volume 2) https://archive.org/details/naturalistinvanc00lord

LOSKIEL, GEORGE HENRY. History of the mission of the United Brethren among the Indians of North America; translated from the German by C. I. La Trobe. London 1794. https://archive.org/details/historyofmiss00losk https://archive.org/details/historyofmission01losk

LUMMIS, CHARLES. F. The land of poco tiempo [New Mexico]. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons. 1893. https://archive.org/details/cu31924028915036

McKENNA, J. A. J. Indians of Canada. (Catholic World, 53: 350. 1891.)

McKENNEY, THOMAS. L. Sketches of a tour to the lakes [1826], the Chippeway Indians, etc. Baltimore: F. Lucas, Jr. 1827. https://archive.org/details/sketchesatourto01mckegoog

MARCY, Colonel R. B. Thirty years of army life on the border. New York: Harper & Brothers. 1866. https://archive.org/details/thirtyyearsofarm01marc

MARCY, Colonel. R. B., and GEORGE. D. McCLELLAN. Exploration of the Red River of Louisiana In 1852. [Comanches and Kiowas.] Washington. 1854. (House of Representatives, 33d congress, 1st session Ex. doc) https://archive.org/details/explorationredr00mcclgoog

MARSHALL, ORSAMUS H. Historical writings relating to the early history of the west; with introduction by William L. Stone. Albany: Joel Munsell's Sons. 1887. https://archive.org/details/historicalwritin01mars https://archive.org/details/historicalwriti00marsgoog/page/n21/mode/2up https://archive.org/details/cihm_09926

The Niagara frontier; read before the Buffalo Historical Club. February 27, 1865. [Buffalo: The author.] https://archive.org/details/niagarafrontiere00mars/page/n5/mode/2up https://archive.org/details/cihm_40160

MATTHEWS, WASHINGTON. Ethnography and philology of the Hidatsa Indians. Washington. 1877. (United States geographical and geological survey. F. V. Hayden in charge: miscellaneous publications. No.7.) https://archive.org/details/ethnographyandp00mattgoog https://archive.org/details/ethnographyandp01mattgoog https://archive.org/details/ethnographyphilo00mattrich https://archive.org/details/rosettaproject_hid_morsyn-2

MEGAPOLENSIS, J., Jr. Short sketch of the Mohawk Indians in New Netherland (1644); translated, revised, with an introduction, by J. H. Brodhead. (Collections of the New York Historical Society. 2d series, volume 3. New York. 1857.)

MEMOIR OF THE PEQUOTS, etc. (Collections of the Massachusetts Historical Society., volume 10. Boston. 1800.)

MILLER, JOAQUIN. Unwritten history; life amongst the Modocs. Hartford: American Pub. Company. 1874. https://archive.org/details/amongstthemodocs00millrichs://archive.org/details/unwrittenhist00millrich https://archive.org/details/unwrittenhist00millrich

MILLER. WILLIAM. J. Notes concerning the Wampanoag tribe of Indians. Providence: S. S. Rider. 1880. https://archive.org/details/notesconcerningw00mill/page/n5/mode/2up

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MINER, LEWIS H. The valley of Wyoming. New York: Robert H. Johnston & Company. 1866. https://archive.org/details/valleywyomingro00minegoog https://archive.org/details/valleyofwyomingr00mine

MÖLLHAUSEN, BALDWIN. Diary of a journey from the Mississippi to the coasts of the Pacific, with a United States government expedition [1853-4]; translated by Mrs. Percy Sinnett. London: Longman. 1858. 2 volumes. (Volume 1) https://archive.org/details/diaryajourneyfr00sinngoog/page/n10/mode/2up (Volume 2) https://archive.org/details/Diaryjourneyfro11Moll

MORELET, ARTHUR. Travels in Central America; translated from the French by Mrs. M. F. Squier; introduction by M. G. Squier. London: Trübner & Company. 1871. New York: Henry Holt & Company. 1871. https://archive.org/details/travelsincentra00moregoog

MORGAN, LEWIS H. League of the Ho-dé-no-sau-nee, or Iroquois. Rochester: Sage & Brother. 1851. https://archive.org/details/leagueofhodnos00inmorg (2 volumes, 1922) https://archive.org/details/hodenosaunee00morgrich https://archive.org/details/leagueofhodnos00inmorg

Report on the fabrics, inventions, implements and utensils of the Iroquois, made to the regents of the university [of New York.], 1851.

NEW YORK STATE. Commissioners of Indian affairs, for the extinguishment of Indian titles. Proceedings, with introduction and notes by F. B. Hough. Albany: Joel Munsell. 1861. 2 volumes. (Volume 1) https://archive.org/details/proceedingsofcom01newy (Volume 1) https://archive.org/details/proceedingsofcom01newy_0 https://archive.org/details/bp_616923/page/n3/mode/2up

Regents of the university. Annual reports on the condition of the state cabinet of natural history and the historical and antiquarian collection. Albany.

Special committee to Investigate the Indian problem. Report. Albany. 1889.

NORMAN, B. M. Rambles in Yucatan; including a visit to the remarkable ruins of Chi-Chen, Kabah, Zayi, and Uxmal. New York: J. & H. G. Langley. 1842. http://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/57074 https://archive.org/details/ramblesinyucatan00norm

NUTTALL, THOMAS. Journal of travels into the Arkansa territory, 1819. Philadelphia. T. H. Palmer. 1821. https://archive.org/details/journaloftravels00nutt https://archive.org/details/journaloftravels00nutt_0

OBER, F. A. Acoma, a picturesque pueblo. (American architect, 29: 65. 1890.)

PALFREY, JOHN GORHAM. Compendious history of New England. 1494-1775 (1884). volume 1. Boston: Houghton, Mifflin & Company. 4 volumes. https://archive.org/details/historynewengla23palfgoog (Volume 1) https://archive.org/details/compendioushisto01palfuoft (Volume 2) https://archive.org/details/compendioushisto02palfuoft (Volume 3) https://archive.org/details/compendioushisto03palfuoft (Volume 4) https://archive.org/details/compendioushisto04palfuoft

PIDGEON, WILLIAM. Traditions of De-coo-dah, comprising extensive explorations, surveys and excavations of the remains of the mound builders in America. (1853). New York: Horace Thayer. 1858. https://archive.org/details/traditionsofdeco00inpidg

POWERS, STEPHEN. Tribes of California. Washington. 1877. (United States geographical and geological survey, Contributions to North American ethnology, volume 3.) https://archive.org/details/tribescaliforni00powegoog/page/n9/mode/2up

RAE, J. Indians of Hudson's Bay territories. (Journal of the Society of Arts, 30: 483. 1882.)

REPORT OF THE INTERNATIONAL POLAR EXPEDITION TO POINT BARROW, ALASKA [1881-2]. Washington. 1885. (House of Representatives, 48th congress, 2d session Ex. doc. 44.) https://archive.org/details/reportofpolar00inteuoft

RIGGS, Reverend Dr. STEPHEN R. Mary and I; forty years with the Sioux. Chicago: W. G. Holmes. 1880. https://archive.org/details/maryandifortyyea00riggrich

RINK, Dr. HENRY. The Eskimo tribes; their distribution and characteristics, with a comparative vocabulary (volume 11 of the "Middelelser om Gronland"). Copenhagen: C. A. Reitzel. London: Williams & Norgate. 1887. https://archive.org/details/eskimotribesthei00rinkrich

Tales and traditions of the Eskimo, with a sketch of their habits, religions, language, etc. (1866-71); translated from the Danish by the author, edited by Dr. R. Brown. Edinburgh: William Blackwood & Sons. 1875. https://archive.org/details/talestraditionso01rink

RONAN, PETER. Historical sketch of the Flathead Indian nation, 1813-1890. Helena: Journal Publishing Company. 1800. https://archive.org/details/historicalsketch00ronarich

RONDTHALER, Reverend EDWARD. Life of John Heckewelder; edited by B. H. Coates. Philadelphia: T. Ward. 1847. https://archive.org/details/lifeofjohnheckew00rondt

RUTTENBER. E. M. History of the Indian tribes of Hudson's River: their origin, manners, etc. Albany: J. Munsell. 1872. https://archive.org/details/ruttenberindians00ruttrich

SCHERMERHORN, J. F. Report, on the western Indians. (Collections of the Massachusetts Historical Society., 2d series, volume 2. Boston. 1814.) https://archive.org/details/correctviewoftha00sche

SCHOOLCRAFT, HENRY R. Notes on the Iroquois. Albany: E. H. Pease & Company. 1847. http://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/50053

Personal memoirs of a residence of thirty years with the Indian tribes on the American frontiers, 1-12-1842 (1831). Philadelphia: J. B. Lippincott & Company. http://www.fullbooks.com/Personal-Memoirs-Of-A-Residence-Of-Thirty.html

SCHWEINITZ, EDMUND DE. Life and times of David Zeisberger, apostle of the Indians. Philadelphia: J. B. Lippincott & Company. 1870. https://archive.org/details/cihm_26078

SEAVER, JAS. E. Life of Mary Jemison: Deh-he-wä-mis (1842). New York: Miller, Orton & Mulligan. 1856. (1918) https://archive.org/details/narrativeoflifeo00seavuoft

SHEA, J. G. Inquiries respecting the lost neutral nation. (Schoolcraft's Information respecting the Indian tribes, part. 4.) See SCHOOLCRAFT, HENRY R.

SHELDON, WILLIAM. Account of the Caraibs. (Archæologia Americana, volume 1. Worcester: American Antiquarian Society. 1820.)

SIMPSON, JAMES H. Journal of a military reconnoissance from Santa Fe to the Navajo country, 1840. [Navajos and Pueblos.] Philadelphia: Lippincott, Grambo & Company. 1852. https://archive.org/details/journalamilitar00simpgoog

The shortest route to California, with some account of the Indian tribes [of Utah]. Philadelphia: J. B. Lippincott & Company. 1860. https://archive.org/details/shortestroutetoc00simp

SITGREAVES, Capt. L. Report of an expedition down the Zuni and Colorado rivers. Washington, 1854. (Senate ex. doc's, 33d congress, 1st session.) https://archive.org/details/reportanexpidit00sitggoog https://archive.org/details/reportanexpedit00engigoog

SKENANDOAH. Letters on the Iroquois; addressed to Albert Gallatin. (Reprinted in volume 2 of Craig's "The olden time." Pittsburgh: Wright & Charlton. 1848. 2 volumes.)

SMET, Father P. J. DE. Letters and sketches, with a narrative of a year's residence among the Indian tribes of the Rocky Mountains. Philadelphia: M. Fithian. 1843. https://archive.org/details/letterssketchesw00smet

Oregon missions and travels over the Rocky Mountains. 1845-6. New York: Edward Dunigan. 1847. https://archive.org/details/cihm_40687

Western missions and missionaries. New York: T. W. Strong. 1859. https://archive.org/details/westernmissionsm01smet/page/n7/mode/2up https://archive.org/details/westernmissionsm0000smet/page/n3/mode/2up https://archive.org/details/westernmissionsa00smetrich

SMITH, Capt. JOHN. Description of Virginia. General historie of Virginia. (Works, 1608-1631); edited by E. Arber, Birmingham. 1884.

SPRAGUE, JOHN T. The origin, progress, and conclusion of the Florida war. New York: D. Appleton & Company. 1843. https://archive.org/details/originprogressa03spragoog

Historical and mythological traditions of the Algonquins, with a translation of the "Walumolum." (New York Historical Society.)

STONE, WILLIAM L. Life and times of Sa-go-ye-wat-ha, or Red Jacket (1841). Albany: J. Munsell. 1866. https://archive.org/details/lifeandtimessag01stongoog

Life of Joseph Brant--Thayendanegea (1838). Albany: J. Munsell. 1865. 2 volumes. (Volume 1) https://archive.org/details/lifeofjosephbran01ston (Volume 2) https://archive.org/details/lifejosephbrant03stongoog

STRACHEY, WILLIAM. Historie of travaile into Virginia Britannia. (1618?). London: Hakluyt Society. 1849. https://archive.org/details/historietravail00majogoog

SWAN, JAMES G. The Haidah Indians of Queen Charlotte's Islands (1874). (Smithsonian contributions to knowledge, volume 21. Washington. 1876.) https://archive.org/details/haidahindians00swanrich https://archive.org/details/cihm_23957

The Indians of Cape Flattery, Washington Territory. (1868). (Smithsonian contributions to knowledge, volume 16. Washington. 1870.) https://archive.org/details/indianscapeflatt00swanrich https://archive.org/details/b21914084

The northwest coast; or three years [1852-5] in Washington Territory. New York: Harper & Brothers. 1857. https://archive.org/details/northwestcoastor00swan

SULLIVAN, Honorable JAMES. History of the Penobscott Indians. (Collections of the Massachusetts Historical Society., volume 9. Boston. 1804.)

VETROMILE, EUGENE. The Abnaki Indians. (Collections of the Maine Historical Society., volume 6. Portland. 1859.) https://archive.org/details/abnakisandtheir00vetrgoog

The Abnakis and their history. New York: J. B. Kirker. 1866. https://archive.org/details/abnakistheirhist00vetr

WILLIAMSON, WILLIAM. D. Indian tribes in New England (1839) (Collections of the Massachusetts Historical Society., 3d series, volume 9. 1846.)

WILLIS, WILLIAM. The language of the Abnaquies or eastern Indians: appendix by C. E. Potter. (Collections of the Maine Historical Society, volume 4. Portland. 1856.)

WILSON, DANIEL. The Huron-Iroquois of Canada. (Translation Royal Society, Canada. 1884.) https://archive.org/details/cihm_29131/page/n5/mode/2up

ZEISBERGER, DAVID, Moravian Missionary, Ohio. Diary [1781-1798]; translated from the German and edited by E. F. Bliss. Cincinnati: Robert Clarke & Company. 1885. 2 volumes. (Volume 1) https://archive.org/details/diaryofdavid01zeisrich (Volume 2) https://archive.org/details/diaryofdavid02zeisrich

ZYLYFF. The Ponca chiefs, an Indian's attempt to appeal from the tomahawk to the courts; with introduction by Inshtatheamba (Bright Eyes), and dedication by Wendell Phillips. Boston: Lockwood, Brooks & Company. 1880. https://archive.org/details/poncachiefsanin01tibbgoog

AUSTRIA.

GENERAL.

BRYCE, JAMES. The holy Roman empire (1864). London: Macmillan & Company. (1871) http://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/44101 (1915) https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.213191

COXE, WILLIAM. History of the house of Austria, 1218-1792 (1807). London: H. G. Bohn. 3 volumes. (Volume 1) https://archive.org/details/historyofhouseof01coxeuoft (Volume 2) https://archive.org/details/historyofhouseof02coxeiala (Volume 2) https://archive.org/details/historyofhouseof02coxeuoft (Volume 3) https://archive.org/details/historyofhouseof03coxeuoft (Volume 2) https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.458810

DUNHAM, S. A. History of the Germanic empire. London: Longman. 1834. 3 volumes. (Volume 1) https://archive.org/details/historyofgermani01dunhiala/page/n5/mode/2up (Volume 2) https://archive.org/details/historyofgermani02dunhiala/page/n9/mode/2up (Volume 3) https://archive.org/details/historyofgermani03dunhiala/page/n7/mode/2up

DYER, THOMAS HENRY. History of modern Europe, 1453-1857. London: John Murray, 4 volumes; George Bell & Sons. 4 volumes. (Volume 1) https://archive.org/details/historyofmodern01dyer (Volume 2) https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.40858

FREEMAN, EDWARD A. The historical geography of Europe. London: Longmans, Green & Company. 1881. 2 volumes. https://archive.org/details/b31349638 (Volume 1) https://archive.org/details/historicalgeog01free (Volume 1) https://archive.org/details/historicalgeogra01freeuoft (Volume 1) https://archive.org/details/historicalgeogra01free (Volume 2) https://archive.org/details/historicalgeogra02freeuoft

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GOULD, S. BARING. GOULD, S. BARING-GOULD. The story of Germany (Story of the nations). London: T. F. Unwin. New York: G. P. Putnam's Sons. 1886. https://archive.org/details/storyofgermany00bari/page/n11/mode/2up

HEEREN, A. H. L. A manual of the history of the political system of Europe and its colonies (1809); translated from the German. London: H. G. Bohn. (Volume 2) https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.501449/page/n1/mode/2up https://archive.org/details/manualofhistoryo00heerrich https://archive.org/details/manual00ofhistoryoheerrich

KOCH, CHRISTOPHER WILLIAM. The revolutions of Europe (1771); from the French. London: Whittaker & Company. 1839. https://archive.org/details/revolutionseurop00koch

KOHLRAUSCH, FRIEDRICH. History of Germany (1816); [translated by J. D. Haas]. London: Chapman & Hall. 1844. https://archive.org/details/ahistorygermany00haasgoog New York: Appleton. 1845. https://archive.org/details/ahistorygermany00haasgoog

LATHAM, ROBERT. G. Ethnology of Europe. London: J. Van Voorst. 1852. https://archive.org/details/ethnologyofeurop00lathuoft/page/n5/mode/2up

The nationalities of Europe. volume 2. London: W. H. Allen & Company. 1863. 2 volumes. (Volume 2) https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.31028

LAVISSE, ERNEST. General view of the political history of Europe; translated by Charles Gross. London: Longmans, Green & Company. 1891. https://archive.org/details/generalviewofpol00laviiala https://archive.org/details/generalviewofpol00lavi https://archive.org/details/generalviewpoli01grosgoog

LEGER, LOUIS. History of Austro-Hungary (1666; 2d edition., 1878-88); translated by Mrs. Birkbeck Hill. London: Rivingtons. New York: G. P. Putnam's Sons. https://archive.org/details/historyofaustroh00lege https://archive.org/details/ahistoryaustroh00hillgoog

LEWIS, CHARLTON T. History of Germany. New York: Harper & Brothers. 1874. https://archive.org/details/historyofgermany00lewi https://archive.org/details/ahistorygermany00unkngoog

LODGE, RICHARD. History of modern Europe, 1453-1878. London: J. Murray. 1885. New York: Harper Brothers. https://archive.org/details/historyofmoderne00lodguoft https://archive.org/details/historyofmoderne017244mbp https://archive.org/details/cu31924027987092

MALLESON, G. B. Lost opportunities of the house of Austria (Royal Historical Society Papers, volume 12, page 225).

MENZEL, WOLFGANG. History of Germany (1824-5); translated from 4th German edition by Mrs. G. Horrocks. London: H. G. Bohn. 1848. 3 volumes. (Volume 1) https://archive.org/details/historyofgermany01menzuoft (Volume 2) https://archive.org/details/historyofgermany02menzuoft (Volume 3) https://archive.org/details/historyofgermany03menzuoft (Volume 1) https://archive.org/details/historygermanyf00menzgoog

MICHELET, JULES. A summary of modern history (1827); translated and continued by M. C. M. Simpson. London: Macmillan & Co. 1875. https://archive.org/details/asummarymodernh00michgoog https://archive.org/details/summaryofmodernh00michuoft

RUSSELL, WILLIAM. History of modern Europe (1779). London: George Routledge & Sons. 4 volumes. Whittaker & Company. 4 volume New York: Harper Brothers. 3 volumes. (Volume 3) https://archive.org/details/historymoderneu01jonegoog

(Epitomized) https://archive.org/details/russellshistory00russgoog/page/n6/mode/2up

SIME, JAMES. History of Germany. London: Macmillan & Company. 1874. New York: Henry Holt & Co. 1874. https://archive.org/details/historyofgermany00simerich https://archive.org/details/historygermany00simegoog https://archive.org/details/historyofgermany0000unse_n7z0/page/n7/mode/2up https://archive.org/details/historyofgermany00sime https://archive.org/details/historyofgermany00simeuoft

SMYTH, WILLIAM. Lectures on modern history (1840). London: H. G. Bohn. 2 volumes. (Volume 1) https://archive.org/details/dli.bengal.10689.3073 (Volume 2) https://archive.org/details/dli.bengal.10689.2173

TURNER, SAMUEL EPES. Sketch of the Germanic constitution from early times to the dissolution of the empire. New York: G. P. Putnam's Sons. 1888. https://archive.org/details/asketchgermanic01turngoog

VOLTAIRE, F. M. AROUET DE. Annals of the empire, from the time of Charlemagne (Works, translated by Smollett and others, 1761, volumes 20-22). (Volume 1) https://archive.org/details/annalsoftheempir01voltuoft

MEDIÆVAL.

BUSK, Mrs. WILLIAM. Mediæval popes, emperors, kings and crusaders. London: Hookham & Sons. 1854-6. 4 volumes. (Volume 1) https://archive.org/details/medivalpopesem01buskuoft (Volume 1) https://archive.org/details/medivalpopesemp01buskgoog (Volume 2) https://archive.org/details/medivalpopesem02buskuoft (Volume 2) https://archive.org/details/MediaevalPopesEmperorsKingsCrusadersV2 (Volume 3) https://archive.org/details/medivalpopesemp00buskgoog (Volume 3) https://archive.org/details/medivalpopesem03buskuoft (Volume 4) https://archive.org/details/medivalpopesem04buskuoft (Volume 4) https://archive.org/details/MediaevalPopesEmperorsKingsCrusadersV4

COMYN, Sir ROBERT. History of the western empire, from Charlemagne to Charles V. [800-1520], London: W. H. Allen & Company. 1841. 2 volumes. (Volume 1) https://archive.org/details/historywesterne01unkngoog (Volume 1) https://archive.org/details/historywesterne02unkngoog/page/n7/mode/2up

DURUY, VICTOR. The history of the middle ages (1839); translated by E. H. and M. D. Whitney, with notes and revisions by G. B. Adams. New York: Henry Holt & Company. 1891. https://archive.org/details/historyofmiddlea00dur https://archive.org/details/historyofmiddlea00duru https://archive.org/details/historyofmiddlea00duruuoft https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.169467

HALLAM, HENRY. View of the state of Europe during the middle ages. London: J. Murray. 3 volumes. New York: W. J. Widdleton. 3 volumes. (Volume 3) http://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/33540 (Volume 1) https://archive.org/details/viewofstateofe01hall (Volume 1) https://archive.org/details/viewofstateofeur01hall (Volume 2) https://archive.org/details/viewofstateofeur02hall (Volume 3) https://archive.org/details/viewofstateofeur03hall https://archive.org/details/cu31924027794654/page/n3/mode/2up

HENDERSON, ERNEST F., Select historical documents of the middle ages. London: George Bell & Sons. 1892. New York: Macmillan & Company. https://archive.org/details/selecthistorical00hendiala https://archive.org/details/ErnestF.HendersonSelectHistoricalDocumentsOfTheMiddleAges https://archive.org/details/cu31924014186161 https://archive.org/details/selectdocuments00hend https://archive.org/details/cu31924014186526

STUBBS, WILLIAM. Seventeen lectures on the study of medieval and modern history. Oxford: Clarendon Press. 1886. New York: MacMillan & Company. 1887. https://archive.org/details/seventeenlecture00stub https://archive.org/details/cu31924027811011

The Constitutional History of England in Its Origin and Development https://archive.org/details/constitutionalh04stubgoog

The Early Plantagenets https://archive.org/details/earlyplantagenet01stub

16TH-17TH CENTURIES.--REFORMATION--THIRTY YEARS WAR.

CUST, Sir EDWARD, Lives of the warriors of the thirty years' war. London: John Murray. 1865. 2 volumes. (Volume 1) https://archive.org/details/livesofwarriorspt1custuoft/page/n3/mode/2up (Volume 2) https://archive.org/details/livesofwarriorspt2custuoft

GARDINER, SAMUEL R. The thirty years' war, 1618-1648 (Epochs of history). London: Longmans, Green & Company. 1874. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons. http://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/40082 https://archive.org/details/gardinersamuel00rawsrich https://archive.org/details/thirtyyearswar00gardgoog https://archive.org/details/thirtyyearswar1600gard https://archive.org/details/thirtyyearswar1600

GINDELY, ANTON. History of the thirty years' war (1869-80): translated by A. Ten Brook. London: Richard Bentley & Son. New York: G. P. Putnam's Sons. 1884. 2 volumes. (Volume 1) https://archive.org/details/historythirtyye01broogoog

MALDEN, HENRY E. Vienna, 1683. London: Kegan Paul & Company. 1883. http://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/56023

MARTIN, HENRI. History of France: age of Louis XIV.(1860); translated by Mrs. Booth. Boston: Walker, Wise & Company. 2 volumes. (Volume 1) https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_nW0PAAAAYAAJ (Volume 2) https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_T30PAAAAYAAJ

MAXWELL, Sir WILLIAM STIRLING. Don John of Austria, 1547-78. London: Longmans, Green & Company. 1883. 2 volumes. (Volume 1) https://archive.org/details/donjohnofaustria01stiriala (Volume 2) https://archive.org/details/donjohnofaustria02stiruoft

MITCHELL, Lieut.-Colonel J. Life of Wallenstein. London: Jas. Fraser. 1837. https://archive.org/details/dli.granth.94161

PRAET, JULES VAN. Essays on the political history of the 15th, 16th and 17th centuries; [translated] edited by Sir Edmund Head. London: Richard Bentley. 1868. https://archive.org/details/dli.granth.77834

RANKE, LEOPOLD VON. Ferdinand I. and Maximilian II. of Austria (1832); translated by Lady Duff Gordon. London: Longman. (1853) https://archive.org/details/FerdinandIAndMaximilianIIOfAustria/page/n5/mode/2up

History of the Latin and Teutonic nations, 1494-1514 (1824); translated from the German by Philip A. Ashworth. London: George Bell & Sons. 1887. (1887) https://archive.org/details/historyoflatinte01rank (1909) https://archive.org/details/historyoflatinte00rankiala (1915) https://archive.org/details/historyoflatinte00rankrich

History of the reformation in Germany (1839-43); translated by Sarah Austin. London: Longman. 1845-7. 3 volumes. (1905) https://archive.org/details/historyreformat02rankgoog/page/n6/mode/2up

ROBERTSON, WILLIAM. History of the reign of the emperor Charles V. (1769); with life of the emperor after his abdication, by W. H. Prescott (1857). London: George Routledge & Sons. 2 volumes. (Volume 1)https://archive.org/details/historyreignemp42robegoog (Volume 1) https://archive.org/details/historyofreign01robe (Volume 2) https://archive.org/details/reignofemperorch02robe https://archive.org/details/historyreignemp27robegoog/page/n10/mode/2up

Philadelphia: J. B. Lippincott Co. 3 volumes. (Volume 1) https://archive.org/details/historyofreignof1864robe (Volume 2) https://archive.org/details/historyofreignof02robe (Volume 3) https://archive.org/details/historyofreignof03robe

New York: Hopkins & Seymore (Volume 1) https://archive.org/details/historyofreignof01robguat/page/n11/mode/2up (Volume 3) https://archive.org/details/historyofreignof03roguat/page/n11/mode/2up https://archive.org/details/historyreignemp32robegoog/page/n6/mode/2up (Complete) https://archive.org/details/historyofreignof00roberich

TRENCH, RICHARD C. Gustavus Adolphus in Germany. London: Macmillan & Company, 2d edition. 1872. (Volume 1)https://archive.org/details/historyreignemp27robegoog/page/n10/mode/2up

18TH CENTURY.

BRACKENBURY. Colonel. C. B. Frederick the great. New York: G. P. Putnam's Sons. 1884. https://archive.org/details/frederickgreat00bracrich

BROGLIE, Duc de. Frederick the great and Maria Theresa (1882); translated by Mrs. Hoey and J. Lillie. London: Low, Marston & Company. 2 volumes. (Volume 1) https://archive.org/details/frederickgreatma01brogiala (Volume 2) https://archive.org/details/frederickgreatma02brogiala

CARLYLE, THOMAS. History of Friedrich II. of Prussia, called Frederick the great (1858).

London: Chapman & Hall. (Volume 2) https://archive.org/details/historyfriedric37carlgoog (Volume 3) https://archive.org/details/historyfriedric27carlgoog (Volume 4) https://archive.org/details/historyfriedric47carlgoog (Volume 5) https://archive.org/details/historyfriedric57carlgoog

New York: Harper & Brothers. (Books 1-19) http://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/2102 (Books 1-21) http://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/25808 (Books 1-5) https://archive.org/details/historyoffriedri01carl (Books 8-10) https://archive.org/details/friedrichiiofpru03carl (Books 15-17) https://archive.org/details/historyfriedric47carlgoog

New York: Dana Estes and Charles E. Lauriat (Volume 1) https://archive.org/details/historyoffriedri01carl/page/n7/mode/2up (Volume 2) https://archive.org/details/historyoffriedri02carl (Volume 3) https://archive.org/details/historyoffriedri03carl (Volume 4) https://archive.org/details/historyoffriedri04carl (Volume 5) https://archive.org/details/historyoffriedri05carl (Volume 6) https://archive.org/details/historyoffriedri06carl

New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons (Volume 4) https://archive.org/details/historyfriedric54carlgoog/page/n12/mode/2up (Volume 7) https://archive.org/details/historyfriedric51carlgoog/page/n8/mode/2up

Leipzig: Bernard Tauchnitz (Volume 8) https://archive.org/details/historyfriedric10carlgoog

CUST, Sir Edward. Annals of the wars of the eighteenth century. London: John Murray. 1862. 5 volumes. (Volume 1) https://archive.org/details/annalswarseight05custgoog (Volume 2) https://archive.org/details/annalswarseight00custgoog/page/n4/mode/2up (Volume 3) https://archive.org/details/annalswarseight03custgoog (Volume 4) https://archive.org/details/annalswarseight04custgoog (Volume 5) https://archive.org/details/dli.granth.106238/page/n1/mode/2up

DOVER, Lord. Life of Frederick II., King of Prussia. London: Longman. 1831. New York: Harper & Brothers. 2 volumes. (Volume 1) https://archive.org/details/lifeoffredericse01doveuoft (Volume 2) https://archive.org/details/lifefredericsec08dovegoog/page/n8/mode/2up

FREDERICK II. (called the great). History of my own times [1740-1745]. (Posthumous works; translated by Thomas Holcroft. Volume 1. London. 1789. 13 volumes.) (Part 1) https://archive.org/details/vol2historyofmyo00fred (Part 2) https://archive.org/details/vol3historyofmyo00fred

See CARLYLE, THOMAS for mant other volumes.

GERARD, JAMES W. The peace of Utrecht, 1713-14. New York: G. P. Putnam's Sons. 1885. https://archive.org/details/cu31924027872021 https://archive.org/details/peaceutrechtahi00geragoog

KUGLER, FRANCIS. Pictorial history of Germany during the reign of Frederick the great (1842); [translated from the German.]. London: H. G. Bohn. https://archive.org/details/pictorialhistor00menzgoog

LECKY, WILLIAM EDWARD HARTPOLE History of England in the 18th century. London: Longmans, Green & Company. 1878-90. 8 volumes. New York: D. Appleton & Company. 1878-90. 8 volumes. https://archive.org/details/historyofengland06leck/page/n7/mode/2up

LONGMAN, F. W. Frederick the great and the seven years' war. London: Longmans, Green & Company. 1881. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons. https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.41356 https://archive.org/details/frederickgreatse01long

MACAULAY, Lord. Essays: Frederick the great (1842). London: Longmans, Green & Company. Boston: Estes & Lauriat. 3 volumes. New York: Maynard, Merrill, &: Co. https://archive.org/details/essayonfredericg00maca/page/n5/mode/2up

MALLESON, Colonel. G. B. Loudon [Austrian fieldmarshal, 1743-1790]. London: Chapman & Hall. 1884.

MALLET, CHARLES EDWARD. The French revolution. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons. 1893. (1897) https://archive.org/details/frenchrevolution00malluoft (1893) https://archive.org/details/frenchrevolution00mallrich (1893) https://archive.org/details/cu31924031498128/page/n9/mode/2up

MIGNET, FRANÇOIS A. M. History of the French revolution, 1789-1814 (1824); translated from the French. London: George Bell & Sons. https://archive.org/details/historyoffrenchr00migniala https://archive.org/details/historyfrenchre03conggoog

RAUMER, FREDERICK VON. Contributions to modern history: Frederick II. and his times. London: Charles Knight & Company. 1837. https://archive.org/details/dli.granth.91064

SCHLOSSER, F. C. History of the eighteenth century, etc.; translated by D. Davison. London: Chapman & Hall. 1843-52. 8 volumes. (Volume 3) https://archive.org/details/historyeighteen03schlgoog (Volume 4) https://archive.org/details/historyeighteen08schlgoog (Volume 5) https://archive.org/details/historyeighteen01schlgoog/page/n6/mode/2up (Volume 6) https://archive.org/details/historyeighteen02schlgoog/page/n5/mode/2up

STANHOPE, Earl (Lord Mahon). History of England 1713-1783 (1836-53). London: John Murray. 7 volumes. (Volume 1) https://archive.org/details/historyofengland01stan (Volume 2) https://archive.org/details/historyofengland02stan (Volume 3) https://archive.org/details/historyofengland03stan/page/n5/mode/2up (Volume 4) https://archive.org/details/historyofengland04stan (Volume 5) https://archive.org/details/historyofengland05stan/page/n7/mode/2up (Volume 7) https://archive.org/details/historyofengland07stan/page/n5/mode/2up

Leipzig: Bernhard Tauchnitz 1853 (Volume 5) https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_4CFTAAAAcAAJ

STEPHENS, H. MORSE. History of the French revolution. Volumes 1-2. London: Rivingtons. 1880. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons. 1886-91. (Volume 1) https://archive.org/details/historyoffrenchr01stepiala (Volume 1) https://archive.org/details/cu31924024309480

THIERS, LOUIS ADOLPHE. History of the French revolution (1827); translated by F. Shoberl (1854). New York: D. Appleton & Co. 4 volumes. London: Richard Bentley & Son. 5 volumes. (Volume 1) https://archive.org/details/historyoffrench01thieuoft (Volume 2) https://archive.org/details/historyoffrench02thieuoft (Volume 3) https://archive.org/details/v3a4historyoffren03thieuoft (Volume 4) https://archive.org/details/historyoffrench04thieuoft (Volume 5) https://archive.org/details/historyoffrench05thieuoft

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19TH CENTURY: EARLY AND GENERAL.

ADAMS, Major CHARLES. Great campaigns in Europe from 1796 to 1870; edited by C. C. King. Edinburgh: William Blackwood & Sons. 1877. https://archive.org/details/greatcampaignssu00adam

ALISON, Sir ARCHIBALD. History of Europe, 1789-1815 (1842). 10 volumes. (Volume 3) https://archive.org/details/historyeuropefr04alisgoog/page/n8/mode/2up https://archive.org/details/historyeuropefr37alisgoog

History of Europe, 1815-1852 (1857). 6 volumes.

Edinburgh: William Blackwood & Sons. New York: Harper & Brothers.

(Volume 1) https://archive.org/details/historyofeurope701alisuoft (Volume 2) https://archive.org/details/historyofeuropef02alis (Volume 3) https://archive.org/details/historyofeurope703alisuoft (Volume 4) https://archive.org/details/historyofeuropefc04alis (Volume 5) https://archive.org/details/historyofeurope705alisuoft (Volume 6) https://archive.org/details/historyofeurope706alisuoft (Volume 7) https://archive.org/details/historyofeurope707alisuoft (Volume 8) https://archive.org/details/historyofeuropef08alisuoft (Volume 9) https://archive.org/details/historyofeuropef09alisuoft (Volume 9) https://archive.org/details/historyofeuropef09alis (Volume 11) https://archive.org/details/historyofeuropef11alisiala (Volume 12) https://archive.org/details/historyofeuropef12alisuoft (Volume 13) https://archive.org/details/historyofeuropef13alisuoft (Volume 14) https://archive.org/details/historyofeuropef14alisuoft (Volume 15) https://archive.org/details/historyofeuropef15alisuoft (Volume 16) https://archive.org/details/historyofeuropef16alisuoft (Volume 17) https://archive.org/details/historyofeuropef17alisuoft (Volume 20) https://archive.org/details/historyofeuropef00alisuoft

AUSTRIA. (North British Review, 44: 27. 1866.)

AUSTRIAN NATIONALITIES AND AUSTRIAN POLICY: by J. W. W. (Fraser's Magazine., 52: 163. 1855).

DUFF, MOUNTSTUART E. GRANT-. Studies in European politics. Edinburgh: Edmonston &: Douglas. 1866. https://archive.org/details/studiesineurope01duffgoog https://archive.org/details/studiesineurope00duffgoog https://archive.org/details/cu31924027804248 https://archive.org/details/studiesineuropea00granrich

FYFFE, C. A. History of modern Europe. [1792-1878]. London: Cassell. 1880-1889. 3 volumes. New York: Henry Holt & Company. 1881-90. 3 volumes. http://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/6589 (Volume 1) https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.172930/page/n1/mode/2up https://archive.org/details/historyofmoderne00fyffuoft

JOURNAL OF A NOBLEMAN: his residence at Vienna during the congress. London. Philadelphia. 1833.

KELLY, WALTER K. History of the house of Austria [1792-1848]. And Genesis or the late Austrian revolution: by an officer of state [Count Hartig]: translated from the German. London: H. G. Bohn. 1853. https://archive.org/details/historyofhouseof00kell

KOHL, J. G. Austria. London: Chapman & Hall. 1844. https://archive.org/details/austriaviennapr00kohlgoog

KRAUSE, GUSTAV. The growth of German unity. London: David Nutt. 1892.

LANFREY, P. History of Napoleon I. [translated from the French.]. London: Macmillan & Company. 1871-1879. 4 volumes. (Volume 1) https://archive.org/details/historyofnapoleo01lanfuoft (Volume 2) https://archive.org/details/historyofnapole02lanf (Volume 2) https://archive.org/details/cu31924024344834 (Volume 3) https://archive.org/details/historyofnapoleo03lanfuoft (Volume 3) https://archive.org/details/cu31924024344842 (Volume 4) https://archive.org/details/historyofnapoleo04lanfuoft

MALLESON, Colonel George Bruce Life of Prince Metternich (Statesmen series). London: W. H. Allen & Company. 1888. Philadelphia: J. B. Lippincott &: Co. https://archive.org/details/lifeofprincemett00mall https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.181131/page/n3/mode/2up https://archive.org/details/lifeofprincemet00mall https://archive.org/details/lifeofprincemett00malluoft (Audio) https://archive.org/details/life_of_prince_metternich_1611_librivox/lifeofprincemetternich_01_malleson_128kb.mp3

METTERNICH, Prince. Memoirs [1773-1835]: translated by Mrs. Alexander Napier. London: Bentley & Son. 1880. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons. https://archive.org/details/memoirsofprincem02mettuoft/page/n5/mode/2up (Volume 1) https://archive.org/details/dli.granth.85236/page/ii/mode/2up

MICHIELS, ALFRED, compiler. Secret history of the Austrian government. London: Chapman & Hall. 1859. https://archive.org/details/secrethistoryau00michgoog

MÜLLER, W. Political history of recent times, 1816-1875: translated [and continued to 1881] by John P. Peters. New York: Harper & Brothers. 1882. https://archive.org/details/politicalhistory00mulliala https://archive.org/details/politicalhistory00mluoft https://archive.org/details/politicalhistory00ml https://archive.org/details/politicalhistor00mlgoog https://archive.org/details/politicalhistor00petegoog

ROSE, J. H. A century of continental history, 1780-1880. London: Edward Stanford. 1889. https://archive.org/details/cu31924031187804

STEPHENS, H. MORSE. Europe, 1789-1815. London: Macmillan &: Company. 1893. https://archive.org/details/europestephens00step

THIERS, ADOLPH. History of the consulate and the empire of France under Napoleon (1845-62); translated by D. F. Campbell and H. W. Herbert. London: George Bell & Sons (Bohn). Philadelphia: J. B. Lippincott & Company. 5 volumes.

Philadelphia: J. B. Lippincott & Company. 1894. 12volumes. (Volume 1) https://archive.org/details/consulateempire01thieiala (Volume 2) https://archive.org/details/historyconsulate02thieiala (Volume 3) https://archive.org/details/consulateempire03thieiala (Volume 4) https://archive.org/details/consulateempire04thieiala (Volume 5) https://archive.org/details/historyofconsula05thieiala (Volume 6) https://archive.org/details/consulateempire06thieiala (Volume 7) https://archive.org/details/consulateempire07thieiala (Volume 8) https://archive.org/details/consulateempire08thieiala (Volume 9) https://archive.org/details/historyofconsula09thieiala (Volume 10) https://archive.org/details/consulateempire10thieiala (Volume 11) https://archive.org/details/consulateempire11thieiala (Volume 12) https://archive.org/details/consulateempire12thieiala

TURNBULL, PETER EVAN Austria, volume 2. London: J. Murray. 1840. 2 volumes. (Volume 1) https://archive.org/details/austria01turngoog/page/n10/mode/2up (Volume 2) https://archive.org/details/austria02turngoog/page/n8/mode/2up (Volume 1) https://archive.org/details/austria03turngoog/page/n6/mode/2up

VEHSE, E. Memoirs of the court, aristocracy and diplomacy of Austria; translated by Franz Demmler. London: Longmans, Green & Company. 1856. 2 volumes. (Volume 1) https://archive.org/details/memoirsofcourtof01vehs (Volume 2) https://archive.org/details/memoirsofcourtar02vehs (Volume 1) https://archive.org/details/memoirscourtari00vehsgoog (Volume 2) https://archive.org/details/cu31924088019769

WEIR, ARCHIBALD. The historical basis of modern Europe, 1760-1815. London: Swan Sonnenschein & Company. 1886. https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.501799 https://archive.org/details/cu31924027892375/page/n7/mode/2up

WHITMAN, SIDNEY. The realm of the Habsburgs. London: William Heinemann. 1893. https://archive.org/details/realmofhabsburgs00whituoft https://archive.org/details/realmofhabsburgs00whit/page/n9/mode/2up

AUSTRIA, HUNGARY, AND THE LESSER PROVINCES.

AUSTRIA AND HUNGARY. (Edinburgh Review, 90: 230. 1849.)

AUSTRIA IN 1848-9. (Edinburgh Review, 174: 440. 1891.)

BONER, CHARLES. Transylvania. London: Longmans. 1865. https://archive.org/details/transylvaniaits00bonegoog

BRACE, CHARLES LORING. Hungary in 1851. New York: Charles Scribner. 1852. https://archive.org/details/hungaryin1851wit01brac https://archive.org/details/hungaryinwithan00bracgoog

FELBERMANN, LOUIS. Hungary and its people. London: Griffith, Farran & Company. 1892. https://archive.org/details/hungaryitspeople00felb

FITZMAURICE, EDMOND. Home rule in Austria. (Nineteenth Century, 19: 443. 1886.)

FORSTER, FLORENCE A. Francis Deak, Hungarian statesman: a memoir, with a preface by M. E. Grant Duff. London: Macmillan & Company. 1880. https://archive.org/details/francisdekhung00arnoiala https://archive.org/details/francisdekhunga00forgoog

GERARD, E. The land beyond the forest [Transylvania]. Edinburgh: William Blackwood & Sons. 1888. 2 volumes. http://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/57168 https://archive.org/details/cu31924011921420

GODKIN, EDWIN LAWRENCE History of Hungary and the Magyars. London: Cassell & Company. 1858. https://archive.org/details/historyofhungary00godkiala/page/n5/mode/2up https://archive.org/details/historyhungarya00godkgoog

GÖRGEI, ARTHUR. My life and acts in Hungary, 1848-9 (1851); translated. London: D. Bogue. New York: Harper & Brothers. https://archive.org/details/mylifeactsinhung00grrich

HOFER, ANDREW, Memoirs of the life of: containing an account of the transactions in the Tyrol, 1809: [translated] from the German, by C. H. Hall. London: John Murray. 1820. https://archive.org/details/memoirslifeandr00unkngoog

KAY, DAVID. Home rule in Austria-Hungary. (Nineteenth Century, 19: 41. 1886.) https://archive.org/details/austriahungary00kayd

KLAPKA, General GEORGE. Memoirs of the war of independence in Hungary: translated by O. Wenckstern. London: C. Gilpin. 1850. 2 volumes. (Volume 1) https://archive.org/details/memoirswarindep00wencgoog (Volume 2) https://archive.org/details/memoirswarindep01klapgoog

MAURICE, C. EDMUND. Revolutionary movement of 1848-9 in Italy, Austria-Hungary, and Germany. London: George Bell & Sons. 1887. New York: G. P. Putnam's Sons. http://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/39540 https://archive.org/details/revolutionarymo00maurgoog/page/n16/mode/2up https://archive.org/details/revolutionarymo00unkngoog https://archive.org/details/therevolutionary39540gut https://archive.org/details/revolutionarymov00maur

PAGET, JOHN. Travels in Hungary and Transylvania (1839). London: John Murray. Philadelphia: Lea &: Blanchard. 1850. 2 volumes. (Volume 1) https://archive.org/details/dli.granth.36331/page/n5/mode/2up (Volume 1) https://archive.org/details/agw0321.0001.001.umich.edu/page/II/mode/2up (Volume 2) https://archive.org/details/hungarytransylva02pageuoft/page/n7/mode/2up (Volume 2) https://archive.org/details/agw0321.0002.001.umich.edu/page/n9/mode/2up

PARDOE, Miss JULIA. The city of the Magyar, or Hungary and her institutions in 1839-40. London: G. Virtue. 1840. 3 volumes. https://books.google.com/books/about/The_City_of_the_Magyar.html?id=S-gDAAAAQAAJ

PATON, A. A. Highlands and islands of the Adriatic. London: Chapman & Hall. 1849. 2 volumes. (Volume 1) https://archive.org/details/highlandsislands00pato/page/n7/mode/2up (Volume 2) https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_dzbNcsnbcOYC

PATTERSON, ARTHUR J. The Magyars: their country and institutions. London: Smith, Elder & Company. 1869. 2 volumes. (Volume 1) https://archive.org/details/magyarstheircou06johngoog (Volume 2) https://archive.org/details/magyarstheircou01pattgoog/page/n6/mode/2up

PLANTA, JOSEPH. History of the Helvetic confederacy. London. 1800. 2 volumes. (Volume 1) https://archive.org/details/historyofhelveti01planuoft (Volume 1) https://archive.org/details/historyhelvetic02plangoog (Volume 2) https://archive.org/details/historyhelvetic00plangoog

PRICE, BONAMY. Austria and Hungary. (Fraser's Magazine, 65: 384. 1862.)

STILES, WILLIAM. H. Austria in 1848-49. New York: Harper & Brothers. 1852-3. 2 volumes. (Volume 1) https://archive.org/details/cu31924088020130 (Volume 2) https://archive.org/details/cu31924088020148

SZABAD, EMERIC. Hungary, past and present. Edinburgh: A. & C. Black. 1854. https://archive.org/details/hungarypastandp00szabgoog/page/n4/mode/2up

VÁMBÉRY, ARMINIUS, and LOUIS HEILPRIN. The story of Hungary (Story of the nations). New York: G. P. Putnam‘s Sons. 1886. London: T. F. Unwin. https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/50038 https://archive.org/details/storyhungary00vmgoog

AUSTRIA AND ITALY.

ARRIVABENE, Count CHARLES. Italy under Victor Emmanuel. London: Hurst & Blackett. 1862. 2 volumes. (Volume 1) https://archive.org/details/italyundervicto02arrigoog (Volume 2) https://archive.org/details/italyundervicto01arrigoog

AUSTRIA, FRANCE AND ITALY. (Edinburgh Review., 109: 286. 1859.)

AUSTRIANS AND ITALY, The. (Eclectic Magazine, 47: 538. 1859.)

GARIBALDI, GIUSEPPE. Autobiography: translated by A. Werner, with a supplement by Jessie White Mario. London: Walter Smith & Innes. 1889. 3 volumes. (Volume 1) https://archive.org/details/autobiography01gariuoft (Volume 2) https://archive.org/details/autobiographygi00garigoog (Volume 3) https://archive.org/details/autobiographygi02garigoog

ITALY AND THE WAR OF 1866. (Westminster Review., 87: 275. 1867.)

MAZADE, CHARLES DE. Life of Count Cavour. New York: G. P. Putnam's Sons. 1877. https://archive.org/details/lifeofcountcavou00mazarich

O'CLERY, PATRICK KEYES (The Chevalier O'Clery). The history of the Italian revolution: 1st period, 1796-1849. London: R. Washbourne. 1875. https://archive.org/details/historyitalianr00oclgoog/page/n8/mode/2up

The making of Italy. London: Kegan, Paul, Trench &: Company. 1892. https://archive.org/details/makingofitaly18500oclerich https://archive.org/details/makingitaly00oclgoog https://archive.org/details/makingofitaly0000ocle/page/n5/mode/2up https://archive.org/details/makingitaly01oclgoog

PROBYN, JOHN W. Italy, 1815-1890. London: Cassell & Company. 1891. https://archive.org/details/italyfromfallofn00probuoft https://archive.org/details/italyfromfallna00probgoog https://archive.org/details/italyfromfallna01probgoog/italyfromfallna01probgoog

STUART, R. The Austro-Italian alliance. (Contemporary Review., 40: 921. 1881.)

THAYER, WILLIAM ROSCOE. The dawn of Italian Independence, 1814-1849. Boston: Houghton, Mifflin & Company. 1893. 2 volumes. (Volume 1) https://archive.org/details/dawnofitalianind01thayiala (Volume 2) https://archive.org/details/dawnofitalianind02thayuoft (Volume 1) https://archive.org/details/cu31924082152400

WRIGHTSON, RICHARD HEBER A history of modern Italy [1800-50]. London: Richard Bentley. 1855. https://archive.org/details/dli.ministry.14113 https://archive.org/details/ahistorymoderni00wriggoog

AUSTRIA AND GERMANY.

CHESNEY, C. C. The campaign [of 1866] in western Germany. (Blackwood's Magazine, 101: 68. 1867.)

DICEY, EDWARD. The battlefields of 1866. London: Tinsley Brothers. 1866. https://archive.org/details/battlefields00dicegoog

The campaign [of 1866] in Germany. (Macmillan's Magazine, 14: 386. 1866.)

DICEY, EDWARD T. The campaign [of 1866] in Italy. (Macmillan's Magazine, 14: 241. 1866.)

GERMANIC CONFEDERATION and the Austrian empire, The. (Quarterly Review, 84: 425. 1849.)

HOZIER, H. M. The seven weeks' war [1866]. London: Macmillan & Company. 1867. 2 volumes. (Volume 2) https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.238477 (Volume 2) https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.45879

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LOWE, CHARLES. Prince Bismarck; an historical biography. London: Cassell & Company. 1885. 2 volumes. https://archive.org/details/princebismarkhis00lowe (Volume 1) https://archive.org/details/princebismarckhi01loweiala (Volume 1) https://archive.org/details/princebismarcka01lowegoog (Volume 2) https://archive.org/details/princebismarcka02lowegoog

MALET, Sir ALEXANDER. The overthrow of the Germanic confederation. 1866. London: Longmans, Green & Company. 1870. https://archive.org/details/dli.granth.77288/page/iii/mode/2up

MALLESON, Colonel. G. B. Battle-fields of Germany. London: W. H. Allen & Company. 1884. https://archive.org/details/battlefieldsofge00malluoft

The refounding of the German empire. 1848-71. London: Seeley & Company. 1893. https://archive.org/details/refoundingofgerm00mall

PRUSSIAN CAMPAIGN OF 1806. (Edinburgh Review, 125: 187. 1867.)

RECONSTRUCTION OF GERMANY, The. (North British Review, 51: 133. 1869.)

SIMON, EDOUARD. The emperor William and his reign: from the French. London: Remington & Company. 1886. 2 volumes. (Volume 1) https://archive.org/details/emperorwilliama00simogoog (Volume 2) https://archive.org/details/emperorwilliama01simogoog

SYBEL, HEINRICH VON. The founding of the German empire by William I.; based chiefly upon Prussian state documents: translated by M. L. Perrin and G. Bradford, Jr. New York: T. Y. Crowell & Company. 1890-1. 5 volumes. (Volume 1) https://archive.org/details/foundingofgerman01sybe (Volume 2) https://archive.org/details/foundingofgerman02sybe (Volume 3) https://archive.org/details/foundingofgerman03sybe (Volume 4) https://archive.org/details/foundingofgerman04sybe (Volume 5) https://archive.org/details/foundingofgerman05sybe (Volume 6) https://archive.org/details/foundingofgerman06sybe

AUSTRIA AND THE SOUTHEASTERN STATES.

AUSTRIA, GERMANY AND THE EASTERN QUESTION. (Fraser's Magazine, 96: 407. 1877.)

AUSTRIA'S POLICY IN THE EAST. (Macmillan's Magazine, 53: 17. 1885.)

BOURCHIER, John David The sentinel of the Balkans. (Fortnightly Review., 52: 806. 1889.)

CAILLARD, VINCENT. The Bulgarian imbroglio. (Fortnightly Review, 44: 740. 1885.)

FREEMAN; EDWARD A. The house of Habsburg in south-eastern Europe. (Fortnightly Review., 51: 839. 1889.)

The position of the Austrian power in south-eastern Europe. (Contemporary Review., 41: 727. 1882.)

THE RECONSTRUCTED EMPIRE: ITS REFORMS AND POLICY.

AUSTRIA AND HER REFORMS. (Westminster Review. 75: 503. 1801.)

AUSTRIA SINCE SADOWA. (Quarterly Review., 131: 90. 1871.)

AUSTRIA: qu'est que c'est l'Austrie? (Edinburgh Review, 40: 298. 1824.)

AUSTRIAN CONSTITUTIONALISM. (Westminster Review, 79: 333. 1863.)

BEUST, FRIEDRICH F. Count VON. Memoirs [1830-1885]. London: Remington & Company. 2 volumes. (Volume 1) https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.92139 (Volume 2) https://archive.org/details/memoirsfriedric00beusgoog

BOURCHIER, J. D. The heritage of the Hapsburgs. (Fortnightly Review, 51: 377. 1889.)

DILKE, Sir CHARLES W. Position of European politics, 1887. London: Chapman & Hall. 1887.. https://archive.org/details/dli.granth.91722

DUALISM IN AUSTRIA. (Westminster Review, 88: 431. 1867.)

FOREIGN POLICY AND INTERNAL ADMINISTRATION OF THE AUSTRIAN EMPIRE. (Foreign Quarterly Review, 18: 257. 1837.)

NATIONAL LIFE AND THOUGHT. London: T. F. Unwin. 1891.

---------- End: History for Ready Reference ----------

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