Chapter II (part 1 of 3)
Article 71. With the reservation of the rights of the people and of the Cantons (Articles 89 and 121), the supreme authority of the Confederation is exercised by the Federal Assembly, [Assemblée fédérale; Bundesversammlung] which consists of two sections or councils, to wit: (A) The National Council. (B) The Council of States.
Article 72. The National Council [Conseil National; Nationalrath] is composed of representatives of the Swiss people, chosen in the ratio of one member for each 20,000 persons of the total population. Fractions of upwards of 10,000 persons are reckoned as 20,000. Every Canton, and in the divided Cantons every Half-Canton, chooses at least one representative.
Article 73. The elections for the National Council are direct. They are held in federal electoral districts, which in no case shall be formed out of parts of different Cantons.
Article 74. Every Swiss who has completed twenty years of age, and who in addition is not excluded from the rights of a voter by the legislation of the Canton in which he is domiciled, has the right to vote in elections and popular votes. Nevertheless, the Confederation by law may establish uniform regulations for the exercise of such right.
Article 75. Every lay Swiss citizen who has the right to vote is eligible for membership in the National Council.
Article 76. The National Council is chosen for three years, and entirely renewed at each general election.
Article 77. Representatives to the Council of States, members of the Federal Council, and officials appointed by that Council, shall not at the same time be members of the National Council.
Article 78. The National Council chooses out of its own number, for each regular or extraordinary session, a President and a Vice-President. A member who has held the office of President during a regular session is ineligible either as President, or Vice-President at the next regular session. The same member may not be Vice-President during two consecutive regular sessions. When the votes are equally divided the President has a casting vote; in elections he votes in the same manner as other members.
Article 79. The members of the National Council receive a compensation out of the federal treasury.
Article 80. The Council of States [Conseil des États; Ständerath] consists of forty-four representatives of the Cantons. Each Canton appoints two representatives; in the divided Cantons, each Half-State chooses one.
Article 81. The members of the National Council and those of the Federal Council may not be representatives in the Council of States.
Article 82. The Council of States chooses out of its own number for each regular or extraordinary session a President and a Vice-President. Neither the President nor the Vice-President can be chosen from among the representatives of the Canton from which the President has been chosen for the regular session next preceding. Representatives of the same Canton cannot occupy the position of Vice-President during two consecutive regular sessions. When the votes are equally divided the President has a casting vote; in elections he votes in the same manner as the other members.
Article 83. Representatives in the Council of States receive a compensation from the Cantons.
Article 84. The National Council and the Council of States consider all the subjects which the present Constitution places within the competence of the Confederation, and which are not assigned to any other federal authority.
Article 85. The subjects within the competence of the two Councils are particularly the following:
1. Laws on the organization of and election of federal authorities.
2. Laws and ordinances on subjects which by the Constitution are placed within the federal competence.
3. The salary and compensation of members of the federal governing bodies and of the Federal Chancery; the creation of federal offices and the determination of salaries therefor.
4. The election of the Federal Council, of the Federal Court, and of the Chancellor, and also of the Commander-in-chief of the federal army. The Confederation may by law assign to the Federal Assembly other powers of election or of confirmation.
5. Alliances and treaties with foreign powers, and also the approval of treaties made by the Cantons between themselves or with foreign powers; nevertheless the treaties made by the Cantons shall be brought before the Federal Assembly only in case the Federal Council or another Canton protests.
6. Measures for external safety and also for the maintenance of the independence and neutrality of Switzerland; the declaration of war and the conclusion of peace.
7. The guaranty of the Constitution and of the territory of the Cantons; intervention in consequence of such guaranty; measures for the internal safety of Switzerland, for the maintenance of peace and order; amnesty and pardon.
8. Measures for the preservation of the Constitution, for carrying out the guaranty of the cantonal constitutions, and for fulfilling federal obligations.
9. The power of controlling the federal army.
10. The determination of the annual budget, the audit of public accounts, and federal ordinances authorizing loans.
11. The superintendence of federal administration and of federal courts.
12. Protests against the decisions of the Federal Council upon administrative conflicts. (Article 113.)
13. Conflicts of jurisdiction between federal authorities.
14. The amendment of the federal Constitution.
Article 86. The two Councils assemble annually in regular session upon a day to be fixed by the standing orders. They are convened in extra session by the Federal Council upon the request either of one fourth of the members of the National Council, or of five Cantons.
Article 87. In either Council a quorum is a majority of the total number of its members.
Article 88. In the National Council and in the Council of States a majority of those voting is required.
Article 89. Federal laws, enactments, and resolutions shall be passed only by the agreement of the two Councils. Federal laws shall be submitted for acceptance or rejection by the people, if the demand is made by 30,000 voters or by eight Cantons. The same principle applies to federal resolutions which have a general application, and which are not of an urgent nature.
Article 90. The Confederation shall by law establish the forms and intervals to be observed in popular votes.
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Article 91. Members of either Council vote without instructions.
Article 92. Each Council takes action separately. But in the case of the elections specified in Article 85, § 4, of pardons, or of deciding a conflict of jurisdiction (Art. 85, § 13), the two Councils meet in joint session, under the direction of the President of the National Council, and a decision is made by the majority of the members of both Councils present and voting.
Article 93. Measures may originate in either Council, and may be introduced by any of their members. The Cantons may by correspondence exercise the same right.
Article 94. As a rule, the sittings of the Councils are public.
Article 95. The supreme direction and executive authority of the Confederation is exercised by a Federal Council [Conseil fédéral; Bundesrath], composed of seven members.
Article 96. The members of the Federal Council are chosen for three years by the Councils in joint session from among all the Swiss citizens eligible to the National Council. But not more than one member of the Federal Council shall be chosen from the same Canton. The Federal Council is chosen anew after each election of the National Council. Vacancies which occur in the course of the three years are filled at the first ensuing session of the Federal Assembly, for the remainder of the term of office.
Article 97. The members of the Federal Council shall not, during their term of office, occupy any other office, either in the service of the Confederation or in a Canton, or follow any other pursuit, or exercise a profession.
Article 98. The Federal Council is presided over by the President of the Confederation. There is a Vice-President. The President of the Confederation and the Vice-President of the Federal Council are chosen for one year by the Federal Assembly from among the members of the Council. The retiring President shall not be chosen as President or Vice-President for the year ensuing. The same member shall not hold the office of Vice-President during two consecutive years.
Article 99. The President of the Confederation and the other members of the Federal Council receive an annual salary from the federal treasury.
Article 100. A quorum of the Federal Council consists of four members.
Article 101. The members of the Federal Council have the right to speak but not to vote in either house of the Federal Assembly, and also the right to make motions on the subject under consideration.
Article 102. The powers and the duties of the Federal Council, within the limits of this Constitution, are particularly the following:
1. It conducts federal affairs, conformably to the laws and resolutions of the Confederation.
2. It takes care that the Constitution, federal laws and ordinances, and also the provisions of federal concordats, be observed; upon its own initiative or upon complaint, it takes measures necessary to cause these instruments to be observed, unless the consideration of redress be among the subjects which should be brought before the Federal Court, according to Article 113.
3. It takes care that the guaranty of the cantonal constitutions be observed.
4. It introduces bills or resolutions into the Federal Assembly, and gives its opinion upon the proposals submitted to it by the Councils or the Cantons.
5. It executes the laws and resolutions of the Confederation and the judgments of the Federal Court, and also the compromises or decisions in arbitration upon disputes between Cantons.
6. It makes those appointments which are not assigned to the Federal Assembly, Federal Court, or other authority.
7. It examines the treaties made by Cantons with each other, or with foreign powers, and approves them, if proper. (Article 85, § 5.)
8. It watches over the external interests of the Confederation, particularly the maintenance of its international relations, and is, in general, intrusted with foreign relations.
9. It watches over the external safety of Switzerland, over the maintenance of independence and neutrality.
10. It watches over the internal safety of the Confederation, over the maintenance of peace and order.
11. In cases of urgency, and when the Federal Assembly is not in session, the Federal Council has power to raise the necessary troops and to employ them, with the reservation that it shall immediately summon the Councils if the number of troops exceeds two thousand men, or if they remain in arms more than three weeks.
12. It administers the military establishment of the Confederation, and all other branches of administration committed to the Confederation.
13. It examines such laws and ordinances of the Cantons as must be submitted for its approval; it exercises supervision over such departments of the cantonal administration as are placed under its control.
14. It administers the finances of the Confederation, introduces the budget, and submits accounts of receipts and expenses.
15. It supervises the conduct of an the officials and employees of the federal administration.
16. It submits to the Federal Assembly at each regular session an account of its administration and a report of the condition of the Confederation, internal as well as external, and calls attention to the measures which it deems desirable for the promotion of the general welfare. It also makes special reports when the Federal Assembly or either Council requires it.
Article 103. The business of the Federal Council is distributed by departments among its members. This distribution has the purpose only of facilitating the examination and despatch of business; decisions emanate from the Federal Council as a single authority.
Article 104. The Federal Council and its departments have power to call in experts on special subjects.
Article 105. A Federal Chancery [Chancellerie fédérale; Bundeskanzlei], at the head of which is placed the Chancellor of the Confederation, conducts the secretary's business for the Federal Assembly and the Federal Council. The Chancellor is chosen by the Federal Assembly for the term of three years, at the same time as the Federal Council. The Chancery is under the special supervision of the Federal Council. A federal law shall provide for the organization of the Chancery.
Article 106. There shall be a Federal Court [Tribunal fédéral; Bundesgericht] for the administration of justice in federal concerns. There shall be, moreover, a jury for criminal cases. (Article 112.)
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Article 107. The members and alternates of the Federal Court shall be chosen by the Federal Assembly, which shall take care that all three national languages are represented therein. A law shall establish the organization of the Federal Court and of its sections, the number of judges and alternates, their term of office, and their salary.
Article 108. Any Swiss citizen eligible to the National Council may be chosen to the Federal Court. The members of the Federal Assembly and of the Federal Council, and officials appointed by those authorities, shall not at the same time belong to the Federal Court. The members of the Federal Court shall not, during their term of office, occupy any other office, either in the service of the Confederation or in a Canton, nor engage in any other pursuit, nor practice a profession.
Article 109. The Federal Court organizes its own Chancery and appoints the officials thereof.
Article 110. The Federal Court has jurisdiction in civil suits:
1. Between the Confederation and the Cantons.
2. Between the Confederation on one part and corporations or individuals on the other part, when such corporations or individuals are plaintiffs, and when the amount involved is of a degree of importance to be determined by federal legislation.
3. Between Cantons.
4. Between Cantons on one part and corporations or individuals on the other part, when one of the parties demands it, and the amount involved is of a degree of importance to be determined by federal legislation. It further has jurisdiction in suits concerning the status of persons not subjects of any government (heimathlosat), and the conflicts which arise between Communes of different Cantons respecting the right of local citizenship. [Droit de cité.]
Article 111. The Federal Court is bound to give judgment in other cases when both parties agree to abide by its decision, and when the amount involved is of a degree of importance to be determined by federal legislation.
Article 112. The Federal Court, assisted by a jury to decide upon questions of fact, has criminal jurisdiction in:
1. Cases of high treason against the Confederation, of rebellion or violence against federal authorities.
2. Crimes and misdemeanors against the law of nations.
3, Political crimes and misdemeanors which are the cause or the result of disturbances which occasion armed federal intervention.
4. Cases against officials appointed by a federal authority, where such authority relegates them to the Federal Court.
Article 113. The Federal Court further has jurisdiction:
1. Over conflicts of jurisdiction between federal authorities on one part and cantonal authorities on the other part.
2. Disputes between Cantons, when such disputes are upon questions of public law.
3. Complaints of violation of the constitutional rights of citizens, and complaints of individuals for the violation of concordats or treaties. Conflicts of administrative jurisdiction are reserved, and are to be settled in a manner prescribed by federal legislation. In all the fore-mentioned cases the Federal Court shall apply the laws passed by the Federal Assembly and those resolutions of the Assembly which have a general import. It shall in like manner conform to treaties which shall have been ratified by the Federal Assembly.
Article 114. Besides the cases specified in Articles 110, 112, and 113, the Confederation may by law place other matters within the jurisdiction of the Federal Court; in particular, it may give to that court powers intended to insure the uniform application of the laws provided for in Article 64.
Article 115. All that relates to the location of the authorities of the Confederation is a subject for federal legislation.
Article 116. The three principal languages spoken in Switzerland, German, French, and Italian, are national languages of the Confederation.
Article 117. The officials of the Confederation are responsible for their conduct in office. A federal law shall enforce this responsibility.
Chapter III. (These four articles abrogated by the four articles following them, 118-122.) Article 118. The Federal Constitution may at any time be amended.
[Article 119. _Amendment is secured through the forms required for passing federal laws._]
[Article 120. When either Council of the Federal Assembly passes a resolution for amendment of the Federal Constitution and the other Council does not agree; or when fifty thousand Swiss voters demand amendment, the question whether the Federal Constitution ought to be amended is, in either case, submitted to a vote of the Swiss people, voting yes or no. If in either case the majority of the Swiss citizens who vote pronounce in the affirmative, there shall be a new election of both Councils for the purpose of preparing amendments.]
[Article 121. _The amended Federal Constitution shalt be in force when it has been adopted by the majority of Swiss citizens who take part in the vote thereon and by a majority of the States. In making up a majority of the States the vote of a Half-Canton is counted as half a vote. The result of the popular vote in each Canton is considered to be the vote of the State._]
Article 118. [Amendment of July 5, 1891.] The Federal Constitution may at any time be amended as a whole or in part.
Article 119. [Amendment of July 5, 1891.] General revision is secured through the forms required for passing the federal laws.
Article 120. When either Council of the Federal Assembly passes a resolution for general revision and the other Council does not agree; or when fifty thousand Swiss voters demand general revision the question whether there shall be such a revision must, in either case, be submitted to the popular vote of the Swiss people. If, in either case, the majority of the Swiss citizens who vote on the question pronounce in the affirmative, there shall be a new election of both Councils for the purpose of preparing a general revision.
Article 121. [Amendment of July 5, 1891.] Specific amendments may be brought forward either through a Proposition of the People [Volksanregung] (Initiative) or by Federal legislation. A Proposition of the People means a demand supported by fifty thousand Swiss voters, either for suspension, repeal, or alteration of specified articles of the Federal Constitution. If by means of the method of Proposition of the People several different subjects are brought forward either for alteration or for incorporation into the Federal Constitution, each one of those separate subjects must be presented in a separate demand for a popular vote [Initintivbegehren]. The demand for a popular vote may take the form either of a request in general terms, or of a definite draft. If such a demand be made in the form of a request in general terms and the Councils of the Federal Assembly agree thereto, the said Councils shall thereupon prepare a specific amendment of the purport indicated by those asking amendment; and such specific amendment shall be submitted to the people and to the states for their acceptance or rejection. In case the Councils of the Federal Assembly do not agree thereto, the question of specific amendment shall then be subjected to the people for a popular vote; and in case the majority of the Swiss voters vote therefor, an amendment of the purport indicated by the vote of the people shall then be prepared by the Federal Assembly. In case the request shall take the form of a specific draft and the Federal Assembly agree thereto, the draft is then to be submitted to the people and the States for acceptance or rejection. If the Federal Assembly shall not agree thereto it may either prepare a substitute draft for itself, or it may propose the rejection of the proposition. The proposition to reject such substitute draft or proposition shall be submitted to the vote of the people and of the States at the same time with the general Proposition of the People.
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Article 122. [Amendment of July 5, 1891.] The procedure upon the Proposition of the People and the popular votes concerning amendment of the Federal Constitution, shall be regulated in detail by a Federal Law.
Article 123. [Amendment of July 5,1891.] The amended Federal Constitution or the specific amendments proposed, as the case may be, shall be in force when adopted by the majority of the Swiss citizens who take part in the vote thereon and by a majority of the Cantons. In making up the majority of the States the vote of a half of each Canton is counted as half a vote. The result of the popular vote in each Canton is considered to be the vote of the state.
Temporary Provisions.
Article 1. The proceeds of the posts and customs shall be divided upon the present basis, until such time as the Confederation shall take upon itself the military expenses up to this time borne by the Cantons. Federal legislation shall provide, besides, that the loss which may be occasioned to the finances of certain Cantons by the sum of the charges which result from Articles 20, 30, 36 (§ 2), and 42 (e), shall fall upon such Cantons only gradually, and shall not attain its full effect till after a transition period of some years. Those Cantons which, at the going into effect of Article 20 of the Constitution, have not fulfilled the military obligations which are imposed upon them by the former Constitution, or by federal laws, shall be bound to carry them out at their own expense.
Article 2. The provisions of the federal laws and of the cantonal concordats, constitutions or cantonal laws, which are contrary to this Constitution, cease to have effect by the adoption of the Constitution or the publication of the laws for which it provides.
Article 3. The new provisions relating to the organization and jurisdiction of the Federal Court take effect only after the publication of federal laws thereon.
Article 4. A delay of five years is allowed to Cantons for the establishment of free instruction in primary public education. (Art. 27.)
Article 5. Those persons who practice a liberal profession, and who, before the publication of the federal law provided for in Article 33, have obtained a certificate of competence from a Canton or a joint authority representing several Cantons, may pursue that profession throughout the Confederation.
Article 6. [Amendment of December 22, 1885. For the remainder of this amendment see article 32 (ii).] If a federal law for carrying out Article 32 (ii) be passed before the end of 1890, the import duties levied on spirituous liquors by the Cantons and Communes, according to Article 32, cease on the going into effect of such law. If, in such case, the shares of any Canton or Commune, out of the sums to be divided, are not sufficient to equal the average annual net proceeds of the taxes they have levied on spirituous liquors in the years 1880 to 1884 inclusive, the Cantons and Communes affected shall, till the end of 1890, receive the amount of the deficiency out of the amount which is to be divided among the other Cantons according to population; and the remainder only shall be divided among such other Cantons and Communes, according to population. The Confederation shall further provide by law that for such Cantons or Communes as may suffer financial loss through the effect of this amendment, such loss shall not come upon them immediately in its full extent, but gradually up to the year 1895. The indemnities thereby made necessary shall be previously taken out of the net proceeds designated in Article 32 (ii), paragraph 4.
Thus resolved by the National Council to be submitted to the popular vote of the Swiss people and of the Cantons. Bern, January 31, 1874. Ziegler, President. Schiess, Secretary.
Thus resolved by the Council of States, to be submitted to the popular vote of the Swiss people and of the Cantons. Bern, January 31, 1874. A. Kopp, President. J. L. Lutscher, Secretary.
----------CONSTITUTION OF THE SWISS CONFEDERATION: End----------
CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA.
CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1781. The Articles of Confederation.
See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1777-1781, and 1783-1787.
CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1787-1789, and 1791-1870. A sketch of the history of the framing and adoption of the Federal Constitution of the United States will be found under
UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1787, and 1787-1789.
The following text of the original instrument, with the subsequent amendments to it, is one prepared by Professor Albert Bushnell Hart, and is the result of a careful comparison with the original manuscripts, preserved in the State Department at Washington. "It is intended to be absolutely exact in word, spelling, capitalization and punctuation. A few headings and paragraph numbers, inserted for convenience of reference, are indicated by brackets." "Those parts of the Constitution which were temporary in their nature, or which have been superseded or altered by later amendments, are included within the signs []." This text, originally printed in the "American History Leaflets," is reproduced with Professor Hart's consent. The paragraphing has been altered, to economize space, but it is otherwise exactly reproduced:
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"WE THE PEOPLE of the United States, in Order to form a more perfect Union, establish Justice, insure domestic Tranquility, provide for the common defence, promote the general Welfare, and secure the Blessings of Liberty to ourselves and our Posterity, do ordain and establish this Constitution for the United States of America.
Article I. Section 1. All legislative Powers herein granted shall be vested in a Congress of the United States, which shall consist of a Senate and House of Representatives.
Section 2 [§ 1.] The House of Representatives shall be composed of Members chosen every second Year by the People of the several States, and the Electors in each State shall have the Qualifications requisite for Electors of the most numerous Branch of the State Legislature.
[Footnote: Modified by Fourteenth Amendment.]
[§ 2.] No Person shall be a Representative who shall not have attained to the Age of twenty-five Years, and been seven Years a Citizen of the United States, and who shall not, when elected, be an Inhabitant of that State in which he shall be chosen.
[§ 3.] Representatives and direct Taxes shall be apportioned among the several States which may be included within this Union, according to their respective Numbers, [which shall be determined by adding to the whole Number of free Persons, including those bound to Service for a Term of Years, and excluding Indians not taxed, three fifths of all other Persons.]
[Footnote: Superseded by Fourteenth Amendment.]
The actual Enumeration shall be made within three Years after the first Meeting of the Congress of the United States, and within every subsequent Term of ten Years, in such Manner as they shall by Law direct. The Number of Representatives shall not exceed one for every thirty Thousand, but each State shall have at Least one Representative; [and until such enumeration shall be made, the State of New Hampshire shall be entitled to chuse three, Massachusetts eight, Rhode-Island and Providence Plantations one, Connecticut five, New-York six, New Jersey four, Pennsylvania eight, Delaware one, Maryland six, Virginia ten, North Carolina five, South Carolina five, and Georgia three.]
[Footnote: Temporary clause.]
[§ 4.] When vacancies happen in the Representation from any State, the Executive Authority thereof shall issue Writs of Election to fill such Vacancies.
[§ 5.] The House of Representatives shall chuse their Speaker and other Officers; and shall have the sole Power of Impeachment.
Section 3. [§ 1.] The Senate of the United States shall be composed of two Senators from each State, chosen by the Legislature thereof, for six Years; and each Senator shall have one Vote.
[§ 2.] Immediately after they shall be assembled in Consequence of the first Election, they shall be divided as equally as may be into three Classes. The Seats of the Senators of the first Class shall be vacated at the Expiration of the second Year, of the second Class at the Expiration of the fourth Year, and of the third Class at the Expiration of the sixth Year, so that one third may be chosen every second Year; and if Vacancies happen by Resignation, or otherwise, during the Recess of the Legislature of any State, the Executive thereof may make temporary Appointments until the next Meeting of the Legislature, which shall then fill such Vacancies.
[§ 3.] No Person shall be a Senator who shall not have attained to the Age of thirty Years, and been nine Years a Citizen of the United States, and who shall not, when elected, be an Inhabitant of that State for which he shall be chosen.
[§ 4.] The Vice President of the United States shall be President of the Senate, but shall have no Vote, unless they be equally divided.
[§ 5.] The Senate shall chuse their other Officers, and also a President pro tempore, in the Absence of the Vice President, or when he shall exercise the Office of President of the United States.
[§ 6.] The Senate shall have the sole Power to try all Impeachments. When sitting for that Purpose, they shall be on Oath or Affirmation. When the President of the United States is tried, the Chief Justice shall preside: And no Person shall be convicted without the Concurrence of two thirds of the Members present.
[§ 7.] Judgment in Cases of Impeachment shall not extend further than to removal from Office, and disqualification to hold and enjoy any Office of honor, Trust or Profit under the United States: but the Party convicted shall nevertheless be liable and subject to Indictment, Trial, Judgment and Punishment, according to Law.
Section 4. [§ 1.] The Times, Places and Manner of holding Elections for Senators and Representatives, shall be prescribed in each State by the Legislature thereof; but the Congress may at any time by Law make or alter such Regulations, except as to the Places of chusing Senators.
[§ 2.] The Congress shall assemble at least once in every Year, and such Meeting shall be on the first Monday in December, unless they shall by Law appoint a different Day.
Section 5. [§ 1.] Each House shall be the Judge of the Elections, Returns and Qualifications of its own Members, and a Majority of each shall constitute a Quorum to do Business; but a smaller Number may adjourn from day to day, and may be authorized to compel the Attendance of absent Members, in such Manner, and under such Penalties as each House may provide.
[§ 2.] Each House may determine the Rules of its Proceedings, punish its Members for disorderly Behaviour, and, with the Concurrence of two thirds, expel a Member.
[§ 3.] Each House shall keep a Journal of its Proceedings, and from time to time publish the same, excepting such Parts as may in their Judgment require Secrecy; and the Yeas and Nays of the Members of either House on any question shall, at the Desire of one fifth of those Present, be entered on the Journal.
[§ 4.] Neither House, during the Session of Congress, shall, without the Consent of the other, adjourn for more than three days, nor to any other Place than that in which the two Houses shall be sitting.
Section 6. [§ 1.] The Senators and Representatives shall receive a Compensation for their Services, to be ascertained by Law, and paid out of the Treasury of the United States. They shall in all Cases, except Treason, Felony and Breach of the Peace, be privileged from Arrest during their Attendance at the Session of their respective Houses, and in going to and returning from the same; and for any Speech or Debate in either House, they shall not be questioned in any other Place.
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[§ 2.] No Senator or Representative shall, during the Time for which he was elected, be appointed to any civil Office under the Authority of the United States, which shall have been created, or the Emoluments whereof shall have been increased during such time; and no Person holding any Office under the United States, shall be a Member of either House during his Continuance in Office.
Section 7. [§ 1.] All Bills for raising Revenue shall originate in the House of Representatives; but the Senate may propose or concur with Amendments as on other Bills.
[§ 2.] Every Bill which shall have passed the House of Representatives and the Senate, shall, before it become a Law, be presented to the President of the United States; If he approve he shall sign it, but if not he shall return it, with his Objections to that House in which it shall have originated, who shall enter the Objections at large on their Journal, and proceed to reconsider it. If after such Reconsideration two thirds of that House shall agree to pass the Bill, it shall be sent, together with the Objections, to the other House, by which it shall likewise be reconsidered, and if approved by two thirds of that House, it shall become a Law. But in all such Cases the Votes of both Houses shall be determined by yeas and Nays, and the Names of the Persons voting for and against the Bill shall be entered on the Journal of each House respectively. If any Bill shall not be returned by the President within ten Days (Sundays excepted) after it shall have been presented to him, the same shall be a Law, in like Manner as if he had signed it, unless the Congress by their Adjournment prevent its Return, in which Case it shall not be a Law.
[§ 3.] Every Order, Resolution, or Vote to which the Concurrence of the Senate and House of Representatives may be necessary (except on a question of Adjournment) shall be presented to the President of the United States; and before the same shall take Effect, shall be approved by him, or being disapproved by him, shall be repassed by two thirds of the Senate and House of Representatives, according to the Rules and Limitations prescribed in the Case of a Bill.
Section 8. The Congress shall have Power [§ 1.] To lay and collect Taxes, Duties, Imposts and Excises, to pay the Debts and provide for the common Defence and general Welfare of the United States; but all Duties, Imposts and Excises shall be uniform throughout the United States;
[§ 2.] To borrow Money on the credit of the United States;
[§ 3.] To regulate Commerce with foreign Nations, and among the several States, and with the Indian Tribes;
[§ 4.] To establish an uniform Rule of Naturalization, and uniform Laws on the subject of Bankruptcies throughout the United States;
[§ 5.] To coin Money, regulate the Value thereof, and of foreign Coin, and fix the Standard of Weights and Measures;
[§ 6.] To provide for the Punishment of counterfeiting the Securities and current Coin of the United States;
[§ 7.] To establish Post Offices and post Roads;
[§ 8.] To promote the Progress of Science and useful Arts, by securing for limited Times to Authors and Inventors the exclusive Right to their respective Writings and Discoveries;
[§ 9.] To constitute Tribunals inferior to the supreme Court;
[§ 10.] To define and punish Piracies and Felonies committed on the high Seas, and Offences against the Law of Nations;
[§ 11.] To declare War, grant Letters of Marque and Reprisal, and make Rules concerning Captures on Land and Water;
[§ 12.] To raise and support Armies, but no Appropriation of Money to that Use shall be for a longer Term than two Years;
[§ 13.] To provide and maintain a Navy;
[§ 14.] To make Rules for the Government and Regulation of the land and naval Forces;
[§ 15.] To provide for calling forth the Militia to execute the Laws of the Union, suppress Insurrections and repel Invasions;
[§ 16.] To provide for organizing, arming, and disciplining the Militia, and for governing such Part of them as may be employed in the Service of the United States, reserving to the States respectively, the Appointment of the Officers, and the Authority of training the Militia according to the discipline prescribed by Congress;
[§ 17.] To exercise exclusive Legislation in all Cases whatsoever, over such District (not exceeding ten Miles square) as may, by Cession of particular States, and the Acceptance of Congress, become the Seat of the Government of the United States, and to exercise like Authority over all Places purchased by the Consent of the Legislature of the State in which the same shall be, for the Erection of Forts, Magazines, Arsenals, dock-Yards, and other needful Buildings;--And
[§ 18.] To make all Laws which shall be necessary and proper for carrying into Execution the foregoing Powers, and all other Powers vested by this Constitution in the Government of the United States, or in any Department or Officer thereof.
Section 9. [§ 1.] [The Migration or Importation of such Persons as any of the States now existing shall think proper to admit, shall not be prohibited by the Congress prior to the Year one thousand eight hundred and eight, but a Tax or duty may be imposed on such Importation, not exceeding ten dollars for each Person.]
[Footnote: Temporary provision.]
[§ 2.] The Privilege of the Writ of Habeas Corpus shall not be suspended, unless when in Cases of Rebellion or Invasion the public Safety may require it.
[§ 3.] No Bill of Attainder or ex post facto Law shall be passed.
[Footnote: Extended by the first eight Amendments.]
[§ 4.] No Capitation, or other direct, Tax shall be laid, unless in Proportion to the Census or Enumeration herein before directed to be taken.
[§ 5.] No Tax or Duty shall be laid on Articles exported from any State.
[§ 6.] No Preference shall be given by any Regulation of Commerce or Revenue to the Ports of one State over those of another: nor shall Vessels bound to, or from, one State, be obliged to enter, clear, or pay Duties in another.
[§ 7.] No Money shall be drawn from the Treasury, but in Consequence of Appropriations made by Law; and a regular Statement and Account of the Receipts and Expenditures of all public Money shall be published from time to time.
[§ 8.] No Title of Nobility shall be granted by the United States: And no Person holding any Office of Profit or Trust under them, shall, without the Consent of the Congress, accept of any present, Emolument, Office, or Title, of any kind whatever, from any King, Prince, or foreign State.
[Footnote: Extended by Ninth and Tenth Amendments.]
Section 10. [§ 1.] No State shall enter into any Treaty, Alliance, or Confederation; grant Letters of Marque and Reprisal; coin Money; emit Bills of Credit; make any Thing but gold and silver Coin a Tender in Payment of Debts; pass any Bill of Attainder, ex post facto Law, or Law impairing the Obligation of Contracts, or grant any Title of Nobility.
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[§ 2.] No State shall, without the Consent of the Congress, lay any Imposts or Duties on Imports or Exports, except what may be absolutely necessary for executing its inspection Laws: and the net Produce of all Duties and Imposts, laid by any State on Imports or Exports, shall be for the Use of the Treasury of the United States; and all such Laws shall be subject to the Revision and Control of the Congress.
[§ 3.] No State shall, without the Consent of Congress, lay any Duty of Tonnage, keep Troops, or Ships of War in time of Peace, enter into any Agreement or Compact with another State, or with a foreign Power, or engage in War, unless actually invaded, or in such imminent Danger as will not admit of delay.
[Footnote: Extended by Thirteenth, Fourteenth and Fifteenth Amendments.]
Article II.
Section 1. [§ 1.] The executive Power shall be vested in a President of the United States of America. He shall hold his Office during the Term of four Years, and, together with the Vice President, chosen for the same Term, be elected, as follows
[§ 2.] Each State shall appoint, in such Manner as the Legislature thereof may direct, a Number of Electors, equal to the whole Number of Senators and Representatives to which the State may be entitled in the Congress: but no Senator or Representative, or Person holding an Office of Trust or Profit under the United States, shall be appointed an Elector. [The Electors shall meet in their respective States, and vote by Ballot for two Persons, of whom one at least shall not be an Inhabitant of the same State with themselves. And they shall make a List of all the Persons voted for, and of the Number of Votes for each; which List they shall sign and certify, and transmit sealed to the Seat of the Government of the United States, directed to the President of the Senate. The President of the Senate shall, in the Presence of the Senate and House of Representatives, open all the Certificates, and the Votes shall then be counted. The Person having the greatest Number of Votes shall be the President, if such Number be a Majority of the whole Number of Electors appointed; and if there be more than one who have such Majority, and have an equal Number of Votes, then the House of Representatives shall immediately chuse by Ballot one of them for President; and if no Person have a Majority, then from the five highest on the List the said House shall in like Manner chuse the President. But in chusing the President, the Votes shall be taken by States, the Representation from each State having one Vote: A quorum for this Purpose shall consist of a Member or Members from two thirds of the States, and a Majority of all the States shall be necessary to a Choice. In every Case, after the Choice of the President, the Person having the greatest Number of Votes of the Electors shall be the Vice President. But if there should remain two or more who have equal Votes, the Senate shall chuse from them by Ballot the Vice President.]
[Footnote: Superseded by Twelfth Amendment.]
[§ 3.] The Congress may determine the Time of chusing the Electors, and the Day on which they shall give their Votes; which Day shall be the same throughout the United States.
[§ 4.] No Person except a natural born Citizen, or a Citizen of the United States, at the time of the Adoption of this Constitution, shall be eligible to the Office of President; neither shall any Person be eligible to that Office who shall not have attained to the Age of thirty five Years, and been fourteen Years a Resident within the United States.
[§ 5.] In Case of the Removal of the President from Office, or of his Death, Resignation, or Inability to discharge the Powers and Duties of the said Office, the Same shall devolve on the Vice President, and the Congress may by Law provide for the Case of Removal, Death, Resignation, or Inability, both of the President and Vice President, declaring what Officer shall then act as President, and such Officer shall act accordingly, until the Disability be removed, or a President shall be elected.
[§ 6.] The President shall, at stated Times, receive for his Services, a Compensation, which shall neither be increased nor diminished during the Period for which he shall have been elected, and he shall not receive within that Period any other Emolument from the United States, or any of them.
[§ 7.] Before he enter on the Execution of his Office, he shall take the following Oath or Affirmation:-- "I do solemnly swear (or affirm) that I will faithfully execute the Office of President of the United States, and will to the best of my Ability, preserve, protect and defend the Constitution of the United States."
Section 2. [§ 1.] The President shall be Commander in Chief of the Army and Navy of the United States, and of the Militia of the several States, when called into the actual Service of the United States; he may require the Opinion, in writing, of the principal Officer in each of the executive Departments, upon any Subject relating to the Duties of their respective Offices, and he shall have Power to grant Reprieves and Pardons for Offences against the United States, except in Cases of Impeachment.
[§ 2.] He shall have Power, by and with the Advice and Consent of the Senate, to make Treaties, provided two thirds of the Senators present concur; and he shall nominate, and by and with the Advice and Consent of the Senate, shall appoint Ambassadors, other public Ministers and Consuls, Judges of the supreme Court, and all other Officers of the United States, whose Appointments are not herein otherwise provided for, and which shall be established by Law: but the Congress may by Law vest the Appointment of such inferior Officers, as they think proper, in the President alone, in the Courts of Law, or in the Heads of Departments.
[§ 3.] The President shall have Power to fill up all Vacancies that may happen during the Recess of the Senate, by granting Commissions which shall expire at the End of their next Session.
Section 3. He shall from time to time give to the Congress Information of the State of the Union, and recommend to their Consideration such Measures as he shall judge necessary and expedient; he may, on extraordinary Occasions, convene both Houses, or either of them, and in Case of Disagreement between them, with Respect to the Time of Adjournment, he may adjourn them to such Time as he shall think proper; he shall receive Ambassadors and other public Ministers: he shall take Care that the Laws be faithfully executed, and shall Commission all the Officers of the United States.
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Section 4. The President, Vice President and all civil Officers of the United States, shall be removed from Office on Impeachment for, and Conviction of, Treason, Bribery, or other high Crimes and Misdemeanors.
Article III. Section 1. The judicial Power of the United States, shall be vested in one supreme Court, and in such inferior Courts as the Congress may from time to time ordain and establish. The Judges, both of the supreme and inferior Courts, shall hold their Offices during good Behaviour, and shall, at stated Times, receive for their Services, a Compensation, which shall not be diminished during their Continuance in Office.
Section 2. [§ 1.] The judicial Power shall extend to all Cases, in Law and Equity, arising under this Constitution, the Laws of the United States, and Treaties made, or which shall be made, under their Authority; --to all Cases affecting Ambassadors, other public Ministers and Consuls; --to all Cases of admiralty and maritime Jurisdiction; --to Controversies to which the United States shall be a Party; --to Controversies between two or more States; --between a State and Citizens of another State;
[Footnote: Limited by Eleventh Amendment.]
--between Citizens of different States, --between Citizens of the same State claiming Lands under Grants of different States, and between a State, or the Citizens thereof, and foreign States, Citizens or Subjects.
[§ 2.] In all Cases affecting Ambassadors, other public Ministers and Consuls, and those in which a State shall be Party, the supreme Court shall have original Jurisdiction. In all the other Cases before mentioned, the supreme Court shall have appellate Jurisdiction, both as to Law and Fact, with such Exceptions, and under such Regulations as the Congress shall make.
[§ 3.] The Trial of all Crimes, except in Cases of Impeachment, shall be by Jury; and such Trial shall be held in the State where the said Crimes shall have been committed; but when not committed within any State, the Trial shall be at such Place or Places as the Congress may by Law have directed.
Section 3. [§ 1.] Treason against the United States, shall consist only in levying War against them, or in adhering to their Enemies, giving them Aid and Comfort. No Person shall be convicted of Treason unless on the Testimony of two Witnesses to the same overt Act, or on Confession in open Court.
[§ 2.] The Congress shall have Power to declare the Punishment of Treason, but no Attainder of Treason shall work Corruption of Blood, or Forfeiture except during the Life of the Person attainted.
Article IV. Section 1. Full Faith and Credit shall be given in each State to the public Acts, Records, and judicial Proceedings of every other State. And the Congress may by general Laws prescribe the Manner in which such Acts, Records and Proceedings shall be proved, and the Effect thereof.
Section 2. [§ 1.] The Citizens of each State shall be entitled to all Privileges and Immunities of Citizens in the several States.
[Footnote: Extended by Fourteenth Amendment.]
[§ 2.] A Person charged in any State with Treason, Felony, or other Crime, who shall flee from Justice, and be found in another State, shall on Demand of the executive Authority of the State from which he fled, be delivered up, to be removed to the State having Jurisdiction of the Crime.
[§ 3.] [No Person held to Service or Labour in one State, under the Laws thereof, escaping into another, shall, in Consequence of any Law or Regulation therein, be discharged from such Service or Labour, but shall be delivered up on Claim of the Party to whom such Service or Labour may be due.]
[Footnote: Superseded by Thirteenth Amendment.]
Section 3. [§ 1.] New States may be admitted by the Congress into this Union; but no new State shall be formed or erected within the Jurisdiction of any other State; nor any State be formed by the Junction of two or more States, or Parts of States, without the Consent of the Legislatures of the States concerned as well as of the Congress.
[§ 2.] The Congress shall have Power to dispose of and make all needful Rules and Regulations respecting the Territory or other Property belonging to the United States; and nothing in this Constitution shall be so construed as to Prejudice any Claims of the United States, or of any particular State.
Section 4. The United States shall guarantee to every State in this Union a Republican Form of Government, and shall protect each of them against Invasion; and on Application of the Legislature, or of the Executive (when the Legislature cannot be convened) against domestic Violence.
Article V. The Congress, whenever two-thirds of both Houses shall deem it necessary, shall propose Amendments to this Constitution, or, on the Application of the Legislatures of two-thirds of the several States, shall call a Convention for proposing Amendments, which, in either Case, shall be valid to all Intents and Purposes, as Part of this Constitution, when ratified by the Legislatures of three fourths of the several States, or by Conventions in three fourths thereof, as the one or the other Mode of Ratification may be proposed by the Congress; Provided that [no Amendment which may be made prior to the Year One thousand eight hundred and eight shall in any Manner affect the first and fourth Clauses in the Ninth Section of the first Article; and] that no State, without its Consent, shall be deprived of its equal Suffrage in the Senate.
[Footnote: "[no amendment...]" is a Temporary provision.]
Article VI. [§ 1.] All Debts contracted and Engagements entered into, before the Adoption of this Constitution, shall be as valid against the United States under this Constitution, as under the Confederation.
[Footnote: Extended by Fourteenth Amendment, Section 4.]
[§ 2.] This Constitution, and the Laws of the United States which shall be made in Pursuance thereof; and all Treaties made, or which shall be made, under the Authority of the United States, shall be the supreme Law of the Land; and the Judges in every State shall be bound thereby, any Thing in the Constitution or Laws of any State to the Contrary notwithstanding.
[§ 3.] The Senators and Representatives before mentioned, and the Members of the several State Legislatures, and all executive and judicial Officers, both of the United States and of the several States, shall be bound by Oath or Affirmation, to support this Constitution; but no religious Test shall ever be required as a Qualification to any Office or public Trust under the United States.
Article VII. The Ratification of the Conventions of nine States, shall be sufficient for the Establishment of this Constitution between the States so ratifying the Same.
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DONE in Convention by the Unanimous Consent of the States present the Seventeenth Day of September in the Year of our Lord one thousand seven hundred and Eighty seven and of the Independence of the United States of America the Twelfth In Witness whereof We have hereunto subscribed our names.
Go WASHINGTON--Presidt and deputy from Virginia.
DELAWARE. Geo: Read John Dickinson Gunning Bedford jun Richard Bassett Jaco: Broom
NEW HAMPSHIRE. John Langdon Nicholas Gilman
MASSACHUSETTS. Nathaniel Gorham Rufus King
MARYLAND. James McHenry Dan of St. Thos. Jenifer Danl Carroll
CONNECTICUT. Wm. Sami. Johnson Roger Sherman
VIRGINIA. John Blair James Madison Jr.
NEW YORK. Alexander Hamilton
NORTH CAROLINA. Wm. Blount Richd. Dobbs Spaight Hu Williamson
NEW JERSEY. Wil: Livingston Wm: Paterson. David Brearley Jona: Dayton
SOUTH CAROLINA. J. Rutledge, Charles Pinckney Charles Cotesworth Pinckney Pierce Butler.
PENNSYLVANIA. B Franklin Thos. Fitz Simons Thomas Mifflin Jared Ingersoll Robt. Morris James Wilson. Geo. Clymer Gouv Morris
GEORGIA. William Few Abr Baldwin
[Footnote: These signatures have no other legal force than that of attestation.]
ARTICLES in addition to and Amendment of the Constitution of the United States of America, proposed by Congress, and ratified by the Legislatures of the several States, pursuant to the fifth Article of the original Constitution.
[Footnote: This heading appears only in the joint resolution submitting the first ten amendments.]
[Article 1.] Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof; or abridging the freedom of speech, or of the press; or the right of the people peaceably to assemble, and to petition the Government for a redress of grievances.
[Article II.] A well regulated Militia, being necessary to the security of a free State, the right of the people to keep and bear Arms, shall not be infringed.
[Article III.] No Soldier shall, in time of peace be quartered in any house, without the consent of the Owner, nor in time of war, but in a manner to be prescribed by law.
[Article IV.] The right of the people to be secure in their persons, houses, papers, and effects, against unreasonable searches and seizures, shall not be violated, and no Warrants shall issue, but upon probable cause, supported by Oath or affirmation, and particularly describing the place to be searched, and the persons or things to be seized.
[Article V.] No person shall be held to answer for a capital, or otherwise infamous crime, unless on a presentment or indictment of a Grand Jury, except in cases arising in the land or naval forces, or in the Militia, when in actual service in time of War or public danger; nor shall any person be subject for the same offence to be twice put in jeopardy of life or limb; nor shall be compelled in any criminal case to be a witness against himself, nor be deprived of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law; nor shall private property be taken for public use, without just compensation.
[Article VI.] In all criminal prosecutions the accused shall enjoy the right to a speedy and public trial, by an impartial jury of the State and district wherein the crime shall have been committed, which district shall have been previously ascertained by law, and to be informed of the nature and cause of the accusation; to be confronted with the witnesses against him; to have compulsory process for obtaining witnesses in his favor, and to have the Assistance of Counsel for his defence.
[Article VII.] In suits at common law, where the value in controversy shall exceed twenty dollars, the right of trial by jury shall be preserved, and no fact tried by a jury shall be otherwise re-examined in any Court of the United States, than according to the rules of the common law.
[Article VIII.] Excessive bail shall not be required, nor excessive fines imposed, nor cruel and unusual punishments inflicted.
[Article IX.] The enumeration in the Constitution, of certain rights, shall not be construed to deny or disparage others retained by the people.
[Article X.] The powers not delegated to the United States by the Constitution, nor prohibited by it to the States, are reserved to the States respectively, or to the people.
[Footnote: Amendments First to Tenth appear to have been in force from November 3, 1791. (See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1791.)]
[Article XI.] The Judicial power of the United States shall not be construed to extend to any suit in law or equity, commenced or prosecuted against one of the United States by Citizens of another State, or by Citizens or Subjects of any Foreign State.
[Footnote: Proclaimed to be in force January 8, 1798.]
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[Article XII.] The Electors shall meet in their respective states, and vote by ballot for President and Vice-President, one of whom, at least, shall not be an inhabitant of the same state with themselves; they shall name in their ballots the person voted for as President, and in distinct ballots the person voted for as Vice-President, and they shall make distinct lists of all persons voted for as President, and of all persons voted for as Vice-President, and of the number of votes for each, which lists they shall sign and certify, and transmit sealed to the seat of the government of the United States, directed to the President of the Senate;--The President of the Senate shall, in the presence of the Senate and House of Representatives, open all the certificates and the votes shall then be counted;--The person having the greatest number of votes for President, shall be the President, if such number be a majority of the whole number of Electors appointed; and if no person have such majority, then from the persons having the highest numbers not exceeding three on the list of those voted for as President, the House of Representatives shall choose immediately, by ballot, the President. But in choosing the President, the votes shall be taken by states, the representation from each state having one vote; a quorum for this purpose shall consist of a member or members from two-thirds of the states, and a majority of all the states shall be necessary to a choice. And if the House of Representatives shall not choose a President whenever the right of choice shall devolve upon them, before the fourth day of March next following, then the Vice-President shall act as President, as in the case of the death or other constitutional disability of the President.--The person having the greatest number of votes as Vice-President, shall be the Vice-President, if such number be a majority of the whole number of Electors appointed, and if no person have a majority, then from the two highest numbers on the list, the Senate shall choose the Vice-President; a quorum for the purpose shall consist of two-thirds of the whole number of Senators, and a majority of the whole number shall be necessary to a choice. But no person constitutionally ineligible to the office of President shall be eligible to that of Vice-President of the United States.
[Footnote: Proclaimed to be in force September 25, 1804.]
Article XIII. Section 1. Neither slavery nor involuntary servitude, except as a punishment for crime whereof the party shall have been duly convicted, shall exist within the United States, or any place subject to their jurisdiction.
Section 2. Congress shall have power to enforce this article by appropriate legislation.
[Footnote: Proclaimed to be in force December 18, 1865. [See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1865 (JANUARY).]]
Article XIV. Section 1. All persons born or naturalized in the United States, and subject to the jurisdiction thereof, are citizens of the United States and of the State wherein they reside. No State shall make or enforce any law which shall abridge the privileges or immunities of citizens of the United States; nor shall any State deprive any person of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law; nor deny to any person within its jurisdiction the equal protection of the laws.
Section 2. Representatives shall be apportioned among the several States according to their respective numbers, counting the whole number of persons in each State, excluding Indians not taxed. But when the right to vote at any election for the choice of electors for President and Vice President of the United States, Representatives in Congress, the Executive and Judicial officers of a State, or the members of the Legislature thereof, is denied to any of the male inhabitants of such State, being twenty-one years of age, and citizens of the United States, or in any way abridged, except for participation in rebellion, or other crime, the basis of representation therein shall be reduced in the proportion which the number of such male citizens shall bear to the whole number of male citizens twenty-one years of age in such State.
Section 3. No person shall be a Senator or Representative in Congress, or elector of President and Vice President, or hold any office, civil or military, under the United States, or under any State, who, having previously taken an oath, as a member of Congress, or as an officer of the United States, or as a member of any State legislature, or as an executive or judicial officer of any State, to support the Constitution of the United States, shall have engaged in insurrection or rebellion against the same, or given aid or comfort to the enemies thereof. But Congress may by a vote of two-thirds of each House, remove such disability.
Section 4. The validity of the public debt of the United States, authorized by law, including debts incurred for payment of pensions and bounties for services in suppressing insurrection or rebellion, shall not be questioned. But neither the United States nor any State shall assume or pay any debt or obligation incurred in aid of insurrection or rebellion against the United States, or any claim for the loss or emancipation of any slave; but all such debts, obligations and claims shall be held illegal and void.
Section 5. The Congress shall have power to enforce, by appropriate legislation, the provisions of this article.
[Footnote: Proclaimed to be in force July 28. 1868. [See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1865-1866 (DECEMBER-APRIL); 1866 (JUNE), and 1866-1867 (OCTOBER-MARCH).]]
Article XV. Section 1. The right of citizens of the United States to vote shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or by any State on account of race, color, or previous condition of servitude.
Section 2. The Congress shall have power to enforce this article by appropriate legislation."
[Footnote: Proclaimed to be in force March 30, 1870. [See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1869-1870.]]
----------CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: End----------
CONSTITUTION OF VENEZUELA.
The following text is taken from Bulletin No. 34 of the Bureau of the American Republics:
Article I. The States that the constitution of March 28, 1864, declared independent and united to form the Venezuelan Federation, and that on April 27, 1881, were denominated Apure, Bolivar, Barquisimeto, Barcelona, Carabobo, Cojedes, Cumamá, Falcón, Guzmán Blanco, Guárico, Gunynna, Guzmán, Maturin, Nuevn Esparta, Portuguesa, Táchira, Trujillo, Yaracay, Zamora, and Zulia are constituted into nine grand political bodies, viz: The State of Bermudez, composed of Barcelona, Cumaná, and Maturin; the State of Miranda, composed of Bolivar, Guzman Blanco, Guárico, and Nueva Esparta; the State of Carabobo, composed of Carabobo and Nirgua; the State of Zamora, composed of Cojedes, Portuguesa, and Zamora; the State of Lara, composed of Barquisimeto and Yaracuy, except the department of Nirgua; the State of Los Andes, composed of Guzman, Trujillo, and Táchira; the State of Bolivar, composed of Guayana and Apure; the State of Zulia, and also the State of Falcón. And they are thus constituted to continue one only nation, free, sovereign, and independent, under the title of the United States of Venezuela.
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Article. 2. The boundaries of these great States are determined by those that the law of April 28, 1856, that arranged the last territorial division, designated for the ancient provinces until it shall be re-formed.
Article. 3. The boundaries of the United States of the Venezuelan Federation are the same that in 1810 belonged to the old Captaincy-General of Venezuela.
Article. 4. The States that are grouped together to form the grand political bodies will be called Sections. These are equal among themselves; the constitutions prescribed for their internal organism must be harmonious with the federative principles established by the present compact, and the sovereignty not delegated resides in the State without any other limitations than those that devolve from the compromise of association.
Article. 5. These are Venezuelans, viz:
1st, All persons that may have been or may be born on Venezuelan soil, whatever may be the nationality of their parents;
2d, The children of a Venezuelan father or mother that may have been born on foreign soil, if they should come to take up their domicile in the country and express the desire to become citizens;
3d, Foreigners that may have obtained naturalization papers; and,
4th, Those born or that shall be born in any of the Spanish-American republics or in the Spanish Antilles, provided that they may have taken up their residence in the territory of the Republic and express a willingness to become citizens.
Article. 6. Those that take up their residence and acquire nationality in a foreign country do not lose the character of Venezuelans.
Article. 7. Males over twenty-one years of age are qualified Venezuelan citizens, with only the exceptions contained in this constitution.
Article. 8. All Venezuelans are obliged to serve the nation according to the prescriptions of the laws, sacrificing his property and his life, if necessary, to defend the country.
Article. 9. Venezuelans shall enjoy, in all the States of the Union, the rights and immunities inherent to their condition as citizens of the Federation, and they shall also have imposed upon them there the same duties that are required of those that are natives or domiciled there.
Article. 10. Foreigners shall enjoy the same civil rights as Venezuelans and the same security in their persons and property. They can only take advantage of diplomatic means in accordance with public treaties and in cases when right permits it.
Article. 11. The law will determine the right applicable to the condition of foreigners, according as they may be domiciled or in transit.
Article. 12. The States that form the Venezuelan Federation reciprocally recognize their respective autonomies; they are declared equal in political entity, and preserve, in all its plenitude, the sovereignty not expressly delegated in this constitution.
Article. 13. The States of the Venezuelan Federation oblige themselves--
1st, To organize themselves in accord with the principles of popular, elective, federal, representative, alternative, and responsible government;
2d, To establish the fundamental regulations of their interior regulation and government in entire conformity with the principles of this constitution;
3d, To defend themselves against all violence that threatens the sectional independence or the integrity of the Venezuelan Federation;
4th, To not alienate to a foreign power any part of their territory, nor to implore its protection, nor to establish or cultivate political or diplomatic relations with other nations, since this last is reserved to the Federal power;
5th, To not combine or ally themselves with another nation, nor to separate themselves to the prejudice of the nationality of Venezuela and her territory;
6th, To cede to the nation the territory that may be necessary for the Federal district;
7th, To cede to the Government of the Federation the territory necessary for the erection of forts, warehouses, shipyards, and penitentiaries, and for the construction of other edifices indispensable to the general administration;
8th, To leave to the Government of the Federation the administration of the Amazonas and Goajira territories and that of the islands which pertain to the nation, until it may be convenient to elevate them to another rank;
9th, To reserve to the powers of the Federation all legislative or executive jurisdiction concerning maritime, coastwise, and fluvial navigation, and the national roads, considering as such those that exceed the limits of a State and lead to the frontiers of others and to the Federal district;
10th, To not subject to contributions the products or articles upon which national taxes are imposed, or those that are by law exempt from tax before they have been offered for consumption;
11th, To not impose contributions on cattle, effects, or any class of merchandise in transit for another State, in order that traffic may be absolutely free, and that in one section the consumption of others may not be taxed;
12th, To not prohibit the consumption of the products of other States nor to tax their productions with greater general or municipal taxes than those paid on products raised in the locality;
13th, To not establish maritime or territorial custom-houses for the collection of imports, since there will be national ones only;
14th, To recognise the right of each State to dispose of its natural products;
15th, To cede to the Government of the Federation the administration of mines, public lands, and salt mines, in order that the first may be regulated by a system of uniform working and that the latter may be applied to the benefit of the people;
16th, To respect the property, arsenals, and forts of the nation;
17th, To comply with and cause to be complied with and executed the Constitution and laws of the federation and the decrees and orders that the federal power, the tribunals, and courts may expedite in use of their attributes and legal faculties;
18th, To give entire faith to and to cause to be complied with and executed the public acts and judicial procedures of the other States;
19th, To organize their tribunals and courts for the administration of justice in the State and to have for all of them the same substantive civil and criminal legislation and the same laws of civil and criminal procedure;
20th, To present judges for the court of appeals and to submit to the decision of this supreme tribunal of the States;
21st, To incorporate the extradition of criminals as a political principle in their respective Constitutions;
22d, To establish direct and public suffrage in popular elections, making it obligatory and endorsing it in the electoral registry. The vote of the suffragist must be cast in full and public session of the respective board; it will be inscribed in the registry books that the law prescribes for elections, which can not be substituted in any other form, and the elector, for himself or by another at his request in case of impediment or through ignorance, will sign the memorandum entry of his vote, and without this requisite it can not be claimed that in reality he has voted;
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23d, To establish a system of primary education and that of arts and trades;
24th, To reserve to the powers of the Federation the laws and provisions necessary for the creation, conservation, and progress of general schools, colleges, or universities designed for the teaching of the sciences;
25th, To not impose duties upon the national employés, except in the quality of citizens of the State and insomuch as these duties may not be incompatible with the national public service;
26th, To furnish the proportional contingent that pertains to them to compose the national public forces in time of peace or war;
27th, To not permit in the States of the Federation forced enlistments and levies that have or may have for their object an attack on liberty or independence or a disturbance of the public order of the Nation, of other States, or of another Nation;
28th, To preserve a strict neutrality in the contentions that may arise in other States;
29th, To not declare or carry on war in any case, one State with another;
30th, To defer and submit to the decision of the Congress or the High Federal Court in all the controversies that may arise between two or more States when they can not, between themselves and by pacific measures, arrive at an agreement. If, for any cause, they may not designate the arbiter to whose decision they may submit, they leave it, in fact, to the High Federal Court;
31st, To recognize the competency of Congress and of the court of appeals to take cognizance of the causes that, for treason to the country or for the infraction of the Constitution and laws of the Federation, may be instituted against those that exercise executive authority in the States, it being their duty to incorporate this precept in their constitutions. In these trials the modes of procedure that the general laws prescribe will be followed and they will be decided in consonance with those laws;
32d, To have as the just income of the States, two-thirds of the total product of the impost collected as transit tax in all the custom-houses of the Republic and two-thirds of that collected from mines, public lands, and salt mines administered by the Federal Power and to distribute this income among all the States of the Federation in proportion to the population of each;
33d, To reserve to the Federal Power the amount of the third part of the income from transit tax, the production of mines, public lands, and salt mines, to be invested in the improvement of the country;
34th, To keep far away from the frontier those individuals that, through political motives, take refuge in a State, provided that the State interested requests it.
Article. 14. The nation guarantees to Venezuelans:
1st, The inviolability of life, capital punishment being abolished in spite of any law that establishes it;
2d, Property, with all its attributes, rights and privileges, will only be subjected to contributions decreed by legislative authority, to judicial decision, and to be taken for public works after indemnity and condemnation;
3d, The inviolability and secrecy of correspondence and other private papers;
4th, The domestic hearth, that can not be approached except to prevent the perpetration of crime, and this itself must be done in accordance with law;
5th, Personal liberty, and consequently (1) forced recruiting for armed service is abolished, (2) slavery is forever proscribed, (3) slaves that tread the soil of Venezuela are free, and (4) nobody is obliged to do that which the law does not command, nor is impeded from doing that which it does not prohibit;
6th, The freedom of thought, expressed by word or through the press, is without any restriction to be submitted to previous censure. In cases of calumny or injury or prejudice to a third party, the aggrieved party shall have every facility to have his complaints investigated before competent tribunals of justice in accordance with the common laws;
7th, The liberty of traveling without passport, to change the domicil, observing the legal formalities, and to depart from and return to the Republic, carrying off and bringing back his or her property;
8th, The liberty of industry and consequently the proprietorship of discoveries and productions. The law will assign to the proprietors a temporary privilege or the mode of indemnity in case that the author agrees to its publication;
9th, The liberty of reunion and assembling without arms, publicly or privately, the authorities being prohibited from exercising any act of inspection or coercion;
10th, The liberty of petition, with the right of obtaining action by resolution; petition can be made by any functionary, authority or corporation. If the petition shall be made in the name of various persons, the first five will respond for the authenticity of the signatures and all for the truth of the assertions;
11th, The liberty of suffrage at popular elections without any restriction except to males under eighteen years of age;
12th, The liberty of instruction will be protected to every extent. The public power is obliged to establish gratuitous instruction in primary schools, the arts, and trades;
13th, Religious liberty;
14th, Individual security, and, therefore (1) no Venezuelan can be imprisoned or arrested in punishment for debts not founded in fraud or crime; (2) nor to be obliged to lodge or quarter soldiers in his house; (3) nor to be judged by special commissions or tribunals, but by his natural judges and by virtue of laws dictated before the commission of the crime or act to be judged; (4) nor to be imprisoned nor arrested without previous summary information that a crime meriting corporal punishment has been committed, and a written order from the functionary that orders the imprisonment, stating the cause of arrest, unless the person may be caught in the commission of the crime; (5) nor to be placed in solitary confinement for any cause; (6) nor to be obliged to give evidence, in criminal causes, against himself or his blood relations within the fourth degree of consanguinity or against his relations by marriage within the second degree, or against husband or wife; (7) nor to remain in prison when the reasons that caused the imprisonment have been dissipated; (8) nor to be sentenced to corporal punishment for more than ten years; (9) nor to remain deprived of his liberty for political reasons when order is reestablished.
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Article. 15. Equality: in virtue of which (1) all must be judged by the very same laws and subject to equal duty, service and contributions; (2) no titles of nobility, hereditary honors, and distinctions will be conceded, nor employments or offices the salaries or emoluments of which continue after the termination of service; (3) no other official salutation than "citizen" and "you" will be given to employés and corporations. The present enumeration does not impose upon the States the obligation to accord other guarantees to their inhabitants.
Article 16. The laws in the States will prescribe penalties for the infractions of these guarantees, establishing modes of procedure to make them effective.
Article 17. Those who may issue, sign, or execute, or order executed any decrees, orders, or resolutions that violate or in any manner infringe upon the guarantees accorded to Venezuelans are culpable and must be punished according to the law. Every citizen is empowered to bring charges.
Article 18. The National Legislature will be composed of two chambers, one of Senators and another of Deputies.
Article 19. The States will determine the mode of election of Deputies.
Article 20. To form the Chamber of Deputies, each State will name, by popular election in accordance with paragraph 22 of Article 13 of this Constitution, one Deputy for each thirty-five thousand inhabitants and another for an excess not under fifteen thousand. In the same manner it will elect alternates in equal number to the principals.
Article 21. The Deputies will hold office for four years, when they will be renewed in their entirety.
Article 22. The prerogatives of the chamber of Deputies are:
First, to examine the annual account that the President of the United States of Venezuela must render;
Second, to pass a vote of censure of the Ministers of the Cabinet, in which event their posts will be vacant;
Third, to hear charges against the persons in charge of the office of the National Executive for treason to the country, for infraction of the constitution, or for ordinary crimes; against the ministers and other National employés for infraction of the Constitution and laws and for fault in the discharge of their duties according to article 75 of this constitution and of the general laws of the Republic. This attribute is preventative and neither contracts nor diminishes those that other authorities have to judge and punish.
Article 23. When a charge is instituted by a Deputy or by any corporation or individual the following rules will be observed:
(1) there will be appointed, in secret session, a commission of three deputies;
(2) the commission will, within three days, render an opinion, declaring whether or not there is foundation for instituting a cause;
(3) the Chamber will consider the information and decide upon the cause by the vote of an absolute majority of the members present, the accusing Deputy abstaining from voting.
Article 24. The declaration that there is foundation for the cause operates to suspend from office the accused and incapacitates him for the discharge of any public function during the trial.
Article 25. To form this Chamber each State, through its respective legislature, will elect three principal Senators and an equal number of alternates to supply the vacancies that may occur.
Article 26. To be a Senator it is required that he shall be a Venezuelan by birth and thirty years of age.
Article 27. The Senators will occupy their posts for four years and be renewed in their entirety.
Article 28. It is the prerogative of the Senate to substantiate and decide the causes initiated in the Chamber of Deputies.
Article 29. If the cause may not have been concluded during the sessions, the Senate will continue assembled for this purpose only until the cause is finished.
Article 30. The National Legislature will assemble on the 20th day of February of each year or as soon thereafter as possible at the capital of the United States without the necessity of previous notice. The sessions will last for seventy days to be prolonged until ninety days at the judgment of the majority.
Article 31. The Chambers will open their sessions with two-thirds of their number at least; and, in default of this number, those present will assemble in preparatory commission and adopt measures for the concurrence of the absentees.
Article 32. The sessions having been opened, they may be continued by two-thirds of those that may have installed them, provided that the number be not less than half of all the members elected.
Article 33. Although the Chambers deliberate separately, they may assemble together in the Congress when the constitution and laws provide for it or when one of the two Chambers may deem it necessary. If the Chamber that is invited shall agree, it remains to it to fix the day and the hour of the joint session.
Article 34. The sessions will be public and secret at the will of the Chamber.
Article 35. The Chambers have the right:
(1) to make rules to be observed in the sessions and to regulate the debates;
(2) to correct infractors;
(3) to establish the police force in the hall of sessions;
(4) to punish or correct spectators who create disorder;
(5) to remove the obstacles to the free exercise of their functions;
(6) to command the execution of their private resolutions;
(7) to judge of the qualifications of their members and to consider their resignations.
Article 36. One of the Chambers cannot suspend its sessions nor change its place of meeting without the consent of the other; in case of disagreement they will reassemble together and execute that which the majority resolves.
Article 37. The exercise of any other public function, during the sessions, is incompatible with those of a Senator or Deputy. The law will specify the remunerations that the members of the national Legislature shall receive for their services. And whenever an increase of said remunerations is decreed, the law that sanctions it will not begin to be in force until the following period when the Chambers that sanctioned it shall have been renewed in their entirety.
Article 38. The Senators and Deputies shall enjoy immunity from the 20th day of January of each year until thirty days after the close of the sessions and this consists in the suspension of all civil or criminal proceeding, whatever may be its origin or nature; when anyone shall perpetrate an act that merits corporal punishment the investigation shall continue until the end of the summing up and shall remain in this state while the term of immunity continues.
Article 39. The Congress will be presided over by the President of the Senate and the presiding officer of the Chamber of Deputies will act as Vice-President.
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Article 40. The members of the Chambers are not responsible for the opinions they express or the discourses they pronounce in session.
Article 41. Senators and deputies that accept office or commission from the National Executive thereby leave vacant the posts of legislators in the Chambers to which they were elected.
Article 42. Nor can senators and deputies make contracts with the general Government or conduct the prosecution of claims of others against it.
Article 43. The National Legislature has the following prerogatives:
(1) to dissolve the controversies that may arise between two or more States;
(2) to locate the Federal District in an unpopulated territory not exceeding three miles square, where will be constructed the capital city of the Republic. This district will be neutral territory, and no other elections will be there held than those that the law determines for the locality, The district will be provisionally that which the constituent assembly designated or that which the National Legislature may designate;
(3) to organize everything relating to the custom-houses, whose income will constitute the treasure of the Union until these incomes are supplied from other sources;
(4) to dispose in everything relating to the habitation and security of ports and seacoasts;
(5) to create and organize the postal service and to fix the charges for transportation of correspondence;
(6) to form the National Codes in accordance with paragraph 19, article 13 of this Constitution;
(7) to fix the value, type law, weight, and coinage of national money, and to regulate the admission and circulation of foreign money;
(8) to designate the coat-of-arms and the national flag which will be the same for all the States;
(9) to create, abolish, and fix salaries for national offices;
(10) to determine everything in relation to the national debt;
(11) to contract loans upon the credit of the nation;
(12) to dictate necessary measures to perfect the census of the current population and the national statistics;
(13) to annually fix the armed forces by sea and land and to dictate the army regulations;
(14) to decree rules for the formation and substitution of the forces referred to in the preceding clause;
(15) to declare war and to require the National Executive to negotiate peace;
(16) to ratify or reject the contracts for national public works made by the President with the approval of the Federal Council, without which requisite they will not be carried into effect;
[Transcriber's note: (17) is missing.]
(18) to annually fix the estimates for public expenses;
(19) to promote whatever conduces to the prosperity of the country and to its advancement in the general knowledge of the arts and sciences;
(20) to fix and regulate the national weights and measures;
(21) to grant amnesties;
(22) to establish, under the names of territories, special regulations for the government of regions inhabited by unconquered and uncivilized Indians. Such territories will be under the immediate supervision of the Executive of the Union;
(23) to establish the modes of procedure and to designate the penalties to be imposed by the Senate in the trials originated in the Chamber of Deputies;
(24) to increase the basis of population for the election of deputies;
(25) to permit or refuse the admission of foreigners into the service of the Republic;
(26) to make laws in respect to retirements from the military service and army pensions;
(27) to dictate the law of responsibility on the part of all national employés and those of the States for infraction of the constitution and the general laws of the Union;
(28) to determine the mode of conceding military rank or promotion;
(29) to elect the Federal Council provided for in this constitution and to convoke the alternates of the senators and deputies who may have been chosen for it.
Article 44. Besides the preceding enumeration the National Legislature may pass such laws of general character as may be necessary, but in no case can they be promulgated, much less executed, if they conflict with this constitution, which defines the prerogatives of the public powers in Venezuela.
Article 45. The laws and decrees of the National Legislature may be proposed by the members of either chamber, provided that the respective projects are conformed to the rules established for the Parliament of Venezuela.
Article 46. After a project may have been presented, it will be read and considered in order to be admitted; and if it is, it must undergo three discussions, with an interval of at least one day between each, observing the rules established for debate.
Article 47. The projects approved in the chamber in which they were originated will be passed to the other for the purposes indicated in the preceding article, and if they are not rejected they will be returned to the chamber whence they originated, with the amendments they may have undergone.
Article 48. If the chamber of their origin does not agree to the amendments, it may insist and send its written reasons to the other. They may also assemble together in Congress and deliberate, in general commission, over the mode of agreement, but if this can not be reached, the project will be of no effect after the chamber of its origin separately decides upon the ratification of its insistence.
Article 49. Upon the passing of the projects from one to the other chamber, the days on which they have been discussed will be stated.
Article 50. The law reforming another law must be fully engrossed and the former law, in all its parts, will be annulled.
Article 51. In the laws this form will be used: "The Congress of the United States of Venezuela decrees."
Article 52. The projects defeated in one legislature cannot be reintroduced except in another.
Article 53. The projects pending in a chamber at the close of the sessions must undergo the same three discussions in succeeding legislatures.
Article 54. Laws are annulled with the same formalities established for their sanction.
Article 55. When the ministers of Cabinet may have sustained, in a chamber, the unconstitutionality of a project by word or in writing, and, notwithstanding this, it may have been sanctioned as law, the National Executive, with the affirmative vote of the Federal Council, will suspend its execution and apply to the legislatures of the States, asking their vote in the matter.
Article 56. In case of the foregoing article, each State will represent one vote expressed by the majority of the members of the legislature present, and the result will be sent to the High Federal Court in this form: "I confirm" or "I reject."
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Article 57. If a majority of the legislatures of the States agree with the Federal Executive, the High Federal Court will confirm the suspension, and the Federal Executive himself will render an account to the next Congress relative to all that has been done in the matter.
Article 58. The laws will not be observed until after being published in the solemn form established.
Article 59. The faculty conceded to sanction a law is not to be delegated.
Article 60. No legislative disposition will have a retroactive effect, except in matters of judicial procedure and that which imposes a lighter penalty.
Article 61. There will be a Federal Council composed of one senator and one deputy for each State and of one more deputy for the Federal District, who will be elected by the Congress each two years from among the respective representations of the States composing the Federation and from that of the Federal District. This election will take place in the first fifteen days of the meeting of Congress, in the first and third year of the constitutional period.
Article 62. The Federal Council elects from its members the President of the United States of Venezuela, and in the same manner the person who shall act in his stead in case of his temporal or permanent disability during his term. The election of a person to be President of the United States of Venezuela who is not a member of the Federal Council, as well as of those who may have to act in his stead in case of his temporal or permanent disability, is null of right and void of efficacy.
Article 63. The members of the Federal Council hold office for two years, the same as the President of the United States of Venezuela, whose term is of equal duration; and neither he nor they can be reëlected for the term immediately succeeding, although they may return to occupy` their posts as legislators in the chambers to which they belong.
Article 64. The Federal Council resides in the district and exercises the functions prescribed in this constitution. It cannot deliberate with less than an absolute majority of all its members; it dictates the interior regulations to be observed in its deliberations, and annually appoints the person who shall preside over its sessions.
Article 65. The prerogatives of the President of Venezuela are:
(1) To appoint and remove the cabinet ministers;
(2) to preside over the cabinet, in whose discussions he will have a vote, and to inform the Council of all the matters that refer to the General Administration;
(3) to receive and welcome public ministers;
(4) to sign the official letters to the Sovereigns or Presidents of other countries;
(5) to order the execution of the laws and decrees of the National Legislature, and to take care that they are complied with and executed;
(6) to promulgate the resolutions and decrees that may have been proposed and received the approbation of the Federal Council, in conformity with article 66 of this constitution;
(7) to organize the Federal District and to act therein as the chief civil and political authority established by this constitution;
(8) to issue registers of navigation to national vessels;
(9) to render an account to Congress, within the first eight days of its annual session, of the cases in which, with the approval of the Federal Council, he may have exercised all or any of the faculties accorded to him in article 66 of this compact;
(10) to discharge the other functions that the national laws entrust to him.
Article 66. Besides the foregoing prerogatives, that are personal to the president of the United States of Venezuela, he can, with the deliberate vote of the Federal Council, exercise the following:
(1) To protect the Nation from all exterior attack;
(2) to administer the public lands, mines, and salt mines of the States as their delegate;
(3) to convoke the National Legislature in its regular sessions, and in extraordinary session when the gravity of any subject demands it;
(4) to nominate persons for diplomatic positions, consuls-general, and consuls; those named for the first and second positions must be Venezuelans by birth;
(5) to direct negotiations and celebrate all kinds of treaties with other nations, submitting these to the National Legislature;
(6) to celebrate contracts of national interest in accordance with the laws and to submit them the legislatures for their approval;
(7) to nominate the employés of hacienda, which nominations are not to be made by any other authority. It is required that these employés shall be Venezuelan by birth;
(8) to remove and suspend employés of his own free motion, ordering them to be tried if there should be cause for it;
(9) to declare war in the name of the Republic when Congress shall have decreed it;
(10) in the case of foreign war he can,
first, demand from the States the assistance necessary for the national defense;
second, require, in anticipation, the contributions and negotiate the loans decreed by the National Legislature;
third, arrest or expel persons who pertain to the nation with which war is carried on and who may be opposed to the defense of the country;
fourth, to suspend the guaranties that may be incompatible with the defense of the country, except that of life;
fifth, to select the place to which the General Power of the Federation may be provisionally translated when there may be grave reasons for it;
sixth, to bring to trial for treason to the country those Venezuelans who may be, in any manner, hostile to the national defense;
seventh, to issue registers to corsairs and privateers and to prescribe the laws that they must observe in cases of capture;
(11) to employ the public force and the powers contained in numbers 1, 2, and 5 of the preceding clause with the object of reëstablishing constitutional order in case of armed insurrection against the institutions of the Nation;
(12) to dispose of the public force for the purpose of quelling every armed collision between two or more States, requiring them to lay down their arms and submit their controversies to the arbitration to which they are pledged by number 30, article 14 of this constitution;
(13) to direct the war and to appoint the person who shall command the army;
(14) to organize the national force in time of peace;
(15) to concede general or particular exemptions;
(16) to defend the territory designated for the Federal District when there may be reasons to apprehend that it will be invaded by hostile forces.
Article 67. The President of the United States of Venezuela shall have the ministers for his cabinet that the law designates. It will determine their functions and duties and will organize their bureaus.
Article 68. To be a minister of the cabinet it is required that the person shall be twenty-five years of age, a Venezuelan by birth or five years of naturalization.
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Article 69. The ministers are the natural and proper organs of the President of the United States of Venezuela. All his acts must be subscribed by them and without such requisite they will not be complied with nor executed by the authorities, employees, or private persons.
Article 70. All the acts of the ministers must be conformed to this Constitution and the laws; their personal responsibility is not saved, although they may have the written order of the President.
Article 71. The settlement of all business, except the fiscal affairs of the bureaus, will be determined in the council of ministers, and their responsibility is collective and consolidated.
Article 72. The ministers, within the five first sessions of each year, will render an account to the Chambers of what they may have done or propose to do in their respective branches. They will also render written or verbal reports that may be requested of them, reserving only that which, in diplomatic affairs, it may not be convenient to publish.
Article 73. Within the same period, they will present to the National Legislature the estimates of public expenditures and the general account of the past year.
Article 74. The ministers have the right to be heard in the Chambers, and are obliged to attend when they may be called upon for information.
Article 75. The ministers are responsible:
(1) for treason to the country;
(2) for infraction of this Constitution or the laws;
(3) for malversation of the public funds;
(4) for exceeding the estimates in their expenditures;
(5) for subornation or bribery in the affairs under their charge or in the nominations for public employees;
(6) for failure in compliance with the decisions of the Federal Council.
Article 76. The High Federal Court will be composed of as many judges as there may be States of the Federation and with the following qualities:
(1) A judge must be a Venezuelan by birth;
(2) he must be thirty years of age.
Article 77. For the nomination of judges of the High Federal Court the Congress will convene on the fifteenth day of its regular sessions and will proceed to group together the representation of each State from which to form a list of as many candidates for principal judges and an equal number of alternates as there may be States of the Federation. The Congress, in the same or following session, will elect one principal and one alternate for each State, selecting them from the respective lists.
Article 78. The law will determine the different functions of the judges and other officers of the High Federal Court.
Article 79. The judges and their respective alternates will hold office for four years. The principals and their alternates in office can not accept during this period any office in the gift of the executive without previous resignation and lawful acceptance. The infraction of this disposition will be punished with four years of disability to hold public office in Venezuela.
Article 80. The matters within the competence of the High Federal Court are:
(1) to take cognizance of civil or criminal causes that may be instituted against diplomatic officers in those cases permitted by the law of nations;
(2) to take cognizance of causes ordered by the President to be instituted against cabinet ministers when they may be accused according to the cases provided for in this Constitution. In the matter of the necessity of suspension from office, they will request the President to that effect and he will comply;
[Transcriber's note: (3) is absent.]
(4) to have jurisdiction of the causes of responsibility instituted against diplomatic agents accredited to another nation for the wrong discharge of their functions;
(5) to have jurisdiction in civil trials when the nation is defendant and the law sanctions it;
(6) to dissipate the controversies that may arise between the officials of different States in political order in the matter of jurisdiction or competence;
(7) to take cognizance of all matters of political nature that the States desire to submit for their consideration;
(8) to declare which may be the law in force when the national and State laws may be found to conflict with each other;
(9) to have jurisdiction in the controversies that may result from contracts or negotiations celebrated by the president of the federation;
(10) to have jurisdiction in causes of imprisonment;
(11) to exercise other prerogatives provided for by law.
Article 81. The Court of Appeals referred to in paragraph 20, article 13 of this Constitution, is the tribunal of the states; it will be composed of as many judges as there are states of the federation, and their terms of office will last for four years.
Article 82. A judge of the Court of Appeals must have the following qualifications:
(1) he must be an attorney at law in the exercise of his profession, and must have had at least six years practice;
(2) he must be a Venezuelan, thirty years of age.
Article 83. Every four years the legislature of each State will form a list of as many attorneys, with the qualifications expressed in the preceding article, as there are States, and will remit it, duly certified, to the Federal Council in order that this body, from the respective lists, may select a judge for each State in the organization of this high tribunal.
Article 84. After the Federal Council may have received the lists from all the States, it will proceed, in public session, to verify the election; forming thereafter a list of the attorneys not elected, in order that from this general list, which will be published in the official paper, the permanent vacancies that may occur in the Court of Appeals may be filled by lot. The temporary vacancies will be filled according to law.
Article 85. The Court of Appeals will have the following prerogatives:
(1) to take cognizance of criminal causes or those of responsibility that may be instituted against the high functionaries of the different States, applying the laws of the States themselves in matters of responsibility, and in case of omission of the promulgation of a law of constitutional precept, it will apply to the cause in question the general laws of the land;
(2) to take cognizance and to decide in cases of appeal in the form and terms directed by law;
(3) to annually report to the National Legislature the difficulties that stand in the way of uniformity in the matter of civil or criminal legislation;
(4) to dispose of the rivalries that may arise between the officers or functionaries of judicial order in the different States of the federation and amongst those of a single State, provided that the authority to settle them does not exist in the State.
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Article 86. The National Executive is exercised by the Federal Council, the President of the United States of Venezuela, or the person who fills his vacancies, in union with the cabinet ministers who are his organs. The President of Venezuela must be a Venezuelan by birth.
Article 87. The functions of National Executive can not be exercised outside of the federal district except in the case provided for in number 5, paragraph 10, article 66 of the Constitution. When the President, with the approval of the Council, shall take command of the army or absent himself from the district on account of matters of public interest that demand it, he can not exercise any functions and will be replaced by the Federal Council in accordance with article 62 of this Constitution.
Article 88. Everything that may not be expressly assigned to the general administration of the nation in this Constitution is reserved to the States.
Article 89. The tribunals of justice in the States are independent; the causes originated in them will be concluded in the same States without any other review than that of the Court of Appeals in the cases provided for by law.
Article 90. Every act of Congress and of the National Executive that violates the rights guaranteed to the States in this Constitution, or that attacks their independence, must be declared of no effect by the High Court, provided that a majority of the legislatures demands it.
Article 91. The public national force is divided into naval and land troops, and will be composed of the citizen militia that the States may organize according to law.
Article 92. The force at the disposal of the federation will be organized from citizens of a contingent furnished by each State in proportion to its population, calling to service those citizens that should render it according to their internal laws.
Article 93. In case of war the contingent can be augmented by bodies of citizen militia up to the number of men necessary to fill the draft of the National Government.
Article 94. The National Government may change the commanders of the public force supplied by the States in the cases and with the formalities provided for in the national military law and then their successors will be called for from the States.
Article 95. The military and civil authority can never be exercised by the same person or corporation.
Article 96. The nation, being in possession of the right of ecclesiastical patronage, will exercise it as the law upon the subject may direct.
Article 97. The Government of the Federation will have no other resident employees with jurisdiction or authority in the States than those of the States themselves. The officers of hacienda, those of the forces that garrison national fortresses, arsenals created by law, navy-yards, and habilitated ports, that only have jurisdiction in matters peculiar to their respective offices and within the limits of the forts and quarters that they command, are excepted; but even these must be subject to the general laws of the State in which they reside. All the elements of war now existing belong to the National Government; nevertheless it is not to be understood that the States are prohibited from acquiring those that they may need for domestic defense.
Article 98. The National Government can not station troops nor military officers with command in a State, although they may be from that or another State, without permission of the government of the State in which the force is to be stationed.
Article 99. Neither the National Executive nor those of the States can resort to armed intervention in the domestic contentions of a State; it is only permitted to them to tender their good offices to bring about a pacific solution in the case.
Article 100. In case of a permanent or temporary vacancy in the office of President of the United States of Venezuela, the States will be immediately informed as to who has supplied the vacancy.
Article 101. Exportation in Venezuela is free and no duty can be placed upon it.
Article 102. All usurped authority is without effect and its acts are null. Every order granted for a requisition, direct or indirect, by armed force or by an assemblage of people in subversive attitude is null of right and void of efficacy.
Article 103. The exercise of any function not conferred by the constitution or laws is prohibited to every corporation or authority.
Article 104. Any citizen may accuse the employees of the nation or the States before the chamber of deputies, before their respective superiors in office, or before the authorities designated by law.
Article 105. No payment shall be made from the National Treasury for which Congress has not expressly provided in the annual estimate, and those that may infringe this rule will be civilly responsible to the National Treasury for the sums they have paid out. In every payment from the public Treasury the ordinary expenses will be preferred to the extraordinary charges.
Article 106. The offices of collection and disbursement of the national taxes shall be always separate, and the officers of collection may disburse only the salaries of their respective employees.
Article 107. When, for any reason, the estimate of appropriations for a fiscal period have not been made, that of the immediately preceding period will continue in force.
Article 108. In time of elections, the public national force or that of the States themselves will remain closely quartered during the holding of popular elections.
Article 109. In international treaties of commerce and friendship this clause will be inserted, to wit: "all the disagreements between the contracting parties must be decided without an appeal to war, by the decision of a power or friendly powers."
Article 110. No individual can hold more than one office within the gift of Congress and the National Executive. The acceptance of any other is equivalent to resignation of the first. Officials that are removable will cease to hold office upon accepting the charge of a Senator or Deputy when they are dependents of the National Executive.
Article 111. The law will create and designate other national tribunals that may be necessary.
Article 112. National officers can not accept gifts, commissions, honors, or emoluments from a foreign nation without permission from the National Legislature.
Article 113. Armed force can not deliberate; it is passive and obedient. No armed body can make requisitions nor demand assistance of any kind, but from the civil authorities, and in the mode and form prescribed by law.
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Article 114. The Nation and the States will promote foreign immigration and colonization in accordance with their respective laws.
Article 115. A law will regulate the manner in which national officers, upon taking charge of their posts, shall take the oath to comply with their duties.
Article 116. The National Executive will negotiate with the Governments of America over treaties of alliance or confederation.
Article 117. The law of Nations forms a part of the National Legislation; its dispositions will be specially in force in cases of civil war, which can be terminated by treaties between the belligerents who will have to respect the humanitarian customs of Christians and civilized nations, the guarantee of life being, in every case, inviolable.
Article 118. This constitution can be reformed by the National Legislature if the legislatures of the States desire it, but there shall never be any reform except in the parts upon which the majority of the States coincide; also a reform can be made upon one or more points when two-thirds of the members of the National Legislature, deliberating separately and by the proceedings established to sanction the laws, shall accord it; but, in this second case, the amendment voted shall be submitted to the legislatures of the States, and it will stand sanctioned in the point or points that may have been ratified by them.
Article 119. This constitution will take effect from the day of its official promulgation in each State, and in all public acts and official documents there will be cited the date of the Federation to begin with February 20, 1859, and the date of the law to begin with March 28, 1864.
Article 120. The constitutional period for the offices of the General Administration of the Republic will continue to be computed from February 20, 1882, the date on which the reformed constitution took effect.
Article 121. For every act of civil and political life of the States of the Federation, its basis of population is that which is determined in the last census approved by the National Legislature.
Article 122. The Federal Constitution of April 27, 1881, is repealed. Done in Caracas, in the Palace of the Federal Legislative Corps, and sealed with the seal of Congress on the 9th day of April, 1891. The 28th year of the Law and the 33rd year of the Federation.
(Here follow the signatures of the Presidents, Vice-Presidents, and Second Vice-Presidents of the Senate and Chamber of Deputies, together with those of the Senators and Deputies of the various States, followed by those of the President and the ministers of his cabinet.)
See VENEZUELA: A. D. 1869-1892.
----------CONSTITUTION OF VENEZUELA: End----------
CONSTITUTION OF THE WATAUGA ASSOCIATION (the first Western American Commonwealth).
See TENNESSEE: A. D. 1769-1772.
CONSTITUTIONS OF CLARENDON.
The "Constitutions of Clarendon" were a series of declarations drawn up by a council which King Henry II. of England convened at Clarendon, near Winchester, in 1164, and which were intended to determine the law on various points in dispute between the Crown and the laity, on one side, and the Church on the other. The issues in question were those which brought Henry into collision with Thomas Becket, Archbishop of Canterbury. The general provisions embodied in the Constitutions of Clarendon "would now be scarcely challenged in the most Catholic country in the world.
1. During the vacancy of any archbishopric, bishopric, abbey, or priory of royal foundation, the estates were to be in the custody of the Crown. Elections to these preferments were to be held in the royal chapel, with the assent of the king and council.
2. In every suit to which a clerk was a party, proceedings were to commence before the king's justices, and these justices were to decide whether the case was to be tried before a spiritual or a civil court. If it was referred to a spiritual court, a civil officer was to attend to watch the trial, and if a clerk was found guilty of felony the Church was to cease to protect him.
3. No tenant-in-chief of the king, or officer of his household, was to be excommunicated, or his lands laid under an interdict, until application had been first made to the king, or, in his absence, to the chief justice.
4. Laymen were not to be indicted in a bishop's court, either for perjury or other similar offence, except in the bishop's presence by a lawful prosecutor and with lawful witnesses. If the accused was of so high rank that no prosecutor would appear, the bishop might require the sheriff to call a jury to inquire into the case.
5. Archbishops, bishops, and other great persons were forbidden to leave the realm without the king's permission.
6. Appeals were to be from the archdeacon to the bishop, from the bishop to the archbishop, from the archbishop to the king, and no further; that, by the king's mandate, the case might be ended in the archbishop's court.
The last article the king afterwards explained away. It was one of the most essential, but he was unable to maintain it; and he was rash, or he was ill-advised, in raising a second question, on which the pope would naturally be sensitive, before he had disposed of the first."
J. A. Froude, Life and Times of Becket, pages 31-32.
See ENGLAND: A. D. 1162-1170.
CONSTITUTIONS, Roman Imperial.
See CORPUS JURIS CIVILIS.
CONSTITUTIONAL UNION PARTY, The.
See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1860 (APRIL-NOVEMBER).
CONSUL, Roman.
When the Romans had rid themselves of their kings and established a republic, or, rather, an aristocratic government, "the civil duties of the king were given to two magistrates, chosen for a year, who were at first called 'prætores' or generals, 'judices' or judges, or consules (cf. con 'together' and salio 'to leap') or 'colleagues.' In the matter of their power, no violent departure was made from the imperium of the king. The greatest limitation on the consuls was the short period for which they were at the head of the state; but even here they were thought of, by a fiction, as voluntarily abdicating at the expiration of their term, and as nominating their successors, although they were required to nominate the men who had already been selected in the 'comitia centuriata.' Another limitation was the result of the dual character of the magistracy. The imperium was not divided between the consuls, but each possessed it in full, as the king had before. When, therefore, they did not agree, the veto of the one prevailed over the proposal of the other, and there was no action."
A. Tighe, Development of the Roman Constitution, chapter 4.
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"As judges, the consuls occupied altogether the place of the kings. They decided the legal disputes of the citizens either personally or by deputy. Their criminal jurisdiction was probably limited to the most important cases. ... In the warlike state of the Romans the military character of the consuls was no doubt most prominent and most important. When the consul led the army into the field he possessed the unlimited military power of the kings (the imperium). He was entrusted with the direction of the war, the distribution of the booty, and the first disposal of the conquered land. ... The oldest designation for the consuls, therefore, was derived from their military quality, for they were called prætors, that is, commanders. It was, however, precisely in war that the division of power among two colleagues must often have proved prejudicial ... and the necessity of unity in the direction of affairs was felt to be indispensable. The dictatorship served this purpose. By decree of the senate one of the consuls could be charged with naming a dictator for six months, and in this officer the full power of the king was revived for a limited period. The dictatorship was a formal suspension of the constitution of the republic. ... Military was substituted for common law, and Rome, during the time of the dictatorship, was in a state of siege."
W. Ihne, History of Rome, book 2, chapter 1, and book 6, chapter 3-5.
In the later years of the Roman empire, "two consuls were created by the sovereigns of Rome and Constantinople for the sole purpose of giving al date to the year and a festival to the people. But the expenses of this festival, in which the wealthy and the vain aspired to surpass their predecessors, insensibly arose to the enormous sum of four score thousand pounds; the wisest senators declined a useless honour which involved the certain ruin of their families, and to this reluctance I should impute the frequent chasms in the last age of the consular Fasti. ... The succession of consuls finally ceased in the thirteenth year of Justinian [A. D. 541] whose despotic temper might be gratified by the final extinction of a title which admonished the Romans of their ancient freedom. Yet the annual consulship still lived in the minds of the people; they fondly expected its speedy restoration ... and three centuries elapsed after the death of Justinian before that obsolete dignity, which had been suppressed by custom, could be abolished by law. The imperfect mode of distinguishing each year by the name of a magistrate was usefully supplied by the date of a permanent era."
E. Gibbon, Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, chapter 40. https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/25717
"There were no consuls in 531 and 532. The Emperor held the office alone in 533, and with a colleague in 534. Belisarius was sole consul in 535. The two following years, having no consuls of their own, were styled the First and Second after the Consulship of Belisarius. John of Cappadocia gave his name to the year 538, and the years 539 and 540 had again consuls, though one only for each year. In 541 Albinus Basilius sat in the curule chair, and he was practically the last of the long list of warriors, orators, demagogues, courtiers, which began (in the year 500 B. C.) with the names of Lucius Junius Brutus and Lucius Tarquinius Collatinus. All the rest of the years of Justinian, twenty-four in number, were reckoned as Post Consulatum Basilii."
T. Hodgkin, Italy and Her Invaders. book 5, chapter 14.
See, also, ROME B. C. 500.
CONSULAR TRIBUNES, Roman.
The plebeians of Rome having demanded admission for their order to the consulship, a compromise was arranged, B. C. 444, which settled that, thereafter, "the people should be free to elect either consuls--that is, patricians according to the old law--or in their place other officers under the title of 'military tribunes with consular power,' consisting of patricians and plebeians. ... It is not reported in what respect the official competency of the consular tribunes was to differ from that of the consuls. Still, so much is plain, that the difference consisted not alone in name. The number of the consular tribunes was in the beginning fixed at three."
W. Ihne, History of Rome, book 2, chapter 11.
CONSULATE GOVERNMENT OF FRANCE, The.
See FRANCE: A. D. 1799 (NOVEMBER-DECEMBER).
CONTINENTAL ARMY. "The Continentals" of the American Revolution.
See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1775 (MAY-AUGUST).
CONTINENTAL CURRENCY, The.
See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1780 (JANUARY-APRIL).
CONTINENTAL SYSTEM OF NAPOLEON, The.
See FRANCE: A. D. 1801-1802, and 1806-1810.
CONTIONES, OR CONCIONES.
The contiones, or conciones, at Rome, were assemblies of the people, "less formal than the comitia," held for the mere purpose of discussing public questions, and incapable of passing any binding resolution. "They could not be called together by anybody except the magistrates, neither had every man the liberty of speaking in them, of making proposals or of declaring his opinion; ... but even in this limited manner public questions could be discussed and the people could be enlightened. ... The custom of discussing public questions in the contiones became general after the comitia of the tribes had obtained full legislative competency."
W. Ihne, History of Rome, book 6, chapter 1.
See, also, COMITIA CURIATA.
CONTRABANDS.
In the early part of the American civil war of 1861-65, the escaped slaves of the Confederates, who came within the Union lines, were called contrabands, General Butler having supplied the term by declaring them to be "contraband of war."
See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1861 (MAY).
CONTRERAS, Battle of.
See MEXICO: A. D. 1847 (MARCH-SEPTEMBER).
CONVENT,
See MONASTERY.
CONVENTICLE ACT, The.
See ENGLAND: A. D. 1662-1665.
CONVENTION, The French National, of the great Revolution.
See FRANCE: A. D. 1792 (AUGUST), and 1792 (SEPTEMBER-NOVEMBER), to 1705 (OCTOBER-DECEMBER).
CONVOCATION.
The assemblies of the clergy in the two ecclesiastical provinces of England are called the Convocation of Canterbury and the Convocation of York. The former, which is the superior body, frequently receives the name of Convocation, simply. It is constituted upon the model of Parliament, and is, in fact, the Parliament of the Church of England. It has two Houses: the upper one consisting of the Archbishop and his Bishops; the lower one composed of deans, archdeacons and proctors, representing the inferior clergy. The Convocation of York has but one House. Since 1716 Convocation has possessed slight powers.
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CONWAY CABAL, The.
See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1777-1778.
COOMASSIE, Burning of.
See ENGLAND: A. D. 1873-1880.
COPAIC REEDS.
See BŒOTIA.
COPAN, Ruins of.
See AMERICAN ABORIGINES: MAYAS; and MEXICO, ANCIENT.
COPEHAN FAMILY, The.
See AMERICAN ABORIGINES: COPEHAN FAMILY.
COPENHAGEN: A. D. 1362. Taken and pillaged by the Hanseatic League.
See SCANDINAVIAN STATES: A. D. 1018-1397.
COPENHAGEN: A. D. 1658-1660. Sieges by Charles X. of Sweden.
See SCANDINAVIAN STATES (SWEDEN): A. D. 1644-1697.
COPENHAGEN: A. D. 1700. Surrender to Charles XII. of Sweden.
See SCANDINAVIAN STATES (SWEDEN): A. D. 1697-1700.
COPENHAGEN: A. D. 1801. Bombardment by the English fleet.
See FRANCE: A. D. 1801-1802.
COPENHAGEN: A. D. 1807. Bombardment of the city by the English. Seizure of the fleet.
See SCANDINAVIAN STATES: A. D. 1807-1810.
----------COPENHAGEN: End----------
COPPERHEADS.
During the American Civil War, the Democratic Party in the Northern States "comprised two well-recognized classes: The Anti-War (or Peace) Democrats, commonly called 'Copperheads,' who sympathized with the Rebellion, and opposed the War for the Union; and the War (or Union) Democrats, who favored a vigorous prosecution of the War for the preservation of the Union."
J. A. Logan, The Great Conspiracy, page 574, foot-note.
See, also, UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1864 (OCTOBER).
COPREDY BRIDGE, Battle of.
See ENGLAND: A. D. 1644 (JANUARY-JULY).
COPTS, The.
The descendants of the ancient Egyptian race, who form to this day the larger part of the population of Egypt.
See EGYPT: ORIGIN OF THE ANCIENT PEOPLE.
COPTOS. Destroyed by Diocletian.
See ALEXANDRIA: A. D. 296.
COR, The.
See EPHAH.
CORBIE, Spanish capture of (1636).
See NETHERLANDS: A. D. 1635-1638.
CORCYRA.
See KORKYRA.
CORDAY, Charlotte, and the assassination of Marat.
See FRANCE: A. D. 1793 (JULY).
CORDELIERS.
See MENDICANT ORDERS.
CORDELIERS, Club of the.
See FRANCE: A. D. 1790.
CORDOVA (Spain): A. D. 711. Surrender to the Arab-Moors.
See SPAIN: A. D. 711-713.
CORDOVA: A. D. 756-1031. The Caliphate at.
See MAHOMETAN CONQUEST AND EMPIRE: A. D. 756-1031.
CORDOVA: A. D. 1235. Capture by the King of Castile.
See SPAIN: A. D. 1212-1238.
----------CORDOVA: End----------
CORDOVA (Mexico), Treaty of.
See MEXICO: A. D. 1820-1826.
CORDYENE.
See GORDYENE.
COREA.
See COREA in Supplement (volume 5).
COREISH, KOREISH.
See MAHOMETAN CONQUEST AND EMPIRE: A.. D. 609-632.
COREY, Martha and Giles, The execution for witchcraft of.
See MASSACHUSETTS: A. D. 1692.
CORFINIUM, Cæsar's Capture of.
See ROME: B. C. 50-49.
CORFU, Ancient.
See KORKYRA.
CORFU: A. D. 1216-1880. Since the fall of the Greek Empire.
Corfu was won by the Venetians in the early years of the Latin conquest of the Greek empire (1216), but was presently lost, to come back again into the possession of the republic 170 years later. "No part of Greece has been so often cutoff from the Greek body. Under Pyrrhos and Agathoklês, no less than under Michael Angelos and Roger, it obeyed an Epeirot or Sicilian master. ... At last, after yet another turn of Sicilian rule, it passed for 400 years [1386-. 1797] to the great commonwealth [of Venice]. In our own day Corfu was not added to free Greece till long after the deliverance of Attica and Peloponnesos. But, under so many changes of foreign masters, the island has always remained part of Europe and of Christendom. Alone among the Greek lands, Corfu has never passed under barbarian rule. It has seen the Turk only, for one moment, as an invader [see TURKS: A. D. 1714-1718], for another moment as a nominal overlord."
E. A. Freeman, Historical Geography of Europe, page 408.
See IONIAN ISLANDS: To 1814.
----------CORFU: End----------
CORINIUM.
A Roman city in Britain, on the site of which is the modern city of Cirencester. Some of the richest mosaic pavements found in England have been uncovered there.
T. Wright. Celt, Roman and Saxon, chapter 5.
CORINTH.
Corinth, the chief city and state, in ancient times, of the narrow isthmus which connects Peloponnesus with northern Greece, "owed everything to her situation. The double sea by the isthmus, the confluence of the high road of the whole of Hellas, the rocky citadel towering aloft over land and sea, through which rushed--or around which flowed--an abundance of springs; all these formed so extraordinary a commixture of advantages, that, if the intercourse with other countries remained undisturbed, they could not but call forth an important city. As in Argolis, so on the isthmus also, other besides Dorian families had in the days of the migration helped to found the new state. ... By the side of the Dorian, five non-Dorian tribes existed in Corinth, attesting the multitude and variety of population, which were kept together as one state by the royal power of the Heraclidæ, supported by the armed force of the Dorians. In the ninth century [B. C.] the royal power passed into the hands of a branch of the Heraclidæ deriving its descent from Bacchis [one of the earliest of the kings]; and it was in the extraordinary genius of this royal line that the greatness of the city originated. The Bacchiadæ opened the city to the immigration of the industrious settlers who hoped to make their fortunes more speedily than elsewhere at this meeting point of all Greek high-roads of commerce. They cherished and advanced every invention of importance. ... They took commerce into their own hands, and established the tramway on the isthmus, along which ships were, on rollers, transported from one gulf to the other. ... They converted the gulf which had hitherto taken its name from Crisa into the Corinthian, and secured its narrow inlet by means of the fortified place of Molycria. ... They continued their advance along the coast and occupied the most important points on the Achelous."
E. Curtius, History of Greece, book 2, chapter 1.
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CORINTH: B. C. 745-725. Constitutional Revolution. End of Monarchy. The prytanes. Commercial progress.
A violent contention which arose between two branches of the Bacchiadæ "no doubt gave the nobles of Corinth power and opportunity to end the struggle by a change in the constitution, and by the discontinuance of the monarchy; this occurred in the year 745 B. C., after eight generations of kings. ... Yet the place at the head of the commonwealth was not to be entirely taken away from the ancient royal house. A presiding chief (a prytanis), newly elected each year by the whole nobility from the members of the royal race, was henceforward to conduct the government [see PRYTANIS]. It was a peculiar arrangement which this change introduced into Corinth. We may assume that the sovereignty was transferred to the nobles collectively, or to their representative. This representation seems to have been so regulated that each of the eight tribes sent an equal number of members to the Gerousia, i. e. the council of elders. ... But the first of these eight tribes, to which belonged the royal family, was privileged. From it was chosen the head of the state, an office for which only a Bacchiad was eligible--that is, only a member of the old royal house, which took the foremost place in the first tribe. This clan of the Bacchiadæ is said to have contained 200 men. 'They were numerous and wealthy,' says Strabo. Accordingly the royal house did not exclusively retain the first rank in the state, but only in conjunction with the families connected with it by kindred and race. ... The new constitution of Corinth, the government by nobles, under the dynastic presidency of one family, became a type for other cantons. It was a Corinthian of the Bacchiadæ who, twenty or thirty years after the introduction of the prytanes, regulated the oligarchy of the Thebans and gave them laws (about 725 B. C.) ... The fall of the monarchy in Corinth at first brought with it disastrous consequences for the power and prestige of the commonwealth. The communities of the Megarians--either because the new government made increased demands upon them, or because they considered their allegiance had ceased with the cessation of monarchy, and thought the moment was favourable--deserted Corinth and asserted their freedom. The five communities on the isthmus united together around the territory of Megara, lying in the plain by the Saronic Gulf, where the majority of the Doric tribes had settled; the city of Megara, in the vicinity of two ancient fortresses ... became the chief centre of the communities, now associated in one commonwealth. ... The important progress of Corinth under the prytany of the Bacchiadæ was not due to successes upon the mainland, but in another sphere. For navigation and commerce no canton in Hellas was more favourably situated. Lying on the neck of the isthmus, it extended from sea to sea, an advantageous position which had indeed first attracted the Phœnicians thither in ancient times. ... Corinth, says Thucydides, was always from the first a centre of commerce, and abounded in wealth; for the population within and without the Peloponnesus communicated with each other more in ancient times by land across the isthmus than by sea. But when the Hellenes became more practised in navigation, the Corinthians with their ships put down piracy and established marts on both sides; and through this influx of riches their city became very powerful."
M. Duncker, History of Greece, book 3, chapter 3 (volume 2).
CORINTH: B. C. 509-506. Opposition to the desire of Sparta to restore tyranny at Athens.
See ATHENS: B. C. 509-506.
CORINTH: B. C. 481-479. Congress and organized Hellenic union against Persia.
See GREECE: B. C.481-479.
CORINTH: B. C. 458-456. Alliance with Ægina in unsuccessful war with Athens and Megara.
See GREECE: B. C. 458-456.
CORINTH: B. C. 440. Opposition to Spartan interference with Athens in Samos.
See ATHENS: B. C. 440-437.
CORINTH: B. C. 435-432. Quarrel with Korkyra. Interference of Athens. Events leading to the Peloponnesian War.
See GREECE: B. C. 435-432.
CORINTH: B. C. 432. Great sea-fight with the Korkyrians and Athenians.
See GREECE: B. C. 432.
CORINTH: B. C. 429-427. The Peloponnesian War: sea-fights and defeats. Fruitless aid to the Mitylenæans.
See GREECE: B. C. 429-427.
CORINTH: B. C. 421. Opposition to the Peace of Nicias.
See GREECE: B. C. 421-418.
CORINTH: B. C. 415-413. Help to Syracuse against the Athenians.
See SYRACUSE: B. C. 415-413.
CORINTH: B. C. 395-387. Confederacy against Sparta. The Corinthian War. Battle on the Nemea. The Peace of Antalcidas.
See GREECE: B. C. 399-387.
CORINTH: B. C. 368-365. Attempt of Epaminondas to surprise the city. Attempt of the Athenians.
See GREECE: B. C. 371-362.
CORINTH: B. C. 337. Congress of Greek states to acknowledge the hegemony of Philip of Macedon.
See GREECE: B. C. 357-336.
CORINTH: B. C. 244. Capture by Antigonus Gonatus, king of Macedon.
See MACEDONIA, &c.: B. C. 277-244.
CORINTH: B. C. 243-146. In the Achaian League.
See GREECE: B. C. 280-146.
CORINTH: B. C. 146. Sack by the Romans.
See GREECE: B. C. 280-146.
CORINTH: B. C. 44. Restoration by Cæsar.
"In the desolate land of Greece, Cæsar, besides other plans, ... busied himself above all with the restoration of Corinth. Not only was a considerable burgess-colony conducted thither, but a plan was projected for cutting through the isthmus, so as to avoid the dangerous circumnavigation of the Peloponnesus and to make the whole traffic between Italy and Asia pass through the Corintho-Saronic gulf."
T. Mommsen, History of Rome, book 5, chapter 11.
"Cæsar sent to Corinth a large number of freedmen, and other settlers were afterwards sent by Augustus; but it is certain that many Greeks came to live in the new Corinth, for it became a Greek town. Corinth was a mass of ruins when the new settlers came, and while they were removing the rubbish, they grubbed up the burial places, where they found a great number of earthen figures and bronze urns, which they sold at a high price and filled Rome with them."
G. Long, Decline of the Roman Republic, volume 5, chapter 32.
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"Corinth rapidly rose under these auspices, became a centre of commerce and art, and took the lead among the cities of European Hellas. Here was established the seat of the Roman government of Achaia, and its population, though the representations we have received of it are extravagant, undoubtedly exceeded that of any Grecian rival."
C. Merivale, History of the Romans, chapter 40.
CORINTH: A. D. 267. Ravaged by the Goths.
See GOTHS: A. D. 258-267.
CORINTH: A. D. 395. Plundered by the Goths.
See GOTHS: A. D. 395.
CORINTH: A. D. 1146. Sacked by the Normans of Sicily. Abduction of silk weavers.
See BYZANTINE EMPIRE: A. D. 1146.
CORINTH: A. D. 1445. Destruction by the Turks.
The fortifications of the isthmus of Corinth were stormed and the Peloponnesus invaded by Amurath II. in 1445. "Corinth itself, a city sanctified by its antiquity, by its gods, by its arts, by the beauty of its women, by its fountains, its cypresses, its very ruins themselves, whence its unrivalled situation had always restored it, fell anew, buried in its flames, by the hands of Tourakhan, that ancient and ambitious vizier of Amurath. Its flames were seen from Athens, from Ægina, from Lepanto, from Cytheron, from Pindus. The inhabitants, as also those of Patras, were led into slavery in Asia, to the number of 60,000."
A. Lamartine, History of Turkey, book 11, section 10.
CORINTH: A. D. 1463-1464. Unsuccessful siege by the Venetians. Fortification of the Isthmus.
See GREECE: A. D. 1454-1479.
CORINTH: A. D. 1687. Taken by the Venetians.
See TURKS: A. D. 1684-1696.
CORINTH: A. D. 1822. Revolt, siege and capture by the Turks.
See GREECE: A. D. 1821-1829.
----------CORINTH: End----------
CORINTH, Mississippi, Siege and Battle.
See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1862 (APRIL-MAY: TENNESSEE--MISSISSIPPI), and (SEPTEMBER-OCTOBER: MISSISSIPPI).
CORINTH CANAL, The.
"On Sunday [August 6, 1893] the canal across the Isthmus of Corinth--[projected by Cæsar--see ROME: B. C. 45-44] begun by Nero, and completed, nearly 2,000 years later, by a Greek engineer, M. Matsas--was opened by the King of Greece, who steamed through the canal in his yacht, accompanied by a procession consisting of four Greek torpedo-boats and other vessels, including three English men-of-war and an English despatch-boat. The canal ... will be practicable for all but the largest vessels."
The Spectator, Aug. 12, 1893.
[Transcriber's note: "It was planned by the Hungarian architects István Türr and Béla Gerster... Its construction was started by a French company, which ceased works only after the two ends had been dug, due to financial difficulties. A Greek company took over, the main contractor being Antonis Matsas, and continued (and completed) the project." http://wiki.phantis.com]
CORINTHIAN TALENT.
See TALENT.
CORINTHIAN WAR, The.
See GREECE: B. C. 399-387.
CORIONDI, The.
See IRELAND, TRIBES OF ANCIENT.
CORITANI, OR CORITAVI. A British tribe which occupied the lower valley of the Trent and its vicinity.
See BRITAIN, CELTIC TRIBES.
CORN LAWS (English) and their repeal.
See TARIFF LEGISLATION (ENGLAND): A. D. 1815-1828; 1836-1839; 1842; and 1845-1846.
CORNABII, OR CORNAVII, The.
An ancient British tribe which dwelt near the mouths of the Dee and the Mersey.
See BRITAIN, CELTIC TRIBES.
CORNWALL, Duchy of.
In the division of the spoils of his conquest of England, William the Conqueror gave to his brother Robert almost the whole shire of Cornwall, besides other vast estates. "Out of those possessions," says Mr. Freeman, "arose that great Earldom, and afterwards Duchy, of Cornwall, which was deemed too powerful to be trusted in the hands of any but men closely akin to the royal house, and the remains of which have for ages formed the appanage of the heir-apparent to the Crown."
See, also, WALES, PRINCE OF.
CORNWALLIS, Charles, Lord. In the War of the American Revolution.
See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1776 (AUGUST), (SEPTEMBER-NOVEMBER); 1780 (FEBRUARY-AUGUST); 1780-1781; 1781 (JANUARY-MAY); 1781 (MAY-OCTOBER).
Indian administration.
See INDIA: A. D. 1785-1793.
Irish administration.
See IRELAND: A. D. 1798-1800.
CORON, Battle of (B. C. 281).
See MACEDONIA, &c.: B. C. 297-280.
CORONADO, Expedition of.
See AMERICAN ABORIGINES: PUEBLOS.
CORONATION.
"The royal consecration in its most perfect form included both coronation and unction. The wearing of a crown was a most ancient sign of royalty, into the origin of which it is useless now to inquire; but the solemn rite of crowning was borrowed from the Old Testament by the Byzantine Cæsars; the second Theodosius was the first emperor crowned with religious ceremonies in Christian times. The introduction of the rite of anointing is less certainly ascertained. It did not always accompany coronation, and, although usual with the later emperors is not recorded in the case of the earlier ones."
William Stubbs, Constitutional History of England, chapter 6, section 60.
CORONATION STONE.
See SCOTLAND: 8TH-9TH CENTURIES; also, LIA FAIL.
CORONEIA, Battles of (B. C. 447 and B. C. 394).
See GREECE: B. C. 449-445; and B. C. 399-387.
CORPS DE BELGIQUE.
See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1864 (OCTOBER).
CORPUS JURIS CIVILIS, The.
"The Corpus Juris Civilis represents the Roman law in the form which it assumed at the close of the ancient period (a thousand years after the decemviral legislation of the Twelve Tables), and through which mainly it has acted upon modern times. It was compiled in the Eastern Roman Empire (the Western ceased in 476 A. D.) under the Emperor Justinian, ... who reigned 527-565 A. D. The plan of the work, as laid out by [his great law-minister] Tribonian, included two principal parts, to be made from the constitutions of the Roman emperors, and from the treatises of the Roman lawyers. The constitutiones' (law-utterances) of the emperors consisted of-- 1. 'Orationes,' proposals of law, submitted to and adopted by the Senate; 2. 'Edicta,' laws issued directly by the emperor as head of the state; 3. 'Mandata,' instructions addressed by the emperor to high officers of law and justice; 4. 'Decreta,' decisions given by the emperor in cases brought before him by appeal or otherwise; 5. 'Rescripta,' answers returned by the emperor when consulted on questions of law by parties in a suit or by magistrates. {615} ... Three or four collections had already been made, in which the most important constitutions were selected from the mass, presented in a condensed form, and arranged according to their subjects. The last and most elaborate of these collections was the Theodosian Code, compiled about a century before the accession of Justinian; it is still in great part extant. ... The new Codex Constitutionem, prepared in little more than a year, was published in April, 529. The next work was to digest the treatises of the most eminent law writers. Thirty-nine were selected, nearly all of whom lived between 100 B. C. and 250 A. D. Their books (2,000 in number) were divided among a body of collaborators (sixteen besides Tribonian), each of whom from the books assigned to him extracted what he thought proper. ... and putting the extracts (9,000 in all) under an arranged series of heads. ... The Digest--or Pandects (all-receiving), as it is also called from the multiplicity of its sources--was issued with authority of law, in December, 533. ... While the Digest or Pandects forms much the largest fraction of the Corpus Juris, its relative value and importance are far more than proportionate to its extent. The Digest is, in fact, the soul of the Corpus. ... To bring the Codex Constitutionem into better conformity with the Digest, it was revised in 534 and issued as we now have it in November of that year. ... The Corpus Juris includes also an elementary text-book, the Institutiones (founded on the 'institutiones' of Gaius, who flourished about 150). ... The Institutes, Digest and Codex were given, as a complete body of law, to the law-schools at Constantinople, Rome, Berytus, Alexandria, Cæsarea, to be studied in their five years' curriculum. In the courts it was to supersede all earlier authorities. ... Later statutes of Justinian, arranged in order of time, form the Novels ('novellae constitutione,' most of them in Greek), the last component of the Corpus Juris."
J. Hadley, Introduction to Roman Law, lecture 1.
ALSO IN: J. E. Goudsmit, The Pandects.
CORREGIDOR.
See ALCALDE.
CORSICA: Early history.
"The original inhabitants of Corsica are supposed to have been Ligurians, but at a very early period the people had commercial intercourse with Spain, Ionia and Tuscany. The island was subsequently occupied by the Carthaginians, who, however, were expelled by the Romans during the first Punic war. A few years later Corsica came under the dominion of Rome, and that sway was nominally maintained until the downfall of the Empire. It then fell under the dominion of the Vandals, and after their expulsion owned successively the rule of the Goths, the Saracens and the Pisans, and finally of the Genoese. It came into the possession of the latter people in the year 1120. Pisa subsequently made several attempts to drive out her rivals, but they were in the end void of results. But in 1448, Genoa, having sustained great losses in the constant wars in which she was engaged, was induced to surrender the administration of Corsica and of her colonies in the Levant to a corporation known as the Bank of St George. From that time the island was administered by governors appointed by the Bank of St George, almost precisely in the manner in which, in England, up to 1859, the East Indies were administered by an 'imperium in imperio.'"
G. B. Malleson, Studies from Genoese History, chapter 3.
CORSICA: A. D, 1558-1559. Revolt against the Genoese rule, and re-subjection.
See GENOA: A. D. 1528-1559; and FRANCE: A. D. 1547-1559.
CORSICA: A. D. 1729-1769. The Struggle for independence. Romance of King Theodore. The Paolis. Cession to France.
The revolt of 1558 was renewetl in 1564, but ended in 1567, upon the death of its leader, Sampiero. For the next century and a half, Corsica remained inactive; "depressed and miserable under renewed Genoese exactions and tyrannies, but too exhausted to resume hostilities. In 1729, however, fighting again broke out, suddenly roused by one of the many private wrongs then pressing upon the lower orders, and the rebellion soon spread over the whole island. It was well organized under two leaders of energy and ability, and was more determined in its measures than ever. ... Genoa had recourse to the emperor of Germany, from whom she bought several thousand mercenaries, who were sent across the sea to try their skill upon these unconquerable islanders. ... The courage and chivalry of his insular foes ... won for them the regard of the opposing General Wachtendonk; and, chiefly through his mediation, a treaty, supposed to be favourable to the islanders, was concluded between Genoa and the Corte legislative assembly in 1732. Wachtendonk remained in the island another year to see the treaty carried out, and in June, 1734, the German general returned to his own country. ... But he had scarcely retired before the treaty was broken. Genoa began anew her system of illegal arrests and attempted assassinations; and, once more, the people arose under Hyacinth Paoli, an obscure native of the little village of Morosaglia, but a man of spirit and talent, and a scholar. Under the direction of this man, and of Giafferi, his colleague, a democratic constitution, in the highest degree prudent and practical, was framed for the Corsican people. ... Early in the next year occurred a strange and romantic adventure in this adventureful country. A man, handsome and well-dressed, surrounded by obsequious courtiers, and attended by every luxury, landed in the island from a vessel well-furnished with gold, ammunition, and arms. This man was a German adventurer, Baron Theodore von Neuhoff, who, after a romantic youth, had suddenly conceived a desire to become king of Corsica. He was a man of great talent and personal fascination, of good judgment, and enthusiastic disposition. He had fallen in love with the bravery and determination of the Corsicans, and longed to head such a nation. He had put himself into communication with the leading islanders; and, having really some little influence at the continental courts, persuaded them that he had much more. He offered to obtain such assistance from foreign potentates, by his persuasions, as should effectually oust the Genoese; and, in return, requested the crown of Corsica. His genius and his enthusiasm were so great, and his promises so dazzling, that, after some hesitation, the poor Corsicans, in their despair, seized upon this last straw; and in March, 1736, Theodore was crowned king. His exertions for the good of this country were untiring. He established manufactures and promoted with all his power art and commerce, at the same time that, with all the force of his genius, he endeavoured to persuade foreign powers to lend their assistance to his new subjects in the field. {616} His style of living meanwhile was regal and sumptuous. ... Towards the conclusion of his first year of sovereignty, Theodore left Corsica on a continental tour, with the avowed object of hastening the promised succour. In two years he returned, bringing with him three large and several smaller war vessels, handsomely laden with ammunition, which had actually been raised by means of his talents and persuasive faculties, chiefly amongst the Dutch. But, meanwhile, the Corsicans had had other affairs to which to attend. France had interfered at the request of Genoa; and negotiations were actively going on, which the arrival of the pseudo-king could only interrupt. Theodore, although now so well attended, found himself unheeded and disregarded; and after a few months was forced to leave his new kingdom to its fate, and to return to the continent. Five years later, in 1743, he again returned, again well equipped, this time with English vessels, but with the same ill success. Convinced now that his chance was over and his dream of royalty destroyed, Theodore returned to England with a sore heart, spending his remaining years in this asylum for dethroned kings and ruined adventurers. His tomb may be seen in Westminster Abbey. For the next five and twenty years the war continued between Corsica and Genoa, still fought out on the blood-deluged plains of the unhappy little island. But the republic of Genoa was now long past her prime, and her energies were fading into senility; and, had it not been for the ever-increasing assistance of France, her intrepid foes would long ere this have got the better of her. In May, 1768, a treaty was signed between Genoa and France, by which the republic ceded her now enfeebled claims on Corsica to her ally, and left her long-oppressed victim to fight the contest out with the French troops. During this time, first Gaffori, then Pasquale Paoli, were the leaders of the people. Gaffori, a man of refinement, and a hero of skill and intrepidity, was murdered in a vendetta in 1753, and in 1755 Pasquale, youngest son of the old patriot Hyacinth Paoli, left his position as officer in the Neapolitan service, and landed, by the general desire of his own people, at Aleria, to undertake the command of the Corsican army. ... From 1764 to 1768 a truce was concluded between the foes. ... In August, 1768, the truce was to expire; but, before the appointed day had arrived, an army of 20,000 French suddenly swooped down upon the luckless island. ... It was a hopeless struggle for Corsica; but the heroism of the undaunted people moved all Europe to sympathy. ... The Corsicans at first got the better of their formidable foe, at the Bridge of Golo, in the taking of Borgo, and in other lesser actions. ... Meanwhile, the country was being destroyed, and the troops becoming exhausted. ... The battle of Ponte Nuovo, on the 9th of May, 1769, at once and forever annihilated the Corsican cause. ... After this victory, the French rapidly gained possession of the whole island, and shortly afterwards the struggle was abandoned. ... In the same year, 1769, Napoleon Buonaparte was born in the house out of the Place du Marché at Ajaccio. 'I was born,' he said himself in a letter to Paoli, 'the year my country died.'"
G. Forde, A Lady's Tour in Corsica, volume 2, chapter 18.
ALSO IN: P. Fitzgerald, Kings and Queens of an Hour, chapter 1.
J. Boswell, Journal of a Tour to Corsica.
Corsica: A. D. 1794. Conquest by the English.
See FRANCE: A. D. 1794 (MARCH-JULY).
Corsica: A. D. 1796. Evacuated by the English. Reoccupied by the French.
See FRANCE: A. D. 1796 (SEPTEMBER).
----------Corsica: End----------
CORTENUOVA, Battle of (1236).
See ITALY: A. D. 1183-1250.
CORTES, HERNANDO, Conquest of Mexico by.
See MEXICO: A. D. 1519 to 1521-1524.
CORTES, The early Spanish. The old monarchical constitutions of Castile and Aragon.
"The earliest instance on record of popular representation in Castile occurred at Burgos, in 1169; nearly a century antecedent to the celebrated Leicester parliament. Each city had but one vote, whatever might be the number of its representatives. A much greater irregularity, in regard to the number of cities required to send deputies to cortes [the name signifying 'court'] on different occasions, prevailed in Castile, than had ever existed in England; though, previously to the 15th century, this does not seem to have proceeded from any design of infringing on the liberties of the people. The nomination of these was originally vested in the householders at large, but was afterwards confined to the municipalities,--a most mischievous alteration, which subjected their election eventually to the corrupt influence of the crown. They assembled in the same chamber with the higher orders of the nobility and clergy, but on questions of moment, retired to deliberate by themselves. After the transaction of other business, their own petitions were presented to the sovereign, and his assent gave them the validity of laws. The Castilian commons, by neglecting to make their money grants depend on corresponding concessions from the crown, relinquished that powerful check on its operations so beneficially exerted in the British parliament, but in vain contended for even there till a much later period than that now under consideration. Whatever may have been the right of the nobility and clergy to attend in cortes, their sanction was not deemed essential to the validity of legislative acts; for their presence was not even required in many assemblies of the nation which occurred in the 14th and 15th centuries. The extraordinary power thus committed to the commons was, on the whole, unfavorable to their liberties. It deprived them of the sympathy and cooperation of the great orders of the state, whose authority alone could have enabled them to withstand the encroachments of arbitrary power, and who, in fact, did eventually desert them in their utmost need. ... The Aragonese cortes was composed of four branches, or arms; the ricos hombres, or great barons; the lesser nobles, comprehending the knights; the clergy; and the commons. The nobility of every denomination were entitled to a seat in the legislature. The ricos hombres were allowed to appear by proxy, and a similar privilege was enjoyed by baronial heiresses. The number of this body was very limited, twelve of them constituting a quorum. {617} The arm of the ecclesiastics embraced an ample delegation from the inferior as well as higher clergy. It is affirmed not to have been a component of the national legislature until more than a century and a half after the admission of the commons. Indeed, the influence of the church was much less sensible in Aragon than in the other kingdoms of the Peninsula. ... The commons enjoyed higher consideration and civil privileges. For this they were perhaps somewhat indebted to the example of their Catalan neighbors, the influence of whose democratic institutions naturally extended to other parts of the Aragonese monarchy. The charters of certain cities accorded to the inhabitants privileges of nobility, particularly that of immunity from taxation; while the magistrates of others were permitted to take their seats in the order of hidalgos. From a very early period we find them employed in offices of public trust, and on important missions. The epoch of their admission into the national assembly is traced as far back as 1133, several years earlier than the commencement of popular representation in Castile. Each city had the right of sending two or more deputies selected from persons eligible to its magistracy; but with the privilege of only one vote, whatever might be the number of its deputies. Any place which had been once represented in cortes might always claim to be so. By a statute of 1307, the convocation of the states, which had been annual, was declared biennial. The kings, however, paid little regard to this provision, rarely summoning them except for some specific necessity. The great officers of the crown, whatever might be their personal rank, were jealously excluded from their deliberations. ... It was in the power of any member to defeat the passage of a bill, by opposing to it his veto or dissent, formally registered to that effect. He might even interpose his negative on the proceedings of the house, and thus put a stop to the prosecution of all further business during the session. This anomalous privilege, transcending even that claimed in the Polish diet, must have been too invidious in its exercise, and too pernicious in its consequences, to have been often resorted to. This may be inferred from the fact that it was not formally repealed until the reign of Philip II., in 1502. ... The cortes exercised the highest functions, whether of a deliberative, legislative, or judicial nature. It had a right to be consulted on all matters of importance, especially on those of peace and war. No law was valid, no tax could be imposed, without its consent; and it carefully provided for the application of the revenue to its destined uses. It determined the succession to the crown, removed obnoxious ministers, reformed the household and domestic expenditure of the monarch, and exercised the power, in the most unreserved manner, of withholding supplies, as well as of resisting what it regarded as an encroachment on the liberties of the nation. ... The statute-book affords the most unequivocal evidence of the fidelity with which the guardians of the realm discharged the high trust reposed in them, in the numerous enactments it exhibits for the security both of person and property. Almost the first page which meets the eye in this venerable record contains the General Privilege, the Magna Charta, as it has been well denominated, of Aragon. It was granted by Peter the Great to the cortes at Saragossa, in 1283. It embraces a variety of provisions for the fair and open administration of justice; for ascertaining the legitimate powers intrusted to the cortes; for the security of property against exactions of the crown; and for the conservation of their legal immunities to the municipal corporations and the different orders of nobility. ... The Aragonese, who rightly regarded the General Privilege as the broadest basis of their liberties, repeatedly procured its confirmation by succeeding sovereigns. ... The judicial functions of the cortes have not been sufficiently noticed by writers. They were extensive in their operation, and gave it the name of the General Court."
W. H. Prescott, History of the Reign of Ferdinand and Isabella, introduction, section 1-2.
"Castile bore a closer analogy to England in its form of civil polity than France or even Aragon. But the frequent disorders of its government and a barbarous state of manners rendered violations of law much more continual and flagrant than they were in England under the Plantagenet dynasty. And besides these practical mischiefs, there were two essential defects in the constitution of Castile, through which perhaps it was ultimately subverted. It wanted those two brilliants in the coronet of British liberty, the representation of freeholders among the commons, and trial by jury. The cortes of Castile became a congress of deputies from a few cities, public spirited, indeed, and intrepid, as we find them in bad times, to an eminent degree, but too much limited in number, and too unconnected with the territorial aristocracy, to maintain a just balance against the crown. ... Perhaps in no European monarchy except our own was the form of government more interesting than in Aragon, as a fortunate temperament of law and justice with the royal authority. ... Blancas quotes a noble passage from the acts of cortes in 1451. 'We have always heard of old time, and it is found by experience, that seeing the great barrenness of this land, and the poverty of the realm, if it were not for the liberties thereof, the folk would go hence to live and abide in other realms and lands more fruitful.' This high spirit of freedom had long animated the Aragonese. After several contests with the crown in the reign of James I., not to go back to earlier times, they compelled Peter III. in 1283 to grant a law called the General Privilege, the Magna Charta of Aragon, and perhaps a more full and satisfactory basis of civil liberty than our own." They further "established a positive right of maintaining their liberties by arms. This was contained in the Privilege of Union granted by Alfonso III. in 1287, after a violent conflict with his subjects; but which was afterwards so completely abolished, and even eradicated from the records of the kingdom, that its precise words have never been recovered. ... That watchfulness over public liberty which originally belonged to the aristocracy of ricos hombres ... and which was afterwards maintained by the dangerous Privilege of Union, became the duty of a civil magistrate whose office and functions are the most pleasing feature in the constitutional history of Aragon. The Justiza or Justiciary of Aragon has been treated by some writers as a sort of anomalous magistrate. ... But I do not perceive that his functions were, in any essential respect, different from those of the chief justice of England, divided, from the time of Edward I., among the judges of the King's Bench. ... {618} All the royal as well as territorial judges were bound to apply for his opinion in case of legal difficulties arising in their courts, which he was to certify within eight days. By subsequent statutes of the same reign it was made penal for anyone to obtain letters from the king, impeding the execution of the Justiza's process, and they were declared null. Inferior courts were forbidden to proceed in any business after his prohibition. ... There are two parts of his remedial jurisdiction which deserve special notice. These are the processes of juris firma, or firma del derechio, and of manifestation. The former bears some analogy to the writs of 'pone' and 'certiorari' in England, through which the Court of King's Bench exercises its right of withdrawing a suit from the jurisdiction of inferior tribunals. But the Aragonese juris firma was of more extensive operation. ... The process termed manifestation afforded as ample security for personal liberty as that of juris firma did for property."
H. Hallam, The Middle Age, chapter 4 (volume 2).
For some account of the loss of the old constitutional liberties of Castile and Aragon, under Charles V.,
See SPAIN: A. D. 1518-1522.
"The councils or meetings of the bishops after the reconquest, like the later Councils of Toledo, were always 'jussu regis,' and were attended by counts and magnates 'ad videndum sine ad audiendum verbum Domini.' But when the ecclesiastical business was ended, it was natural that the lay part of the assembly should discuss the affairs of the kingdom and of the people; and insensibly this after-part of the proceedings grew as the first part diminished in importance. The exact date when the Council merged into the Curia or Cortes is difficult to determine; Señor Colmeiro takes the so-named Council of Leon in 1020 as the true starting-point of the latter. The early monarchy of Spain was elective, and the acclamation of the assembled people (plebs) was at least theoretically necessary to render the king's election valid. The presence of the citizens at the Cortes or Zamora, though stated by Sandoval and Morales, is impugned by Señor Colmeiro; but at the Council of Oviedo in 1115 were present bishops of Spain and Portugal 'cum principibus et plebe praedictae regionis,' and these latter also subscribed the Acts. Still, though present and making their influence more and more felt, there is no record of a true representation of cities until Alfonso IX. convoked the Cortes of Leon in 1188, 'cum archiepiscopo, et episcopis, et magnatibus regni mei et cum electis civibus ex singulis civitatibus'; from this time the three estates--clergy, nobles, citizens--were always represented in the Cortes of Leon. Unfortunately, the political development of Castille did not synchronise with that of Leon. In general, that of Castille was fully half a century later. We pass by as more than doubtful the alleged presence of citizens at Burgos in 1169; the 'majores civitatum et villarum' at the Cortes of Carrion in 1188 were not deputies, but the judges or governors of twenty-eight cities. It is not till the united Cortes of both kingdoms met at Seville in 1250, that we find true representation in Castille. Castille was always more feudal than Leon. It is in this want of simultaneous development, and in the presence of privileged classes, that we find the germ of the evils which eventually destroyed the liberties of Spain. Neither the number of deputies nor of the cities represented was ever fixed; at Burgos, in 1315, we find 200 deputies (procuradores) from 100 cities; gradually the number sank till seventeen, and finally twenty-two, cities alone were represented. The deputies were chosen from the municipality either by lot, by rotation, or by election; they were the mere spokesmen of the city councils, whose mandate was imperative. Their payment was at first by the cities, but, after 1422, by the king; and there are constant complaints that the salary was insufficient. The reign of Juan II. (1406-54) was fatal to the liberties of Castille; the answers to the demands and petitions of the deputies were deferred; and, in fact, if not in form, the law that no tax should be levied without consent of the Cortes was constantly violated. Still, but for the death of Prince Juan, in 1497, and the advent of the Austrian dynasty with the possession of the Low Countries, the old liberties might yet have been recovered. ... With the Cortes of Toledo, in 1538, ended the meeting of the three estates. The nobility first, then the clergy, were eliminated from the Cortes, leaving only the proctors of the cities to become servile instruments for the purposes of taxation."
_W. Webster, Review of Colmeiro's "Cortes de los Antiguos Reinos de Leon y de Castilla" (Academy, Aug. 16, 1884)._
CORUNNA, Battle of (1809).
See SPAIN: A. D. 1808-1809 (AUGUST-JANUARY).
CORUPEDION, Battle of.
A battle fought in western Phrygia, B. C. 281, in which Lysimmachus, one of the disputants for Alexander's empire, was defeated by Seleucus, and slain.
C. Thirlwall, History of Greece, chapter 60.
CORVÉE.
One of the feudal rights possessed in France (under the old regime, before the Revolution) "by the lord of the manor over his subjects, by means of which he could employ for his own profit a certain number of their days of labour, or of their oxen and horses. The 'Corvée à volonté,' that is to say, at the arbitrary will of the Seigneur, had been completely abolished [before the Revolution]: forced labour had been for some time past confined to a certain number of days a year."
A. de Tocqueville, On the State of Society in France before 1789, note 4 E. (p. 499).
CORVUS, The Roman.
See PUNIC WAR, THE FIRST.
COS, OR KOS.
One of the islands in the Ægean called the Sporades, near the Carian coast of Asia Minor. The island was sacred to Asclepius, or Æsculapeus, and was the birthplace of the celebrated physician Hippocrates, as well as of the painter Apelles. It was an Æolian colony, but joined the Dorian confederacy.
COSIMO DE' MEDICI, The ascendancy at Florence of.
See FLORENCE: A. D. 1433-1464.
COSMOS, COSMIOS, COSMOPOLIS.
See DEMIURGI.
{619}
COSSACKS, The.
"The origin of the Cossack tribes is lost in the obscurity of ages; and many celebrated historians are still divided in opinion as to whence the term Cossack, or rather Kosaque, is properly to be derived. This word, indeed, is susceptible of so many etymological explanations, as scarcely to offer for anyone of them decided grounds of preference. Everything, however, would seem to favour the belief that the word Cossack, or Kosaque, was in much earlier use in the vicinity of the Caucasus than in the Ukraine. ... Sherer, in his 'Annals of Russia Minor,' (La Petite Russie,) traces back the origin of the Cossacks to the ninth century; but he does not support his assertion by any facts clothed with the dignity of historical truth. It appears certain, however, that the vast pasture lands between the Don and the Dnieper, the country lying on the south of Kïow, and traversed by the Dnieper up to the Black Sea, was the principal birthplace of the Cossacks. When, in 1242, Batukhan came with 500,000 men to take possession of the empire which fell to his share of the vast inheritance left by Tchingis Khan [see MONGOLS: A. D. 1229-1294], he extirpated many nations and displaced many others. One portion of the Komans flying from the horrors of this terrific storm, and arriving on the borders of the Caspian Sea, on the banks of the Iaïk, (now Ouralsek,) turned to the left, and took refuge between the embouchures of that river, where they dwelt in small numbers, apart from their brethren, in a less fertile climate. These were, incontestably, the progenitors of the Cossacks of the Iaïk, who are, historically, scarcely important enough for notice. ... At the approach of this formidable invasion towards the Don, that portion of the Komans located on the left bank took refuge in the marshes, and in the numerous islands formed by that river near its embouchure. Here they found a secure retreat; and from thence, having, from their new position, acquired maritime habits and seafaring experience, they not only, themselves, resorted to piracy as a means of existence, but likewise enlisted in a formidable confederacy, for purposes of rapine and pillage, all the roving and discontented tribes in their surrounding neighbourhood. These latter were very numerous. The Tartars, ever but indifferent seamen, had not the courage to join them in these piratical expeditions. This division of the Komans is indubitably the parent stock of the modern Cossacks of the Don, by far the most numerous of the Cossack tribes: by amalgamation; however, with whole hosts of Tartar and Calmuck hordes, lawless, desperate, and nomadic as themselves, they lost, in some degree, the primitive and deeply marked distinctive character of their race. The Komans of the Dnieper offered no more energetic resistance to the invading hordes of Batukhan than had been shown by their brethren of the Don: they dispersed in various directions, and from this people, flying at the advance of the ferocious Tartars, descended a variety of hordes, who occasionally figure in history as distinct and independent nations. ... [They] ultimately found a permanent resting-place in the wild islets of the Dnieper, below the cataracts, where dwelt already a small number of their ancient compatriots, who had escaped the general destruction of their nation. This spot became the cradle of the Cossacks of the Ukraine, or of the tribes known in after times as the Polish Cossacks. When Guedynum, Grand Duke of Lithuania, after having defeated twelve Russian princes on the banks of the Piërna, conquered Kïow with its dependencies in 1320, the wandering tribes scattered over the steppes of the Ukraine owned his allegiance. After the victories of Olgierd, of Vitold, and of Ladislas Iagellon, over the Tartars and the Russians, large bodies of Scythian militia, known subsequently by the comprehensive denomination of Cossacks, or Kosaques, served under these conquerors: and after the union of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania with Poland, in 1386, they continued under the dominion of the grand dukes of Lithuania, forming, apparently, an intermediate tribe or caste, superior to the peasantry and inferior to the nobles. At a later period, when the Ukraine was annexed to the Polish crown, they passed under the protection of the kings of Poland. ... Although there may, doubtless, exist several species or castes of Cossacks, and to whom Russia in order to impose on Europe, is pleased to give as many different names, yet there never have been, nor will there ever be, properly speaking, more than two principal tribes of the Cossack nation, namely the Cossacks of the Don, or Don-Cossacks, and the Cossacks of the Black Sea, known in ancient times as the Polish Cossacks, or Zaporowscy Kozacy. ... The Cossacks [of the Don] ... have rendered signal service to Russia, which, ever since the year 1549, has taken them under her protection, without, however, the existence of any official act, treaty, or stipulation, confirming their submission to that power. ... The Don-Cossacks enjoy a certain kind of liberty and independence; they have a hetman, attaman, or chief, nominated by the Emperor of Russia; and to this chief they yield an obedience more or less willing and implicit; in general, they are commanded only by Cossack officers, who take equal rank in the Russian army. They have a separate war administration of their own; although they are compelled to furnish a stated number of recruits who serve in a manner for life, inasmuch as they are rarely discharged before attaining sixty years of age: on the whole, their condition is happier than that of the rest of the Russian population. They belong to the Greek-Russian church. The existence of this small republic of the Don, in the very heart of the most despotic and most extensive empire in the world, appears to constitute a problem, the solution of which is not as yet definitely known, and the ultimate solution of which yet remains to be ascertained."
H. Krasinski, The Cossacks of the Ukraine, chapter 1.
The Cossacks of the Ukraine transferred their allegiance from the King of Poland to the Czar of Russia in 1654, after a revolt led by their hetman, Bogdan Khmelnitski, in which they were assisted by the neighboring Tartars, and which was accompanied by terrible scenes of slaughter and destruction.
See POLAND: A. D. 1648-1654.
COSSÆANS, The.
See KOSSÆANS.
COSTA RICA: A. D. 1502. Discovery by Columbus.
See AMERICA: A. D. 1498-1505.
COSTA RICA: A. D. 1813-1871. Independence of Spain. Brief annexation to Mexico. The failures of federation, the wars and revolutions of Central America.
See CENTRAL AMERICA: A. D. 1821-1871.
COSTA RICA: A. D. 1850. The Clayton Bulwer Treaty and the projected Nicaragua Canal.
See NICARAGUA: A. D. 1850.
----------COSTA RICA: End----------
COSTANOAN FAMILY, The.
See AMERICAN ABORIGINES: COSTANOAN FAMILY.
COSTER, Laurent, and the invention of printing.
See PRINTING: A. D. 1430-1456.
COTARII.
See SLAVERY, MEDIÆVAL AND MODERN: ENGLAND. 620
COTHON OF CARTHAGE, The.
"There were two land-locked docks or harbours, opening the one into the other, and both, it would seem, the work of human hands. ... The outer harbour was rectangular, about 1,400 feet long and 1,100 broad, and was appropriated to merchant vessels; the inner was circular like a drinking cup, whence it was called the Cothon, and was reserved for ships of war. It could not be approached except through the merchant harbour, and the entrance to this last was only 70 feet wide, and could be closed at any time by chains. The war harbour was entirely surrounded by quays, containing separate docks for 220 ships. In front of each dock were two Ionic pillars of marble, so that the whole must have presented the appearance of a splendid circular colonnade. Right in the centre of the harbour was an island, the headquarters of the admiral."
R. B. Smith, Carthage and the Carthaginians, chapter 20.
COTSETI.
See SLAVERY, MEDIÆVAL AND MODERN: ENGLAND.
COTTON, Reverend John and the colony of Massachusetts Bay.
See MASSACHUSETTS: A. D. 1631-1636.
COTTON FAMINE, The.
See ENGLAND: A. D. 1861-1865.
COTTON-GIN: Eli Whitney's invention and its effects.
See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1818-1821.
COTTON MANUFACTURE: The great inventions in spinning and weaving.
"Cotton had been used in the extreme East and in the extreme West from the earliest periods of which we have any record. The Spaniards, on their discovery of America, found the Mexicans clothed in cotton. ... But though the use of cotton had been known from the earliest ages, both in India and America, no cotton goods were imported into Europe; and in the ancient world both rich and poor were clothed in silk, linen, and wool. The industrious Moors introduced cotton into Spain. Many centuries afterwards cotton was imported into Italy, Saxony and the Low Countries. Isolated from the rest of Europe, with little wealth, little industry, and no roads; rent by civil commotions; the English were the last people in Europe to introduce the manufacture of cotton goods into their own homes. Towards the close of the 16th century, indeed, cotton goods were occasionally mentioned in the Statute Book, and the manufacture of the cottons of Manchester was regulated by Acts passed in the reigns of Henry VIII., Edward VI., and Elizabeth. But there seem to be good reasons for concluding that Manchester cottons, in the time of the Tudors, were woollen goods, and did not consist of cotton at all. More than a century elapsed before any considerable trade in cotton attracted the attention of the legislature. The woollen manufacturers complained that people were dressing their children in printed cottons; and Parliament was actually persuaded to prohibit the introduction of Indian printed calicoes. Even an Act of Parliament, however, was unable to extinguish the growing taste for Indian cottons. ... The taste for cotton led to the introduction of calico-printing in London; Parliament in order to encourage the new trade, was induced to sanction the importation of plain cotton cloths from India under a duty. The demand, which was thus created for calicoes, probably promoted their manufacture at home. ... Up to the middle of the last century cotton goods were really never made at all. The so-called cotton manufactures were a combination of wool or linen and cotton. No Englishman had been able to produce a cotton thread strong enough for the warp; ... The superior skill of the Indian manufacturers enabled them to use cotton for a warp; while clumsy workmanship made the use of cotton as a warp unattainable at home. In the middle of the 18th century, then, a piece of cotton cloth in the true sense of the term, had never been made in England. The so-called cotton goods were all made in the cottages of the weavers. The yarn was carded by hand; it was spun by hand; it was worked into cloth by a hand loom. ... The operation of weaving was, however, much more rapid than that of spinning. The weaver consumed more weft than his own family could supply him with; and the weavers generally experienced the greatest difficulty in obtaining sufficient yarn. About the middle of the 18th century the ingenuity of two persons, a father and a son, made this difference more apparent. The shuttle had originally been thrown by the hand from one end of the loom to the other. John Kay, a native of Bury, by his invention of the fly-shuttle [patented in 1733], saved the weaver from this labour. ... Robert Kay, John Kay's son, added the drop-box, by means of which the weaver was able 'to use any one of three shuttles, each containing a different coloured weft, without the trouble of taking them from and replacing them in the lathe.' By means of these inventions the productive power of each weaver was doubled. ... Carding and roving were both slowly performed. ... The trade was in this humble and primitive state when a series of extraordinary and unparalleled inventions revolutionised the conditions on which cotton had been hitherto prepared. A little more than a century ago John Hargreaves, a poor weaver in the neighbourhood of Blackburn, was returning home from a long walk, in which he had been purchasing a further supply of yarn for his loom. As he entered his cottage, his wife Jenny accidentally upset the spindle which she was using. Hargreaves noticed that the spindles which were now thrown into an upright position, continued to revolve, and that the thread was still spinning in his wife's hand. The idea immediately occurred to him that it would be possible to connect a considerable number of upright spindles with one wheel, and thus multiply the productive power of each spinster. ... Hargreaves succeeded in keeping his admirable invention secret for a time; but the powers of his machine soon became known. His ignorant neighbours hastily concluded that a machine, which enabled one spinster to do the work of eight, would throw multitudes of persons out of employment. A mob broke into his house and destroyed his machine. Hargreaves himself had to retire to Nottingham, where, with the friendly assistance of another person, he was able to take out a patent [1770] for the spinning-jenny, as the machine, in compliment to his industrious wife, was called. The invention of the spinning-jenny gave a new impulse to the cotton manufacture. But the ... yarn spun by the jenny, like that which had previously been spun by hand, was neither fine enough nor hard enough to be employed as warp, and linen or woollen threads had consequently to be used for this purpose. {621} In the very year, however, in which Hargreaves moved from Blackburn to Nottingham, Richard Arkwright [who began life as a barber's assistant] took out a patent [1769] for his still more celebrated machine. ... 'After many years intense and painful application,' he invented his memorable machine for spinning by rollers; and laid the foundations of the gigantic industry which has done more than any other trade to concentrate in this country the wealth of the world. ... He passed the thread over two pairs of rollers, one of which was made to revolve much more rapidly than the other. The thread, after passing the pair revolving slowly, was drawn into the requisite tenuity by the rollers revolving at a higher rapidity. By this simple but memorable invention Arkwright succeeded in producing thread capable of employment as warp. From the circumstance that the mill at which his machinery was first erected was driven by water power, the machine received the somewhat inappropriate name of the water frame; the thread spun by it was usually called the water twist. Invention of the spinning-jenny and the water frame would have been useless if the old system of hand-carding had not been superseded by a more efficient and more rapid process. Just as Arkwright applied rotatory motion to spinning, so Lewis Paul introduced revolving cylinders for carding cotton. ... This extraordinary series of inventions placed an almost unlimited supply of yarn at the disposal of the weaver. But the machinery, which had thus been introduced, was still incapable of providing yarn fit for the finer qualities of cotton cloth. ... This defect, however, was removed by the ingenuity of Samuel Crompton, a young weaver residing near Bolton. Crompton succeeded in combining in one machine the various excellences 'of Arkwright's water frame and Hargreaves' jenny.' Like the former, his machine, which from its nature is happily called the mule, 'has a system of rollers to reduce the roving; and like the latter it has spindles without bobbins to give the twist. ... The effects of Crompton's great invention may be stated epigrammatically. ... The natives of India could spin a pound of cotton into a thread 119 miles long.' The English succeed in spinning the same thread to a length of 160 miles. Yarn of the finest quality was at once at the disposal of the weaver. ... The ingenuity of Hargreaves, Arkwright and Crompton had been exercised to provide the weaver with yarn. ... The spinster had beaten the weaver. ... Edmund Cartwright, a clergyman residing in Kent, happened to be staying at Matlock in the summer of 1784, and to be thrown into the company of some Manchester gentlemen. The conversation turned on Arkwright's machinery, and 'one of the company observed that, as soon as Arkwright's patent expired, so many mills would be erected and so much cotton spun that hands would never be found to weave it.' Cartwright replied 'that Arkwright must then set his wits to work to invent a weaving mill.' ... Within three years he had himself proved that the invention was practicable by producing the power-loom. Subsequent inventors improved the idea which Cartwright had originated, and within fifty years from the date of his memorable visit to Matlock there were not less than 100,000 power-looms at work in Great Britain alone. ... Other inventions, less generally remembered, were hardly less wonderful or less beneficial than these. ... Scheele, the Swedish philosopher, discovered in 1774 the bleaching properties of chlorine, or oxymuriatic acid. Berthollet, the French chemist, conceived the idea of applying the acid to bleaching cloth. ... In the same year in which Watt and Henry were introducing the new acid to the bleacher, Bell, a Scotchman, was laying the foundations of a trade in printed calicoes. 'The old method of printing was by blocks of sycamore.' ... This clumsy process was superseded by cylinder printing. ... Such are the leading inventions, which made Great Britain in less than a century the wealthiest country in the world."
S. Walpole, History of England from 1815, volume 1, chapter 1.
ALSO IN: R. W. C. Taylor, Introduction to a History of the Factory System, chapter 10.
E. Baines, History of the Cotton Manufacture in Great Britain.
A. Ure, The Cotton Manufacture of Great Britain.
COULMIERS, Battle of (1870).
See FRANCE: A. D. 1870-1871.
COUNCIL BLUFFS, The Mormons at.
See MORMONISM: A. D. 1846-1848.
COUNCIL FOR NEW ENGLAND.
See NEW ENGLAND: A. D. 1620-1623; 1621-1631; and 1635.
COUNCIL OF BLOOD, The.
See NETHERLANDS: A. D. 1567.
COUNCIL OF FIVE HUNDRED, The Athenian.
See ATHENS: B. C. 510-507.
The French.
See FRANCE: A. D. 1795 (JUNE-SEPTEMBER).
COUNCIL OF TEN, The.
See VENICE: A. D. 1032-1319.
COUNCIL OF THE ANCIENTS, The.
See FRANCE: A. D. 1795 (JUNE-SEPTEMBER).
COUNCIL, THE PRIVY.
See PRIVY COUNCIL.
COUNCILS OF THE CHURCH, General or Ecumenical.
There are seven councils admitted by both the Greek and Latin churches as œcumenical (or ecumenical)--that is general, or universal. The Roman Catholics recognize thirteen more, making twenty in all--as follows:
1. The synod of apostles in Jerusalem. 2. The first Council of Nice, A. D. 325 (see NICÆA, THE FIRST COUNCIL). 3. The first Council of Constantinople, A. D. 381. 4. The first Council of Ephesus, A. D. 431. 5. The Council of Chalcedon, A. D. 451. 6. The second Council of Constantinople, A. D. 553. 7. The third Council of Constantinople, A. D. 681. 8. The second Council of Nice, A. D. 787. 9. The fourth Council of Constantinople, A. D. 869. 10. The first Lateran Council, A. D. 1123. 11. The second Lateran Council, A. D. 1139. 12. The third Lateran Council, A. D. 1179. 13. The fourth Lateran Council, A. D. 1215. 14. The first œcumenical synod of Lyon, A. D. 1245. 15. The second œcumenical synod of Lyon, A. D. 1274. 16. The Synod of Vienne in Gaul, A. D. 1311. 17. The Council of Constance, A. D. 1414 (see PAPACY: A. D. 1414-1418). 18. The Council of Basel, A. D. 1431 (see PAPACY: A. D. 1431-1448). 19. The Council of Trent, A. D. 1545 (see PAPACY: A. D. 1537-1563). 20. The Council of the Vatican, A. D. 1869 (see PAPACY: A. D. 1869-1870).
{622}
COUNT AND DUKE, Roman. Origin of the titles.
"The defence of the Roman empire was at length committed [under Constantine and his successors] to eight masters-general of the cavalry and infantry. Under their orders thirty-five military commanders were stationed in the provinces--three in Britain, six in Gaul, one in Spain, one in Italy, five on the Upper and four on the Lower Danube, in Asia eight, three in Egypt, and four in Africa. The titles of Counts and Dukes, by which they were properly distinguished, have obtained in modern languages so very different a sense that the use of them may occasion some surprise. But it should be recollected that the second of those appellations is only a corruption of the Latin word which was indiscriminately applied to any military chief. All these provincial generals were therefore dukes; but no more than ten among them were dignified with the rank of counts or companions, a title of honour, or rather of favour, which had been recently invented in the court of Constantine. A gold belt was the ensign which distinguished the office of the counts and dukes."
E. Gibbon, Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, chapter 17. https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/25717
"The Duke and the Count of modern Europe--what are they but the Generals and Companions (Duces and Comites) of a Roman province? Why or when they changed places, the Duke climbing up into such unquestioned pre-eminence over his former superior the Count, I know not, nor yet by what process it was discovered that the latter was the precise equivalent of the Scandinavian Jarl."
T. Hodgkin, Italy and Her Invaders, book 1, chapter 3.
COUNT OF THE DOMESTICS.
In the organization of the Imperial Household, during the later period of the Roman empire, the officers called Counts of the Domestics "commanded the various divisions of the household troops, known by the names of Domestici and Protectores, and thus together replaced the Prætorian Prefect of the earlier days of the Empire. ... Theoretically, their duties would not greatly differ from those of a Colonel in the Guards."
T. Hodgkin, Italy and Her Invaders, book 1, chapter 3.
COUNT OF THE SACRED LARGESSES.
In the later Roman empire, "the Count who had charge of the Sacred (i. e. Imperial) Bounty, should have been by his title simply the Grand Almoner of the Empire. ... In practice, however, the minister who took charge of the Imperial Largesses had to find ways and means for every other form of Imperial expenditure. ... The Count of the Sacred Largesses was therefore in fact the Chancellor of the Exchequer of the Empire."
T. Hodgkin, Italy and Her Invaders, book 1, chapter 3.
COUNT OF THE SAXON SHORE.
See SAXON SHORE.
COUNT PALATINE.
See PALATINE, COUNTS.
COUNTER-REFORMATION, The.
See PAPACY: A. D. 1534-1540; 1537-1563; 1555-1603.
COUNTRY PARTY, The.
See ENGLAND; A. D. 1672-1673.
COUP D' ETAT OF LOUIS NAPOLEON, The.
See FRANCE: A. D. 1851; and 1851-1852.
COUREURS DE BOIS.
"Out of the beaver trade [in the 17th century] rose a huge evil, baneful to the growth and the morals of Canada. All that was most active and vigorous in the colony took to the woods, and escaped from the control of intendants, councils and priests, to the savage freedom of the wilderness. Not only were the possible profits great, but, in the pursuit of them, there was a fascinating element of adventure and danger. The bush rangers, or coureurs de bois, were to the king an object of horror. They defeated his plans for the increase of the population, and shocked his native instinct of discipline and order. Edict after edict was directed against them; and more than once the colony presented the extraordinary spectacle of the greater part of its young men turned into forest outlaws. ... We hear of seigniories abandoned; farms turning again into forests; wives and children left in destitution. The exodus of the coureurs de bois would take at times the character of an organized movement. The famous Du Lhut is said to have made a general combination of the young men of Canada to follow him into the woods. Their plan was to be absent four years, in order that the edicts against them might have time to relent. The intendant Duchesneau reported that 800 men out of a population of less than 10,000 souls had vanished from sight in the immensity of a boundless wilderness. Whereupon the king ordered that any person going into the woods without a license should be whipped and branded for the first offence, and sent for life to the galleys for the second. ... Under such leaders as Du Lhut, the coureurs de bois built forts of palisades at various points throughout the West and Northwest. They had a post of this sort at Detroit some time before its permanent settlement, as well as others on Lake Superior and in the Valley of the Mississippi. They occupied them as long as it suited their purposes, and then abandoned them to the next comer. Michillimackinac was, however, their chief resort."
F. Parkman, The Old Regime in Canada, chapter 17.
COURLAND, Christian conquest of.
See. LIVONIA: 12TH-13TH CENTURIES.
COURT BARON.
See MANORS.
COURT CUSTOMARY.
See MANORS.
COURT-LEET.
See MANORS, and SAC AND SOC.
COURT OF CHANCERY.
See CHANCELLOR.
COURT OF COMMON PLEAS.
See CURIA REGIS.
COURT OF HIGH COMMISSION.
See ENGLAND: A. D. 1559; and A. D. 1686.
COURT OF KING'S BENCH.
See CURIA REGIS.
COURT, SUPREME, of the United States.
See SUPREME COURT.
COURTRAI: A. D. 1382. Pillaged and burned by the French.
See FLANDERS: A. D. 1382.
COURTRAI: A. D. 1646. Siege and capture by the French.
See NETHERLANDS: A. D. 1645-1646.
COURTRAI: A. D. 1648. Taken by the Spaniards.
See NETHERLANDS (SPANISH PROVINCES): A. D. 1647-1648.
COURTRAI: A. D. 1667. Taken by the French.
See NETHERLANDS (THE SPANISH PROVINCES): A. D. 1667.
COURTRAI: A. D. 1668. Ceded to France.
See NETHERLANDS (HOLLAND); A. D. 1668.
COURTRAI: A. D. 1679. Restored to Spain.
See NIMEGUEN, THE PEACE OF.
----------COURTRAI: End----------
{623}
COURTRAI, The Battle of.
The battle of Courtrai (July 11, A. D. 1302), in which the barons and knights of France were fearfully slaughtered by the sturdy burghers of Flanders, was sometimes called the Day of the Spurs, on account of the great number of gilt spurs which was taken from the bodies of the dead and hung up by the victors in Courtrai cathedral.
G. W. Kitchen, History of France, book 3, chapter 10, section 2.
See FLANDERS: A. D. 1299-1304.
COURTS OF LOVE.
See PROVENCE: A.D. 1179-1207.
COUTHON, and the French Revolutionary Committee of Public Safety.
See FRANCE: A. D. 1793 (JUNE-OCTOBER), to 1794 (JULY).
COUTRAS, Battle of (1587).
See FRANCE: A. D. 1584-1589.
COVADONGA, Cave of.
See SPAIN: A. D. 713-737.
COVENANT, The Halfway.
See BOSTON: A. D. 1657-1669.
COVENANT, The Solemn League and.
See ENGLAND: A. D. 1643 (JULY-SEPTEMBER).
COVENANTERS.
The name given to the signers and supporters of the Scottish National Covenant (see SCOTLAND: A. D. 1557, 1581 and 1638) and afterwards to all who adhered to the Kirk of Scotland. The war of Montrose with the Covenanters will be found narrated under SCOTLAND: A. D. 1644-1645. For the story of the persecution which they suffered under the restored Stuarts,
See SCOTLAND: A. D. 1660-1666; 1669-1679; 1679; and 1681-1689.
COVENANTS, The Scottish.
See SCOTLAND: A. D. 1557-1581; and 1638.
COWBOYS.
During the War of the American Revolution, "there was a venal and bloody set which hung on the skirts of the British army, well known as Cow-boys. They were plunderers and ruffians by profession, and came to have their name from their cattle-stealing. Some of the most cruel and disgraceful murders and barbarities of the war were perpetrated by them. Whenever they were caught they were hung up at once."
C. W. Elliott, The New England History, volume 2, page 372.
See, also, UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1780 (AUGUST-SEPTEMBER).
COWPENS, Battle of the (1781).
See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1780-1781.
CRACOW: A. D. 1702. Taken by Charles XII. of Sweden.
See SCANDINAVIAN STATES (SWEDEN): A. D. 1701-1707.
CRACOW: A. D. 1793-1794. Occupied by the Russians. Rising of the citizens. Surrender and cession to Austria.
See POLAND: A. D. 1793-1796.
CRACOW: A. D. 1815. Creation of the Republic.
See VIENNA, THE CONGRESS OF.
CRACOW: A. D. 1831-1846. Occupation by the Austrians, Russians and Prussians. Extinction of the Republic. Annexation to Austria.
See AUSTRIA: A. D. 1815-1846.
----------CRACOW: End----------
CRADLE OF LIBERTY.
See FANEUIL HALL.
CRAFT-GUILDS.
See GUILDS, MEDIÆVAL.
CRAGIE TRACT, The.
See NEW YORK: A. D. 1786-1799.
CRAL.-KRALE.
"The princes of Servia (Ducange, Famil, Dalmaticæ, &c., c. 2-4, 9) were styled 'despots' in Greek, and Cral in their native idiom (Ducange, Gloss. Græc., page 751). That title, the equivalent of king, appears to be of Sclavonic origin, from whence it has been borrowed by the Hungarians, the modern Greeks, and even by the Turks (Leunclavius, Pandect. Turc., p. 422), who reserve the name of Padishah for the Emperor."
E. Gibbon, Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, chapter 63, note. https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/25717
See, also, BALKAN AND DANUBIAN STATES: A. D. 1341-1356 (SERVIA).
CRANNOGES.
See LAKE DWELLINGS.
CRANNON (KRANNON), Battle of (B. C. 322).
See GREECE: B. C. 323-322.
CRAONNE, Battle of.
See FRANCE: A. D. 1814 (JANUARY-MARCH).
CRASSUS AND THE FIRST TRIUMVIRATE.
See ROME: B. C. 78-68, to 57-52.
CRATER, Battle of the Petersburg.
See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1864 (JULY: VIRGINIA).
CRATERUS, AND THE WARS OF THE DIADOCHI.
See MACEDONIA: B. C. 323-316.
CRANGALLIDÆ, The.
See HIERODULI.
CRAYFORD, Battle of (A. D. 457).
The second battle fought between the Britons and the invading Jutes, under Hengest, for the possession of southeastern Britain.
See ENGLAND: A. D. 449-473.
CRÉCY, Battle of (1346).
See FRANCE: A. D. 1337-1360.
CREDIT MOBILIER SCANDAL.
On the meeting of the Congress of the United States in December, 1872, attention was called by the Speaker to charges made in the preceding canvass "that the Vice-President, the Vice-President elect, the Secretary of the Treasury, several Senators, the Speaker of the House, and a large number of Representatives had been bribed, during the years 1867 and 1868, by presents of stock in a corporation known as the Credit Mobilier [organized to contract for building the Union Pacific Railroad] to vote and act for the benefit of the Union Pacific Railroad Company. On his motion, an investigating committee was appointed, L. P. Poland, of Vermont, being chairman. The Poland Committee reported February 18th, 1873, recommending the expulsion of Oakes Ames, of Massachusetts, for selling to members of Congress shares of the stock of the Credit Mobilier below their real value, with intent thereby to influence the votes of such members,' and of James Brooks, of New York, for receiving such stock. The House modified the proposed expulsion into an 'absolute condemnation' of the conduct of both members."
A. Johnston, History of American Politics, pages 210-220.
_Report of Select Committee (42d Congress, 3d session, H. R. report no. 77)._
ALSO IN: J. B. Crawford, The Credit Mobilier of America.
CREEKS. Creek Wars.
See AMERICAN ABORIGINES: MUSKHOGEAN FAMILY; also UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1813-1814 (AUGUST-APRIL), and FLORIDA: A. D. 1816-1818.
CREES, The.
See AMERICAN ABORIGINES: ALGONQUIAN FAMILY.
CREFELD, Battle of.
See GERMANY: A. D. 1758.
CREMA, Siege of (1159-1160).
See ITALY: A. D. 1154-1162.
CREMONA: The Roman Colony. Siege by the Gauls.
See ROME: B. C. 295-191.
CREMONA: A. D. 69. Destruction by the Flavians.
See ROME: A, D. 69.
CREMONA: A. D. 1702. Defeat of the French.
See ITALY (SAVOY AND PIEDMONT): A. D. 1701-1713.
{624}
CREOLE.
"In Europe it is very common to attach to the term Creole the idea of a particular complexion. This is a mistake. The designation Creole [in Spanish American regions] properly belongs to all the natives of America born of parents who have emigrated from the Old World, be those parents Europeans or Africans. There are, therefore, white as well as black Creoles. ... The term Creole is a corruption of the Spanish word 'criollo,' which is derived from 'criar,' to create or to foster. The Spaniards apply the term 'criollo' not merely to the human race, but also to animals propagated in the colonies, but of pure European blood: thus they have creole horses, bullocks, poultry, &c."
J. J. Von Tschudi, Travels in Peru, chapter 5, and foot-note.
"The term Creole is commonly applied in books to the native of a Spanish colony descended from European ancestors, while often the popular acceptation conveys the idea of an origin partly African. In fact, its meaning varies in different times and regions, and in Louisiana alone has, and has had, its broad and its close, its earlier and its later, significance. For instance, it did not here first belong to the descendants of Spanish, but of French settlers. But such a meaning implied a certain excellence of origin, and so came early to include any native of French or Spanish descent by either parent, whose pure non-mixture with the slave race entitled him to social rank. Much later the term was adopted by, not conceded to, the natives of European-African, or Creole-African blood, and is still so used among themselves. At length the spirit of commerce availed itself of the money value of so honored a title, and broadened its meaning to take in any creature or thing of variety or manufacture peculiar to Louisiana, that might become an object of sale, as Creole ponies, chickens, cows, shoes, eggs, wagons, baskets, cabbages, etc. ... There are no English, Scotch, Irish, Western, or Yankee Creoles, these all being included under the distinctive term 'Americans.' ... There seems to be no more serviceable definition of the Creoles of Louisiana or of New Orleans than to say they are the French-speaking, native, ruling class."
_G. E. Waring, Jr., and G. W Cable, History and Present Condition of New Orleans (Tenth Census of the U. S., volume 19, page 218)._
CREONES, The.
See BRITAIN, CELTIC TRIBES.
CRESCENT, The Order of the.
A Turkish Order instituted in 1799 by the reforming sultan, Selim III. Lord Nelson, after the victory of Aboukir, was the first to receive this decoration.
CRESPY IN VALOIS, Treaty of (1544).
See FRANCE: A. D. 1532-1547.
CRETAN LABYRINTH,
See LABYRINTHS.
CRETE.
"The institutions of the Cretan state show in many points so great a similarity to those of Sparta, that it is not surprising if it seemed to the ancients as though either Crete were a copy of Sparta, or Sparta of Crete. Meanwhile this similarity may be explained, apart from intentional imitation, by the community of nationality, which, under like conditions, must produce like institutions. For in Crete, as in Laconia, Dorians were the ruling people, who had subdued the old inhabitants of the island and placed them in a position of subordination. ... It is, however, beyond doubt that settlements were made in Crete by the Phoenicians, and that a large portion of the island was subject to them. In the historical period, it is true, we no longer find them here; we find, on the contrary, only a number of Greek states, all moreover Dorian. Each of these consisted of a city with its surrounding district, in which no doubt also smaller cities in their turn were found standing in a relation of subordination to the principal city. For that each city of the 'ninety-citied' or 'hundred-citied' isle, as Homer calls it, formed also an independent state, will probably not be supposed. As independent states our authorities give us reason to recognize about seventeen. The most important of these were in earlier times Cnossus, Gortyn and Cydonia."-
G. Schömann, Antiquities of Greece: The State, part 3, chapter 2.
See ASIA MINOR: THE GREEK COLONIES.
CRETE: B. C. 68-66. The Roman Conquest.
The Romans came into collision with the Cretans during their conflict with the Cilician pirates. The Cretans, degenerate and half piratical themselves, had formed an alliance with the professional buccaneers, and defeated, off Cydonia, a Roman fleet that had been sent against the latter, B. C. 71. They soon repented of the provocation they had offered and sent envoys to Rome to buy peace by heavy bribes; but neither the penitence nor the bribes prevailed. Three years passed, however, before the proconsul, Quintus Metellus, appeared in Crete (B. C. 68) to exact satisfaction, and two years more were spent in overcoming the stubborn resistance of the islanders. The taking of Cydonia cost Metellus a bloody battle and a prolonged siege. Cnossus and other towns held out with equal courage. In the end, however, Crete was added to the conquered dominions of Rome. At the last of the struggle there occurred a conflict of jurisdiction between Metellus and Pompey, and their respective forces fought with one another on the Cretan soil.
T. Mommsen, History of Rome, book 5, chapter 4.
CRETE: A. D. 823. Conquest by the Saracens.
"The reign of Al Hakem, the Ommiade Caliph of Spain, was disturbed by continual troubles; and some theological disputes having created a violent insurrection in the suburbs of Cordova, about 15,000 Spanish Arabs were compelled to emigrate in the year 815. The greater part of these desperadoes established themselves at Alexandria, where they soon took an active part in the civil wars of Egypt. The rebellion of Thomas [an officer who disputed the Byzantine throne with Michael II.], and the absence of the naval forces of the Byzantine Empire from the Archipelago, left the island of Crete unprotected. The Andalusian Arabs of Alexandria availed themselves of this circumstance to invade the island, and establish a settlement on it, in the year 823. Michael was unable to take any measures for expelling the invaders, and an event soon happened in Egypt which added greatly to the strength of this Saracen colony. The victories of the lieutenants of the Caliph Almamum compelled the remainder of the Andalusian Arabs to quit Alexandria; so that Abou Hafs, called by the Greeks Apochaps, joined his countrymen in Crete with forty ships, determined to make the new settlement their permanent home. It is said by the Byzantine writers that they commenced their conquest of the island by destroying their fleet, and constructing a strong fortified camp, surrounded by an immense ditch, from which it received the name of Chandak, now corrupted by the western nations into Candia. ... The Saracens retained possession of Crete for 135 years."
G. Finlay, History of the Byzantine Empire, from 716 to 1057, book 1. chapter 3.
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During the stay of these piratical Andalusian Arabs at Alexandria, "they cut in pieces both friends and foes, pillaged the churches and mosques, sold above 6,000 Christian captives, and maintained their station in the capital of Egypt till they were oppressed by the forces and presence of Almamon himself."
E. Gibbon, Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, chapter 52. https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/25717
ALSO IN: S. A. Dunham, History of Spain and Portugal, book 3, chapter 1.
CRETE: A. D. 961-963. Recovery from the Saracens.
"In the subordinate station of great domestic, or general of the East, he [Nicephorus Phocas, afterwards emperor, on the Byzantine throne], reduced the island of Crete, and extirpated the nest of pirates who had so long defied, with impunity, the majesty of the Empire. ... Seven months were consumed in the siege of Candia; the despair of the native Cretans was stimulated by the frequent aid of their brethren of Africa and Spain; and, after the massy wall and double ditch had been stormed by the Greeks, a hopeless conflict was still maintained in the streets and houses of the city. The whole island was subdued in the capital, and a submissive people accepted, without resistance, the baptism of the conqueror."
E. Gibbon, Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, chapter 52. https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/25717
CRETE: A. D. 1204-1205. Acquired by the Venetians.
See BYZANTINE EMPIRE: A. D.1204-1205.
CRETE: A. D. 1645-1669. The long siege of Candia. Surrender to the Turks.
See TURKS: A. D. 1645-1669.
CRETE: A. D. 1715. Complete Expulsion of the Venetians by the Turks.
See TURKS: A. D. 1714-1718.
CRETE: A. D. 1866-1868. Unsuccessful revolt. Struggle for independence. Turkish concession of the Organic Regulation.
See GREECE: A. D. 1862-1881.
----------CRETE: End----------
CRETE, Party of the.--Crêtois.
See FRANCE: A. D. 1795 (APRIL).
CRIMEA, OR CRIM TARTARY: Early history.
See TAURICA; also BOSPORUS, CITY AND KINGDOM.
CRIMEA: 7th Century. Conquest and occupation by the Khazars.
See KHAZARS.
CRIMEA: 12th-13th Centuries. Genoese commercial colonies.
See GENOA: A. D. 1261-1299.
CRIMEA: 13th-14th Centuries. The khanate to Krim.
See MONGOLS: A. D. 1238-1391.
CRIMEA: A. D. 1475. Conquest by the Ottoman Turks.
See TURKS (THE OTTOMANS): A. D. 1451-1481.
CRIMEA: A. D. 1571. Expedition of the Khan to Moscow. The city stormed and sacked.
See RUSSIA: A. D. 1569-1571.
CRIMEA: A. D. 1735-1738. Russian invasions and fruitless conquests.
See RUSSIA: A. D. 1725-1739.
CRIMEA: A. D. 1774. The khanate declared independent of the Porte.
See TURKS: A. D. 1768-1774.
CRIMEA: A. D. 1776-1784. The process of acquisition by Russia. Final recognition of Russian sovereignty by the Sultan.
See TURKS: A. D. 1776-1792.
CRIMEA: A. D. 1853-1855. War of Russia with Turkey and her allies. Siege of Sebastopol.
See RUSSIA: A. D. 1853-1854, to 1854-1856.
----------CRIMEA: End----------
CRISIS OF 1837, The.
See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1835-1837.
CRISIS OF 1857.
See TARIFF LEGISLATION (UNITED STATES): A. D. 1846-1861.
CRISSA. Crissæan or Sacred War.
See DELPHI.
CRITTENDEN COMPROMISE, The.
See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1860 (DECEMBER).
CROATANS, The.
See AMERICA: A. D. 1587-1590.
CROATIA: 7th Century. Sclavonic occupation and settlement.
See BALKAN AND DANUBIAN STATES, 7TH CENTURY (SERVIA, CROATIA, BOSNIA, ETC.)
CROATIA: A. D. 1102. Subjection and annexation to Hungary.
See HUNGARY: A. D. 972-1114.
CROATIA: A. D. 1576. Transferred to the Duke of Styria. Military colonization.
See HUNGARY: A. D. 1567-1604.
----------CROATIA: End----------
CROIA, Turkish massacre at.
See GREECE: A. D. 1454-1479.
CROMLECHS.
Rude stone monuments found in many parts of the British Islands, France, and elsewhere, usually formed by three or more huge, rough, upright stones, with a still larger stone lying flatly upon them. In France these are called Dolmens. They were formerly thought to be "Druids altars," to which notion they owe the name Cromlechs; but it is now very generally concluded by archæologists that they were constructed for burial chambers, and that originally, in most cases, they were covered with mounds of earth, forming the well known barrows, or grave mounds, or tumuli.
L. Jewett, Grave Mounds.
ALSO IN: T. Wright, The Celt, the Roman and the Saxon.
Sir J. Lubbock, Prehistoric Times, chapter 5.
See, also, AMORITES.
CROMPTON'S MULE, The invention of.
See COTTON MANUFACTURES.
CROMWELL, Oliver. Campaigns and Protectorate.
See ENGLAND: A. D. 1644 to 1658-1660; and IRELAND: A. D. 1649-1650.
CROMWELL, Thomas, The suppression of the Monasteries.
See ENGLAND: A. D. 1535-1539.
CROMWELLIAN SETTLEMENT OF IRELAND.
See IRELAND: A. D. 1653.
CROMWELL'S IRONSIDES.
See ENGLAND: A. D. 1643 (MAY).
CROSS, The "True." Its capture by the Persians and recovery by Heraclius.
See ROME: A. D. 565-628; And JERUSALEM: A. D. 615.
CROSS KEYS, Battle of.
See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1862 (MAY-JUNE: VIRGINIA).
CROTON.--KROTON.
See SYBARIS.
CROTONA, Battle of (A. D. 983).
See ITALY (SOUTHERN): A. D. 800-1016.
CROWN, The iron.
See LOMBARDY, THE IRON CROWN OF.
CROWN OF INDIA, The Order of the.
An order, for women, instituted by Queen Victoria in 1878.
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CROWN POINT: A. D. 1727. Fort built by the French.
See CANADA (NEW FRANCE): A. D. 1700-1735.
CROWN POINT: A. D. 1755. English Expedition against.
See CANADA (NEW FRANCE): A. D. 1755 (SEPTEMBER).
CROWN POINT: A. D: 1759. Abandoned to the English by the French.
See CANADA (NEW FRANCE): A. D. 1759 (JULY-AUGUST).
CROWN POINT: A. D. 1775. Surprise and capture by the Americans.
See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1775 MAY.
----------CROWN POINT: End----------
CROWS, OR UPSAROKAS, The.
See AMERICAN ABORIGINES: SIOUAN FAMILY.
CRUITHNIGH.-CRUITHNIANS.
The Irish name of the Picts and Scots of ancient Ireland and Scotland.
See SCOTLAND: THE PICTS AND SCOTS.
CRUSADES: Causes and introductory events.
"Like all the great movements of mankind, the Crusades must be traced to the coincidence of many causes which influenced men of various nations and discordant feelings, at the same period of time, to pursue one common end with their whole heart. Religious zeal, the fashion of pilgrimages, the spirit of social development, the energies that lead to colonisation or conquest, and commercial relations, only lately extended so widely as to influence public opinion, all suddenly received a deep wound. Every class of society felt injured and insulted, and unity of action was created as if by a divine impulse. The movement was facilitated by the circumstance that Europe began to adopt habits of order just at the time when Asia was thrown into a state of anarchy by the invasions of the Seljouk Turks. Great numbers of pilgrims had always passed through the Byzantine empire to visit the holy places in Palestine. We still possess an itinerary of the road from Bordeaux to Jerusalem, by the way of Constantinople, written in the fourth century for the use of pilgrims. Though the disturbed and impoverished state of Europe, after the fall of the Western Empire, diminished the number of pilgrims, still, even in times of the greatest anarchy, many passed annually through the Eastern Empire to Palestine. The improvement which dawned on the western nations during the eleventh century, and the augmented commerce of the Italians, gave additional importance to the pilgrimage to the East. About the year 1064, during the reign of Constantine X., an army or caravan of seven thousand pilgrims passed through Constantinople, led by the Archbishop of Mentz and four bishops. They made their way through Asia Minor, which was then under the Byzantine government; but in the neighbourhood of Jerusalem they were attacked by the Bedouins, and only saved from destruction by the Saracen emir of Ramla, who hastened to their assistance. These pilgrims are reported to have lost 3,000 of their number, without being able to visit either the Jordan or the Dead Sea. The invasions of the Seljouks [see TURKS (THE SELJUKS): A. D. 1073-1092] increased the disorders in Palestine. ... In the year 1076 the Seljouk Turks took possession of Jerusalem, and immediately commenced harassing the pilgrims with unheard-of exactions. The Saracens had in general viewed the pilgrims with favour, as men engaged in fulfilling a pious duty, or pursuing lawful gain with praiseworthy industry, and they had levied only a reasonable toll on the pilgrims, and a moderate duty on their merchandise; while in consideration of these imposts, they had established guards to protect them on the roads by which they approached the holy places. The Turks, on the contrary, acting like mere nomads, uncertain of retaining possession of the city, thought only of gratifying their avarice. They plundered the rich pilgrims, and insulted the poor. The religious feelings of the Christians were irritated, and their commerce ruined; a cry for vengeance arose throughout all Europe, and men's minds were fully prepared for an attempt to conquer Palestine, when Peter the Hermit began to preach that it was a sacred duty to deliver the tomb of Christ from the hands of the Infidels."
_G. Finlay, History of the Byzantine and Greek Empires, book 3, chapter 2, section 1._
CRUSADES: A. D. 1091. The Council of Clermont.
Pope Urban II., one of two rival pontiffs then contending for recognition by the Church, entered with great eagerness into the movement stirred by Peter the Hermit, and gave it a powerful impulse through his support, while obtaining for himself, at the same time, a decisive advantage over his competitor, by the popularity of the agitation. A great Council was convened at Piacenza, A. D. 1094, and a second at Clermont, in the autumn of the same year, to deliberate upon the action to be taken. The city of Clermont could not contain the vast multitude of bishops, clergy and laity which assembled, and an army of many thousands was tented in the surrounding country. To that excited congregation, at a meeting in the great square of Clermont, Pope Urban addressed a speech which is one of the notable utterances of History. "He began by detailing the miseries endured by their brethren in the Holy Land; how the plains of Palestine were desolated by the outrageous heathen, who with the sword and the firebrand carried wailing into the dwellings and flames into the possessions of the faithful; how Christian wives and daughters were defiled by pagan lust; how the altars of the true God were desecrated, and the relics of the saints trodden under foot. 'You,' continued the eloquent pontiff (and Urban II. was one of the most eloquent men of the day), 'you, who hear me, and who have received the true faith, and been endowed by God with power, and strength, and greatness of soul,--whose ancestors have been the prop of Christendom, and whose kings have put a barrier against the progress of the infidel,--I call upon you to wipe off these impurities from the face of the earth, and lift your oppressed fellow-Christians from the depths into which they have been trampled.' ... The warmth of the pontiff communicated itself to the crowd, and the enthusiasm of the people broke out several times ere he concluded his address. He went on to portray, not only the spiritual but the temporal advantages that would accrue to those who took up arms in the service of the cross. Palestine was, he said, a land flowing with milk and honey, and precious in the sight of God, as the scene of the grand events which had saved mankind. That land, he promised, should be divided among them. Moreover, they should have full pardon for all their offences, either against God or man. 'Go, then,' he added, 'in expiation of your sins; and go assured, that after this world shall have passed away, imperishable glory shall be yours in the world which is to come.' The enthusiasm was no longer to be restrained, and loud shouts interrupted the speaker; the people exclaiming as if with one voice, 'Dieu le veult! Dieu le veult!' ... The news of this council spread to the remotest parts of Europe in an incredibly short space of time. Long before the fleetest horseman could have brought the intelligence, it was known by the people in distant provinces; a fact which was considered as nothing less than supernatural. But the subject was in everybody's mouth, and the minds of men were prepared for the result. The enthusiastic merely asserted what they wished, and the event tallied with their prediction."
_C. Mackay, Memoirs of Extraordinary Popular Delusions: The Crusades, (volume 2)._
ALSO IN: H. H. Milman, History of Latin Christianity, book 7, chapter 6.
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CRUSADES: A. D. 1094-1095, Peter the Hermit and his appeal.
"About twenty years after the conquest of Jerusalem by the Turks, the holy sepulchre was visited by an hermit of the name of Peter, a native of Amiens, in the province of Picardy in France. His resentment and sympathy were excited by his own injuries, and the oppression of the Christian name; he mingled his tears with those of the patriarch, and earnestly inquired, if no hopes of relief could be entertained from the Greek emperors of the East. The patriarch exposed the vices and weakness of the successors of Constantine. 'I will rouse,' exclaimed the hermit, 'the martial nations of Europe in your cause;' and Europe was obedient to the call of the hermit. The astonished patriarch dismissed him with epistles of credit and complaint, and no sooner did he land at Bari, than Peter hastened to kiss the feet of the Roman pontiff. His stature was small, his appearance contemptible; but his eye was keen and lively, and he possessed that vehemence of speech which seldom fails to impart the persuasion of the soul. He was born of a gentleman's family (for we must now adopt a modern idiom), and his military service was under the neighbouring counts of Boulogne, the heroes of the first crusade. Invigorated by the approbation of the pontiff, this zealous missionary traversed, with speed and success, the provinces of Italy and France. His diet was abstemious, his prayers long and fervent, and the alms which he received with one hand, he distributed with the other; his head was bare, his feet naked, his meagre body was wrapt in a coarse garment; he bore and displayed a weighty crucifix; and the ass on which he rode was sanctified in the public eye by the service of the man of God. He preached to innumerable crowds in the churches, the streets, and the highways. ... When he painted the sufferings of the natives and pilgrims of Palestine, every heart was melted to compassion; every breast glowed with indignation, when he challenged the warriors of the age to defend their brethren and rescue their Saviour: his ignorance of art and language was compensated by sighs and tears, and ejaculations; and Peter supplied the deficiency of reason by loud and frequent appeals to Christ and his Mother, to the saints and angels of paradise, with whom he had personally conversed. The most perfect orator of Athens might have envied the success of his eloquence; the rustic enthusiast inspired the passions which he felt, and Christendom expected with impatience the counsels and decrees of the supreme pontiff."
E. Gibbon, Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, chapter 58. https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/25717
ALSO IN: _J. C. Robertson, History of the Christian Church, book 6, chapter 4 (volume 4)._
CRUSADES: A. D. 1096-1099. The First Great Movement.
The first army of Crusaders to set out on the long march to Jerusalem was a mob of men, women and children which had not patience to wait for the organized movement of the military leaders. They gathered in vast numbers on the banks of the Moselle and the Meuse, in the spring of 1096, with Peter the Hermit for their chosen chief. There were nine knights, only, in the swarm, and but few who had horses to ride, or efficient arms to bear, or provisions to feed upon. Knowing nothing, and therefore fearing nothing, they marched away, through France, Germany, Hungary and beyond, begging food where they could and subsisting by pillage when it needed. A knight called Walter the Penniless led the van, and Peter followed, with his second division, by a somewhat different route. Walter escaped serious trouble until he reached the country of the savage Bulgarians. Peter's senseless mob provoked the just wrath of the Hungarians by storming the small city of Semlin and slaying 4,000 of its inhabitants. The route of both was lined with the bones of thousands who perished of hunger, of exposure, of disease, and by the swords of Hungarians and Bulgarians. A third and a fourth host of like kind followed in their wake, led by a monk, Gotschalk, a priest named Volkmar, and a Count Emicon. These terrorized even more all the countries through which they passed,--especially where Jews were to be hunted and killed,--and were destroyed in Hungary to almost the last man. Peter and Walter reached Constantinople with 100,000 followers, it is said, even yet, after all who had fallen by the way. Still refusing to wait for the better appointed expeditions that were in progress, and still appalling eastern Christendom by their lawless barbarities, they passed into Asia Minor, and their miserable career soon came to an end. Attacking the Turks in the city of Nicæa,--which had become the capital of the Seljouk sultan of Roum,--they were beaten, routed, scattered, slaughtered, until barely 3,000 of the great host escaped. "Of the first Crusaders," says Gibbon, "300,000 had already perished before a single city was rescued from the infidels,--before their graver and more noble brethren had completed the preparations of their enterprise." Meantime the knights and princes of the crusade had gathered their armies and were now (in the summer of 1096) beginning to move eastward, by different routes. Not one of the greater sovereigns of Europe had enlisted in the undertaking. The chiefs of one armament were Godfrey de Bouillon, duke of the Lower Lorraine, or Brabant; his brothers, Eustace, count of Boulogne, and Baldwin; his cousin, Baldwin de Bourg, with Baldwin, count of Hainaut, Dudon de Contz, and other knights celebrated in the "Jerusalem Delivered" of Tasso. This expedition followed nearly the route of Peter the Hermit, through Hungary and Bulgaria, giving hostages for its orderly conduct and winning the good-will of those countries, even maddened as they were by the foregoing mobs. {628} Another larger following from France was led by Hugh, count of Vermandois, brother of the king of France; Robert, duke of Normandy, eldest son of William the Conqueror; Stephen, count of Blois, the Conqueror's son-in-law, and Robert, count of Flanders. These took the road into Italy, and to Bari, whence, after spending the winter, waiting for favorable weather, they were transported by ships to Greece, and pursued their march to Constantinople. They were followed by a contingent from southern Italy, under Bohemond, the Norman prince of Tarentum, son of Robert Guiscard, and his knightly cousin, Tancred. A fourth army, gathered in southern France by count Raymond of Toulouse and Bishop Adhemer, the appointed legate and representative of the pope, chose still another route, through Lombardy, Dalmatia and Macedonia, into Thrace. On passing through the territories of the Byzantine emperor (Alexius I.), all the crusaders experienced his distrust, his duplicity, and his cautious ill-will--which, under the circumstances were natural enough. Alexius managed so well that he extorted from each of the princes an acknowledgment of his rights of sovereignty over the region of their expected conquests, with an oath of fealty and homage, and he pushed them across the Bosphorus so adroitly that no two had the opportunity to unite their forces under the walls of Constantinople. Their first undertaking in Asia [May and June, A. D. 1097] was the siege of Nicæa, and they beleaguered it with an army which Gibbon believes to have been never exceeded within the compass of a single camp. Here, again, they were mastered by the cunning diplomacy of the Greek emperor. When the sultan of Roum yielded his capital, he was persuaded to surrender it to Alexius, and the imperial banner protected it from the rage of the discomfited crusaders. But they revenged themselves on the Turk at Dorylæum, where he attacked them during their subsequent march, and where he suffered a defeat which ended all fighting in Asia Minor. Baldwin, brother of Godfrey, now improved his opportunities by stealing away from the army, with a few hundred knights and men, to make conquests on his own account; with such success that he won the city of Edessa, with a sweep of country around it, and founded a principality which subsisted for half a century. The rest fared on, meeting no opposition from infidel swords, but sickening and dying by thousands, from heat and from want of water and food, until they came to Antioch. There, the Turkish emir in command, with a stout garrison of horse and foot, had prepared for a stubborn defence, and he held the besiegers at bay for seven months, while they starved in their ill-supplied camps. The city was delivered to them by a traitor, at length, but prince Bohemond, the crafty Norman, secured the benefit of the treason to himself, and forced his compatriots to concede to him the sovereignty of Antioch. The sufferings of the crusaders did not end with the taking of the city. They brought famine and pestilence upon themselves anew by their greedy and sensual indulgence, and they were soon under siege in their own turn, by a great army which the Turks had brought against them. Death and desertion were in rivalry to thin their wasted ranks. The survivors were in gloom and despair, when an opportune miracle occurred to excite them afresh. A lance, which visions and apparitions certified to be the very spear that pierced the Redeemer's side, was found buried in a church at Antioch. Under the stimulus of this amazing discovery they sallied from the town and dispersed the great army of the Turks in utter rout. Still the quarrels of the leaders went on, and ten months more were consumed before the remains of the Latin army advanced to Jerusalem. It was June, A. D. 1099, when they saw the Holy City and assailed its formidable walls. Their number was now reduced to 40,000, but their devotion and their ardor rose to frenzy, and after a siege of little more than a month they forced an entrance by storm. Then they spared neither age nor sex until they had killed all who denied the Savior of mankind--the Prince of Peace.
E. Gibbon, Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, chapter 58. https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/25717
ALSO IN: J. F. Michaud, History of the Crusades, book 1.
W. Besant and E. H. Palmer, Jerusalem, chapter 6.
C. Mills, History of the Crusades, chapter 2-6.
See also, JERUSALEM: A. D. 1099.
CRUSADES: A. D. 1099-1144. The Latin conquests in the east. The Kingdom of Jerusalem.
See JERUSALEM: A. D. 1099-1144.
CRUSADES: A. D. 1101-1102. The after-wave of the first movement.
"The tales of victory brought home by the pilgrims excited the most extravagant expectations in the minds of their auditors, and nothing was deemed capable of resisting European valour. The pope called upon all who had taken the cross to perform their vow, the emperor Henry IV. had the crusade preached, in order to gain favour with the clergy and laity. Many princes now resolved to visit in person the new empire founded in the East. Three great armies assembled: the first in Italy under the archbishop of Milan, and the two counts of Blandrate; the second in France under Hugh the Great and Stephen of Blois [who had deserted their comrades of the first expedition at Antioch, and] whom shame and remorse urged to perform their vow, William, duke of Guienne and count of Poitou, who mortgaged his territory to William Rufus of England to procure funds, the count of Nevers, the duke of Burgundy, the bishops of Laon and Soissons; the third in Germany, under the bishop of Saltzburg, the aged duke Welf of Bavaria, Conrad the master of the horse to the emperor, and many other knights and nobles. Ida also, the margravine of Austria, declared her resolution to share the toils and dangers of the way, and pay her vows at the tomb of Christ. Vast numbers of women of all ranks accompanied all these armies,--nay, in that of the duke of Guienne, who was inferior to none in valour, but united to it the qualities of a troubadour and glee-man, there appeared whole troops of young women. The Italian pilgrims were the first to arrive at Constantinople. They set out early in the spring, and took their way through Carinthia, Hungary, and Bulgaria. Though the excesses committed by them were great, the emperor gave them a kind reception, and the most prudent and friendly advice respecting their future progress. While they abode at Constantinople, Conrad and the count of Blois, and the duke of Burgundy, arrived, and at Whitsuntide they all passed over, and encamped at Nicomedia." {629} With ignorant fatuity, and against all experienced advice, the new Crusaders resolved to direct their march to Bag-dad and to overthrow the caliphate. The first body which advanced was cut to pieces by the Turks on the banks of the Halys, and only a few thousands, out of more than one hundred thousand, are said to have made their escape by desperate flight. The second and third armies were met successively by the victorious Moslems, before they had advanced so far, and were even more completely annihilated. The latter body contained, according to the chroniclers of the time, 150,000 pilgrims, of whom scarcely one thousand were saved from slavery or death. The men fell under the swords of the Turks; the women and girls, in great numbers, finished out their days in the harems of the East. Out of the wreck of the three vast armaments a slender column of 10,000 men was got together after some weeks at Antioch and led to Jerusalem (A. D. 1102). Most of these perished in subsequent battles, and very few ever saw Europe again. "Such was the fruitless termination of this second great movement of the West, in which perhaps a third of a million of pilgrims left their homes, never to revisit them."
T. Keightley, The Crusaders, chapter 2.
ALSO IN: J. F. Michaud, History of the Crusades, book 4.
Crusades: A. D. 1104-1111. Conquest of maritime cities of Syria and Palestine. Destruction of the Library of Tripoli.
"The prosperity and the safety of Jerusalem appeared closely connected with the conquest of the maritime cities of Syria and Palestine; it being by them alone that it could receive succour, or establish prompt and easy communications with the West. The maritime nations of Europe were interested in seconding, in this instance, the enterprises of the king of Jerusalem. ... From the period of the first crusades, the Pisans and the Genoese had constantly sent vessels to the seas of the East; and their fleets had aided the Christians in several expeditions against the Mussulmans. A Genoese fleet had just arrived in the seas of Syria when Baldwin undertook the siege of Ptolemaïs [Acre]. The Genoese were invited to assist in this conquest; but as religion was not the principle to bring them into action, they required, in return for their assistance and their labour, that they should have a third of the booty; they likewise stipulated to have a separate church for themselves, and a national factory and tribunal in the conquered city. Ptolemaïs was besieged by land and sea, and after a bloody resistance of twenty days, the inhabitants and the garrison proposed to surrender, and implored the clemency of the conquerors. The city opened its gates to the Christians, and the inhabitants prepared to depart, taking with them whatever they deemed most valuable; but the Genoese, at the sight of such rich booty, paid no respect to the capitulation, and massacred without pity a disarmed and defenceless people. ... In consequence of this victory, several places which the Egyptians still held on the coasts of Syria fell into the hands of the Christians." Among those was the city of Tripoli. "Raymond, Count de St. Gilles and of Thoulouse, one of the companions of Godfrey, after having wandered for a long time about Asia, had died before this place, of which he had commenced the siege. In memory of his exploits in the first crusade, the rich territory of Tripoli was created a county, and became the inheritance of his family. This territory was celebrated for its productions. ... A library established in this city, and celebrated through all the East, contained the monuments of the ancient literature of the Persians, the Arabians, the Egyptians, and the Greeks. A hundred copyists were there constantly employed in transcribing manuscripts. ... After the taking of the city, a priest attached to Count Bernard de St. Gilles, entered the room in which were collected a vast number of copies of the Koran, and as he declared the library of Tripoli contained only the impious books of Mahomet, it was given up to the flames. ... Bibles, situated on the smiling and fertile shores of Phoenicia, Sarepta, where St. Jerome saw still in his day the tower of Isaiah; and Berytus, famous in the early days of the church for its school of eloquence, shared the fate of Tripoli, and became baronies bestowed upon Christian knights. After these conquests, the Pisans, the Genoese, and several warriors who had followed Baldwin in his expeditions, returned into Europe; and the king of Jerusalem, abandoned by these useful allies, was obliged to employ the forces which remained in repulsing the invasions of the Saracens."
J. F. Michaud, History of the Crusades, volume 1, book 5.
CRUSADES: A. D. 1147-1149. The Second Great Movement.
During the reign of Fulk, the fourth king of Jerusalem, the Latin power in Palestine and its neighboring territories began to be seriously shaken by a vigorous Turkish prince named Zenghi, on whom the sultan Mahmoud had conferred the government of all the country west of the Tigris. It was the first time since the coming of the Christians of the West that the whole strength of Islam in that region had been so nearly gathered into one strong hand, to be used against them, and they felt the effect speedily, being themselves weakened by many quarrels. In 1143 King Fulk died, leaving the crown to a young son, Baldwin III.,--a boy of thirteen, whose mother governed in his name. The next year Zenghi captured the important city of Edessa, and consternation was produced by his successes. Europe was then appealed to for help against the advancing Turk, and the call from Jerusalem was taken up by St. Bernard of Clairvaux, the irresistible enthusiast, whose influence accomplished, in his time, whatever he willed to have done. Just half a century after Peter the Hermit, St. Bernard preached a Second Crusade, and with almost equal effect, notwithstanding the better knowledge now possessed of all the hardships and perils of the expedition. This time, royalty took the lead. King Conrad of Germany commanded a great army from that country, and another host followed King Louis VII. from France. "Both armies marched down the Danube, to Constantinople, in the summer of 1147. At the same moment King Roger [of Naples], with his fleet, attacked, not the Turks, but the Greek seaport towns of the Morea. Manuel [the Byzantine emperor] thereupon, convinced that the large armies were designed for the destruction of his empire in the first place, with the greatest exertions, got together troops from all his provinces, and entered into a half-alliance with the Turks of Asia Minor. The mischief and ill-feeling was increased by the lawless conduct of the German hordes; the Greek troops attacked them more than once; whereupon numerous voices were raised in Louis's headquarters to demand open war against the faithless Greeks. {630} The kings were fully agreed not to permit this, but on arriving in Constantinople they completely fell out, for, while Louis made no secret of his warm friendship for Roger, Conrad promised the Emperor of Constantinople to attack the Normans as soon as the Crusade should be ended. This was a bad beginning for a united campaign in the East, and moreover, at every step eastward, new difficulties arose. The German army, broken up into several detachments, and led without ability or prudence, was attacked in Asia Minor by the Emir of Iconium, and cut to pieces, all but a few hundred men. The French, though better appointed, also suffered severe losses in that country, but contrived nevertheless, to reach Antioch with a very considerable force, and from thence might have carried the project which the second Baldwin had conceived in vain, namely, the defence of the northeastern frontier, upon which, especially since Zenki [Zenghi] had made his appearance, the life or death of the Christian states depended. But in vain did Prince Raymond of Antioch try to prevail upon King Louis to take this view, and to attack without delay the most formidable of all their adversaries, Noureddin [son of Zenghi, now dead]. Louis would not hear or do anything till he had seen Jerusalem and prayed at the Holy Sepulchre. ... In Jerusalem he [King Louis] was welcomed by Queen Melisende (now regent, during her son's minority, after Fulco's death), with praise and gratitude, because he had not taken part in the distant wars of the Prince of Antioch, but had reserved his forces for the defence of the holy city of Jerusalem. It was now resolved to lead the army against Damascus, the only Turkish town whose Emir had always refused to submit to either Zenki or Noureddin. Nevertheless Noureddin instantly collected all his available forces, to succour the besieged town." But he was spared further exertion by the jealous disagreement of the Christians, who began to take thought as to what should be done with Damascus when they took it. The Syrian barons concluded that they would prefer to leave the city in Turkish hands, and by treacherous manœuvres they forced king Louis to raise the siege. "The German king, long since tired of his powerless position, returned home in the autumn of 1148, and Louis, after much pressing, stayed a few months longer, and reached Europe in the following spring. The whole expedition ... had been wrecked, without honour and without result, by the most wretched personal passions, and the most narrow and selfish policy."
H. Von Sybel, History and Literature of the Crusades, chapter 3.
"So ended in utter shame and ignominy the Second Crusade. The event seemed to give the lie to the glowing promises and prophecies of St. Bernard. So vast had been the drain of population to feed this holy war that, in the phrase of an eye-witness, the cities and castles were empty, and scarcely one man was left to seven women; and now it was known that the fathers, the husbands, the sons, or the brothers of these miserable women would see their earthly homes no more. The cry of anguish charged Bernard with the crime of sending them forth on an errand in which they had done absolutely nothing and had reaped only wretchedness and disgrace. For a time Bernard himself was struck dumb: but he soon remembered that he had spoken with the authority of God and his vicegerent, and that the guilt or failure must lie at the door of the pilgrims."
G. W. Cox, The Crusades, chapter 5.
CRUSADES: A. D. 1187. The loss of Jerusalem.
See JERUSALEM: A. D. 1149-1187.
CRUSADES: A. D. 1188-1192. The Third Great Movement.
When the news reached Europe that Saladin, the redoubtable new champion of Islam had expelled the Christians and the Cross from Jerusalem, polluting once more the precincts of the Holy Sepulchre, the effect produced was something not easily understood at the present day. If we may believe historians of the time, the pope (Urban III.) died of grief; "Christians forgot all the ills of their own country to weep over Jerusalem. ... Luxury was banished from cities; injuries were forgotten and alms were given abundantly, Christians slept upon ashes, clothed themselves in haircloth, and expiated their disorderly lives by fasting and mortification. The clergy set the example; the morals of the cloister were reformed, and cardinals, condemning themselves to poverty, promised to repair to the Holy Land, supported on charity by the way. These pious reformations did not last long; but men's minds were not the less prepared for a new crusade by them, and all Europe was soon roused by the voice of Gregory VIII., who exhorted the faithful to assume the cross and take up arms."
J. F. Michaud, History of the Crusades, book 7.
"The emperor Frederic Barbarossa and the kings of France and England assumed the cross; and the tardy magnitude of their armaments was anticipated by the maritime states of the Mediterranean and the ocean. The skilful and provident Italians first embarked in the ships of Genoa, Pisa, and Venice. They were speedily followed by the most eager pilgrims of France, Normandy and the Western Isles. The powerful succour of Flanders, Frise, and Denmark filled near a hundred vessels; and the northern warriors were distinguished in the field by a lofty stature and a ponderous battle-axe. Their increasing multitudes could no longer be confined within the walls of Tyre [which the Latins still held], or remain obedient to the voice of Conrad [Marquis of Montferrat, who had taken command of the place and repelled the attacks of Saladin]. They pitied the misfortunes and revered the dignity of Lusignan [the nominal king of Jerusalem, lately captive in Saladin's hands], who was released from prison, perhaps to divide the army of the Franks. He proposed the recovery of Ptolemais, or Acre, thirty miles to the south of Tyre; and the place was first invested [July, 1189] by 2,000 horse and 30,000 foot under his nominal command. I shall not expatiate on the story of this memorable siege, which lasted near two years, and consumed, in a narrow space, the forces of Europe and Asia. ... At the sound of the holy trumpet the Moslems of Egypt, Syria, Arabia, and the Oriental provinces assembled under the servant of the prophet: his camp was pitched and removed within a few miles of Acre; and he laboured, night and day, for the relief of his brethren and the annoyance of the Franks. ... In the spring of the second year, the royal fleets of France and England cast anchor in the bay of Acre, and the siege was more vigorously prosecuted by the youthful emulation of the two kings, Philip Augustus and Richard Plantagenet. {631} After every resource had been tried, and every hope was exhausted, the defenders of Acre submitted to their fate. ... By the conquest of Acre the Latin powers acquired a strong town and a convenient harbour; but the advantage was most dearly purchased. The minister and historian of Saladin computes, from the report of the enemy, that their numbers, at different periods, amounted to 500,000 or 600,000; that more than 100, 000 Christians were slain; that a far greater number was lost by disease or shipwreck." On the reduction of Acre, king Philip Augustus returned to France, leaving only 500 knights and 10,000 men behind him. Meantime, the old emperor, Frederick Barbarossa, coming by the landward route, through the country of the Greeks and Asia Minor, with a well-trained army of 20,000 knights and 50,000 men on foot, had perished by the way, drowned in a little Cilician torrent, and only 5,000 of his troops had reached the camp at Acre. Old as he was, (he was seventy when he took the cross) Barbarossa might have changed the event of the Crusade if he had reached the scene of conflict; for he had brains with his valor and character with his ferocity, which Richard Cœur de Lion had not. The latter remained another year in the Holy Land; recovered Cæsarea and Jaffa; threatened Saladin in Jerusalem seriously, but to no avail; and stirred up more and fiercer quarrels among the Christians than had been customary, even on the soil which was sacred to them. In the end, a treaty was arranged which displeased the more devout on both sides. "It was stipulated that Jerusalem and the holy sepulchre should be open, without tribute or vexation, to the pilgrimage of the Latin Christians; that, after the demolition of Ascalon, they should inclusively possess the sea-coast from Jaffa to Tyre; that the count of Tripoli and the prince of Antioch should be comprised in the truce; and that, during three years and three months, all hostilities should cease. ... Richard embarked for Europe, to seek a long captivity and a premature grave; and the space of a few months concluded the life and glories of Saladin."
E. Gibbon, Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, chapter 59. https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/25717
"A halo of false glory surrounds the Third Crusade from the associations which connect it with the lion-hearted king of England. The exploits of Richard I. have stirred to enthusiasm the dullest of chroniclers, have furnished themes for jubilant eulogies, and have shed over his life that glamour which cheats even sober-minded men when they read the story of his prototype Achilleus in the tale of Troy. ... When we turn from the picture to the reality, we shall see in this Third Crusade an enterprise in which the fiery zeal which does something towards redeeming the savage brutalities of Godfrey and the first crusaders is displaced by base and sordid greed, by intrigues utterly of the earthy, by wanton crimes from which we might well suppose that the sun would hide away its face; and in the leaders of this enterprise we shall see men in whom morally there is scarcely a single quality to relieve the monotonous blackness of their infamy; in whom, strategically, a very little generalship comes to the aid of a blind brute force."
G. W. Cox, The Crusades, chapter 7.
ALSO IN: Mrs. W. Busk, Mediaeval Popes, Emperors, Kings and Crusaders, book 2, chapter 12, and book 3, chapter 1-2.
CRUSADES: A. D. 1196-1197. The Fourth Expedition.
A crusading expedition of German barons and their followers, which went to the Holy Land, by way of Italy, in 1196, is generally counted as the Fourth Crusade, though some writers look upon it as a movement supplementary to the Third Crusade. The Germans, who numbered some 40,000, do not seem to have been welcomed by the Christians of Palestine. The latter preferred to maintain the state of peace then prevailing; but the new crusaders forced hostilities at once. Saladin was dead; his brother Saphadin accepted the challenge to war with prompt vigor and struck the first hard blow, taking Jaffa, with great slaughter, and demolishing its fortifications. But Saphadin was presently defeated in a battle fought between Tyre and Sidon, and Jaffa was recovered, together with other towns and most of the coast. But, a little later, the Germans suffered, in their turn, a most demoralizing reverse at the castle of Thoron, which they besieged, and were further disturbed, in the midst of their depression, by news of the death of their emperor, Henry VI. A great part of them, thereupon, returned home. Those who remained, or many of them, occupied Jaffa, where they were attacked, a few months later, and cut to pieces.
G. W. Cox, The Crusades, chapter 8.
CRUSADES: A. D. 1201-1203. The Fifth Movement.- Treachery of the Venetians. Conquest of Constantinople.
"Every traveller returning from Syria brought a prayer for immediate help from the survivors of the Third Crusade. It was necessary to act at once if any portion even of the wreck of the kingdom of Jerusalem were to be saved. Innocent the Third, and some, at least, of the statesmen of the West were fully alive to the progress which Islam had made since the departure of the Western kings. In 1197, however, after five years of weary waiting, the time seemed opportune for striking a new blow for Christendom. Saladin, the great Sultan, had died in 1193, and his two sons were already quarreling about the partition of his empire. The contending divisions of the Arab Moslems were at this moment each bidding for the support of the Christians of Syria. The other great race of Mahometans which had threatened Europe, the Seljukian Turks, had made a halt in their progress through Asia Minor. ... Other special circumstances which rendered the moment favourable for a new crusade, combined with the profound conviction of the statesmen of the West of the danger to Christendom from the progress of Islam, urged Western Europe to take part in the new enterprise. The reigning Pope, Innocent III., was the great moving spirit of the Fourth Crusade." The popular preacher of the Crusade was found in an ignorant priest named Fulk, of Neuilly, whose success in kindling public enthusiasm was almost equal to that of Peter the Hermit. Vast numbers took the cross, with Theobald, count of Champagne, Louis, count of Blois and Chartres, Simon de Montfort, Walter of Brienne, Baldwin, count of Flanders, Hugh of St. Pol, Geoffrey de Villehardouin, marshal of Champagne and future historian of the Crusade, and many other prominent knights and princes among the leaders. The young count of Champagne was the chosen chief; but he sickened and died and his place was taken by Boniface, marquis of Montferrat. {632} It was the decision of the leaders that the expedition should be directed in the first instance against the Moslem power in Egypt, and that it should be conveyed to the attack of Egypt by sea. Venice, alone, seemed to be able to furnish ships, sailors and supplies for so great a movement, and a contract with Venice for the service was concluded in the spring of 120l. But Venice was mercenary, unscrupulous and treacherous, caring for nothing but commercial gains. Before the crusaders could gather at her port for embarkation, she had betrayed them to the Moslems. By a secret treaty with the sultan of Egypt, the fact of which is coming more and more conclusively to light, she had undertaken to frustrate the Crusade, and to receive important commercial privileges at Alexandria as compensation for her treachery. When, therefore, in the early summer of 1202, the army of the Crusade was collected at Venice to take ship, it encountered difficulties, discouragements and ill-treatments which thickened daily. The number assembled was not equal to expectation. Some had gone by sea from Flanders; some by other routes. But Venice had provided transport for the whole, and inflexibly demanded pay for the whole. The money in hand was not equal to this claim. The summer was lost in disputes and attempted compromises. Many of the crusaders withdrew in disgust and went home. At length, in defiance of the censures of the pope and of the bitter opposition of many leaders and followers of the expedition, there was a bargain struck, by the terms of which the crusaders were to assist the Venetians in taking and plundering the Christian city of Zara, a dreaded commercial rival on the Dalmatian coast of the Adriatic, belonging to the king of Hungary, himself one of the promoters of the very crusade which was now to be turned against him. The infamous compact was carried out. Zara was taken, and in the end it was totally destroyed by the Venetians. In the meantime, the doomed city was occupied by the crusading army through the winter, while a still more perfidious plot was being formed. Old Dandolo, the blind doge of Venice, was the master spirit of it. He was helped by the influence of Philip, one of the two rivals then fighting for the imperial crown in Germany and Italy. Philip had married a daughter of Isaac II. (Angelos), made emperor at Constantinople on the fall of the dynasty of Comnenus, and that feeble prince had lately been dethroned by his brother. The son and heir of Isaac, named Alexius, had escaped from Constantinople and had made his way to Philip imploring help. Either Philip conceived the idea, or it was suggested to him, that the armament of the Crusade might be employed to place the young Alexius on the throne of his father. To the Venetians the scheme was more than acceptable. It would frustrate the Crusade, which they had pledged themselves to the sultan of Egypt to accomplish; it would satisfy their ill-will towards the Byzantines, and, more important than all else, it would give them an opportunity to secure immeasurable advantages over their rivals in the great trade which Constantinople held at command. The marquis of Montferrat, commander of the Crusade, had some grievances of his own and some ambitions of his own, which made him favorable to the new project, and he was easily won to it. The three influences thus combined--those of Philip, of Dandolo, and of Montferrat--overcame all opposition. Some who opposed were bribed, some were intimidated, some were deluded by promises, some deserted the ranks. Pope Innocent remonstrated, appealed and threatened in vain. The pilgrim host, "changed from a crusading army into a filibustering expedition," set sail from Zara in the spring of the year 1203, and was landed, the following June, not on the shores of Egypt or Syria, but under the walls of Constantinople. Its conquest, pillage and brutally destructive treatment of the great city are described in another place.
E. Pears, The Fall of Constantinople, chapter 8-13.
ALSO IN: _G. Finlay, History of the Byzantine and Greek Empires, 716-1453, book 3, chapter 3._
E. Gibbon, Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, chapter 59. https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/25717
See, also, BYZANTINE EMPIRE: A. D. 1203-1204
CRUSADES: A. D. 1201-1283. Against the heathen Sclavonians on the Baltic.
See LIVONIA: 12TH-13TH CENTURIES; and PRUSSIA: 13TH CENTURY.
CRUSADES: A. D. 1209-1242. Against the Albigenses.
See ALBIGENSES.
CRUSADES: A. D, 1212. The Children's Crusade.
"The religious wars fostered and promoted vice; and the failure of army after army was looked on as a clear manifestation of God's wrath against the sins of the camp. This feeling was roused to its highest pitch when, in the year 1212, certain priests--Nicolas was the name of one of these mischievous madmen--went about France and Germany calling on the children to perform what the fathers, through their wickedness, had been unable to effect, promising that the sea should be dry to enable them to march across; that the Saracens would be miraculously stricken with a panic at the sight of them; that God would, through the hands of children only, whose lives were yet pure, work the recovery of the Cross and the Sepulchre. Thousands--it is said fifty thousand--children of both sexes responded to the call. They listened to the impassioned preaching of the monks, believed their lying miracles, their visions, their portents, their references to the Scriptures, and, in spite of all that their parents could do, rushed to take the Cross, boys and girls together, and streamed along the roads which led to Marseilles and Genoa, singing hymns, waving branches, replying to those who asked whither they were going, 'We go to Jerusalem to deliver the Holy Sepulchre,' and shouting their rallying cry, 'Lord Jesus, give us back thy Holy Cross.' They admitted whoever came, provided he took the Cross; the infection spread, and the children could not be restrained from joining them in the towns and villages along their route. Their miserable parents put them in prison; they escaped; they forbade them to go; the children went in spite of prohibition. They had no money, no provisions, no leaders; but the charity of the towns they passed through supported them. At their rear streamed the usual tail of camp followers. ... There were two main bodies. One of these directed its way through Germany, across the Alps, to Genoa. On the road they were robbed of all the gifts which had been presented them; they were exposed to heat and want, and very many either died on the march or wandered away from the road and so became lost to sight; when they reached Italy they dispersed about the country, seeking food, were stripped by the villagers, and in some cases were reduced to slavery. {633} Only seven thousand out of their number arrived at Genoa. Here they stayed for some days. They looked down upon the Mediterranean, hoping that its bright waves would divide to let them pass. But they did not; there was no miracle wrought in their favour; a few of noble birth were received among the Genoese families, and have given rise to distinguished houses of Genoa; among them is the house of Vivaldi. The rest, disappointed and disheartened, made their way back again, and got home at length, the girls with the loss of their virtue, the boys with the loss of their belief, all barefooted and in rags, laughed at by the towns they went through, and wondering why they had ever gone at all. This was the end of the German army. That of the French was not so fortunate, for none of them ever got back again at all. When they arrived at Marseilles, thinned probably by the same causes as those which had dispersed the Germans, they found, like their brethren, that the sea did not open a path for them, as had been promised. Perhaps some were disheartened and went home again. But fortune appeared to favour them. There were two worthy merchants at Marseilles, named Hugh Ferrens, and William Porcus, Iron Hugh and Pig William, who traded with the East, and had in port seven ships, in which they proposed to convey the children to Palestine. With a noble generosity they offered to take them for nothing, all for love of religion, and out of the pure kindness of their hearts. Of course this offer was accepted with joy, and the seven vessels laden with the happy little Crusaders, singing their hymns and flying their banners, sailed out from Marseilles, bound for the East, accompanied by William the Good and Hugh the Pious. It was not known to the children, of course, that the chief trade of these merchants was the lucrative business of kidnapping Christian children for the Alexandrian market. It was so, however, and these respectable tradesmen had never before made so splendid a coup. Unfortunately, off the Island of St. Peter, they encountered bad weather, and two ships went down with all on board. What must have been the feelings of the philanthropists, Pig William and Iron Hugh, at this misfortune? They got, however, five ships safely to Alexandria, and sold all their cargo, the Sultan of Cairo buying forty of the boys, whom he brought up carefully and apart, intending them, doubtless, for his best soldiers. A dozen refusing to change their faith were martyred. None of the rest ever came back. Nobody in Europe seems to have taken much notice of this extraordinary episode."
W. Besant and E. H. Palmer, Jerusalem, chapter 18.
ALSO IN: J. H. Michaud, History of the Crusades, appendix number 28.
G. Z. Gray, The Children's Crusade.
CRUSADE: A. D. 1212. Against the Moors in Spain.
See SPAIN: A. D. 1146-1232.
CRUSADE: A. D. 1216-1229. The Sixth Movement. Frederic II. in Jerusalem.
For six years after the betrayal of the vows of the crusaders of 1202-1204--who sacked Constantinople instead of rescuing Jerusalem--the Christians of Palestine were protected by a truce with Saphadin, the brother of Saladin, who had succeeded the latter in power. Hostilities were then rashly provoked by the always foolish Latins, and they soon found themselves reduced to sore straits, calling upon Europe for fresh help. Pope Innocent III. did not scruple to second their appeal. A new crusade was preached with great earnestness, and a general Council of the Church--the Fourth of Lateran--was convened for the stimulation of it. "The Fifth Crusade [or the Sixth, as more commonly numbered], the result of this resolution, was divided in the sequel into three maritime expeditions: the first [A. D. 1216] consisting principally of Hungarians under their king, Andrew; the second [A. D. 1218] composed of Germans, Italians, French and English nobles and their followers; and the third [A. D. 1228] led by the Emperor Frederic II. in person. ... Though the King of Hungary was attended by the flower of a nation which, before its conversion to Christianity, had been the scourge and terror of Western Europe, the arms of that monarch, even aided by the junction of numerous German crusaders under the dukes of Austria and Bavaria, performed nothing worthy of notice: and after a single campaign in Palestine, in which the Mussulman territories were ineffectually ravaged, the fickle Andrew deserted the cause and returned with his forces to Europe. His defection did not prevent the duke of Austria, with the German crusaders, from remaining, in concert with the King of Jerusalem, his barons, and the knights of the three religious orders, for the defence of Palestine; and, in the following year, the constancy of these faithful champions of the Cross was rewarded by the arrival of numerous reinforcements from Germany. ... It was resolved to change the scene of warfare from the narrow limits of the Syrian shore to the coast of Egypt, ... and the situation of Damietta, at the mouth of the Nile, pointed out that city as the first object of attack." After a siege of seventeen months, during which both the besieged and the besiegers suffered horribly, from famine and from pestilence, Damietta was taken (A. D. 1219), Nine-tenths of its population of 80,000 had perished. "Both during the siege and after the capture of Damietta, the invasion of Egypt had filled the infidels with consternation; and the alarm which was betrayed in their counsels proved that the crusaders, in choosing that country for the theatre of operations, had assailed the Mussulman power in its most vital and vulnerable point. Of the two sons of Saphadin, Coradinus and Camel, who were now uneasily seated on the thrones of Damascus and Cairo, the former, in despair of preserving Jerusalem, had already demolished its fortifications; and the brothers agreed in repeatedly offering the cession of the holy city and of all Palestine to the Christians, upon the single condition of their evacuating Egypt. Every object which had been ineffectually proposed in repeated Crusades, since the fatal battle of Tiberias, might now have been gloriously obtained by the acceptance of these terms, and the King of Jerusalem, the French and English leaders, and the Teutonic knights, all eagerly desired to embrace the offer of the Sultans. But the obstinate ambition and cupidity of the surviving papal legate, Cardinal Pelagius, of the Italian chieftains, and of the knights of the other two religious orders, by holding out the rich prospect of the conquest and plunder of Egypt, overruled every wise and temperate argument in the Christian councils, and produced a rejection of all compromise with the infidels. {634} After a winter of luxurious inaction, the legate led the crusading host from Damietta toward Cairo (A. D. 1220)." The expedition was as disastrous in its result as it was imbecile in its leadership. The whole army, caught by the rising of the Nile, was placed in so helpless a situation that it was glad to purchase escape by the surrender of Damietta and the evacuation of Egypt. The retreat of the greater part of these crusaders did not end until they had reached home. Pope Honorius III. (who had succeeded Innocent III. in 1216) strove to shift responsibility for the failure from his wretched legate to the Emperor Frederic II., who had thus far evaded the fulfilment of his crusading promises and vows, being occupied in struggles with the papacy. At length, in 1228, Frederic embarked for Palestine with a small force, pursued by the maledictions of the pope, who denounced him for daring to assume the Cross while under the ban of the church, as much as he had denounced him before for neglecting it. But the free-thinking Hohenstauffen cared little, apparently, and went his way, shunned scrupulously by all pious souls, including the knights of Palestine, except those of the Teutonic order. With the help of the latter he occupied and refortified Jaffa and succeeded in concluding a treaty with the Sultan which restored Jerusalem to the Christians, reserving certain rights to the Mahometans; giving up likewise Bethlehem, Nazareth and some other places to the Christians, and securing peace for ten years. Frederic had married, a few years before, for his second empress, Iolante, daughter and heiress of the titular king of Jerusalem, John de Brienne. With the hand of this princess, he received from her father a solemn transfer of all his rights to that shadowy throne. He now claimed those rights, and, entering Jerusalem, with the Teutonic knights (A. D. 1229), he crowned himself its king. The patriarch, the Templars and the Hospitallers refused to take part in the ceremony; the pope denounced Frederic's advantageous treaty as soon as he had news of it, and all that it gained for the Christians of Palestine was thrown away by them as speedily as possible.
Major Procter, History of the Crusades, chapter 5, section 2.
"No Crusader, since Godfrey de Bouillon, had effected so much as Frederick the Second. What would he not have obtained, had the Pope, the Patriarch and the Orders given him their hearty cooperation?"
T. L. Kington, History of Frederick II., chapter 8.
CRUSADES: A. D. 1238-1280. Against the Bogomiles.
See BALKAN AND DANUBIAN STATES: 9TH-16TH CENTURIES (BOSNIA, ETC.)
CRUSADES: A. D. 1242. The Invasion of Palestine by the Carismians.
See JERUSALEM: A. D. 1242.
CRUSADES: A. D. 1248-1254. The Seventh Movement. Expedition of Saint Louis to Egypt.
The Seventh Crusade was undertaken, with little aid from other countries, by the devout and wonderfully Christian-like young king of France, Louis IX., afterwards canonized, and known in history as St. Louis. "He carried it out with a picked army, furnished by the feudal chivalry and by the religious and military orders dedicated to the service of the Holy Land. The Isle of Cyprus was the trysting-place appointed for all the forces of the expedition. Louis arrived there on the 12th of September, 1248, and reckoned upon remaining there only a few days; for it was Egypt that he was in a hurry to reach. The Christian world was at that time of opinion that, to deliver the Holy Land, it was necessary first of all to strike a blow at Islamism in Egypt, wherein its chief strength resided. But scarcely had the crusaders formed a junction in Cyprus, when the vices of the expedition and the weaknesses of its chief began to be manifest. Louis, unshakable in his religious zeal, was wanting in clear ideas and fixed resolves as to the carrying out of his design. ... He did not succeed in winning a majority in the council of chiefs over to his opinion as to the necessity for a speedy departure for Egypt; it was decided to pass the winter in Cyprus. ... At last a start was made from Cyprus in May, 1249, and, in spite of violent gales of wind which dispersed a large number of vessels, they arrived on the 4th of June before Damietta. ... Having become masters of Damietta, St. Louis and the crusaders committed the same fault there as in the Isle of Cyprus: they halted there for an indefinite time. They were expecting fresh crusaders; and they spent the time of expectation in quarreling over the partition of the booty taken in the city. They made away with it, they wasted it blindly. ... Louis saw and deplored these irregularities, without being in a condition to stop them. At length, on the 20th of November, 1249, after more than five months' inactivity at Damietta, the crusaders put themselves once more in motion, with the determination of marching upon Babylon, that outskirt of Cairo, now called Old Cairo, which the greater part of them, in their ignorance, mistook for the real Babylon, and where they flattered themselves they would find immense riches, and avenge the olden sufferings of the Hebrew captives. The Mussulmans had found time to recover from their first fright, and to organize, at all points, a vigorous resistance. On the 8th of February, 1250, a battle took place twenty leagues from Damietta, at Mansourah ('the city of victory'), on the right bank of the Nile. ... The battle-field was left that day to the crusaders; but they were not allowed to occupy it as conquerors, for, three days afterwards, on the 11th of February, 1250, the camp of St. Louis was assailed by clouds of Saracens, horse and foot, Mamelukes and Bedouins. All surprise had vanished, the Mussulmans measured at a glance the numbers of the Christians, and attacked them in full assurance of success, whatever heroism they might display; and the crusaders themselves indulged in no more self·illusion, and thought only of defending themselves. Lack of provisions and sickness soon rendered defence almost as impossible as attack; every day saw the Christian camp more and more encumbered with the famine-stricken, the dying, and the dead; and the necessity for retreating became evident." An attempt to negotiate with the enemy failed, because they insisted on the surrender of the king as hostage,--which none would concede. "On the 5th of April, 1250, the crusaders decided upon retreating. This was the most deplorable scene of a deplorable drama; and at the same time it was, for the king, an occasion for displaying, in their most sublime and attractive traits, all the virtues of the Christian. Whilst sickness and famine were devastating the camp, Louis made himself visitor, physician and comforter; and his presence and his words exercised upon the worst cases a searching influence. ... {635} When the 5th of April, the day fixed for the retreat, had come, Louis himself was ill and much enfeebled. He was urged to go aboard one of the vessels which were to descend the Nile, carrying the wounded and the most suffering; but he refused absolutely, saying, 'I don't separate from my people in the hour of danger.' He remained on land, and when he had to move forward he fainted away. When he came to himself, he was amongst the last to leave the camp. ... At four leagues distance from the camp it had just left, the rear-guard of the crusaders, harassed by clouds of Saracens, was obliged to halt. Louis could no longer keep on his horse. 'He was put up at a house,' says Joinville, 'and laid, almost dead, upon the lap of a tradeswoman from Paris; and it was believed that he would not last till evening.'" The king, in this condition, with the whole wreck of his army,--only 10,000 in number remaining to him,--were taken prisoners. Their release from captivity was purchased a month later by the surrender of Damietta and a ransom-payment of 500,000 livres. They made their way to St. Jean d' Acre, in Palestine, whence many of them returned home. But King Louis, with some of his knights and men-at-arms--how many is not known--stayed yet in the Holy Land for four years, striving and hoping against hope to accomplish something for the deliverance of Jerusalem, and expending "in small works of piety, sympathy, protection, and care for the future of the Christian population in Asia, his time, his strength, his pecuniary resources, and the ardor of a soul which could not remain idly abandoned to sorrowing over great desires unsatisfied." The good and pious but ill-guided king returned to France in the summer of 1254, and was received with great joy.
F. P. Guizot, Popular History of France, chapter 17; www.gutenberg.org/files/11952
ALSO IN: Sire De Joinville, Memoirs of Saint Louis, part 2.
J. F. Michaud, History of the Crusades, books 13-14.
Crusades: A. D. 1252. The movement of "the Pastors."
On the arrival in France of the news of the disastrous failure of Saint Louis's expedition to Egypt, there occurred an outbreak of fanaticism as insensate as that of the children's crusade of forty years before. It was said to have originated with a Hungarian named Jacob, who began to proclaim that Christ rejected the great ones of the earth from His service, and that the deliverance of the Holy City must be accomplished by the poor and humble. "Shepherds left their flocks, labourers laid down the plough, to follow his footsteps. ... The name of Pastors was given to these village crusaders. ... At length, assembled to the number of more than 100,000, these redoubtable pilgrims left Paris and divided themselves into several troops, to repair to the coast, whence they were to embark for the East. The city of Orleans, which happened to be in their passage, became the theatre of frightful disorders. The progress of their enormities at length created serious alarm in the government and the magistracy; orders were sent to the provinces to pursue and disperse these turbulent and seditious bands. The most numerous assemblage of the Pastors was fixed to take place at Bourges, where the 'master of Hungary' [Jacob] was to perform miracles and communicate the will of Heaven. Their arrival in that city was the signal for murder, fire and pillage. The irritated people took up arms and marched against these disturbers of the public peace; they overtook them between Mortemer and Villeneuve-sur-le-Cher, where, in spite of their numbers, they were routed, and received the punishment due to their brigandages. Jacob had his head cut off by the blow of an axe; many of his companions and disciples met with death on the field of battle, or were consigned to punishment; the remainder took to flight."
J. F. Michaud, History of the Crusades, book 14.
Crusades: A. D. 1256-1259. Against Eccelino di Romano.
See VERONA: A. D. 1236-1259.
Crusades: A. D. 1270-1271. The last undertakings. Saint Louis at Tunis. Prince Edward in Palestine.
"For seven years after his return to France, from 1254 to 1261, Louis seemed to think no more about them [the crusades], and there is nothing to show that he spoke of them even to his most intimate confidants; but, in spite of his apparent calmness, he was living, so far as they were concerned, in a continual ferment of imagination and internal fever, even flattering himself that some favorable circumstance would call him back to his interrupted work. ... In 1261, Louis held, at Paris, a Parliament, at which, without any talk of a new crusade, measures were taken which revealed an idea of it. ... In 1263 the crusade was openly preached. ... All objections, all warnings, all anxieties came to nothing in the face of Louis's fixed idea and pious passion. He started from Paris on the 16th of March, 1270, a sick man almost already, but with soul content, and probably the only one without misgiving in the midst of all his comrades. It was once more at Aigues-Mortes that he went to embark. All was as yet dark and undecided as to the plan of the expedition. ... Steps were taken at hap-hazard with full trust in Providence and utter forgetfulness that Providence does not absolve men from foresight. ... It was only in Sardinia, after four days' halt at Cagliari, that Louis announced to the chiefs of the crusade, assembled aboard his ship, the 'Mountjoy,' that he was making for Tunis, and that their Christian work would commence there. The king of Tunis (as he was then called), Mohammed Mostanser, had for some time been talking of his desire to become a Christian, if he could be efficiently protected against the seditions of his subjects. Louis welcomed with transport the prospect of Mussulman conversions. ... But on the 17th of July, when the fleet arrived before Tunis, the admiral, Florent de Varennes, probably without the king's orders, and with that want of reflection which was conspicuous at each step of the enterprise, immediately took possession of the harbor and of some Tunisian vessels as prize, and sent word to the king 'that he had only to support him and that the disembarkation of the troops might be effected with perfect safety.' Thus war was commenced at the very first moment against the Mussulman prince whom there had been promise of seeing before long a Christian. At the end of a fortnight, after some fight between the Tunisians and the crusaders, so much political and military blindness produced its natural consequences. The re-enforcements promised to Louis by his brother Charles of Anjou, king of Sicily, had not arrived; provisions were falling short; and the heats of an African summer were working havoc amongst the army with such rapidity that before long there was no time to bury the dead; but they were cast pell-mell into the ditch which surrounded the camp, and the air was tainted thereby. {636} On the 3d of August Louis was attacked by the epidemic fever." On the 25th of August he died. His son and successor, Philip III., held his ground before Tunis until November, when he gladly accepted a payment of money from the Tunisian prince for withdrawing his army. Disaster followed him. A storm destroyed part of his fleet, with 4,000 or 5,000 men, and sunk all the treasure he had received from the Moslems. On the journey home through Italy his wife met with an accident which ended her life and that of her prematurely born child. The young king arrived at Paris, May, 1271, bringing the remains of five of his family for burial at St. Denis: his wife, his son, his father, his brother, and his brother-in-law,--all victims of the fatal crusade. While France was thus burying the last of her crusaders, Prince Edward (afterwards King Edward I.) of England, landed in Syria at the head of a few hundred knights and men at arms. Joined by the Templars and Hospitallers, he had an army of 6,000 or 7,000 men, with which he took Nazareth and made there a bloody sacrifice to the memory of the gentle Nazarene. He did nothing more. Being wounded by an assassin, he arranged a truce with the Sultan of Egypt and returned home. His expedition was the last from Europe which strove with the Moslems for the Holy Land. The Christians of Palestine, who still held Acre and Tyre, Sidon and a few other coast cities, were soon afterwards overwhelmed, and the dominion of the Crescent in Syria was undisputed any more by force of arms, though many voices cried vainly against it. The spirit of the Crusades had expired.
F. P. Guizot, Popular History of France, chapter 17. www.gutenberg.org/files/11952
ALSO IN: J. F. Michaud, History of the Crusades, book 15.
CRUSADES: A. D. 1291. The end of the Christian Kingdom of Jerusalem.
See JERUSALEM: A. D. 1291.
CRUSADES: A. D. 1299. The last campaign of the Templars.
"After the fall of Acre [A. D. 1291] the headquarters of the Templars were established at Limisso in the island of Cyprus, and urgent letters were sent to Europe for succour." In 1295, James de Molay, the head of the English province, became Grand Master, and soon after his arrival in Palestine he entered into an alliance with Ghazan Khan, the Mongol ruler of Persia, who had married a Christian princess of Armenia and was not unfriendly to the Christians, as against the Mamelukes of Egypt, with whom he was at war. The Mongol Khan invited the Templars to join him in an expedition against the Sultan of Egypt, and they did so in the spring of 1299, at Antioch. "An army of 30,000 men was placed by the Mogul emperor under the command of the Grand Master, and the combined forces moved up the valley of the Orontes towards Damascus. In a great battle fought at Hems, the troops of the sultans of Damascus and Egypt were entirely defeated and pursued with great slaughter until nightfall. Aleppo, Hems, Damascus, and all the principal cities, surrendered to the victorious arms of the Moguls, and the Templars once again entered Jerusalem in triumph, visited the Holy Sepulchre and celebrated Easter on Mount Zion." The khan sent ambassadors to Europe, offering the possession of Palestine to the Christian powers if they would give him their alliance and support, but none responded to the call. Ghazan Khan fell ill and withdrew from Syria; the Templars retreated to Cyprus once more and their military career, as the champions of the Cross, was at an end.
C. G. Addison, The Knights Templars, chapter 6.
ALSO IN: H. H. Howarth, History of the Mongols, part 3, chapter 8.
CRUSADES: Effects and consequences of the Crusades, in Europe.
"The principle of the crusades was a savage fanaticism; and the most important effects were analogous to the cause. Each pilgrim was ambitious to return with his sacred spoils, the relics of Greece and Palestine; and each relic was preceded and followed by a train of miracles and visions. The belief of the Catholics was corrupted by new legends, their practice by new superstitions; and the establishment of the inquisition, the mendicant orders of monks and friars, the last abuse of indulgences, and the final progress of idolatry, flowed from the baleful fountain of the holy war. The active spirit of the Latins preyed on the vitals of their reason and religion; and if the ninth and tenth centuries were the times of darkness, the thirteenth and fourteenth were the age of absurdity and fable. ... Some philosophers have applauded the propitious influence of these holy wars, which appear to me to have checked rather than forwarded the maturity of Europe."
E. Gibbon, Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, chapter 61. https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/25717
"The crusades may be considered as material pilgrimages on an enormous scale, and their influence upon general morality seems to have been altogether pernicious. Those who served under the cross would not indeed have lived very virtuously at home; but the confidence in their own merits which the principle of such expeditions inspired must have aggravated the ferocity and dissoluteness of their ancient habits. Several historians attest the depravation of morals which existed, both among the crusaders and in the states formed out of their conquests."
H. Hallam, The Middle Ages, chapter 9. part 1.
"It was not possible for the crusaders to travel through so many countries, and to behold their various customs and institutions, without acquiring information and improvement. Their views enlarged; their prejudices wore off; new ideas crowded into their minds; and they must have been sensible, on many occasions, of the rusticity of their own manners when compared with those of a more polished people. ... Accordingly, we discover, soon after the commencement of the crusades, greater splendour in the courts of princes, greater pomp in public ceremonies, a more refined taste in pleasure and amusements, together with a more romantic spirit of enterprise spreading gradually over Europe; and to these wild expeditions, the effect of superstition and folly, we owe the first gleams of light which tended to dispel barbarism and ignorance. But the beneficial consequences of the crusades took place slowly; their influence upon the state of property, and, consequently, of power, in the different kingdoms of Europe, was more immediate as well as discernible."
W. Robertson, View of the Progress of Society in Europe, section 1.
{637}
"The crusades are not, in my mind, either the popular delusions that our cheap literature has determined them to be, nor papal conspiracies against kings and peoples, as they appear to the Protestant controversialist; nor the savage outbreaks of expiring barbarism, thirsting for blood and plunder, nor volcanic explosions of religious intolerance. I believe them to have been, in their deep sources, and in the minds of their best champions, and in the main tendency of their results, capable of ample justification. They were the first great effort of mediæval life to go beyond the pursuit of selfish and isolated ambitions; they were the trial-feat of the young world, essaying to use, to the glory of God and the benefit of man, the arms of its new knighthood. ... That in the end they were a benefit to the world no one who reads can doubt; and that in their course they brought out a love for all that is heroic in human nature, the love of freedom, the honour of prowess, sympathy with sorrow, perseverance to the last and patient endurance without hope, the chronicles of the age abundantly prove; proving, moreover, that it was by the experience of those times that the forms of those virtues were realized and presented to posterity."
William Stubbs, Seventeen Lectures on the Study of Mediæval and Modern History, lecture 8.
"Though begun under the name and influence of religious belief, the crusades deprived religious ideas, I shall not say of their legitimate share of influence, but of their exclusive and despotic possession of the human mind. This result, though undoubtedly unforeseen, arose from various causes. The first was evidently the novelty, extent, and variety of the scene which displayed itself to the crusaders; what generally happens to travellers happened to them. It is mere common-place to say, that travelling gives freedom to the mind; that the habit of observing different nations, different manners and different opinions, enlarges the ideas, and disengages the judgment from old prejudices. The same thing happened to those nations of travellers who have been called the crusaders; their minds were opened and raised by having seen a multitude of different things, of having become acquainted with other manners than their own. They found themselves also placed in connexion with two states of civilization, not only different from their own, but more advanced--the Greek state of society on the one hand, and the Mussulman on the other. ... It is curious to observe in the chronicles the impression made by the crusaders on the Mussulmans, who regarded them at first as the most brutal, ferocious, and stupid barbarians they had ever seen. The crusaders, on their part, were struck with the riches and elegance of manners which they observed among the Mussulmans. These first impressions were succeeded by frequent relations between the Mussulmans and Christians. These became more extensive and important than is commonly believed. ... There is another circumstance which is worthy of notice. Down to the time of the crusades, the court of Rome, the centre of the Church, had been very little in communication with the laity, unless through the medium of ecclesiastics; either legates sent by the court of Rome, or the whole body of the bishops and clergy. There were always some laymen in direct relation with Rome; but upon the whole, it was by means of churchmen that Rome had any communication with the people of different countries. During the crusades, on the contrary, Rome became a halting-place for a great portion of the crusaders, either in going or returning. A multitude of laymen were spectators of its policy and its manners, and were able to discover the share which personal interest had in religious disputes. There is no doubt that this newly-acquired knowledge inspired many minds with a boldness hitherto unknown. When we consider the state of the general mind at the termination of the crusades, especially in regard to ecclesiastical matters, we cannot fail to be struck with a singular fact: religious notions underwent no change, and were not replaced by contrary or even different opinions. Thought, notwithstanding, had become more free; religious creeds were not the only subject on which the human mind exercised its faculties; without abandoning them, it began occasionally to wander from them, and to take other directions. ... The social state of society had undergone an analogous change. ... Without entering into the details ... we may collect into a few general facts the influence of the crusades on the social state of Europe. They greatly diminished the number of petty fiefs, petty domains, and petty proprietors; they concentrated property and power in a smaller number of hands. It is from the time of the crusades that we may observe the formation and growth of great fiefs--the existence of feudal power on a large scale. ... This was one of the most important results of the crusades. Even in those cases where small proprietors preserved their fiefs, they did not live upon them in such an insulated state as formerly. The possessors of great fiefs became so many centres around which the smaller ones were gathered, and near which they came to live. During the crusades, small proprietors found it necessary to place themselves in the train of some rich and powerful chief, from whom they received assistance and support. They lived with him, shared his fortune, and passed through the same adventures that he did. When the crusaders returned home, this social spirit, this habit of living in intercourse with superiors continued to subsist, and had its influence on the manners of the age. ... The extension of the great fiefs, and the creation of a number of central points in society, in place of the general dispersion which previously existed, were the two principal effects of the crusades, considered with respect to their influence upon feudalism. As to the inhabitants of the towns, a result of the same nature may easily be perceived. The crusades created great civic communities. Petty commerce and petty industry were not sufficient to give rise to communities such as the great cities of Italy and Flanders. It was commerce on a great scale--maritime commerce, and, especially, the commerce of the East and West, which gave them birth; now it was the crusades which gave to the maritime commerce the greatest impulse it had yet received. On the whole, when we survey the state of society at the end of the crusades, we find that the movement tending to dissolution and dispersion, the movement of universal localization (if I may be allowed such an expression), had ceased, and had been succeeded by a movement in the contrary direction, a movement of centralization. All things tended to mutual approximation; small things were absorbed in great ones, or gathered round them. Such was the direction then taken by the progress of society."
_F. Guizot, History of Civilization, lecture 8 (volume 1). www.gutenberg.org/files/61572/61572-h/61572-h.htm#Page_151_
{638}
CRUSADES: A. D. 1383. The Bishop of Norwich's Crusade in Flanders.
See FLANDERS: A. D. 1383.
CRUSADES: A. D. 1420-1431. Crusade against the Hussites.
See BOHEMIA: A. D. 1419-1434.
CRUSADES: A. D. 1442-1444. Christian Europe against the Turks.
See TURKS (THE OTTOMANS): A. D. 1402-1451.
CRUSADES: A. D. 1467-1471. Crusade Instigated by the Pope against George Podiebrad, king of Bohemia.
See BOHEMIA: A. D. 1458-1471..
----------CRUSADES: End----------
CRYPTEIA, The.
See KRYPTEIA.
CTESIPHON.
"The Parthian monarchs, like the Mogul sovereigns of Hindostan, delighted in the pastoral life of their Scythian ancestors, and the imperial camp was frequently pitched in the plain of Ctesiphon, on the eastern banks of the Tigris, at the distance of only three miles from Seleucia. The innumerable attendants on luxury and despotism resorted to the court, and the little village of Ctesiphon insensibly swelled into a great city. Under the reign of Marcus, the Roman generals penetrated as far as Ctesiphon and Seleucia. They were received as friends by the Greek colony; they attacked as enemies the seat of the Parthian kings; yet both cities experienced the same treatment. The sack and conflagration of Seleucia, with the massacre of 300,000 of the inhabitants, tarnished the glory of the Roman triumph, Seleucia, already exhausted by the neighborhood of a too powerful rival, sunk under the fatal blow; but Ctesiphon, in about thirty-three years, had sufficiently recovered its strength to maintain an obstinate siege against the emperor Severus. The city was, however, taken by assault; the king, who defended it in person, escaped with precipitation; 100,000 captives and a rich booty rewarded the fatigues of the Roman soldiers. Notwithstanding these misfortunes, Ctesiphon succeeded to Babylon and to Seleucia as one of the great capitals of the East."
E. Gibbon, Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, chapter 8. https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/25717
In 637 A. D. Ctesiphon passed into the possession of the Saracens.
See MAHOMETAN CONQUEST AND EMPIRE: A. D. 632-651.
ALSO IN: G. Rawlinson, Sixth Great Oriental Monarchy, chapter 6.
See, also, MEDAIN.
CUATOS, The.
See AMERICAN ABORIGINES: PAMPAS TRIBES.
CUBA: A. D. 1492-1493. Discovery by Columbus.
See AMERICA: A. D. 1492; and 1493-1496.
CUBA: A. D. 1511. Spanish conquest and occupation of the island.
"Of the islands, Cuba was the second discovered; but no attempt had been made to plant a colony there during the lifetime of Columbus; who, indeed, after skirting the whole extent of its southern coast, died in the conviction that it was part of the continent. At length, in 1511, Diego, the son and successor of the 'admiral,' who still maintained the seat of government in Hispaniola, finding the mines much exhausted there, proposed to occupy the neighbouring island of Cuba, or Fernandina, as it is called, in compliment to the Spanish monarch. He prepared a small force for the conquest, which he placed under the command of Don Diego Velasquez. ... Velasquez, or rather his lieutenant Narvaez, who took the office on himself of scouring the country, met with no serious opposition from the inhabitants, who were of the same family with the effeminate natives of Hispaniola." After the conquest, Velasquez was appointed governor, and established his seat of government at St. Jago, on the southeast corner of the island.
W. H. Prescott, Conquest of Mexico, book 2, chapter 1.
ALSO IN: Sir A. Helps, Spanish Conquest in America, book 7.
CUBA: A. D. 1514-1851. Slow development of the island. Capture of Havana by the English. Discontent with Spanish rule. Conspiracies of revolution.
"Velasquez founded many of the towns of the island, the first of which was Baracoa, then Bayamo, and in 1514 Trinidad, Santo Espiritu, Puerto Principe; next, in 1515, Santiago de Cuba, as also, in the same year, the town of Habana. ... This period (1511-1607) is particularly interesting to the general reader from the fact that in it the explorations of Hernandez de Cadoba and Grijalva to Darien, Yucatan, etc., were inaugurated,--events which had so much to do with the spread of Spanish rule and discovery, paving the way as they did for the exploration of Mexico under Hernando Cortes, who, in the early history of Cuba, figures largely as the lieutenant of the Governor Velasquez. ... In 1524, Diego Velasquez died, --his death hastened, it is said, by the troubles brought upon him by his disputes with his insubordinate lieutenant, Cortes. ... In the history of the improvement of the island, his government will bear favorable comparison with many of the later governments; and while that great evil, slavery, was introduced into the island in his time, so also was the sugar cane. ... Up to 1538, there seems to be nothing specially striking in the general history of the island, if we except the constant attacks with fire and sword of the 'filibusteros,' or pirates of all nations, from which most all the sea-coast towns suffered more or less; but in that year there arrived at Santiago de Cuba a man destined to play an important part in the history and discovery of the new world, and named as Provincial Governor of Florida as well as of Cuba,--I allude to Hernando de Soto, who brought with him 10 large vessels, prepared and fitted out expressly for the conquest of the new Spanish territory of Florida. After much care and preparation, this expedition started out from the city of Habana, the 12th of May [see FLORIDA: A. D. 1528-1542]. ... In this period, also, was promulgated that order, secured, it is believed, by the noble efforts of Padre Las Casas, prohibiting the enslaving of the aborigines; while, also, such had become its importance as a town, all vessels directed to and from Mexico were ordered to stop at Havana. In the period of years that elapsed from 1607 to 1762, the island seems to have been in a perfect state of lethargy, except the usual changes of its many Governors, and the raids made upon it by pirates, or by more legalized enemies in the form of French and English men-of-war. In this latter year, however, occurred an event of much import, from the fact that after it, or upon its occurrence, the Government of Spain was led to see the great importance of Cuba, and particularly Havana, as the 'Key to the New World,'--this event was the taking of Havana by the English. {639} On the 6th of June, 1762, there arrived off the port of Havana an English squadron of 32 ships and frigates, with some 200 transports, bringing with them a force of nearly 20,000 men of all arms, under command of the Duke of Albemarle. This formidable armament, the largest that America had ever seen, laid siege to the city of Havana, whose garrison consisted at that time of only about 2,700 regulars and the volunteers that took up arms immediately for the defense of the place. ... The garrison, however, made a very gallant and prolonged defense, notwithstanding the smallness of their numbers, and finally, surrendering, were permitted to march out with the honors of war, the English thus coming into possession of the most important defences on the coast, and, subsequently, taking possession of the town of Matanzas. Remaining in possession of this portion of the Island of Cuba for many months (until July 6, 1763), the English, by importing negro labor to cultivate the large tracts of wild land, and by shipping large quantities of European merchandize, gave a start to the trade and traffic of the island that pushed it far on its way to the state of prosperity it has now reached; but by the treaty of peace, at Paris, in February, 1763 [see Seven Years War], was restored to Spain the portion of the island wrested from her by the English. ... In this period (1762-1801) the island made rapid advances in improvement and civilization, many of the Captains-General of this period doing much to improve the towns and the people, beautifying the streets, erecting buildings, etc. In 1763, a large emigration took place from Florida, and in 1795 the French emigrants from Santo Domingo came on to the island in large numbers. ... From 1801, rapid increase in the prosperity of the island has taken place. ... At various times insurrections, some of them quite serious in their nature, have shown what the natural desire of the native population is for greater privileges and freedom. ... In 1823, there was a society of 'soles,' as it was called, formed for the purpose of freeing the island, having at its head young D. Francisco Lemus, and having for its pretext that the island was about to be sold to England. In 1829, there was discovered the conspiracy of the Black Eagle, as it was called (Aguila Negra), an attempt on the part of the population to obtain their freedom, some of the Mexican settlers in the island being prominent in it. The insurrection, or attempt at one, by the blacks in 1844, was remarkable for its wide-spread ramifications among the slaves of the island, as well as its thorough organization,--the intention being to murder all the whites on the island. Other minor insurrections there were, but it remained for Narciso Lopez, with a force of some 300 men, to make the most important attempt [1851], in which he lost his life, to free the island."
S. Hazard, Cuba with Pen and Pencil, pages 547-550.
ALSO IN: M. M. Ballou, History of Cuba, chapter 1-3.
_Lord Mahon (Earl Stanhope), History of England, 1713-1783, chapter 38 (volume 4)._
J. Entick, History of the Late War, volume 5, pages 363-386.
D. Turnbull, Cuba, chapter 22-24.
CUBA: A. D. 1845-1860. Acquisition coveted by the slave-power in the United States. Attempted purchase. Filibustering schemes. The Ostend Manifesto.
"When the Spanish colonies in America became independent, they abolished slavery. Apprehensive that the republics of Mexico and Columbia would be anxious to wrest Cuba and Porto Rico from Spain, secure their independence, and introduce into those islands the idea, if they did not establish the fact, of freedom, the slave-masters [of the United States] at once sought to guard against what they deemed so calamitous an event. ... But after the annexation of Texas, there was a change of feeling and purpose, and Cuba, from being an object of dread, became an object of vehement desire. The propagandists, strengthened and emboldened by that signal triumph, now turned their eyes towards this beautiful 'isle of the sea,' as the theatre of new exploits; and they determined to secure the 'gem of the Antilles' for the coronet of their great and growing power. During Mr. Polk's administration an attempt was made to purchase it, and the sum of $100,000,000 was offered therefor. But the offer was promptly declined. What, however, could not be bought it was determined to steal, and filibustering movements and expeditions became the order of the day. For no sooner was President Taylor inaugurated than he found movements on foot in that direction; and, in August, 1849, he issued a proclamation, affirming his belief that an 'armed expedition' was being fitted out 'against Cuba or some of the provinces of Mexico,' and calling upon all good citizens' to discountenance and prevent any such enterprise.' In 1851 an expedition, consisting of some 500 men, sailed from New Orleans under Lopez, a Cuban adventurer. But though it effected a landing, it was easily defeated, and its leader and a few of his followers were executed. Soon afterward, a secret association, styling itself the Order of the Lone Star, was formed in several of the Southern cities, having a similar object in view; but it attracted little notice and accomplished nothing. ... In August, 1854, President Pierce instructed Mr. Marcy, his Secretary of State, to direct Buchanan, Mason and Soulé, ministers respectively at the courts of London, Paris and Madrid, to convene in some European city and confer with each other in regard to the matter of gaining Cuba to the United States. They met accordingly, in October, at Ostend. The results of their deliberations were published in a manifesto, in which the reasons are set forth for the acquisition; and the declaration was made that the Union could never enjoy repose and security 'as long as Cuba is not embraced within its boundaries.' But the great source of anxiety, the controlling motive, was the apprehension that, unless so annexed, she would 'be Africanized and become a second San Domingo,' thus 'seriously to endanger' the Union. This paper attracted great attention and caused much astonishment. It was at first received with incredulity, as if there had been some mistake or imposition practised. ... But there was no mistake. ... It was the deliberate utterance of the conference, and it received the indorsement of Mr. Pierce and his administration. The Democratic national conventions of 1856 and of 1860 were quite as explicit as were the authors of the Ostend manifesto 'in favor of the acquisition of Cuba.'"
_H. Wilson, History of the Rise and Fall of the Slave Power in America, volume 2, ch.47._
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ALSO IN: H. Von Holst, Constitutional and Political History of the United States, volume 4, chapter 2, and volume 5, chapter 1.
G. T. Curtis, Life of James Buchanan, volume 2, chapter 6.
M. M. Ballou, History of Cuba, chapter 3.
J. J. Roche, The Story of the Filibusters, chapter 3.
----------CUBA: End----------
CUBIT, The.
"The length of the Egyptian foot is ... shown to be equal to 1.013 English foot, or 12.16 inches (0.3086 metre) and the cubit to 18.24 English inches, or 0.463 metre. This cubit was identical with the Phœnician or Olympic cubit, afterwards adopted in Greece. ... The second of the two Egyptian cubits was the royal cubit, or cubit of Memphis, of seven palms or twenty-eight digits. ... The mean length of the Egyptian royal cubit is ... ascertained to be 20.67 English inches, or 525 mm. ... There is much conflict of opinion as to the actual length of the several cubits in use by the Jews at different periods; but the fact that Moses always mentions the Egyptian measures ... as well as the Egyptian weights ... proves that the Hebrews originally brought their weights and measures from Egypt. ... In his dissertation on cubits, Sir Isaac Newton states grounds for his opinion that the sacred cubit of the Jews was equal to 24.7 of our inches, and that the royal cubit of Memphis was equivalent to five-sixths of this sacred Jewish cubit, or 20.6 inches."
_H. W. Chisholm, On the Science of Weighing and Measuring, chapter 2._
CUCUTA, The Convention of.
See COLOMBIAN STATES: A. D. 1819-1830.
CUFA.
See BUSSORAH and KUFA.
CUICIDH, The.
See TUATH, THE.
CULDEES, The.
It used to be set forth by religious historians that the Culdees were an ardent religious fraternity in Scotland, probably founded by Columba, the saintly Irish missionary of the sixth century, and having its principal seat in Iona; that they "were the lights of Scotland in a dark and superstitious age"; that they struggled for several centuries against the errors and the oppressive pretensions of Rome, and that "the strength and vigor of the Reformation in Scotland, where the Papal power received its first and most decisive check, may be traced not indirectly to the faith, the doctrines, and the spirit of the ancient Culdees." It was claimed for the Presbyterian Church that its form of church government prevailed among the Culdees, while the supporters of Episcopacy found evidences to the contrary. But all these views, with all the controversies fomented by them, have been dissipated by modern historical investigation. The facts gathered by Dean Reeves and published in 1864, in his work on the "Culdees of the British Islands," supported by the more recent studies of Mr. W. F. Skene, are now generally accepted. Says Mr. Skene, (Celtic Scotland, book 2, chapter 6): "It is not till after the expulsion of the Columban monks from the kingdom of the Picts, in the beginning of the eighth century, that the name of Culdee appears. To Adamnan, to Eddi and to Bede it was totally unknown. They knew of no body of clergy who bore this name, and in the whole range of ecclesiastical history there is nothing more utterly destitute of authority than the application of this name to the Columban monks of the sixth and seventh centuries, or more utterly baseless than the fabric which has been raised upon that assumption." Mr. Skene's conclusion is that the Culdees sprang from an ascetic order called Deicolæ or God-worshippers; that in Irish the name became Ceile De, thence corrupted into Culdee; that they were hermits, who became in time associated in communities, and were finally brought under the canonical rule of the Roman church, along with the secular clergy.
CULEUS, The.
See AMPHORA.
CULHUACAN.
See MEXICO, ANCIENT: THE TOLTEC EMPIRE.
CULLODEN, Battle of (1746).
See SCOTLAND: A. D. 1745-1746.
CULM, OR KULM, Battle of.
See GERMANY: A. D. 1813 (AUGUST).
CULTURKAMPF, The.
See GERMANY: A. D. 1873-1887.
CUMÆ.--CUMÆAN SIBYL.
"Earlier than 735 B. C., ... though we do not know the precise era of its commencement, there existed one solitary Grecian establishment in the Tyrrhenian Sea,--the Campanian Cumæ, near Cape Misenum; which the more common opinion of chronologists supposed to have been founded in 1050 B. U. and which has even been carried back by some authors to 1139 B. C. ... We may at least feel certain that it is the most ancient Grecian establishment in any part of Italy. ... The Campanian Cumæ--known almost entirely by this its Latin designation--received its name and a portion of its inhabitants from the Æolic Kymê in Asia Minor. ... Cumæ, situated on the neck of the peninsula which terminates in Cape Misenum, occupied a lofty and rocky hill overhanging the sea and difficult of access on the land side. ... In the hollow rock under the very walls of the town was situated the cavern of the prophetic Sibyl,--a parallel and reproduction of the Gergithian Sibyl, near Kymê in Æolis: in the immediate neighborhood, too, stood the wild woods and dark lake of Avernus, consecrated to the subterranean gods, and offering an establishment of priests, with ceremonies evoking the dead, for purposes of prophecy or for solving doubts and mysteries. It was here that Grecian imagination localized the Cimmerians and the fable of Odysseus; and the Cumæans derived gains from the numerous visitors to this holy spot, perhaps hardly less than those of the inhabitants of Krissa from the vicinity of Delphi. Of the relations of these Cumæans with the Hellenic world generally, we unfortunately know nothing; but they seem to have been in intimate connection with Rome during the time of the kings, and especially during that of the last king Tarquin,--forming the intermediate link between the Greek and Latin world, whereby the feelings of the Teukrians and Gergitheans near the Æolic Kymê and the legendary stories of Trojan as well as Grecian heroes,--Æneas and Odysseus--passed into the antiquarian imagination of Rome and Latium. The writers of the Augustan age knew Cumæ only in its decline, and wondered at the vast extent of its ancient walls, yet remaining in their time. But during the two centuries prior to 500 B. C. these walls inclosed a full and thriving population, in the plenitude of prosperity."
G. Grote, History of Greece, part 2, chapter 22.
See, also, SIBYLS
CUMANS, OR KOMANS, The.
See HUNGARY: A. D. 1114-1301.
CUMBERLAND GAP, The capture of.
See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1863 (AUGUST-SEPTEMBER: TENNESSEE).
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CUMBRIA: The British kingdom.
"The Britons of Cumbria occupy a tolerably large space on the map, but a very small one in history;--their annals have entirely perished;--and nothing authentic remains concerning them, except a very few passages, wholly consisting of incidental notices relating to their subjection and their misfortunes. Romance would furnish much more; for it was in Cumbria that Rhyderc, or Roderic the magnificent, is therein represented to have reigned, and Merlin to have prophesied. Arthur held his court in merry Carlisle; and Peredur, the Prince of Sunshine, whose name we find amongst the princes of Strathclyde, is one of the great heroes of the 'Mabinogion,' or tales of youth, long preserved by tradition amongst the Cymri. These fantastic personages, however, are of importance in one point of view, because they show, what we might otherwise forget--that from the Ribble in Lancashire, or thereabouts, up to the Clyde, there existed a dense population composed of Britons, who preserved their national language and customs, agreeing in all respects with the Welsh of the present day. So that even in the tenth century, the ancient Britons still inhabited the greater part of the western coast of the island, however much they had been compelled to yield to the political supremacy of the Saxon invaders. The 'Regnum Cumbrense' comprehended many districts, probably governed by petty princes or Reguli, in subordination to a chief monarch or Pendragon. Reged appears to have been somewhere in the vicinity of Annandale. Strathclyde is of course the district or vale of Clydesdale. In this district, or state, was situated Alcluyd, or Dunbritton, now Dumbarton, where the British kings usually resided; and the whole Cumbrian kingdom was not infrequently called Strathclyde, from the ruling or principal state; just as the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland is often designated in common language as 'England,' because England is the portion where the monarch and legislature are found. Many dependencies of the Cumbrian kingdom extended into modern Yorkshire, and Leeds was the frontier town between the Britons and the Angles. ... The kings of Cumbria became the vassals, or 'men,' of the Anglo-Saxon kings. Eugenius had thus submitted to Athelstane. Of the nature of the obligation I shall speak hereafter. The Anglo-Saxon kings appear to have been anxious to extend and confirm their supremacy; Edmund proceeded against Donald, or Dumhnail, the Scottish King of Cumbria (A. D. 945), with the most inveterate and implacable hostility. ... Edmund, having thus obtained possession of Cumbria, granted the country to Malcolm, King of the Scots, upon condition, as the chronicles say, of being his co-operator, both by sea and by land. ... From this period the right of the Scottish kings or princes to the kingdom of Cumbria, as vassals of the English crown, seems to have been fully admitted: and the rights of the Scottish kings to the 'Earldom of Cumberland'--for such it was afterwards termed--were founded upon Edmund's grant. The Britons of Strathclyde, and Reged, and Cumbria, gradually melted away into the surrounding population; and, losing their language, ceased to be discernible as a separate race. Yet it is most probable that this process was not wholly completed until a comparatively recent period."
F. Palgrave, History of the Anglo-Saxons, chapter 11.
Cumbria and Cambria (Wales), the two states long maintained by the Britons, against the Angles and Saxons, bore, in reality, the same name, Cumbria being the more correct form of it. The earliest development of the so-called Welsh poetry seems to have been in Cumbria rather than in Wales. Taliesen and Aneurin were Cumbrian bards, and Arthur, if any historical personage stands behind his kingly shadow, was probably a Cumbrian hero.
J. Rhys, Celtic Britain.
ALSO IN: W. F. Skene, The Four Ancient Books of Wales.
See, also, KYMRY, ALCLYDE, and SCOTLAND: 10TH-11TH CENTURIES.
CUNARD LINE, The founding of the.
See STEAM NAVIGATION: ON THE OCEAN.
CUNAXA, Battle of (B. C. 401).
See PERSIA: B. C. 401-400.
CUNEIFORM WRITING.
The characters employed for the written languages of ancient Babylonia and Assyria, have been called cuneiform, from the Latin cunens, a wedge, because the marks composing them are wedge-shaped. All knowledge of those characters and of the languages expressed in them had been lost for many centuries, and its recent recovery is one of the most marvelous achievements of our age. "Travellers had discovered inscriptions engraved in cuneiform, or, as they were also termed, arrow-headed characters, on the ruined monuments of Persepolis and other ancient sites in Persia. Some of these monuments were known to have been erected by the Achæmenian princes--Darius, the son of Hystaspes, and his successors--and it was therefore inferred that the inscriptions also had been carved by order of the same kings. The inscriptions were in three different systems of cuneiform writing; and since the three kinds of inscription were always placed side by side, it was evident that they represented different versions of the same text. ... It was clear that the three versions of the Achæmenian inscriptions were addressed to the three chief populations of the Persian Empire, and that the one which invariably came first was composed in ancient Persian, the language of the sovereign himself. Now this Persian version happened to offer the decipherer less difficulties than the two others which accompanied it. The number of distinct characters employed in writing it did not exceed forty, while the words were divided from one another by a slanting wedge. Some of the words contained so many characters that it was plain that these latter must denote letters and not syllables, and that consequently the Persian cuneiform system must have consisted of an alphabet, and not of a syllabary. It was further plain that the inscriptions had to be read from left to right, since the ends of all the lines were exactly underneath one another on the left side, whereas they terminated irregularly on the right. ... The clue to the decipherment of the inscriptions was first discovered by the successful guess of a German scholar, Grotefend. Grotefend noticed that the inscriptions generally began with three or four words, one of which varied, while the others remained unchanged. The variable word had three forms, though the same form always appeared on the same monument. Grotefend, therefore, conjectured that this word represented the name of a king, the words which followed it being royal titles." Working on this conjecture, he identified the three names with Darius, Xerxes and Artaxerxes, and one of the supposed titles with a Zend word for "king," which gave him a considerable part of the cuneiform alphabet. He was followed in the work by Burnouf, Lassen and Sir Henry Rawlinson, until, finally, Assyrian inscriptions were read with "almost as much certainty as a page of the Old Testament."
A. H. Sayce, Fresh Light from the ancient monuments, chapter 1.
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CUNIBERTUS, King of the Lombards, A. D. 691-700.
CUNIMARÉ, The.
See AMERICAN ABORIGINES: GUCK OR Coco GROUP.
CURDS, OR KURDS, The.
See CARDUCHI.
CURFEW-BELL, The.
"Except from its influence upon the imagination, it would be hardly worth while to notice the legend of the curfew-bell, so commonly supposed to have been imposed by William [the Conqueror] upon the English, as a token of degradation and slavery; but the 'squilla di lontano, che paja il giorno pianger che si muore,' was a universal custom of police throughout the whole of mediaeval Europe, not unconnected with devotional feeling."
Sir F. Palgrave, History of Normandy and England, volume 3, page 627.
"In the year [1061] after King Henry's death [Henry I. of France], in a Synod held at Caen by the Duke's authority [Duke William of Normandy, who became in 1066 the Conqueror, and King of England], and attended by Bishops, Abbots, and Barons, it was ordered that a bell should be rung every evening, at hearing of which prayer should be offered, and all people should get within their houses and shut their doors. This odd mixture of piety and police seems to be the origin of the famous and misrepresented Curfew. Whatever was its object, it was at least not ordained as any special hardship on William's English subjects."
E. A. Freeman, History of the Norman Conquest of England, chapter 12, section 3 (volume 3).
CURIA, Ancient Roman.
See COMITIA-CURIATA.
CURIA, Municipal, of the later Roman empire. Decuriones.
"It is only necessary in this work to describe the general type of the municipal organization which existed in the provinces of the Roman Empire after the time of Constantine. ... The proprietors of land in the Roman provinces generally dwelt in towns and cities, as a protection against brigands and man-stealers. Every town had an agricultural district which formed its territory, and the landed proprietors constituted the municipality. The whole local authority was vested in an oligarchical senate called the Curia, consisting probably of one hundred of the wealthiest landed proprietors in the city or township. This body elected the municipal authorities and officers, and filled up vacancies in its own body. It was therefore independent of the proprietors from among whom it was taken, and whose interests it ought to have represented. The Curia--not the body of landed proprietors--formed therefore the Roman municipality. The Curia was used by the imperial government as an instrument of fiscal extortion."
G. Finlay, Greece under the Romans, chapter 2, section 1.
"When the progress of fiscal tyranny had almost sapped the vigor of society, the decuriones [members of the municipal curiæ, called, also, curiales] ... being held jointly responsible for the taxation, became the veriest slaves of the empire. Responsible jointly for the taxes, they were, by the same token, responsible for their colleagues and their successors; their estates were made the securities of the imperial dues; and if any estate was abandoned by its proprietor, they were compelled to occupy it and meet the imposts exigible from it. Yet they could not relinquish their offices; they could not leave the city except by stealth; they could not enter the army, or the priesthood, or any office which might relieve them from municipal functions. ... Even the children of the Curial were adscribed to his functions, and could engage in no course of life inconsistent with the onerous and intolerable duty. In short, this dignity was so much abhorred that the lowest plebeian shunned admission to it, the members of it made themselves bondmen, married slave-women, or joined the barbaric hordes in order to escape it; and malefactors, Jews and heretics were sometimes condemned to it, as an appropriate penalty for their offenses."
_P. Godwin, History of France: Ancient Gaul, book 2, chapter 8._
ALSO IN: T. Hodgkin, Italy and her Invaders, book 3, chapter 9.
_F. Guizot, History of Civilization, volume 2 (volume 1, France), lecture 2._
See, also ROME: A. D. 363-379.
CURIA, Papal. College of Cardinals. Consistory.
"The Court of Rome, commonly called the Roman Curia, consisted of a number of dignified ecclesiastics who assisted the Pope in the executive administration. The Pontiff's more intimate advisers, or, as we should say, his privy council, were the College of Cardinals [see PAPACY: A. D. 1059], consisting of a certain number of cardinal bishops, cardinal priests, and cardinal deacons. The cardinal deacons, at first seven and afterwards fourteen in number, were originally ecclesiastics appointed as overseers and guardians of the sick and poor in the different districts of Rome. Equal to them in rank were the fifty cardinal priests, as the chief priests of the principal Roman churches were called; who, with the cardinal deacons, formed, in very early times, the presbytery, or senate of the Bishop of Rome. ... According to some authorities, cardinal bishops were instituted in the 9th century; according to others not till the 11th, when seven bishops of the dioceses nearest to Rome--Ostia, Porto, Velitrae, Tusculum, Præneste, Tibur, and the Sabines--were adopted by the Pope partly as his assistants in the service of the Lateran, and partly in the general administration of the Church. In process of time, the appointment of such cardinal bishops was extended not only to the rest of Italy but also to foreign countries. Though the youngest of the cardinals in point of time, cardinal bishops were the highest in rank, and enjoyed the pre-eminence in the College. Their titles were derived from their dioceses. ... But they were also called by their own names. The number of the cardinals was indefinite and varying. The Council of Basle endeavoured to restrict it to 24. But this was not carried out, and Pope Sixtus V. at length fixed the number at 70. The Council called the Consistory, which advised with the Pope both in temporal and ecclesiastical matters, was ordinarily private, and confined to the cardinals alone; though on extraordinary occasions, and for solemn purposes of state, as in the audiences of foreign ambassadors, &c., other prelates, and even distinguished laymen, might appear in it."
T. H. Dyer, History of Modern Europe, volume 1, page 38.
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CURIA REGIS OF THE NORMAN KINGS.
"The Curia Regis [under the Norman Kings of England], the supreme tribunal of judicature, of which the Exchequer was the financial department or session, was ... the court of the king sitting to administer justice with the advice of his counsellors; those counsellors being, in the widest acceptation, the whole body of tenants-in-chief, but in the more limited usage, the great officers of the household and specially appointed judges. The great gatherings of the national council may be regarded as full sessions of the Curia Regis, or the Curia Regis as a perpetual committee of the national council."
William Stubbs, Constitutional History of England, chapter 11, section 127.
"Not long after the granting of Magna Charta, the Curia Regis was permanently divided into three committees or courts, each taking a certain portion of the business: (1) Fiscal matters were confined to the Exchequer; (2) civil disputes, where neither the king's interest nor any matter savouring of a criminal nature were involved, were decided in the Common Pleas; and (3) the court of King's Bench retained all the remaining business and soon acquired the exclusive denomination of the ancient Curia Regis."
"But the same staff of judges was still retained for all three courts, with the chief justiciar at their head. Towards the end of Henry III.'s reign, the three courts received each a distinct staff, and on the abolition by Edward I. of the office of chief justiciar, the only remaining bond of union being severed, they became completely separated. Some trace of their ancient unity of organization always survived, however, in the court of Exchequer Chamber; until at length after six centuries of independent existence they were again united by the Judicature Act, 1873. Together with the Court of Chancery and the Probate, Divorce and Admiralty courts, they now form divisions of a consolidated High Court of Justice, itself a branch of the Supreme Court of Judicature."
_T. P. Taswell-Langmead, English Constitutional History, page 154._
"The Aula Regia, or Curia Regis ... has been described in various and at first sight contradictory terms. Thus it has been called the highest Law Court, the Ministry of the King, a Legislative Assembly, &c. The apparent inconsistency of these descriptions vanishes on closer inspection, and throws great light on mediæval history. For the Curia Regis possessed every attribute which has been ascribed to it."
A. V. Dicey, The Privy Council, part 1.
ALSO IN: R. Gneist, History of the English Constitution, chapter 19.
CURIALES.
See CURIA, MUNICIPAL.
CURIOSOLITÆ, The.
See VENETI OF WESTERN GAUL.
CURTIS, George W., and Civil-Service Reform.
See CIVIL SERVICE REFORM IN THE UNITED STATES.
CURULE ÆDILES.
See ROME: B. C. 494-492.
CURULE CHAIR.
In ancient Rome, "certain high offices of state conferred upon the holder the right of using, upon public occasions, an ivory chair of peculiar form. This chair was termed Sella Curulis. ... This was somewhat in the form of a modern camp-stool."
W. Ramsay, Manual of Roman Antiquity, chapters 2 and 4.
CURZOLA, Battle of (1298).
See GENOA: A. D. 1261-1299.
CUSCO: The Capital of the Incas of Peru.
See PERU: A. D. 1533-154.8.
CUSH.--CUSHITES.
"Genesis, like the Hebrews of later date, includes under the name of Cush the nations dwelling to the South, the Nubians, Ethiopians and tribes of South Arabia."
M. Duncker, History of Antiquity, book 2, chapter 1.
See, also, HAMITES, and ARABIA.
CUSHING, Lieutenant William B. Destruction of the ram Albemarle.
See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D.1864 (OCTOBER: NORTH CAROLINA).
CUSTER'S LAST BATTLE.
See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1876.
CUSTOMS DUTIES.
See TARIFF.
CUSTOMS UNION, The German (Zollverein).
See TARIFF: A. D. 1833.
CUSTOZZA, Battles of (1848 and 1866).
See ITALY: A. D. 1848-1849; and 1862-1866.
CUTLER, Manasseh, and the Ordinance of 1787.
See NORTHWEST TERRITORY OF THE UNITED STATES: A. D. 1787.
CUYRIRI, The.
See AMERICAN ABORIGINES: GUCK OR COCO GROUP.
CYCLADES, The.--SPORADES, The.
"Among the Ionic portion of Hellas are to be reckoned (besides Athens) Eubœa, and the numerous group of islands included between the southernmost Eubœan promontory, the eastern coast of Peloponnesus, and the northwestern coast of Krête. Of these islands some are to be considered as outlying prolongations, in a southeasterly direction, of the mountain-system of Attica; others of that of Eubœa; while a certain number of them lie apart from either system, and seem referable to a volcanic origin. To the first class belong Keôs, Kythnus, Seriphus, Pholegandrus, Sikinus, Gyarus, Syra, Paros, and Antiparos; to the second class Andros, Tênos, Mykonos, Dêlos, Naxos, Amorgos; to the third class Kimôlus, Mêlos, Thêra. These islands passed amongst the ancients by the general name of the Cyclades and the Sporades; the former denomination being commonly understood to comprise those which immediately surrounded the sacred island of Dêlos,--the latter being given to those which lay more scattered and apart. But the names are not applied with uniformity or steadiness even in ancient times: at present, the whole group are usually known by the title of Cyclades."
G. Grote, History of Greece, part 2, chapter 12.
CYDONIA, Battles and siege of (B. C. 71-68).
See CRETE: B. C. 68-66.
CYLON, Conspiracy of.
See ATHENS: B. C. 612-595.
CYMBELINE, Kingdom of.
See COLCHESTER, ORIGIN OF.
CYMRY, The.
See KYMRY, THE.
CYNOSARGES AT ATHENS, The.
See GYMNASIA, GREEK.
CYNOSCEPHALÆ, Battle of (B. C. 364).
The battle in which Pelopidas, the Theban patriot, friend and colleague of Epaminondas, was slain. It was fought B. C. 364, in Thessaly, near Pharsalus, on the heights called Cynoscephalæ, or the Dog's Heads, and delivered the Thessalian cities from the encroachments of the tyrant of Pheræ.
C. Thirlwall, History of Greece, chapter 40.
CYNOSCEPHALÆ: (B. C. 197).
See GREECE: B. C. 214-146.
{644}
CYNOSSEMA, Naval battle of.
Two successive naval battles fought, one in July and the second in October, B. C. 411, between the Athenians and the Peloponnesian allies, in the Hellespont, are jointly called the Battle of Cynossema. The name was taken from the headland called Cynossema, or the "Dog's Tomb," "ennobled by the legend and the chapel of the Trojan queen Hecuba." The Athenians had the advantage in both encounters, especially in the latter one, when they were joined by Alcibiades, with reenforcements, just in time to decide the doubtful fortunes of the day.
E. Curtius, History of Greece, book 4, chapter 5.
ALSO IN: G. Grote, History of Greece, part 2, chapter 63.
See GREECE: B. C. 411-407.
CYNURIANS, The.
See KYNURIANS.
CYPRUS: Origin of the name.
"The Greek name of the island was derived from the abundance in which it produced the beautiful plant ('Copher') which furnishes the 'al-henna,' coveted throughout the East for the yellow dye which it communicates to the nails. It was rich in mines of copper, which has obtained for it the name by which it is known in the modern languages of the West."
J. Kenrick, Phœnicia, chapter 4.
CYPRUS: Early History.
"The first authentic record with regard to Cyprus is an inscription on an Egyptian tombstone of the 17th century B. C., from which it appears that the island was conquered by Thothmes III. of Egypt, in whose reign the exodus of the Children of Israel is supposed to have taken place. This was no doubt anterior to the establishment of any Greek colonies, and probably, also, before the Phœnicians had settled in the island. ... As appears from various inscriptions and other records, Cyprus became subject successively to Egypt, as just mentioned, to Assyria, to Egypt again in 568 B. C., when it was conquered by Amasis, and in 525 B. C. to Persia. Meanwhile the power of the Greeks had been increasing. ... The civilization of the West was about to assert itself at Marathon and Salamis; and Cyprus, being midway between East and West, could not fail to be involved in the coming conflict. On the occasion of the Ionic revolt [see PERSIA: B. C. 521-493] the Greek element in Cyprus showed its strength: and in 502 B. C. the whole island, with the single exception of the Phœnician town of Amathus, took part with the Ionians in renouncing the authority of the Persian king." But in the war which followed, the Persians, aided by the Phœnicians of the mainland, reconquered Cyprus, and the Cyprian Greeks were long disheartened. They recovered their courage, however, about 410 B. C. when Evagoras, a Greek of the royal house of Teucer, made himself master of Salamis, and finally established a general sovereignty over the island--even extending his power to the mainland and subjugating Tyre. "The reign of Evagoras is perhaps the most brilliant period in the history of Cyprus. Before his death, which took place in 374 B. C., he had raised the island from the position of a mere dependency of one or other of the great Eastern monarchies, had gained for it a place among the lending states of Greece, and had solved the question as to which division of the ancient world the Cyprian people should be assigned. Consequently when, some forty years later, the power of Persia was shattered by Alexander the Great at the battle of Issus, the kings of the island hastened to offer him their submission as the leader of the Greek race, and sent 120 ships to assist him in the siege of Tyre." After Alexander's death, Cyprus was disputed between Antigonus and Ptolemy.
See MACEDONIA: B. C. 310-301.
The king of Egypt secured the prize, and the island remained under the Greek-Egyptian crown, until it passed, with the rest of the heritage of the Ptolemys to the Romans. "When the [Roman] empire was divided, on the death of Constantine the Great, Cyprus, like Malta, passed into the hands of the Byzantine Emperors. Like Malta, also, it was exposed to frequent attacks from the Arabs; but, although they several times occupied the island and once held it for no less than 160 years, they were always expelled again by the Byzantine Emperors, and never established themselves there as firmly as they did in Malta. The crusades first brought Cyprus into contact with the western nations of modern Europe."
C. P. Lucas, Historical Geography of British Colonies, section 1, chapter 2.
ALSO IN: R. H. Lang, CYPRUS, chapter 1-8.
F. Von Loher, CYPRUS, chapter 12 and 30.
L. P. Di Cesnola, Cyprus; its ancient cities, &c.
CYPRUS: B. C. 58. Annexed to the Roman Dominions.
"The annexation of Cyprus was decreed in 696 [B. C. 58] by the people [of Rome], that is, by the leaders of the democracy, the support given to piracy by the Cypriots being alleged as the official reason why that course should now be adopted. Marcus Cato, intrusted by his opponents with the execution of this measure, came to the island without an army; but he had no need of one. The king [a brother of the king of Egypt] took poison; the inhabitants submitted without offering resistance to their inevitable fate, and were placed under the governor of Cilicia."
T. Mommsen, History of Rome, book 5, chapter 4.
CYPRUS: A. D. 117. Jewish insurrection.
"This rich and pleasant territory [the island of Cyprus] had afforded a refuge to the Jews of the continent through three generations of disturbance and alarm, and the Hebrew race was now [A. D. 117] probably not inferior there in number to the native Syrians or Greeks. On the first outburst of a Jewish revolt [against the Roman domination, in the last year of the reign of Trajan] the whole island fell into the hands of the insurgents, and became an arsenal and rallying point for the insurrection, which soon spread over Egypt, Cyrene and Mesopotamia. The leader of the revolt in Cyprus bore the name of Artemion, but we know no particulars of the war in this quarter, except that 240,000 of the native population is said to have fallen victims to the exterminating fury of the insurgents. When the rebellion was at last extinguished in blood, the Jews were forbidden thenceforth to set foot on the island; and even if driven thither by stress of weather, the penalty of death was mercilessly enforced. ... The Jewish population of Cyrenaica outnumbered the natives. ... The hostility of the Jews in these parts was less directed against the central government and the Roman residents than the native race. ... Of these 220,000 are said to have perished."
C. Merivale, History of the Romans, chapter 65.
{645}
CYPRUS: A. D. 1191. Conquest by Richard Cœur de Lion. Founding of the Latin Kingdom.
During the civil strife and confusion of the last years of the Comnenian dynasty of emperors at Constantinople, one of the members of the family, Isaac Comnenos, secured the sovereignty of Cyprus and assumed the title of emperor. With the alliance of the king of Sicily, he defeated the Byzantine forces sent against him, and was planted securely, to all appearance, on his newly built throne at the time of the Third Crusade. Circumstances at that time (A. D. 1191) gave him a fatal opportunity to provoke the English crusaders. First, he seized the property and imprisoned the crews of three English ships that were wrecked on the Cyprian coast. Not satisfied with that violence, he refused shelter from the storm to a vessel which bore Berengaria of Navarre, the intended wife of King Richard. "The king of England immediately sailed to Cyprus; and when Isaac refused to deliver up the ship-wrecked crusaders, and to restore their property, Richard landed his army and commenced a series of operations, which ended in his conquering the whole island, in which he abolished the administrative institutions of the Eastern Empire, enslaving the Greek race, introducing the feudal system, by which he riveted the chains of a foreign domination, and then gave it as a present to Guy of Lusignan, the titular king of Jerusalem, who became the founder of a dynasty of Frank kings in Cyprus."
G. Finlay, History of the Byzantine and Greek Empires, from 716 to 1453, book 3, chapter 3, section 1.
Before giving Cyprus to Guy of Lusignan, Richard had sold the island to the Templars, and Guy had to pay the knights heavily for the extinguishment of their rights. Richard, therefore, was rather a negotiator than a giver in the transaction.
William Stubbs, Seventeen Lectures on the Study of Mediæval and Modern History, lecture 8.
CYPRUS: A. D. 1192-1489. The kingdom under the house of Lusignan.
"The house of Lusignan maintained itself in Cyprus for nearly three centuries, during which, although fallen somewhat from the blessedness which had been broken up by Isaac Comnenus, the island seems to have retained so much fertility and prosperity as to make its later history very dark by contrast. ... Guy, we are told, received Cyprus for life only, and did homage for the island to Richard. As he already bore the title of king, the question whether he should hold Cyprus as a kingdom does not seem to have arisen. ... On his death, in April, 1194, Richard putting in no claim for the reversion, his brother, Amalric of Lusignan, constable of Palestine, entered on the possession as his heir. ... Amalric succeeded to the crown of Jerusalem; the crown of Jerusalem, which, after the year 1269, became permanently united with that of Cyprus, was an independent crown, and the king of Jerusalem an anointed king: the union of the crowns therefore seems to have precluded any question as to the tenure by which the kingdom of Cyprus should be held. ... The homage then due to Richard, or to the crown of England, ceased at the death of Guy."
_William Stubbs, Seventeen Lectures on the Study of Mediæval and Modern History, lecture 8._
See, also, JERUSALEM: A. D. 1291.
CYPRUS: A. D. 1291-1310. The Knights Hospitallers of St. John.
See HOSPITALLERS OF ST. JOHN: A. D. 1118-1310.
CYPRUS: A. D. 1489-1570. A Venetian dependency.
The last reigning king of Cyprus was James II., a bastard brother of Queen Charlotte, whom he drove from the Cypriot throne in 1464. This king married a Venetian lady, Caterina Cornaro, in 1471 and was declared to be "the son-in·law of the Republic." The unscrupulous republic is said to have poisoned its son·in-law in order to secure the succession. He died in 1473, and a son, born after his death, lived but two years. Cyprus was then ruled by the Venetians for fifteen years in the name of Caterina, who finally renounced her rights wholly in favor of the republic. After 1489, until its conquest by the Turks, Cyprus was a Venetian dependency, in form as well as in fact, but tributary to the Sultan of Egypt.
_William Stubbs, Seventeen Lectures on the Study of Mediæval and Modern History, lecture 8._
CYPRUS: A. D. 1570-1571. Conquest by the Turks.
See TURKS: A. D. 1566-1571.
CYPRUS: A. D. 1821. Turkish massacre of Christians.
See GREECE: A. D. 1821-1829.
CYPRUS: A. D. 1878. Control surrendered by Turkey to England.
See TURKS: A. D. 1878, THE TREATIES OF SAN STEFANO AND BERLIN.
----------CYPRUS: End----------
CYREANS, The.
See PERSIA: B. C. 401-400.
CYRENAICA.--CYRENE.--KYRENE.
A city, growing into a kingdom, which was founded at an early day by the Greeks, on that projecting part of the coast of Libya, or northern Africa, which lies opposite to Greece. The first settlers were said to have been from the little island of Thera, whose people were bold and enterprising. The site they chose "was of an unusual nature, especially for islanders, and lay several miles away from the sea, the shores of which were devoid of natural bays for anchorage. But, with this exception, every advantage was at hand: instead of the narrow stony soil of their native land, they found the most fertile corn-fields, a broad table-land with a healthy atmosphere and watered by fresh springs; a well-wooded coast-land, unusually well adapted for all the natural products which the Hellenes deemed essential; while in the background spread mysteriously the desert, a world passing the comprehension of the Hellenes, out of which the Libyan tribes came to the shore with horses and camels, with black slaves, with apes, parrots and other wonderful animals, with dates and rare fruits. ... An abundant spring of water above the shore was the natural point at which the brown men of the deserts and the mariners assembled. Here regular meetings became customary. The bazaar became a permanent market, and the market a city which arose on a grand scale, broad and lofty, on two rocky heights, which jut out towards the sea from the plateau of the desert. This city was called Cyrene. ... Large numbers of population immigrated from Crete, the islands and Peloponnesus. A large amount of new land was parcelled out, the Libyans were driven back, the landing-place became the port of Apollonia, and the territory occupied by the city itself was largely extended. Cyrene became, like Massalia, the starting point of a group of settlements, the centre of a small Greece: Barca and Hesperides [afterwards called Berenice] were her daughters. Gradually a nation grew up, which extended itself and its agriculture, and contrived to cover a large division of African land with Hellenic culture. This was the new era which commenced for Cyrene with the reign of the third king, the Battus who, on account of the marvellously rapid rise of his kingdom, was celebrated as 'the fortunate' in all Hellas. The Battiadæ [the family or dynasty of Battus] were soon regarded as a great power."
E. Curtius, History of Greece, book 2, chapter 3.
{646}
Cyrenaica became subject to Egypt under the Ptolemys, and was then usually called Pentapolis, from the five cities of Cyrene, Apollonia, Arsinoë (formerly Teuchira), Berenice (formerly Hesperis, or Hesperides) and Ptolemais (the port of Barca). Later it became a province of the Roman Empire, and finally, passing under Mahometan rule, sank to its present state, as a district, called Barca, of the kingdom of Tripoli.--Cyrene was especially famous for the production of a plant called silphium--supposed to be assafœtida--on which the ancients seem to have set an extraordinary value. This was one of the principal sources of the wealth of Cyrene.--
E. H. Bunbury, History of Ancient Geography, chapter 8, section 1, and chapter 12, section 2.
CYRENAICA: B. C. 525. Tributary to Persia.
See EGYPT: B. C. 525-332.
CYRENAICA: B. C. 322. Absorbed in the Kingdom of Egypt by Ptolemy Lagus.
See EGYPT: B. C. 323-30.
CYRENAICA: B. C. 97. Transferred to the Romans by will.
"In the middle of this reign [of Ptolemy, called Lathyrus, king of Egypt] died Ptolemy Apion, king of Cyrene. He was the half-brother of Lathyrus and Alexander, and having been made king of Cyrene by his father Euergetes II., he had there reigned quietly for twenty years. Being between Egypt and Carthage, then called the Roman province of Africa, and having no army which he could lead against the Roman legions, he had placed himself under the guardianship of Rome; he had bought a truce during his lifetime, by making the Roman people his heirs in his will, so that on his death they were to have his kingdom. Cyrene had been part of Egypt for above two hundred years, and was usually governed by a younger son or brother of the king. But on the death of Ptolemy Apion, the Roman senate, who had latterly been grasping at everything within their reach, claimed his kingdom as their inheritance, and in the flattering language of their decree by which the country was enslaved, they declared Cyrene free."
S. Sharpe, History of Egypt, chapter 11.
CYRENAICA: A. D. 117. Jewish insurrection.
See CYPRUS: A. D. 117.
CYRENAICA: A. D. 616. Destroyed by Chosroes.
See EGYPT: A. D. 616-628.
CYRENAICA: 7th Century. Mahometan conquest.
See MAHOMETAN CONQUEST: A. D. 647-709.
----------CYRENAICA: End----------
CYRUS, The empire of.
See PERSIA: B. C. 549-521.
CYRUS THE YOUNGER, The expedition of.
See PERSIA: B. C. 401-400.
CYZICUS: B. C. 411-410, Battles at.
See GREECE: B. C. 411-407.
CYZICUS: B. C. 74. Siege by Mithridates.
Cyzicus, which had then become one of the largest and wealthiest cities of Asia Minor, was besieged for an entire year (B. C. 74-73) by Mithridates in the Third Mithridatic war. The Roman Consul Lucullus came to the relief of the city and succeeded in gaining a position which blockaded the besiegers and cut off their supplies. In the end, Mithridates retreated with a small remnant only, of his great armament, and never recovered from the disaster.
G. Long, Decline of the Roman Republic, volume 3, chapter 1.
CYZICUS: A. D. 267. Capture by the Goths.
See GOTHS: A. D. 258-267.
----------CYZICUS: End----------
CZAR, OR TZAR.
See RUSSIA: A. D. 1547.
CZARTORISKYS, The, and the fall of Poland.
See POLAND: A. D. 1763-1773.
CZASLAU, OR CHOTUSITZ, Battle of (A. D. 1742).
See AUSTRIA: A. D. 1742 (JANUARY-MAY).
CZEKHS, The.
See BOHEMIA: ITS PEOPLE.
----------CZEKHS, End----------
D.
DACHTELFIELD, The.
See SAXONS: A. D. 772-804.
DACIA, The Dacians.
Ancient Dacia embraced the district north of the Danube between the Theiss and the Dneister. "The Dacians [at the time of Augustus, in the last half century B. C.] occupied the whole of what now forms the southern part of Hungary, the Banat and Transylvania. ... The more prominent part which they henceforth assumed in Roman history was probably owing principally to the immediate proximity in which they now found themselves to the Roman frontier. The question of the relation in which the Dacians stood to the Getæ, whom we find in possession of these same countries at an earlier period, was one on which there existed considerable difference of opinion among ancient writers: but the prevailing conclusion was that they were only different names applied to the same people. Even Strabo, who describes them as distinct, though cognate tribes, states that they spoke the same language. According to his distinction the Getæ occupied the more easterly regions, adjoining the Euxine, and the Dacians the western, bordering on the Germans."
E. H. Bunbury, History of Ancient Geography, chapter 20, section 1.
DACIA: A. D. 102-106. Trajan's conquest.
At the beginning of the second century, when Trajan conquered the Dacians and added their country to the Roman Empire, "they may be considered as occupying the broad block of land bounded by the Theiss, the Carpathians, the lower Danube or Ister, and the Pruth." In his first campaign, A. D. 102, Trajan penetrated the country to the heart of modern Transylvania, and forced the Dacians to give him battle at a place called Tapæ, the site of which is not known. He routed them with much slaughter, as they had been routed at the same place, Tapæ, sixteen years before, in one of the ineffectual campaigns directed by Domitian. They submitted, and Trajan established strong Roman posts in the country; but he had scarcely reached Rome and celebrated his triumph there, before the Dacians were again in arms. In the spring of the year 104, Trajan repaired to the lower Danube in person, once more, and entered the Dacian country with an overwhelming force. This time the subjugation was complete, and the Romans established their occupation of the country by the founding of colonies and the building of roads. {647} Dacia was now made a Roman province, and "the language of the Empire became, and to this day substantially remains, the national tongue of the inhabitants. ... Of the Dacian province, the last acquired and the first to be surrendered of the Roman possessions, if we except some transient occupations, soon to be commemorated, in the East, not many traces now exist; but even these may suffice to mark the moulding power of Roman civilization. ... The accents of the Roman tongue still echo in the valleys of Hungary and Wallachia; the descendants of the Dacians at the present day repudiate the appellation of Wallachs, or strangers, and still claim the name of Romúni."
C. Merivale, History of the Romans, chapter 63.
DACIA: A. D. 270. Given up to the Goths.
See GOTHS: A. D. 268-270.
DACIA: 4th Century. Conquest by the Huns.
See GOTHS (VISIGOTHS): A. D. 376, and HUNS: A. D. 433-453.
DACIA: 6th Century. Occupied by the Avars.
See AVARS.
DACIA: Modern history.
See BALKAN AND DANUBIAN STATES.
----------DACIA: End----------
DACOITS.
See DAKOITS.
DACOTAS.
See AMERICAN ABORIGINES: SIOUAN FAMILY, and PAWNEE (CADDOAN) FAMILY.
DÆGSASTAN, Battle of.
Fought, A. D. 603, between the Northumbrians and the Scots of Dalriada, the army of the latter being almost wholly destroyed.
DAGOBERT I., King of the Franks (Neustria), A.. D. 628-638; (Austrasia), 622--633: (Burgundy), 628-638.
Dagobert II., King of the Franks (Austrasia), A.. D. 673-678.
Dagobert III., King of the Franks (Neustria and Burgundy), A. D. 711-715.
DAHIS, The.
See BALKAN AND DANUBIAN STATES, 14TH-19TH CENTURIES (SERVIA).
DAHLGREN, Admiral John A. Siege of Charleston.
See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1863 (JULY, and AUGUST-DECEMBER: S. CAROLINA).
DAHLGREN, Ulric. Raid to Richmond.
See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1864 (FEBRUARY-MARCH: VIRGINIA).
DAKOITS.--DAKOITEE.
The Dakoits of India, who were suppressed soon after the Thugs, were "robbers by profession, and even by birth." Dakoitee "was established upon a broad basis of hereditary caste, and was for the most part an organic state of society. 'I have always followed the trade of my ancestors, Dakoitee.' said Lukha, a noted Dakoit, who subsequently became approver. 'My ancestors held this profession before me,' said another, 'and we train boys in the same manner. In my caste if there were any honest persons, i. e., not robbers, they would be turned out.'" The hunting down of the Dakoits was begun in 1838, under the direction of Colonel Sleeman, who had already hunted down the Thugs.
J. W. Kaye, The Administration of the East India Co., part 3, chapter 3.
DAKOTA, North and South: A. D. 1803.- Embraced in the Louisiana Purchase.
See LOUISIANA: A. D. 1798-1803.
DAKOTA: A. D. 1834-1838. Partly joined, in succession, to Michigan, Wisconsin, and Iowa Territories.
See WISCONSIN: A. D. 1805-1848.
DAKOTA: A. D. 1889. Admission to the Union.
See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1889-1890.
DAKOTAS.
See AMERICAN ABORIGINES: SIOUAN FAMILY and PAWNEE (CADDOAN) FAMILY.
DALAI LAMA.
See LAMAS.
DALCASSIANS.
The people of North Munster figure prominently under that name in early Irish history.
T. Moore, History of Ireland, volume 2.
DALHOUSIE, Lord, The India administration of.
See INDIA: A. D. 1845-1849; 1848-1856; and 1852.
DALMATIA.
"The narrow strip of land on the eastern side of the Hadriatic on which the name of Dalmatia has settled down has a history which is strikingly analogous to its scenery. ... As the cultivation and civilization of the land lies in patches, as harbours and cities alternate with barren hills, so Dalmatia has played a part in history only by fits and starts. This fitful kind of history goes on from the days of Greek colonies and Illyrian piracy to the last war between Italy and Austria. But of continuous history, steadily influencing the course of the world's progress, Dalmatia has none to show."
E. A. Freeman, Subject and Neighbour Lands of Venice, pages 85-87.
ALSO IN: T. G. Jackson, Dalmatia, the Quarnero and Istria, chapter 1-2.
See, also, ILLYRICUM OF THE ROMANS; SALONA; and BALKAN AND DANUBIAN STATES.
DALMATIA: 6th-7th Centuries: Slavonic occupation.
See SLAVONIC PEOPLES: 6TH AND 7TH CENTURIES; also, BALKAN AND DANUBIAN STATES: 7TH CENTURY.
DALMATIA: A. D. 944. Beginning of Venetian Conquest.
See VENICE: A. D. 810-961.
DALMATIA: A. D. 1102. Conquest by the king of Hungary.
See HUNGARY: A. D. 972--1114.
DALMATIA: 14th Century. Conquest from the Venetians by Louis the Great of Hungary.
See HUNGARY: A. D. 1301-1442.
DALMATIA: 16th Century. The Uscocks.
See USCOCKS.
DALMATIA: A. D. 1694-1696. Conquests by the Venetians.
See TURKS: A. D. 1684-1696.
DALMATIA: A. D. 1699. Cession in great part to Venice by the Turks.
See HUNGARY: 1683-1699.
DALMATIA: A. D. 1797. Acquisition by Austria.
See, FRANCE: A. D. 1797 (MAY-OCTOBER).
DALMATIA: A. D. 1805. Ceded by Austria to the kingdom of Italy.
See GERMANY: A. D. 1805-1806.
DALMATIA: A. D. 1809. Incorporated in the Illyrian Provinces of Napoleon.
See GERMANY: A. D. 1809 (JULY-SEPTEMBER).
DALMATIA: A. D. 1814. Restored to Austria.
Austria recovered possession of Dalmatia under the arrangements of the Congress of Vienna.
----------DALMATIA: End----------
DALRIADA.
"A district forming the northeast corner of Ireland and comprising the north half of the county of Antrim, was called Dalriada. It appears to have been one of the earliest settlements of the Scots among the Picts of Ulster and to have derived its name from its supposed founder Cairbre, surnamed Righfhada or Riada. It lay exactly opposite the peninsula of Kintyre [Scotland] from whence it was separated by a part of the Irish channel of no greater breadth than about fourteen miles; and from this Irish district the colony of Scots, which was already Christian [fifth century] passed over and settled in Kintyre and in the island of Isla"--establishing a Scotch Dalriada.
W. F. Skene, Celtic Scotland, book 1, chapter 3.
For some account of the Scotch Dalriada,
See SCOTLAND: 7TH CENTURY.
{648}
DAMASCUS, Kingdom of.
The kingdom of Damascus, or "Aram of Damascus" as it was entitled, was formed soon after that Syrian region threw off the yoke of dependence which David and Solomon had imposed upon it. "Rezon, the outlaw, was its founder. Hader, or Hadad, and Rimmon, were the chief divinities of the race, and from them the line of its kings derived their names,--Hadad, Ben-hadad, Hadad-ezer, Tabrimmon."
Dean Stanley, Lectures on the History of the Jewish Church, lecture. 33.
"Though frequently captured and plundered in succeeding centuries by Egypt and Assyria, neither of those nations was able to hold it long in subjection because of the other. It was probably a temporary repulse of the Assyrians, under Shalmaneser II., by the Damascene general Naaman to which reference is made in 2 Kings volume 1: 'by him the Lord had given deliverance unto Syria.' ... After the great conquerors of Egypt and Asia, each in his day, had captured and plundered Damascus, it was taken without resistance by Parmenio for Alexander the Great [B. C. 333]. In it Pompey spent the proudest year of his life, 64 B. C., distributing at his pleasure the thrones of the East to the vassals of Rome. Cleopatra had received the city as a love-gift from Mark Antony, and Tiberius had bestowed it upon Herod the Great, before Aretas of Petra, the father of the princess whom Herod Antipas divorced for Herodias' sake, and the ruler whose officers watched the city to prevent the escape of Paul, made it, we know not how, a part of his dominions."
W. B. Wright, Ancient Cities, chapter 7.
DAMASCUS: A. D. 634. Conquest by the Arabs.
See MAHOMETAN CONQUEST: A. D. 632-639.
DAMASCUS: A. D. 661. Becomes the seat of the Caliphate.
See MAHOMETAN CONQUEST: A. D. 661.
DAMASCUS: A. D. 763. The Caliphate transferred to Bagdad.
See MAHOMETAN CONQUEST: A. D. 763.
DAMASCUS: A. D. 1148-1217. Capital of the Atabeg and the Ayoubite sultans.
See SALADIN, THE EMPIRE OF.
DAMASCUS: A. D. 1401. Sack and massacre by Timour.
See Timour.
DAMASCUS: A. D. 1832. Capture by Mehemed Ali.
See TURKS: A. D. 1831-1840.
----------DAMASCUS: End----------
DAMASUS II., Pope, A. D. 1048, July to August.
DAMIETTA: A. D. 1219-1220. Siege, capture and surrender by the Crusaders.
See CRUSADES: A. D. 1216-1229.
DAMIETTA: A. D. 1249-1250. Capture and loss by Saint Louis.
See CRUSADES: A. D. 1248-1254.
DAMIETTA: A. D. 1252. Destruction by the Mamelukes.
"Two years after the deliverance of the king [Saint Louis], and whilst he was still in Palestine, the Mamelukes, fearing a fresh invasion of the Franks, in order to prevent their enemies from taking Damietta and fortifying themselves in that city, entirely destroyed it. Some years after, as their fears were not yet removed, and the second crusade of Louis IX. spread fresh alarms throughout the East, the Egyptians caused immense heaps of stone to be cast into the mouth of the Nile, in order that the Christian fleets might not be able to sail up the river. Since that period a new Damietta has been built at a small distance from the site of the former city."
J. F. Michaud, History of the Crusades, book 14.
DAMNONIA.
See BRITAIN: 6TH CENTURY.
DAMNONII, OR DAMNII, The.
See DUMNONII.
DAMOISEL.--DAMOISELLE.--DONZELLO.
"In mediæval Latin 'domicella' is used for the unmarried daughter of a prince or noble, and 'domicellus,' contracted from 'domnicellus,' the diminutive of 'dominus,' for the son. These words are the forerunners of the old French 'dâmoisel' in the masculine, and 'damoiselle' in the feminine gender. Froissart calls Richard, prince of Wales, son of Edward: 'le jeune damoisil Richart.' In Romance the word is indifferently 'damoisel' and' 'danzel,' in Italian 'donzello.' All of these are evidently titles under the same notion as that of child and 'enfant,' of which the idea belongs to the knights of an earlier period."
R. T. Hampson, Origines Patriciæ, page 328.
DANAIDÆ, The.
See ARGOS.--ARGOLIS.
DANCING PLAGUE.
See PLAGUE, A. D. 1374.
DANDRIDGE, Engagement at.
See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1863-1864 (DECEMBER-APRIL: TENNESSEE--MISSISSIPPI).
DANEGELD, The.
"A tax of two shillings on the hide of land, originally levied as tribute to the Danes under Ethelred, but continued [even under the Plantagenets], like the income tax, as a convenient ordinary resource."
William Stubbs, The Early Plantagenets, page 53.
See ENGLAND: A. D. 979-1016.
DANELAGH, OR DANELAGA, OR DANELAU.
The district in England held by the Danes after their treaty with Alfred the Great, extending south to the Thames, the Lea and the Ouse; north to the Tyne; west of the mountain district of Yorkshire, Westmoreland and Cumberland. "Over all this region the traces of their colonization abound in the villages whose names end in by, the Scandinavian equivalent of the English tun or ham."
William Stubbs, Constitutional History of England, chapter 7, section 77.
See, also, ENGLAND: A. D. 855-880.
DANES AS VIKINGS.
See, also, NORMANS.--NORTHMEN.
DANES: In England.
See ENGLAND: A. D. 855-880, 979-1016, and 1016-1042; also NORMANS: A. D. 787-880.
DANES: In Ireland.
See IRELAND: 9TH-10TH CENTURIES.
----------DANES: End----------
DANITES, The.
See MORMONISM: A. D. 1830-1846.
DANTE AND THE FACTIONS OF FLORENCE.
See FLORENCE: A. D. 1295-1300; and 1301-1313.
DANTON AND THE FRENCH REVOLUTION.
See FRANCE: A. D. 1791 (OCTOBER), to 1793-1794 (NOVEMBER-JUNE).
DANTZIC: In the Hanseatic League.
See HANSA TOWNS.
DANTZIC: A. D. 1577. Submission to the king of Poland.
See POLAND: A. D. 1574-1590.
DANTZIC: A. D. 1793. Acquisition by Prussia.
See POLAND: A. D. 1793-1796.
DANTZIC: A. D. 1806-1807. Siege and capture by the French.
See GERMANY: A. D. 1807 (FEBRUARY-JUNE).
DANTZIC: A. D. 1807. Declared a Free state.
See GERMANY: A. D. 1807 (JUNE-JULY).
DANTZIC: A. D. 1813. Siege and capture by the Allies.
See GERMANY: A. D. 1813 (OCTOBER-DECEMBER).
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DARA.
One of the capitals of the Parthian kings, the site of which has not been identified.
DARA, Battle of (A. D. 529).
See PERSIA: A.. D. 226-627.
DARDANIANS OF THE TROAD.
See TROJA; and ASIA MINOR: THE GREEK COLONIES; also, AMORITES.
DARIEN, The Isthmus of.
See PANAMA.
DARIEN: The Scottish colony.
See SCOTLAND: A. D. 1695-1699.
DARINI, The.
See IRELAND, TRIBES OF EARLY CELTIC INHABITANTS.
DARIUS, King of Persia, B. C. 521-486. Darius II., B. C. 425-405. Darius III. (Codomannus), B. C. 336-331.
DARK AGES, The.
The historical period, so-called, is nearly identical with that more commonly named the Middle Ages; but its duration may be properly considered as less by a century or two. From the 5th to the 13th century is a definition of the period which most historians would probably accept.
See MIDDLE AGES.
DARORIGUM. Modern Vannes.
See VENETI OF WESTERN GAUL.
DAR-UL-ISLAM AND DAR-UL-HARB.
"The Koran divides the world into two portions, the House of Islam, Dar-ul-Islam, and the House of War, Dar-ul-harb. It has generally been represented by Western writers on the institutes of Mahometanism and on the habits of Mahometan nations, that the Dar-ul-harb, the House of War, comprises all lands of the misbelievers. ... There is even a widely-spread idea among superficial talkers and writers that the holy hostility, the Jehad [or Dhihad] of Mussulmans against non-Mussulmans is not limited to warfare between nation and nation; but that 'it is a part of the religion of every Mahometan to kill as many Christians as possible, and that by counting up a certain number killed, they think themselves secure of heaven.' But careful historical investigators, and statesmen long practically conversant with Mahometan populations have exposed the fallacy of such charges against those who hold the creed of Islam. ... A country which is under Christian rulers, but in which Mahometans are allowed free profession of their faith, and peaceable exercise of their ritual, is not a portion of the House of War, of the Dar-ul-harb; and there is no religious duty of warfare, no Jehad, on the part of true Mussulmans against such a state. This has been of late years formally determined by the chief authorities in Mahometan law with respect to British India."
Sir E. S. Creasy, History of the Ottoman Turks, chapter 6.
DASTAGERD.
The favorite residence of the last great Persian king and conqueror, Chosroes (A. D. 590-628), was fixed at Dastagerd, or Artemita, sixty miles north of Ctesiphon, and east of the Tigris. His palaces and pleasure grounds were of extraordinary magnificence.
E. Gibbon, Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, chapter 46. https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/25717
DASYUS.
See INDIA: THE ABORIGINAL INHABITANTS.
DAUPHINS OF FRANCE.--DAUPHINE.
In 1349, Philip VI., or Philip de Valois, of France, acquired by purchase from Humbert II., count of Vienne, the sovereignty of the province of Dauphine. This principality became from that time the appanage of the eldest sons of the kings of France and gave them their peculiar name or title of the Dauphins. The title in question had been borne by the counts of Vienne (in Dauphiné), "on account of the dolphin which they carried upon their helmets and on their armorial bearings."
E. De Bonnechose, History of France, book 2, chapter 2, footnote.
ALSO IN: E. Smedley, History of France, part 1, chapter 9.
See, also, BURGUNDY: A. D. 1127-1378.
DAVENPORT, John, and the founding of New Haven Colony.
See CONNECTICUT: A. D. 1638, and 1639.
DAVID, King of Israel and Judah.
See JEWS: THE KINGDOMS OF ISRAEL AND JUDAH, and JERUSALEM: CONQUEST, &c.
DAVID I., King of Scotland, A. D. 1124-1153. David II., 1329-1370.
DAVIS, Jefferson. Election to the Presidency of the rebellious "Confederate States."
See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1861 (FEBRUARY).
Flight and capture.
See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1865 (APRIL-MAY).
DAVOUT, Marshal, Campaigns of.
See GERMANY: A. D. 1806 (OCTOBER); 1806-1807; 1807 (FEBRUARY-JUNE); also RUSSIA: A. D. 1812; and GERMANY: A. D. 1812-1813; 1813 (AUGUST), (OCTOBER-DECEMBER).
DAY OF BARRICADES, The.
See FRANCE: A. D. 1584-1589.
DAY OF DUPES, The.
See FRANCE: A. D. 1630-1632.
DAY OF THE SECTIONS, The.
See FRANCE: A. D. 1795 (OCTOBER-DECEMBER).
DAYAKS, OR DYAKS, The.
See MALAYAN RACE.
DEAK, Francis, and the recovery of Hungarian nationality.
See AUSTRIA: A. D. 1866-1867.
DEAN FOREST.
The "Royal Forest of Dean," situated in the southwestern angle of the county of Gloucester, England, between the Severn and the Wye, is still so extensive that it covers some 23,000 acres, though much reduced from its original dimensions. Its oaks and its iron mines have played important parts in British history. The latter were worked by the Romans and still give employment to a large number of miners. The former were thought to be so essential to the naval power of England that the destruction of the Forest is said to have been one of the special duties prescribed to the Spanish Armada.
J. C. Brown, Forests of England.
DEANE, Silas, and the American transactions with Beaumarchais in France.
See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1776-1778.
DEARBORN, General Henry, and the War of 1812.
See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1812 (JUNE-OCTOBER), (SEPTEMBER-NOVEMBER); A. D. 1813 (OCTOBER-NOVEMBER).
DEBRECZIN, Battle of (1849).
See AUSTRIA: A. D. 1848-1849.
DEBT, Laws concerning: Ancient Greek.
At Athens, in the time of Solon (6th century, B. C.) the Thetes--"the cultivating tenants, metayers and small proprietors of the country ... are exhibited as weighed down by debts and dependence, and driven in large numbers out of a state of freedom into slavery--the whole mass of them (we are told) being in debt to the rich, who were proprietors of the greater part of the soil. They had either borrowed money for their own necessities, or they tilled the lands of the rich as dependent tenants, paying a stipulated portion of the produce, and in this capacity they were largely in arrear. {650} All the calamitous effects were here seen of the old harsh law of debtor and creditor--once prevalent in Greece, Italy, Asia, and a large portion of the world--combined with the recognition of slavery as a legitimate status, and of the right of one man to sell himself as well as that of another man to buy him. Every debtor unable to fulfil his contract was liable to be adjudged as the slave of his creditor, until he could find means either of paying it or working it out; and not only he himself, but his minor sons and unmarried daughters and sisters also, whom the law gave him the power of selling. The poor man thus borrowed upon the security of his body (to translate literally the Greek phrase) and upon that of the persons in his family. So severely had these oppressive contracts been enforced, that many debtors had been reduced from freedom to slavery in Attica itself,--many others had been sold for exportation,--and some had only hitherto preserved their own freedom by selling their children. ... To their relief Solon's first measure, the memorable Seisachtheia, shaking off of burthens, was directed. The relief which it afforded was complete and immediate. It cancelled at once all those contracts in which the debtor had borrowed on the security either of his person or of his land: it forbade all future loans or contracts in which the person of the debtor was pledged as security: it deprived the creditor in future of all power to imprison, or enslave, or extort work from, his debtor, and confined him to an effective judgment at law authorizing the seizure of the property of the latter. It swept off all the numerous mortgage pillars from the landed properties in Attica, leaving the land free from all past claims. It liberated and restored to their full rights all debtors actually in slavery under previous legal adjudication; and it even provided the means (we do not know how) of re-purchasing in foreign lands, and bringing back to a renewed life of liberty in Attica, many insolvents who had been sold for exportation. And while Solon forbad every Athenian to pledge or sell his own person into slavery, he took a step farther in the same direction by forbidding him to pledge or sell his son, his daughter, or an unmarried sister under his tutelage--excepting only the case in which either of the latter might be detected in unchastity. ... One thing is never to be forgotten in regard to this measure, combined with the concurrent amendments introduced by Solon in the law--it settled finally the question to which it referred. Never again do we hear of the law of debtor and creditor as disturbing Athenian tranquility. The general sentiment which grew up at Athens, under the Solonian money-law and under the democratical government, was one of high respect for the sanctity of contracts. ... There can be little doubt that under the Solonian law, which enabled the creditor to seize the property of his debtor, but gave him no power over the person, the system of money-lending assumed a more beneficial character."
G. Grote, History of Greece, part 2, chapter 11 (volume 3).
DEBT: Ancient Roman.
"The hold of the creditor was on the person of the debtor. The obligation of a debt was a tying up or binding, or bondage, of the person: the payment was a solution, a loosing or release of the person from that bondage. The property of the debtor was not a pledge for the debt. It could be made so by special agreement, though in the earliest law only by transferring it at once to the ownership of the creditor. Without such special agreement, the creditor whose debtor failed to pay could not touch his property. Even when the debtor had been prosecuted and condemned to pay, if he still failed, the creditor could not touch his property. He could seize his person--I speak now of the early law, in the first centuries of the republic--and after holding him in rigorous confinement for sixty days, with opportunities, however, either to pay himself or get somebody to pay for him, if payment still failed, he could sell him as a slave, or put him to death; if there were several creditors, they could cut his body into pieces and divide it among them. This extreme severity was afterward softened; but the principle remained long unchanged, that the hold of the creditor was on the person of the debtor. If the debtor obstinately and to the last refused to surrender his property, the creditor could not touch it."
J. Hadley, Introduction to Roman Law, lecture 10.
"During the first half of the Samnite war [B. C. 326-304], but in what year is uncertain, there was passed that famous law which prohibited personal slavery for debt. No creditor might for the future attach the person of his debtor, but he might only seize his property; and all those whose personal freedom was pledged for their debts (nexi), were released from their liability, if they could swear that they had property enough to meet their creditor's demands. It does not appear that this great alteration in the law was the work of any tribune, or that it arose out of any general or deliberate desire to soften the severity of the ancient practice. It was occasioned, we are told, by one scandalous instance of abuse of power on the part of a creditor. ... But although personal slavery for debt was thus done away with, yet the consequences of insolvency were much more serious at Rome than they are in modern Europe. He whose property had once been made over to his creditors by the prætor's sentence, became, ipso facto, infamous; he lost his tribe, and with it all his political rights; and the forfeiture was irrevocable, even though he might afterwards pay his debts to the full; nor was it even in the power of the censors to replace him on the roll of citizens. So sacred a thing did credit appear in the eyes of the Romans."
T. Arnold, History of Rome, chapter 32 (volume 2).
DEBT: In England.
"Debt has been regarded as a crime by primitive society in every part of the world. In Palestine, as in Rome, the creditor had power over the person of the debtor, and misfortune was commonly treated with a severity which was not always awarded to crime."
[Leviticus 12 xxv., 39-41, and 2 Kings iv., 1]
{651}
"In this country [England] the same system was gradually introduced in Plantagenet times. The creditor, who had been previously entitled to seize the goods, or even the land of the debtor, was at last authorised to seize his person. In one sense, indeed, the English law was, in this respect, more irrational than the cruel code of the Jews, or the awful punishment [death and dismemberment or slavery--Gibbon, chapter 44] which the law of the Twelve Tables reserved for debtors. In Palestine the creditor was, at least, entitled to the service of the debtor or of his children, and the slave had the prospect of an Insolvent Debtor's Relief Act in the Sabbatical year. Even the law of the Twelve Tables allowed the creditors to sell the debtor into slavery, instead of resorting to the horrible alternative of partitioning his body. But in England the creditors had no such choice. They had nothing to do but to throw the debtor into prison; and by his imprisonment deprive themselves of the only chance of his earning money to pay their debts. A law of this kind was intolerable to a commercial people. The debtor languished in gaol, the creditor failed to obtain payment of his debt. When trade increased in Tudor times, the wits of legislators were exercised in devising some expedient for satisfying the creditor without imprisoning the debtor. The Chancellor was authorised to appoint commissioners empowered to divide the debtor's property among the creditors. By an Act of Anne the debtor who complied with the law was released from further liability, and was practically enabled to commence life anew. In 1826, a debtor was allowed to procure his own bankruptcy; while in 1831, commissioners were appointed to carry out the arrangements which had been previously conducted under the Court of Chancery. The law of bankruptcy which was thus gradually developed by the legislation of three centuries only applied to persons in trade. No one who was not a trader could become a bankrupt; the ordinary debtor became as a matter of course an insolvent, and passed under the insolvent laws. The statutes, moreover, omitted to give any very plain definition of a trader. The distinction between trader and non-trader which had been gradually drawn by the Courts was not based on any very clear principle. A person who made bricks on his own estate of his own clay was not a trader; but a person who bought the clay and then made the bricks was a trader. Farmers, again, were exempt from the bankruptcy law; but farmers who purchased cattle for sale at a profit were liable to it. The possibility, moreover, of a trader being made a bankrupt depended on the size of his business. A petitioning creditor in bankruptcy was required to be a person to whom at least £100 was due; if two persons petitioned, their debts were required to amount to £150; if more than two persons petitioned, to £200. A small shopkeeper, therefore, who could not hope to obtain credit for £200, £150, or £100, could not become a bankrupt; he was forced to become an insolvent. The treatment of the insolvent was wholly different from that of the bankrupt. The bankruptcy law was founded on the principle that the goods and not the person of the debtor should be liable for the debt; the insolvency law enabled the person of the debtor to be seized, but provided no machinery for obtaining his goods. ... Up to 1838 the first step in insolvency was the arrest of the debtor. Any person who made a deposition on oath that some other person was in debt to him, could obtain his arrest on what was known as 'mesne process.' The oath might possibly be untrue; the debt might not be due; the warrant issued on the sworn deposition as a matter of course. But, in addition to the imprisonment on mesne process, the insolvent could be imprisoned for a further period on what was known as 'final process.' Imprisonment on mesne process was the course which the creditor took to prevent the flight of the debtor; imprisonment on final process was the punishment which the Court awarded to the crime of debt. Such a system would have been bad enough if the debtors' prisons had been well managed. The actual condition of these prisons almost exceeds belief. Dickens, indeed, has made the story of a debtor's imprisonment in the Marshalsea familiar to a world of readers. ... The Act of 1813 had done something to mitigate the misery which the law occasioned. The Court which was constituted by it released 50,000 debtors in 13 years. But large numbers of persons were still detained in prison for debt. In 1827 nearly 6,000 persons were committed in London alone for debt. The Common Law Commissioners, reporting in 1830, declared that the loud and general complaints of the law of insolvency were well founded; and Cottenham, in 1838, introduced a bill to abolish imprisonment for debt in all cases. The Lords were not prepared for so complete a remedy; they declined to abolish imprisonment on final process, or to exempt from imprisonment on mesne process, persons who owed more than £20, and who were about to leave the country. Cottenham, disappointed at these amendments, decided on strengthening his own hands by instituting a fresh inquiry. He appointed a commission in 1839, which reported in 1840, and which recommended the abolition of imprisonment on final process, and the union of bankruptcy and insolvency. In 1841, in 1842, in 1843, and in 1844 Cottenham introduced bills to carry out this report. The bills of 1841, 1842, and 1843 were lost. The bill of 1844 was not much more successful. Brougham declared that debtors who refused to disclose their property, who refused to answer questions about it, who refused to give it up, or who fraudulently made away with it, as well as debtors who had been guilty of gross extravagance, deserved imprisonment. He introduced an alternative bill giving the Court discretionary power to imprison them. The Lords, bewildered by the contrary counsels of two such great lawyers as Cottenham and Brougham, decided on referring both bills to one Select Committee. The Committee preferred Brougham's bill, amended it, and returned it to the House. This bill became ultimately law. It enabled both private debtors and traders whose debts amounted to less than the sums named in the Bankruptcy Acts to become bankrupts; and it abolished Imprisonment in all cases where the debt did not exceed £20."
S. Walpole, History of England from 1815, chapter 17 (volume 4).
DEBT: In the United States.
"In New York, by the act of April 26, 1831, c. 300, and which went into operation on March 1st, 1832, arrest and imprisonment on civil process at law, and on execution in equity founded upon contract, were abolished. The provision under the act was not to apply to any person who should have been a non-resident of the state for a month preceding (and even this exception was abolished by the act of April 25th, 1840); nor to proceedings as for a contempt to enforce civil remedies; nor to actions for fines and penalties; nor to suits founded in torts ... nor on promises to marry; or for moneys collected by any public officer; or for misconduct or neglect in office, or in any professional employment. {652} The plaintiff, however, in any suit, or upon any judgment or decree, may apply to a judge for a warrant to arrest the defendant, upon affidavit stating a debt or demand due, to more than $50; and that the defendant is about to remove property out of the jurisdiction of the court, with intent to defraud his creditors; or that he has property or rights in action which he fraudulently conceals; or public or corporate stock, money, or evidences of debt, which he unjustly refuses to apply to the payment of the judgment or decree in favor of the plaintiff; or that he has assigned, or is about to assign or dispose of his property, with intent to defraud his creditors; or has fraudulently contracted the debt, or incurred the obligation respecting which the suit is brought. If the judge shall be satisfied, on due examination, of the truth of the charge, he is to commit the debtor to jail, unless he complies with certain prescribed conditions or some one of them, and which are calculated for the security of the plaintiff's claim. Nor is any execution against the body to be issued on justices' judgments, except in cases essentially the same with those above stated. ... By the New York act of 1846, c. 150, the defendant is liable for imprisonment as in actions for wrong, if he be sued and judgment pass against him in actions on contracts for moneys received by him (and it applies to all male persons) in a fiduciary character. The legislature of Massachusetts, in 1834 and 1842, essentially abolished arrest and imprisonment for debt, unless on proof that the debtor was about to abscond. As early as 1790, the constitution of Pennsylvania established, as a fundamental principle, that debtors should not be continued in prison after surrender of their estates in the mode to be prescribed by law, unless in cases of a strong presumption of fraud. In February, 1819, the legislature of that state exempted women from arrest and imprisonment for debt; and this provision as to women was afterwards applied in New York to all civil actions founded upon contract. ... Females were first exempted from imprisonment for debt in Louisiana and Mississippi; and imprisonment for debt, in all cases free from fraud, is now abolished in each of those states. The commissioners in Pennsylvania, in their report on the Civil Code, in January, 1835, recommended that there be no arrest of the body of the debtor on mesne process, without an affidavit of the debt, and that the defendant was a non-resident, or about to depart without leaving sufficient property, except in cases of force, fraud, or deceit, verified by affidavit. This suggestion was carried into effect by the act of the legislature of Pennsylvania of July 12th, 1842, entitled 'An Act to abolish imprisonment for debt, and to punish fraudulent debtors.' In New Hampshire, imprisonment on mesne process and execution for debt existed under certain qualifications, until December 23, 1840, when it was abolished by statute, in cases of contract and debts accruing after the first of March, 1841. In Vermont, imprisonment for debt, on contracts made after first January, 1839, is abolished, as to resident citizens, unless there be evidence that they are about to abscond with their property; so, also, the exception in Mississippi applies to cases of torts, frauds, and meditated concealment, or fraudulent disposition of property."
J. Kent, Commentaries on American Law; edited by O. W. Holmes, Jr., volume 2 (foot-note).
"In many states the Constitution provides (A) that there shall be no imprisonment for debt: Indiana. C. 1, 22; Minnesota. C. I, 12; Kansas. C. B. Rts. 16; Maryland. C. 3, 38; North Carolina. C. 1, 16; Missouri. C. 2. 16; Texas. C. 1, 18; Oregon. C. 1, 19; Nevada. C. 1, 14; South Carolina. C. 1, 20; Georgia. C. 1, 1, 21; Alabama. C. 1, 21; Mississippi. C. 1, 11; Florida. C. Decl'n Rts. 15.
(B) That there shall be no imprisonment for debt (1) in any civil action on mesne or final process, in seven states: Ohio. C. 1, 15; Iowa. C. 1, 19; Nebraska. C. 1, 20; Tennessee. C. 1, 18; Arkansas. C. 2, 16; California. C. 1, 15; Oregon. C. 1, 15; Arizona. B. Uts. 18.
(2) In any action or judgment founded upon contract, in three states: New Jersey. C. 1, 17; Michigan. C. 6, 33; Wisconsin. C. 1, 16.
(C) In six, that there shall be no person imprisoned for debt in any civil action when he has delivered up his property for the benefit of his creditors in the manner prescribed by law; Vermont. C. 2, 33; Rhode Island. C. 1, 11; Pennsylvania. C. 1, 16; Illinois. C. 2, 12; Kentucky. C. 13, 19; Colorado. C. 2, 12.
... But the above principles are subject to the following exceptions in the several states respectively:
(1) a debtor may be imprisoned in criminal actions: Tennessee.
So (2) for the non-payment of fines or penalties imposed by law: Missouri.
So (3) generally, in civil or criminal actions, for fraud: Vermont, Rhode Island, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Michigan, Iowa, Minnesota, Kansas, Nebraska, North Carolina, Kentucky, Arkansas, California, Oregon, Nevada, Colorado, South Carolina, Florida, Arizona.
And so, in two, the legislature has power to provide for the punishment of fraud and for reaching property of the debtor concealed from his creditors: Georgia. C. 1, 2, 6; Louisiana. C. 223.
So (4) absconding debtors may be imprisoned: Oregon. Or debtors (5) in cases of libel or slander: Nevada. (6) In civil cases of tort generally: California, Colorado. (7) In cases of malicious mischief: California. (8) Or of breach of trust: Michigan, Arizona. (9) Or of moneys collected by public officers, or in any professional employment: Michigan, Arizona."
F. J. Stimson, American Statute Law: Digest of Constitutions and Civil Public Statutes of all the States and Territories relating to Persons and Property, in force January 1, 1886, art. 8.
----------DEBT: End----------
DÉCADI OF THE FRENCH REPUBLICAN CALENDAR.
See FRANCE: A. D. 1793 (OCTOBER). The new republican calendar.
DECAMISADOS, The.
See SPAIN: A. D. 1814-1827.
DECATUR, Commodore Stephen. Burning of the "Philadelphia."
See BARBARY STATES: A. D. 1803-1805.
In the War of 1812.
See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1812-1813; 1814.
DECCAN, The.
See INDIA: THE NAME; and IMMIGRATION AND CONQUESTS OF THE ARYAS.
DECELIAN WAR, The.
See GREECE: B. C. 413.
DECEMVIRS, The.
See ROME: B. C. 451-449.
DECIUS: Roman Emperor. A. D. 249-251.
DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE (American).
See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1776 (JANUARY-JUNE), and (JULY); also, INDEPENDENCE HALL.
{653}
DECLARATION OF PARIS, The.
"At the Congress of Paris in 1856, subsequently to the conclusion of the treaty, which ended the Crimean war [see RUSSIA: A. D. 1854-1856], a declaration of principles was signed on April 16th, by the plenipotentiaries of all the powers represented there, which contained four articles: 'First. Privateering is and remains abolished. Second, The neutral flag covers enemies' goods, with the exception of contraband of war. Third, Neutral goods, except of contraband of war, are not liable to capture under an enemy's flag. Fourth, Blockades, to be binding, must be effective--that is to say, maintained by a force really sufficient to prevent access to the coast of the enemy.' The adherence of other powers was requested to these principles," and all joined in signing it except the United States, Spain, and Mexico. The objection on the part of the United States was stated in a circular letter by Mr. Marcy, then Secretary of State, who "maintained that the right to resort to privateers is as incontestable as any other right appertaining to belligerents; and reasoned that the effect of the declaration would be to increase the maritime preponderance of Great Britain and France, without even benefiting the general cause of civilization; while, if public ships retained the right of capturing private property, the United States, which had at that time a large mercantile marine and a comparatively small navy, would be deprived of all means of retaliation. ... The President proposes, therefore [wrote Mr. Marcy] to add to the first proposition contained in the declaration of the Congress of Paris the following words: 'and that the private property of the subjects and citizens of a belligerent on the high seas shall be exempted from seizure by public armed vessels of the other belligerent, except it be contraband.' ... Among the minor states of Europe there was complete unanimity and a general readiness to accept our amendment to the rules"; but England opposed, and the offered amendment was subsequently withdrawn. "Events ... have shown that ... our refusal to accept the Declaration of Paris has brought the world nearer to the principles which we proposed, which became known as the 'Marcy amendment for the abolition of war against private property on the seas.'"
E. Schuyler. American Diplomacy, chapter 7.
ALSO IN: _F. Wharton, Digest of the International law of the United States, chapter 17, section 342 (volume 3)._
H. Adams, Historical Essays, chapter 6.
See, also, PRIVATEERS.
DECLARATION OF RIGHTS.
See ENGLAND: A. D. 1689 (JANUARY-FEBRUARY).
DECLARATION OF THE RIGHTS OF MAN, French Revolutionary.
See FRANCE: A. D. 1789 (AUGUST-OCTOBER).
DECLARATORY ACT, The.
See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1766.
DECRETA, Roman imperial.
See CORPUS JURIS CIVILIS.
DECRETALS, The False.
See PAPACY: A. D. 829-847.
DECUMÆ.
See VECTIGAL.
DECUMATES LAND.
See AGRI DECUMATES, also ALEMANNI; and SUEVI.
DECURIONES.
See CURIA, MUNICIPAL, OF THE LATER ROMAN EMPIRE.
DEDITITIUS.--COLONUS.--SERVUS.
"The poor Provincial [of the provinces of the Roman empire at the time of the breaking up in the fifth century] who could not fly to the Goths because his whole property was in land, hunted to despair by the tax-gatherer, would transfer that land to some wealthy neighbour, apparently on condition of receiving a small life annuity out of it. He was then called the Dedititius (or Surrenderer) of the new owner, towards whom he stood in a position of a certain degree of dependence. Not yet, however, were his sorrows or those of his family at an end, for the tax-gatherer still regarded him as responsible for his land. ... On his death his sons, who had utterly lost their paternal inheritance, and still found themselves confronted with the claim for taxes, were obviously without resource. The next stage of the process accordingly was that they abdicated the position of free citizens and implored the great man to accept them as Coloni, a class of labourers, half-free, half-enslaved, who may perhaps with sufficient accuracy be compared to the serfs 'adscripti glebæ' of the middle ages. ... Before long they became mere slaves (Servi) without a shadow of right or claim against their new lords."
T. Hodgkin, Italy and her Invaders, book 1, chapter 10.
With the "increase of great estates and simultaneous increase in the number of slaves (so many Goths were made slaves by Claudius [A. D. 268-270], to give one instance, that there was not a district without them), the small proprietors could no longer maintain the fruitless struggle, and, as a class, wholly disappeared. Some, no doubt, became soldiers; others crowded into the already overflowing towns; while others voluntarily resigned their freedom, attached themselves to the land of some rich proprietor, and became his villeins, or coloni. But this was not the chief means by which this class was formed and increased. ... After a successful war these serfs were given ... to landed proprietors without payment; and in this way not only was the class of free peasants diminished or altogether destroyed--a happier result--the slave system was directly attacked. The coloni themselves were not slaves. The codes directly distinguish them from slaves, and in several imperial constitutions they are caned 'ingenui.' They could contract a legal marriage and could hold property. ... On the other hand, the coloni were like slaves in that they were liable to personal punishment. ... A colonus was indissolubly attached to the land, and could not get quit of the tie, even by enlisting as a soldier. The proprietor could sell him with the estate, but had no power whatever of selling him without it; and if he sold the estate, he was compelled to sell the coloni along with it. ... The position of these villeins was a very miserable one. ... These coloni in Gaul, combined together, were joined by the free peasants still left [A. D. 287], whose lot was not less wretched than their own, and forming into numerous bands, spread themselves over the country to pillage and destroy. They were called Bagaudæ, from a Celtic word meaning a mob or riotous assembly; and under this name recur often in the course of the next century both in Gaul and Spain."
W. T. Arnold, The Roman System of Provincial Administration, ch.4.
DEEMSTERS.
See MANX KINGDOM, THE.
DEFENDERS.
See IRELAND: A. D. 1784.
DEFENESTRATION AT PRAGUE, The.
See BOHEMIA: A. D. 1611-1618.
DEFTERDARS.
See SUBLIME PORTE.
DEICOLÆ, The.
See CULDEES.
DEIRA, The kingdom of.
One of the kingdoms of the Angles, covering what is now called the East Riding of Yorkshire, with some territory beyond it. Sometimes it was united with the kingdom of Bernicia, north of it, to form the greater kingdom of Northumbria.
See ENGLAND: A. D. 547-633.
{654}
DEKARCHIES.
See SPARTA: B. C. 404-403.
DEKELEIA.--DEKELEIAN WAR.
See GREECE: B. C. 413.
DELATION.--DELATORS.
Under the empire, there was soon bred at Rome an infamous class of men who bore a certain resemblance--with significant contrasts likewise--to the sycophants of Athens. They were known as delators, and their occupation was delation. "The delator was properly one who gave notice to the fiscal officers of moneys that had become due to the treasury of the state, or more strictly to the emperor's fiscus." But the title was extended to informers generally, who dragged their fellow-citizens before the tribunals for alleged violations of law. Augustus made delation a profession by attaching rewards to the information given against transgressors of his marriage laws. Under the successor of Augustus, the sullen and suspicious Tiberius, delation received its greatest encouragement and development. "According to the spirit of Roman criminal procedure, the informer and the pleader were one and the same person. There was no public accuser, ... but the spy who discovered the delinquency was himself the man to demand of the senate, the prætor or the judge, an opportunity of proving it by his own eloquence and ingenuity. The odium of prosecution was thus removed from the government to the private delator."
C. Merivale, History of the Romans, chapter 44.
See, also, ROME: A. D. 14-37.
DELAWARE BAY: A. D. 1609. Discovered by Henry Hudson.
See AMERICA: A. D. 1609.
DELAWARE BAY: The error perpetuated in its name.
"Almost every writer on American history that I have met with appears to have taken pains to perpetuate the stereotyped error that 'Lord Delawarr touched at this bay in his passage to Virginia in 1610.' ... Lord Delawarr himself, in his letter of the 7th of July, 1610, giving an account of his voyage to Virginia, not only makes no mention of that bay, or of his approaching it, but expressly speaks of his first reaching the American coast on the '6th of June, at what time we made land to the southward of our harbor, the Chesiopiock Bay.' The first European who is really known to have entered the bay, after Hudson, was Capt. Samuel Argall [July 1610]. ... The name of Lord Delawarr, however, seems to have been given to the bay soon afterwards by the Virginians."
_J. R. Brodhead, History of the State of New York, volume 1, appendix, note D._
----------DELAWARE BAY: End----------
DELAWARE: A. D. 1629-1631. The Dutch occupancy and first settlement.
The first attempt at settlement on the Delaware was made by the Dutch, who claimed the country in right of Hudson's discovery and Mey's exploration of the Bay, notwithstanding the broad English claim, which covered the whole of it as part of an indefinite Virginia. In 1629, pursuant to the patroon ordinance of the Dutch West India Company, which opened New Netherland territory to private purchasers, "Samuel Godyn and Samuel Blommaert, both directors of the Amsterdam Chamber, bargained with the natives for the soil from Cape Henlopen to the mouth of Delaware river; in July, 1630, this purchase of an estate more than thirty miles long was ratified at Fort Amsterdam by Minuit [then Governor of New Netherland] and his council. It is the oldest deed for land in Delaware, and comprises the water-line of the two southern counties of that state. ... A company was soon formed to colonize the tract acquired by Godyn and Blommaert. The first settlement in Delaware, older than any in Pennsylvania, was undertaken by a company, of which Godyn, Van Rensselaer, Blommaert, the historian De Laet, and a new partner, David Petersen de Vries, were members. By joint enterprise, in December, 1630, a ship of 18 guns, commanded by Pieter Heyes, and laden with emigrants, store of seeds, cattle and agricultural implements, embarked from the Texel, partly to cover the southern shore of Delaware Bay with fields of wheat and tobacco, and partly for a whale fishery on the coast. ... Early in the spring of 1631, the ... vessel reached its destination, and just within Cape Henlopen, on Lewes Creek, planted a colony of more than thirty souls. The superintendence of the settlement was intrusted to Gillis Hosset. A little fort was built and well beset with palisades: the arms of Holland were affixed to a pillar; the country received the name Swaanendael; the water that of Godyn's Bay. The voyage of Heyes was the cradling of a state. That Delaware exists as a separate commonwealth is due to this colony. According to English rule, occupancy was necessary to complete a title to the wilderness; and the Dutch now occupied Delaware. On the 5th of May, Heyes and Hosset, in behalf of Godyn and Blommaert, made a further purchase from Indian chiefs of the opposite coast of Cape May, for twelve miles on the bay, on the sea, and in the interior; and, in June, this sale of a tract twelve miles square was formally attested at Manhattan. Animated by the courage of Godyn, the patroons of Swaanendael fitted out a second expedition under the command of De Vries. But, before he set sail, news was received of the destruction of the fort, and the murder of its people. Hasset, the commandant, had caused the death of an Indian chief; and the revenge of the savages was not appeased till not one of the emigrants remained alive. De Vries, on his arrival, found only the ruins of the house and its palisades, half consumed by fire, and here and there the bones of the colonists."
G. Bancroft, History of the United States, part 2, chapter 13 (volume 1).
ALSO IN: J. R. Brodhead, History of the State of New York, volume 1, chapter 7.
DELAWARE: A. D. 1632. Embraced in the Maryland grant to Lord Baltimore.
See MARYLAND: A. D. 1632.
DELAWARE: A. D. 1634. Embraced in the Palatine grant of New Albion.
See NEW ALBION.
DELAWARE: A. D. 1638-1640. The planting of the Swedish colony.
"William Usselinx, a distinguished merchant in Stockholm, was the first to propose to the Swedish government a scheme for planting a colony in America. He was a native of Antwerp, and had resided in Spain, Portugal and the Azores, at a time when the spirit of foreign adventure pervaded every class of society. ... In the year 1624 he proposed to the Swedish monarch, Gustavus Adolphus, a plan for the organization of a trading company, to extend its operations to Asia, Africa, America and Terra Magellanica. ... {655} Whether Usselinx had ever been in America is uncertain, but he had, soon after the organization of the Dutch West India Company, some connection with it, and by this and other means was able to give ample information in relation to the country bordering on the Delaware, its soil, climate, and productions. ... His plan and contract were translated into the Swedish language by Schrader, the royal interpreter, and published to the nation, with an address strongly appealing both to their piety and their love of gain. The king recommended it to the States, and an edict dated at Stockholm, July 2d, 1626, was issued by royal authority, in which people of all ranks were invited to encourage the project and support the Company. Books were opened for subscription to the stock ... and Gustavus pledged the royal treasure for its support to the amount of 400,000 dollars. ... The work was ripe for execution, when the German war [the Thirty Years War], and afterwards the king's death, prevented it, and rendered the fair prospect fruitless. ... The next attempt on the part of the Swedes to plant a colony in America was more successful. But there has been much difference among historians in relation to the period when that settlement was made. ... It is owing to the preservation, among the Dutch records at Albany, of an official protest issued by Kieft, the Governor at New Amsterdam, that we do certainly know the Swedes were here in the spring of 1638. Peter Minuit, who conducted to our shore the first Swedish colony, had been Commercial Agent, and Director General of the Dutch West India Company, and Governor of the New Netherlands. ... At this time Christina, the infant daughter of Gustavus Adolphus, had ascended the throne of Sweden. ... Under the direction of Oxenstiern, the celebrated chancellor of Sweden, whose wisdom and virtue have shed a glory on the age in which he lived, the patent which had been granted in the reign of Gustavus to the company formed under the influence of Usselinx was renewed, and its privileges extended to the citizens of Germany. Minuit, being now out of employment, and probably deeming himself injured by the conduct of the Dutch Company [which had displaced him from the governorship of the New Netherlands, through the influence of the patroons, and appointed Wouter Van Twiller, a clerk, to succeed him], had determined to offer his services to the crown of Sweden. ... Minuit laid before the chancellor a plan of procedure, urged a settlement on the Delaware, and offered to conduct the enterprise. Oxenstiern represented the case to the queen ... and Minuit was commissioned to command and direct the expedition."
B. Ferris, History of the Original Settlements on the Delaware, part 1, chapter 2-3.
"With two ships laden with provisions and other supplies requisite for the settlement of emigrants in a new country, and with fifty colonists, Minuit sailed from Sweden late in 1637, and entered Delaware Bay in April, 1638. He found the country as he had left it, without white inhabitants. Minqua Kill, now Wilmington, was selected as the place for the first settlement, where he bought a few acres of land of the natives, landed his colonists and stores, erected a fort, and began a small plantation. He had conducted his enterprise with some secrecy, that he might avoid collision with the Dutch; but the watchful eyes of their agents soon discovered him, and reported his presence to the director at New Amsterdam. Kieft [successor to Van Twiller] had just arrived, and it became one of his first duties to notify a man who had preceded him in office that he was a trespasser and warn him off. Minuit, knowing that Kieft was powerless to enforce his protest, being without troops or money, paid no attention to his missive, and kept on with his work. ... He erected a fort of considerable strength, named Christina, for the Swedish queen, and garrisoned it with 24 soldiers. Understanding the character of the Indians, he conciliated their sachems by liberal presents and secured the trade. In a few months he was enabled to load his ships with peltries and despatch them to his patrons. ... The colony had to all appearance a promising future. ... Within two years, however, their prospects were clouded. The Company had failed to send out another ship with supplies and merchandise for the Indian trade. Provisions failed, trade fell off, and sickness began to prevail. ... They resolved to remove to Manhattan, where they could at least have 'enough to eat.' On the eve of 'breaking up' to carry their resolution into effect, succor came from an unexpected quarter. The fame of New Sweden, as the colony was called, of its fertile lands and profitable trade, had reached other nations of Europe. In Holland itself a company was formed to establish a settlement under the patronage of the Swedish Company." This Dutch company "freighted a ship with colonists and supplies, which fortunately arrived when the Swedish colony was about to be broken up and the country abandoned. The spirits of the Swedes were revived. ... Their projected removal was indefinitely deferred and they continued their work with fresh vigor. The Dutch colonists were located in a settlement by themselves, only a few miles from Fort Christina. They were loyal to the Swedes. ... In the autumn of the same year, 1640, Peter Hollaendare, who had been appointed deputy governor of the colony, and Moens Kling, arrived from Sweden with three ships laden with provisions and merchandise for the straitened colonists. They also brought out a considerable company of new emigrants. New Sweden was now well established and prosperous. More lands were bought, and new settlements were made. Peter Minuit died the following year."
G. W. Schuyler, Colonial New York, volume 1, introduction, section 2.
ALSO IN: _I. Acrelius, History of New Sweden (Penn. Historical Society Mem., volume 11) chapter 1._
Documents relative to Colonial History of New York, volume 12.
_G. B. Keen, New Sweden (Narrative and Critical History of America, volume 4, chapter 9)._
_J. F. Jameson, Willem Usselinx (Papers of the American Historical Association., volume 2, number 3)._
DELAWARE: A. D. 1640-1643. Intrusions of the English from New Haven.
See NEW JERSEY: A. D. 1640-1655.
DELAWARE. A. D. 1640-1656. The struggle between the Swedes and the Dutch and the final victory of the latter.
"The [Swedish] colony grew to such importance that John Printz, a lieutenant-colonel of cavalry, was sent out in 1642 as governor, with orders for developing industry and trade. He took pains to command the mouth of the river, although the Dutch had established Fort Nassau on its eastern bank, and the Swedish settlements were on the western bank exclusively. {656} Collisions arose between the Dutch and the Swedes, and when the former put up the arms of the States General on the completion of a purchase of lands from the Indians, Printz in a passion ordered them to be torn down. The Swedes gained in strength while the Dutch lost ground in the vicinity. In 1648 the Dutch attempted to build a trading post on the Schuylkill, when they were repulsed by force by the Swedes. Individuals seeking to erect houses were treated in the same way. The Swedes in turn set up a stockade on the disputed ground. Director Stuyvesant found it necessary in 1651 to go to confer with Printz with a view to holding the country against the aggressive English. The Indians were called into council and confirmed the Dutch title, allowing the Swedes little more than the site of Fort Christina. Fort Casimir was erected lower down the river, to protect Dutch interests. The two rulers agreed to be friends and allies, and so continued for three years. The distress of the Swedish colony led to appeals for aid from the home country whither Governor Printz had returned. In 1654 help was given, and a new governor, John Claude Rysingh, marked his coming by the capture of Fort Casimir, pretending that the Dutch West India Company authorized the act. The only revenge the Dutch could take was the seizure of a Swedish vessel which by mistake ran into Manhattan Bay. But the next year orders came from Holland exposing the fraud of Rysingh, and directing the expulsion of the Swedes from the South River. A fleet was organized and Director Stuyvesant recovered Fort Casimir without firing a gun. After some parley Fort Christina was also surrendered. Such Swedes as would not take the oath of allegiance to the Dutch authorities were sent to the home country. Only twenty persons accepted the oath, and of three clergymen two were expelled, and the third escaped like treatment by the sudden outbreak of Indian troubles. In 1656 the States General and Sweden made these transactions [a] matter of international discussion. The Swedes presented a protest against the action of the Dutch, and it was talked over, but the matter was finally dropped. In the same year the West India Company sold its interests on the South River to the city of Amsterdam, and the colony of New Amstel was erected, so that the authority of New Netherland was extinguished."
E. H. Roberts, New York, volume 1, chapter 7.
ALSO IN: _E. Armstrong, Introduction to the Record of Upland (Historical Society of Pennsylvania Memoirs, volume 7)._
B. Ferris, History of the Original Settlements on the Delaware, part 1, chapter 6-7.
S. Hazard, Annals of Pennsylvania, pages 62-228.
Report of the Amsterdam Chamber of the W. I. Co. (Documents relative to Colonial History of New York, volume 1, pages 587-646).
DELAWARE: A. D. 1664. Conquest by the English, and annexation to New York.
"Five days after the capitulation of New Amsterdam [surrendered by the Dutch to the English, Aug. 29, 1664 see NEW YORK: A. D. 1664] Nicolls, with Cartwright and Maverick ... commissioned their colleague, Sir Robert Carr, to go," with three ships and an adequate military force, "and reduce the Delaware settlements. Carr was instructed to promise the Dutch the possession of all their property and all their present privileges, 'only that they change their masters.' To the Swedes he was to 'remonstrate their happy return under a monarchical government, and his majesty's good inclination to that nation.' To Lord Baltimore's officers in Maryland, he was to declare that their proprietor's pretended right to the Delaware being 'a doubtful case,' possession would be kept for the king 'till his majesty is informed and satisfied otherwise.' ... The Swedes were soon made friends," but the Dutch attempted [October] some resistance, and yielded only after a couple of broadsides from the ships had killed three and wounded ten of their garrison. "Carr now landed ... and claimed the pillage for himself as 'won by the sword.' Assuming an authority independent of Nicolls, he claimed to be the 'sole and chief commander and disposer' of all affairs on the Delaware." His acts of rapacity and violence, when reported to his fellow commissioners, at New York, were condemned and repudiated, and Nicolls, the presiding commissioner, went to the Delaware in person to displace him. "Carr was severely rebuked, and obliged to give up much of his ill-gotten spoil. Nevertheless, he could not be persuaded to leave the place for some time. The name of New Amstel was now changed to New Castle, and an infantry garrison established there. ... Captain John Carr was appointed commander of the Delaware, in subordination to the government of New York, to which it was annexed 'as an appendage'; and thus affairs remained for several years."
J. R. Brodhead, History of the State of New York, volume 2, chapter 2.
DELAWARE: A. D. 1673. The Dutch reconquest.
See NEW YORK: A. D. 1673.
DELAWARE: A. D. 1674. Final recovery by the English.
See NETHERLANDS (HOLLAND): A. D. 1674.
DELAWARE: A. D. 1674-1760. In dispute between the Duke of York and the Proprietary of Maryland. Grant by the Duke to William Penn:
See PENNSYLVANIA; A. D. 1682; 1685; and 1760-1767.
DELAWARE: A. D. 1691-1702. The practical independence of Penn's "lower counties" acquired.
"In April, 1691, with the reluctant consent of William Penn, the 'territories,' or 'lower counties,' now known as the State of Delaware, became for two years a government by themselves under Markham. ... The disturbance by Keith [see PENNSYLVANIA; A. D. 1692-1696] creating questions as to the administration of justice, confirmed the disposition of the English government to subject Pennsylvania to a royal commission; and in April 1693, Benjamin Fletcher, appointed governor by William and Mary, once more united Delaware to Pennsylvania." But Penn, restored to his authority in 1694, could not resist the jealousies which tended so strongly to divide the Delaware territories from Pennsylvania proper. "In 1702, Pennsylvania convened its legislature apart, and the two colonies were never again united. The lower counties became almost an independent republic; for, as they were not included in the charter, the authority of the proprietary over them was by sufferance only, and the executive power intrusted to the governor of Pennsylvania was too feeble to restrain the power of their people. The legislature, the tribunals, the subordinate executive officers of Delaware knew little of external control."
_G. Bancroft, History of the United States. (author's last revision), part 3, chapter 2 (volume 2)._
The question of jurisdiction over Delaware was involved throughout in the boundary dispute between the proprietaries of Pennsylvania and Maryland.
See PENNSYLVANIA; A. D. 1685; and 1760-1767.
{657}
DELAWARE: A. D. 1760-1766. The question of taxation by Parliament. The Stamp Act and its repeal. The Declaratory Act. The First Continental Congress.
See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1760-1775; 1763-1764; 1765; and 1766.
DELAWARE: A. D. 1766-1774 Opening events of the Revolution.
See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1766-1767 to 1774; and BOSTON: A. D. 1768 to 1773.
DELAWARE: A. D. 1775. The beginning of the war of the American Revolution. Lexington. Concord. Action taken on the news. Ticonderoga. The siege of Boston. Bunker Hill. The Second Continental Congress.
See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1775.
DELAWARE: A. D. 1776. Further introduction of slaves prohibited.
See SLAVERY, NEGRO: A. D.1776-1808.
DELAWARE: A. D. 1776-1783. The War of Independence. Peace with Great Britain.
See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1776 to 1783.
DELAWARE: A. D. 1777-1779. Withholding ratification from the Articles of Confederation.
See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1781-1786.
DELAWARE: A. D. 1787. The adoption and ratification of the Federal Constitution.
See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1787, and 1787-1789.
DELAWARE: A. D. 1861 (April). Refusal of troops on the call of President Lincoln.
See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1861 (APRIL).
----------DELAWARE: End----------
DELAWARE RIVER, Washington's passage of the.
See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1776-1777.
DELAWARES, The.
See AMERICAN ABORIGINES: DELAWARES.
DELFT: Assassination of the Prince of Orange (1584).
See NETHERLANDS: A. D. 1581-1584.
DELHI: 11th Century. Capture by Mahmoud of Gazna.
See TURKS: A. D. 999-1183.
DELHI: A. D. 1192-1290. The capital of the Mameluke or Slave dynasty.
See INDIA: A. D. 977-1290.
DELHI: A. D. 1399. Sack and massacre by Timour.
See TIMOUR.
DELHI: A. D. 1526-1605. The founding of the Mogul Empire by Babar and Akbar.
See INDIA: A. D. 1399-1605.
DELHI: A. D. 1739. Sack and massacre by Nadir Shah.
See INDIA: A. D. 1662-1748.
DELHI: A. D. 1760-1761. Taken and plundered by the Mahrattas. Then by the Afghans. Collapse of the Mogul Empire.
See INDIA: A. D. 1747-1761.
DELHI: A. D. 1857. The Sepoy Mutiny. Massacre of Europeans. Explosion of the magazine. English siege and capture of the city.
See INDIA: A. D. 1857 (MAY-AUGUST) and (JUNE-SEPTEMBER).
----------DELHI: End----------
DELIAN CONFEDERACY.
See GREECE: B. C. 478--477; and ATHENS: B. C. 466-454, and after.
DELIAN FESTIVAL.
See DELOS.
DELIUM, Battle of (B. C. 424).
A serious defeat suffered by the Athenians in the Peloponnesian War, B. C. 424, at the hands of the Thebans and other Bœotians. It was consequent upon the seizure by the Athenians of the Bœotian temple of Delium--a temple of Apollo--on the sea-coast, about five miles from Tanagra, which they fortified and intended to hold. After the defeat of the army which was returning from this exploit, the garrison left at Delium was besieged and mostly captured. Among the hoplites who fought at Delium was the philosopher Socrates. The commander Hippocrates was slain.
Thucydides, History, book 4, section 89-100.
ALSO IN: G. Grote, History of Greece, part 2, chapter 53.
See GREECE: B. C. 424-421.
DELOS.
Delos, the smallest island of the group called the Cyclades, but the most important in the eyes of the Ionian Greeks, being their sacred isle, the fabled birthplace of Apollo and long the chief seat and center of his worship. "The Homeric Hymn to Apollo presents to us the island of Delos as the centre of a great periodical festival in honour of Apollo, celebrated by all the cities, insular and continental, of the Ionic name. What the date of this hymn is, we have no means of determining: Thucydides quotes it, without hesitation, as the production of Homer, and, doubtless, it was in his time universally accepted as such,--though modern critics concur in regarding both that and the other hymns as much later than the Iliad and Odyssey. It cannot probably be later than 600 B. C. The description of the Ionic visitors presented to us in this hymn is splendid and imposing; the number of their ships, the display of their finery, the beauty of their women, the athletic exhibitions as well as the matches of song and dance,--all these are represented as making an ineffaceable impression on the spectator: 'the assembled Ionians look as if they were beyond the reach of old age or death.' Such was the magnificence of which Delos was the periodical theatre, and which called forth the voices and poetical genius not merely of itinerant bards, but also of the Delian maidens in the temple of Apollo, during the century preceding 560 B. C. At that time it was the great central festival of the Ionians in Asia and Europe."
G. Grote, History of Greece, part 2, chapter 12.
During the war with Persia, Delos was made the common treasury of the Greeks; but Athens subsequently took the custody and management of the treasury to herself and reduced Delos to a dependency. The island was long the seat of an extensive commerce, and Delian bronze was of note in the arts.
DELOS: B. C. 490. Spared by the Persians.
See GREECE: B. C. 490.
DELOS: B. C. 477. The Delian Confederacy.
See GREECE: B. C. 478-477; and ATHENS: B. C. 466-454, and after.
DELOS: B. C. 461-454 (?). Removal of the Confederate treasury to Athens.
See ATHENS: B. C. 466-454.
DELOS: B. C. 425-422. Purifications.
"In the midst of the losses and turmoil of the [Peloponnesian] war it had been determined [at Athens] to offer a solemn testimony of homage to Apollo on Delos, [B. C. 425]--a homage doubtless connected with the complete cessation of the pestilence, which had lasted as long as the fifth year of the war. The solemnity consisted in the renewed consecration of the entire island to the divine Giver of grace; all the coffins containing human remains being removed from Delos, and Rhenea appointed to be henceforth the sole burial-place. This solemnity supplemented the act formerly performed by the orders of Pisistratus, and it was doubtless in the present instance also intended, by means of a brilliant renewal of the Delian celebration, to strengthen the power of Athens in the island sea, to give a festive centre to the Ionic world. ... But the main purpose was clearly one of morality and religion. It was intended to calm and edify the minds of the citizens."
E. Curtius, History of Greece, book 4, chapter 2.
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Three years later (B. C. 422) the Athenians found some reason for another purification of Delos which was more radical, consisting in the expulsion of all the inhabitants from the island. The unfortunate Delians found an asylum at Adramyttium in Asia, until they were restored to their homes next year, through the influence of the Delphic oracle.
Thucydides, History, book 5, section 1.
DELOS: B. C. 88. Pontic Massacre.
Early in the first war of Mithridates with the Romans (B. C. 88), Delos, which had been made a free port and had become the emporium of Roman commerce in the east, was seized by a Pontic fleet, and pillaged, 20,000 Italians being massacred on the island. The treasures of Delos were sent to Athens and the island restored to the Athenian control.
W. Ihne, History of Rome, book 7, chapter 17.
DELOS: B. C. 69. Ravaged by Pirates.
"Almost under the eyes of the fleet of Lucullus, the pirate Athenodorus surprised in 685 [B. C. 69] the island of Delos, destroyed its far-famed shrines and temples, and carried off the whole population into slavery."
T. Mommsen, History of Rome, book 5, chapter 2.
DELOS: Slave Trade-under the Romans.
"Thrace and Sarmatia were the Guinea Coast of the Romans. The entrepôt of this trade was Delos, which had been made a free port by Rome after the conquest of Macedonia. Strabo tells us that in one day 10,000 slaves were sold there in open market. Such were the vile uses to which was put the Sacred Island, once the treasury of Greece."
H. G. Liddell, History of Rome, book 5, chapter 48.
----------DELOS: End----------
DELPHI.--KRISSA (CRISSA).--KIRRHA (CIRRHA).
"In those early times when the Homeric Hymn to Apollo was composed the town of Krissa [in Phocis, near Delphi] appears to have been great and powerful, possessing all the broad plain between Parnassus, Kirphis, and the gulf, to which latter it gave its name,--and possessing also, what was a property not less valuable, the adjoining sanctuary of Pytho itself, which the Hymn identifies with Krissa, not indicating Delphi as a separate place. The Krissæans, doubtless, derived great profits from the number of visitors who came to visit Delphi, both by land and by sea, and Kirrha was originally only the name for their seaport. Gradually, however, the port appears to have grown in importance at the expense of the town; ... while at the same time the sanctuary of Pytho with its administrators expanded into the town of Delphi, and came to claim an independent existence of its own. ... In addition to the above facts, already sufficient in themselves as seeds of quarrel, we are told that the Kirrhæans abused their position as masters of the avenue to the temple by sea, and levied exorbitant tolls on the visitors who landed there. ... Besides such offence against the general Grecian public, they had also incurred the enmity of their Phocian neighbours by outrages upon women, Phocian as well as Argeian, who were returning from the temple. Thus stood the case, apparently, about 595 B. C., when the Amphiktyonic meeting interfered ... to punish the Kirrhæans. After a war of ten years, the first Sacred War in Greece, this object was completely accomplished, by a joint force of Thessalians under Eurylochus, Sikyonians under Kleisthenes, and Athenians under Alkmæon; the Athenian Solon being the person who originated and enforced, in the Amphiktyonic council, the proposition of interference. Kirrha ... was destroyed, or left to subsist merely as a landing place; and the whole adjoining plain was consecrated to the Delphian god, whose domains thus touched the sea. ... The fate of Kirrha in this war is ascertained: that of Krissa is not so clear, nor do we know whether it was destroyed, or left subsisting in a position of inferiority with regard to Delphi. From this time forward, the Delphian community appears as substantive and autonomous, exercising in their own right the management of the temple; though we shall find, on more than one occasion, that the Phocians contest this right. ... The spoils of Kirrha were employed by the victorious allies in founding the Pythian Games. The octennial festival hitherto celebrated at Delphi in honour of the god, including no other competition except in the harp and the pæan, was expanded into comprehensive games on the model of the Olympic, with matches not only of music, but also of gymnastics and chariots,--celebrated, not at Delphi itself, but on the maritime plain near the ruined Kirrha,--and under the direct superintendence of the Amphiktyons themselves. ... They were celebrated in the latter half of summer, or first half of every third Olympic year. ... Nothing was conferred but wreaths of laurel."
G. Grote, History of Greece, part 2, chapter 28.
See, also, ATHENS: B. C. 610-586; PYTHO; ORACLES OF THE GREEKS; and AMPHIKTYONIC COUNCIL.
DELPHI: B. C. 357-338. Seizure by the Phocians. The Sacred Wars. Deliverance by Philip of Macedon. War with Amphissa.
See GREECE: B. C. 357-336.
DELPHI: B. C. 279. Discomfiture of the Gauls.
See GAULS: B. C. 280-279.
----------DELPHI: End----------
DELPHIC ORACLE, The.
See ORACLES OF THE GREEKS.
DELPHIC SIBYL, The.
See SIBYLS.
DEMES.--DEMI.
See PHYLÆ; also, ATHENS: B. C. 510-507.
DEMETES, The. One of the tribes of ancient Wales.
See BRITAIN, CELTIC TRIBES.
DEMETRIUS, The Impostor.
See RUSSIA: A. D. 1533-1682.
Demetrius Poliorcetes, and the wars of the Diadochi.
See MACEDONIA: B. C. 315-310, 310-301; also GREECE: B. C. 307-301; and RHODES: B. C. 305--304.
DEMIURGI.--COSMOS.--TAGOS OR TAGUS.
Of the less common titles applied among the ancient Greeks to their supreme magistrates, are "Cosmos, or Cosmios, and Tagos (signifying Arranger and Commander), the former of which we find in Crete, the latter in the Thessalian cities. With the former we may compare the title of Cosmopolis, which was in use among the Epizephyrian Locrians. A more frequent title is that of Demiurgi, a name which seems to imply a constitution no longer oligarchical, but which bestowed certain rights on the Demos. In the time of the Peloponnesian war magistrates of this kind existed in Elis and in the Arcadian Mantinæa. ... The title is declared by Grammarians to have been commonly used among the Dorians. ... A similar title is that of Demuchus, which the supreme magistrates of Thespiæ in Bœotia seem to have borne. ... The Artyni at Epidaurus and Argos we have already mentioned."
G. Schömann, Antiquity of Greece: The State, part 2, chapter 5.
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DEMOCRATIC OR DEMOCRATIC REPUBLICAN PARTY OF THE UNITED STATES.
See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1789-1792; 1825-1828; 1845-1846.
DEMOSTHENES, the general at Sphacteria and at Syracuse.
See GREECE: B. C. 425, and SYRACUSE: B. C. 415-413; and ATHENS: B. C. 415-413.
Demosthenes the orator, The Phillipics, and the Death of.
See GREECE: B. C. 357-336, 351-348, and 323--322; and ATHENS: B. C. 359-338, and 336-322.
DEMOTIC WRITING.
See HIEROGLYPHICS.
DEMUCHUS.
See DEMIURGI.
DENAIN. Battle of (1712).
See NETHERLANDS: A. D. 1710-1712.
DENARIUS, The.
See AS.
DENDERMONDE. Surrender to the Spaniards (1584).
See NETHERLANDS: A. D. 1584-1585.
DENIS, King of Portugal, A. D. 1279-1323.
DENMARK.
See SCANDINAVIAN STATES.
DENNEWITZ, OR JÜTERBOGK, Battle of.
See GERMANY: A. D. 1813 (SEPTEMBER-OCTOBER).
DENNIKON, Peace of (1531).
See SWITZERLAND: A. D. 1531-1648.
DENVER, The founding of.
See COLORADO: A. D. 1806-1876.
DEORHAM, Battle of.
Fought A. D. 577, near Bath, England, between the invading West Saxons and the Britons. The victory of the former gave them possession of the lower valley of the Severn and practically completed the Saxon conquest of England.
J. R. Green, The Making of England, pages 125-131.
DERBEND, Pass of.
See JUROIPACH.
DERBY-DISRAELI MINISTRIES The.
See ENGLAND: A. D. 1851-1852; 1858-1859; and 1868-1870.
DERRY.
See LONDONDERRY.
DE RUSSY, Fort, Capture of.
See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1864 (MARCH-MAY: LOUISIANA).
DESERET, The proposed state of.
See UTAH: A. D. 1849-1850.
DESMONDS, The.
See GERALDINES.
DESMOULINS, Camille, and the French Revolution.
See FRANCE: A. D. 1789 (JULY); 1790; 1792 (AUGUST), to 1793-1794 (NOVEMBER-JUNE).
DESPOT OF EPIRUS.
"The title of despot, by which they [the mediæval princes of Epirus] are generally distinguished, was a Byzantine honorary distinction, never borne by the earlier members of the family until it had been conferred on them by the Greek Emperor."
G. Finlay, History of Greece from its conquest by the Crusaders, chapter 6, section I.
See EPIRUS: A. D. 1204-1350.
DESPOTS, Greek.
See TYRANTS.
Italian.
See ITALY: A. D. 1250-1520.
DESSAU, Battle of (1626).
See GERMANY: A. D. 1624-1626.
DESTRIERS.--PALFREYS.
"A cavaliere or man-at-arms was accompanied by one 'Destriero' or strong war-horse, and one or two, sometimes three, mounted squires who led the animal fully caparisoned; or carried the helmet; lance and shield of their master: these 'Destrieri' ('rich and great horses' as Villani calls them), were so named because they were led on the right hand without any rider, and all ready for mounting: the squire's horses were of an inferior kind called 'Ronzini,' and on the 'Palafreni' or palfreys the knight rode when not in battle."
H. E. Napier, Florentine History, volume 1, page 633.
DESTROYING ANGELS, OR DANITES.
See MORMONISM: A. D. 1830-1846.
DETROIT: First occupied by the Coureurs de Bois.
See COUREURS DE BOIS.
DETROIT: A. D. 1686-1701. The first French forts. Cadillac's founding of the city.
At the beginning of the war called "Queen Anne's War" (1702) "Detroit had already been established. In June, 1701, la Mothe Cadillac, with a Jesuit father and 100 men, was sent to construct a fort and occupy the country; hence he is spoken of as the founder of the city. In 1686, a fort [called Fort St. Joseph] had been constructed to the south of the present city, where Fort Gratiot now stands, but it soon fell into decay and was abandoned. It was not the site selected by Cadillac."
W. Kingsford, History of Canada, volume 2, page 408.
"Fort St. Joseph was abandoned in the year 1688. The establishment of Cadillac was destined to a better fate and soon rose to distinguished importance among the western outposts of Canada."
F. Parkman, The Conspiracy of Pontiac, volume 1, page 218.
DETROIT: A. D. 1701-1755. Importance to the French.
See CANADA: A. D. 1700-1735.
DETROIT: A. D. 1712. Siege by the Foxes and Massacre of that tribe.
See CANADA: A. D. 1711-1713.
DETROIT: A. D. 1760. The French settlement when surrendered to the English.
"The French inhabitants here are settled on both sides of the river for about eight miles. When I took possession of the country soon after the surrender of Canada [see CANADA: A. D. 1760], they were about 2,500 in number, there being near 500 that bore arms (to whom I administered oaths of allegiance) and near 300 dwelling houses. Our fort here is built of stockadoes, is about 25 feet high, and 1,200 yards in circumference. ... The inhabitants raise wheat and other grain in abundance, and have plenty of cattle, but they enrich themselves chiefly by their trade with the Indians, which is here very large and lucrative."
Major R. Rogers, Concise Account of North America, page 168.
DETROIT: A. D. 1763. Pontiac's Siege.
See PONTIAC'S WAR.
DETROIT: A. D. 1775-1783. Held by the British throughout the War of Independence.
See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1778-1779, CLARK'S CONQUEST.
DETROIT: A. D. 1805. Made the seat of government of the Territory of Michigan.
See INDIANA: A. D. 1800-1818.
DETROIT: A. D. 1812. The surrender of General Hull.
See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1812 (JUNE-OCTOBER).
DETROIT: A. D 1813. American recovery.
See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1812-1813.
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DETTINGEN, Battle of (1743).
See AUSTRIA: A. D. 1743.
DEUSDEDIT, Pope, A. D. 615-618.
DEUTSCH. Origin of the name.
See GERMANY: THE NATIONAL NAME.
DEUTSCHBROD, Battle of (1422).
See BOHEMIA: A. D. 1419-1434.
DEVA.
One of the Roman garrison towns in Britain, on the site of which is modern Chester, taking its name from the castra or fortified station of the legions. It was the station of the 20th legion.
T. Mommsen, History of Rome, book 8, chapter 5.
DEVE-BOYUN, Battle of (1878).
See TURKS: A. D. 1877-1878.
DEVIL'S CAUSEWAY, The. The popular name of an old Roman road in England which runs from Silchester to London.
DEVIL'S HOLE, The ambuscade and massacre at.
On the 13th of September, 1763, during the progress of Pontiac's War, a train of wagons and packhorses, traversing the Niagara portage between Lewiston and Fort Schlosser, guarded by an escort of 24 soldiers, was ambuscaded by a party of Seneca warriors at the place called the Devil's Hole, three miles below the Niagara cataract. Seventy of the whites were slain, and only three escaped.
F. Parkman, The Conspiracy of Pontiac, chapter 21 (volume 2).
DEVON COMMISSION, The.
See IRELAND: A. D. 1843-1848.
DEVONSHIRE, in the British age.
See DUMNONII.
DE WITT, John, The administration and the murder of.
See NETHERLANDS: A. D. 1651-1660, to 1672-1674.
DHIHAD.
See DAR-UL-ISLAM.
DIACRII, The.
See ATHENS: B. C. 594.
DIADOCHI, The.
The immediate successors of Alexander the Great, who divided his empire, are sometimes so-called. "The word diadochi means 'successors,' and is used to include Antigonus, Ptolemy, Seleucus, Lysimachus, etc.--the actual companions of Alexander."
J. P. Mahaffy, Story of Alexander's Empire, chapter 5.
See MACEDONIA: B. C. 323-316.
DIAMOND, Battle of the (1795).
See IRELAND: A. D. 1795-1796.
DIAMOND DISCOVERY IN SOUTH AFRICA (1867).
See GRIQUAS.
DIAMOND NECKLACE, The affair of the.
See FRANCE: A. D. 1784-1785.
DIASPORA, The.
A name applied to the Jews scattered throughout the Roman world.
DIAZ, Porfirio, The Mexican presidency of.
See MEXICO: A. D. 1867-1888.
DICASTERIA.
The great popular court, or jury, in ancient Athens, called the Heliæa, or Heliastæ consisting at one time of six thousand chosen citizens, was divided into ten sections, called Dicasteria. Their places of meeting also bore the same name.
_G. F. Schömann, Antiquity of Greece: The State, part 3, chapter 3._
See ATHENS: B. C.445-431.
DICKINSON, John, in the American Revolution.
See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1767-1768; 1774 (SEPTEMBER); 1776 (JULY).
DICTATOR, Roman.
See CONSULS, ROMAN.
DIDIAN LAW, The.
See ORCHIAN, FANNIAN, DIDIAN LAWS.
DIDIER, OR DESIDERIUS, King of the Lombards, A. D. 759-774.
DIDYMÆUM, The oracle of.
See ORACLES OF THE GREEKS.
DIEDENHOFEN, Battle of (1639).
See GERMANY: A. D. 1634-1639.
DIEPPE. Bombardment and destruction by an English fleet.
See FRANCE: A. D. 1694.
DIES ATRI.
The days on which the Romans thought it unlucky to undertake business of importance--for example, the day after the Calends, Nones and Ides of each month--were called Dies Atri.
W. Ramsay, Manual of Roman Antiquity, chapter 11.
DIES FASTI. Dies Nefasti. Dies Festi.
See FASTI, and LUDI.
DIET.
"An assembly, council, ... Parliament. ... The peculiar sense of the word undoubtedly arose from a popular etymology that connected it with the Latin 'dies,' a day, especially a set day, a day appointed for public business; whence, by extension, a meeting for business, an assembly."
W. W. Skeat, Etymological Dictionary
DIET: The Germanic.
"The annual general councils and special councils of Charles the Great did not long survive him, and neither his descendants nor their successors revived them. They were compelled, to be sure, both by custom and by policy to advise with the chief men of the kingdom before taking any important step or doing anything that depended for success on their consent and cooperation, but they varied the number of their counsellors and the time, place, and manner of consulting them to suit their own convenience. Great formal assemblies of counsellors summoned from all parts of the realm were termed Imperial Diets (Reichstage); small, or local, or informal assemblies of a similar kind were known as Court Diets (Hoftage). Princes and other royal vassals, margraves, palsgraves, Graves, barons, and even royal Dienstmannen were indiscriminately summoned, but the Diets were in no sense representative bodies until the Great Interregnum [see GERMANY: A. D. 1250-1272] when certain cities acquired such influence in public affairs that they were invited to send delegates. The first Diet in which they participated was held at Worms in February, 1255, by King William of Holland. Most of the cities of the Rhenish League were there represented, and they constituted an important factor of the assembly. The affairs of the church shared attention with temporal affairs in the Diets until the Popes succeeded in making good their claims to supremacy in spiritual matters. Thereafter they were altogether left to synods and church councils. ... Imperial Diets and Court Diets continued to be held at irregular intervals, whenever and wherever it pleased the king to convene them, but Imperial Diets were usually held in Imperial cities. These were not such heterogenous assemblies as formerly, for few royal vassals, except princes, and no royal Dienstmannen whatever were now invited to attend. Graves and barons, and prelates who were not princes, continued to be summoned, but the number and influence of the Graves and barons in the Diets steadily waned. Imperial cities were for many years only occasionally asked to participate, that is to say, only when the king had especial need of their good offices, but in the latter half of the 14th century they began to be regularly summoned. {661} Imperial Diets were so frequently held during the Hussite War and thereafter, that it became pretty well settled what persons and what cities should take part in them, and only those persons and those cities that were entitled to take part in them were regarded as Estates of the realm. In the 15th century they developed into three chambers or colleges, viz., the College of Electors [see GERMANY: A. D. 1125-1152], the College of Princes, Graves, and Barons, usually called the Council of Princes of the Empire (Reichsfürstenrath), and the College of Imperial Cities. The Archbishop of Mentz presided in the College of Electors, and the Archbishop of Salzburg and the Duke of Austria presided alternately in the Council of Princes of the Empire. The office of presiding in the College of Imperial Cities devolved upon the Imperial city in which the Diet sat. The king and members of both the upper Colleges sometimes sent deputies to represent them, instead of attending in person. In 1474 the cities adopted a method of voting which resulted in a division of their College into two Benches, called the Rhenish Bench and the Swabian Bench, because the Rhenish cities were conspicuous members of the one, and the Swabian cities conspicuous members of the other. In the Council of Princes, at least, no regard was had to the number of votes cast, but only to the power and influence of the voters, whence a measure might pass the Diet by less than a majority of the votes present. Having passed, it was proclaimed as the law of the realm, upon receiving the king's assent, but was only effective law in so far as the members of the Diet, present or absent, assented to it. ... Not a single Imperial Diet was summoned between 1613 and 1640. The king held a few Court Diets during that long interval, consisting either of the Electors alone, or of the Electors and such other Princes of the Empire as he chose to summon. The conditions of membership, and the manner of voting in the College of Electors and the College of Imperial Cities remained unchanged. ... The cities long strove in vain to have their votes recognized as of equal weight with the others, but the two upper Colleges insisted on regarding them as summoned for consultation only, until the Peace of Westphalia settled the matter by declaring that 'a decisive vote (votum decisivum) shall belong to the Free Imperial Cities not less than to the rest of the Estates of the Empire.' Generally, but not always, the sense of each College was expressed by the majority of votes cast. The Peace of Westphalia provided that 'in religious matters and all other business, when the Estates cannot be considered one body (corpus), as also when the Catholic Estates and those of the Augsburg Confession go into two parts (in duas partes euntibus), a mere amicable agreement shall settle the differences without regard to majority of votes.' When the 'going into parts,' (itio in partes) took place each College deliberated in two bodies, the Corpus Catholicorum and the Corpus Evangelicorum. The king no longer attended the Imperial Diets in person, but sent commissioners instead, and it was now the common practice of members of both the upper Colleges to send deputies to represent them."
_S. E. . Turner, Sketch of the Germanic Constitution, chapter 4, 5, and 6._
"The establishment of a permanent diet, attended, not by the electors in person, but by their representatives, is one of the most striking peculiarities of Leopold's reign" (Leopold I., 1657-1705). This came about rather accidentally than with intention, as a consequence of the unusual prolongation of the session of a general diet which Rudolph convoked at Ratisbon, soon after his accession to the throne. "'So many new and important objects ... occurred in the course of the deliberations that the diet was unusually prolonged, and at last rendered perpetual, as it exists at present, and distinguishes the Germanic constitution as the only one of its kind--not only for a certain length of time, as was formerly, and as diets are generally held in other countries, where there are national states; but the diet of the Germanic empire was established by this event for ever. The diet acquired by this circumstance an entirely different form. So long as it was only of short duration, it was always expected that the emperor, as well as the electors, princes, counts and prelates, if not all, yet the greatest part of them, should attend in person. ... It is true, it had long been customary at the diets of Germany, for the states to deliver their votes occasionally by means of plenipotentiaries; but it was then considered only as an exception, whereas it was now established as a general rule, that all the states should send their plenipotentiaries, and never appear themselves. ... The whole diet, therefore, imperceptibly acquired the form of a congress, consisting solely of ministers, similar in a great degree to a congress where several powers send their envoys to treat of peace. In other respects, it may be compared to a congress held in the name of several states in perpetual alliance with each other, as in Switzerland, the United Provinces, and as somewhat of a similar nature exists at present in North America; but with this difference,--that in Germany the assembly is held under the authority of one common supreme head, and that the members do not appear merely as deputies, or representatives invested with full power by their principals, which is only the case with the imperial cities; but so that every member of the two superior colleges of the empire is himself an actual sovereign of a state, who permits his minister to deliver his vote in his name and only according to his prescription.'"
S. A. Dunham, History of the Germanic Empire, book 3, chapter 3 (volume 3)--(quoting Putter's Historical Development of the Germanic Constitution.)
Of the later Diet, of the Germanic Confederation, something may be learned under GERMANY: A. D. 1814-1820, and 1848 (MARCH-SEPTEMBER).
----------DIET: End----------
DIFFIDATION, The Right of.
See LANDFRIEDE.
DIGITI.
See FOOT, THE ROMAN.
DIJON, Battle at.
See BURGUNDIANS: A. D. 500.
DIJON, Origin of.
Dijon, the old capital of the Dukes of Burgundy, was originally a strong camp-city--an "urbs quadrata"--of the Romans, known as the Castrum Divionense. Its walls were 30 feet high, 15 feet thick, and strengthened with 33 towers.
T. Hodgkin, Italy and Her Invaders, book 4, chapter 9.
DILEMITES, The.
See MAHOMETAN CONQUEST: A. D. 815-945.
DIMETIA.
See BRITAIN: 6th CENTURY.
DINAN, Battle of (1597).
See FRANCE: A. D. 1593-1598.
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DINANT, Destruction of.
In the 15th century, down to the year 1466, Dinant was a populous and thriving town. It was included in the little state of the prince-bishop of Liege, and was involved in the war of the Duke of Burgundy with Liege, which ruined both Liege and Dinant. "It was inhabited by a race of industrious artisans, preëminent for their skill in the manufacture of copper. The excellence of their workmanship is attested by existing specimens--organ-screens, baptismal fonts, and other ecclesiastical decorations. But the fame of Dinant had been chiefly spread by its production of more common and useful articles, especially of kitchen utensils,--'pots and pans and similar wares,'--which, under the name of 'Dinanderie,' were known to housewives throughout Europe." In the course of the war a party of rude young men from Dinant gave deep, unforgivable provocation to the Duke of Burgundy by caricaturing and questioning the paternity of his son, the count of Charolais, afterwards Duke Charles the Bold. To avenge this insult nothing less than the destruction of the whole city would satisfy the implacable and ferocious Burgundians. It was taken by the count of Charolais in August, 1466. His first proceeding was to sack the town, in the most thorough and deliberate manner. Then 800 of the more obnoxious citizens were tied together in pairs and drowned in the Meuse, while others were hanged. This accomplished, the surviving women, children and priests were expelled from the town and sent empty-handed to Liege, while the men were condemned to slavery, with the privilege of ransoming themselves at a heavy price, if they found anywhere the means. Finally, the torch was applied, Dinant was burned, and contractors were subsequently employed by the Duke for several months, to demolish the ruins and remove the very materials of which the city had been built.
J. F. Kirk, History of Charles the Bold, book 1, chapter 8-9.
ALSO IN: E. de Monstrelet (Johnes), Chronicles, book 3, chapter 138-139.
Philip de Commines, Memoirs, book 2, chapter 1.
DINWIDDIE COURT HOUSE, Action at.
See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1865 (MARCH-APRIL: VIRGINIA).
DIOBOLY, The.
Pericles "was the proposer of the law [at Athens] which instituted the 'Dioboly,' or free gift of two obols to each poor citizen, to enable him to pay the entrance-money at the theatre during the Dionysia."
C. W. C. Oman, History of Greece, page 271.
See ATHENS: B. C. 435-431.
DIOCESES OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE.
"The civil government of the empire was distributed [under Constantine and his successors] into thirteen great dioceses, each of which equalled the just measure of a powerful kingdom. The first of these dioceses was subject to the jurisdiction of the Count of the East. The place of Augustal Præfect of Egypt was no longer filled by a Roman knight, but the name was retained. ... The eleven remaining dioceses--of Asiana, Pontica, and Thrace; of Macedonia, Dacia and Pannonia, or Western Illyricum; of Italy and Africa; of Gaul, Spain, and Britain--were governed by twelve vicars or vice-præfects."
E. Gibbon, Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, chapter 17. https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/25717
See PUÆTORIAN PRÆFECTS.
DIOCLETIAN, Roman Emperor.
See ROME: A. D. 284-305..
DIOCLETIAN: Abdication.
"The ceremony of his abdication was performed in a spacious plain about three miles from Nicomedia [May 1, A. D. 305]. The Emperor ascended a lofty throne, and, in a speech full of reason and dignity, declared his intention, both to the people and to the soldiers who were assembled on this extraordinary occasion. As soon as lie had divested himself of the purple, he withdrew from the gazing multitude, and, traversing the city in a covered chariot, proceeded without delay to the favourite retirement [Salona] which he had chosen in his native country of Dalmatia."
E. Gibbon, Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, chapter 13. https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/25717
See, also, SALONA.
DIOKLÉS, Laws of.
A code of laws framed at Syracuse, immediately after the Athenian siege, by a commission of ten citizens the chief of whom was one Dioklês. These laws were extinguished in a few years by the Dyonisian tyranny, but revived after a lapse of sixty years. The code is "also said to have been copied in various other Sicilian cities, and to have remained in force until the absorption of all Sicily under the dominion of the Romans."
G. Grote, History of Greece, part 2, chapter 81.
DIONYSIA AT ATHENS.
"The four principal Attik Dionysiak festivals were (1) the Dionysia Mikra, the Lesser or Rural Dionysia; (2) the Dionysia Lenaia; (3) the Anthesteria; and (4) the Dionysia Megala, the Greater or City Dionysia. The Rural Dionysia, celebrated yearly in the month Posideon (Dec.-January) throughout the various townships of Attike, was presided over by the demarch or mayor. The celebration occasioned a kind of rustic carnival, distinguished like almost all Bakchik festivals, by gross intemperance and licentiousness, and during which slaves enjoyed a temporary freedom, with licence to insult their superiors and behave in a boisterous and disorderly manner. It is brought vividly before us in the 'Acharnes' of Aristophanes. ... The Anthesteria, or Feast of Flowers, celebrated yearly in the month Anthesterion (February-March), ... lasted for three days, the first of which was called Pithoigia, or Tap-barrel-day, on which they opened the casks and tried the wine of the previous year. ... The Dionysia Megala, the Greater or City Dionysia, celebrated yearly in the month Elaphebolion (March-April) was presided over by the Archon Eponymos, so-called because the year was registered in his name, and who was first of the nine. The order of the solemnities was as follows: I. The great public procession. II. The chorus of Youths. III. The Komos, or band of Dionysiak revellers, whose ritual is best illustrated in Milton's exquisite poem. IV. The representation of Comedy and Tragedy; for at Athenai the stage was religion and the theatre a temple. At the time of this great festival the capital was filled with rustics from the country townships, and strangers from all parts of Hellas and the outer world."
R. Brown, The Great Dionysiak Myth, chapter 6.
DIONYSIAN TYRANNY AT SYRACUSE, The.
See SYRACUSE: B. C. 397-396, and 344.
DIPLAX, The.
See PEPLUM.
DIPYLUM, The.
See CERAMICUS OF ATHENS.
DIRECTORY, The French.
See FRANCE: A. D. 1795 (JUNE-SEPTEMBER); (OCTOBER-DECEMBER); 1797 (SEPTEMBER).
{663}
DISINHERITED BARONS, The.
See SCOTLAND: A. D. 1332-1333.
DISRAELI-DERBY AND BEACONSFIELD MINISTRIES.
See ENGLAND: A. D. 1851-1852: 1858-1859; 1868-1870: and 1873-1880.
DISRUPTION OF THE CHURCH OF SCOTLAND.
See SCOTLAND: A. D. 1843.
DISSENTERS, OR NONCONFORMISTS, English: First bodies organized. Persecutions under Charles II. and Anne. Removal of Disabilities.
See ENGLAND: A. D. 1559-1566; 1662-1665: 1672-1673: 1711-1714; 1827-1828.
DISTRIBUTION OF THE SURPLUS, The.
See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1835-1837.
DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA, The.
See WASHINGTON (CITY): A. D. 1791.
DIVAN, The.
See SUBLIME PORTE.
DIVODURUM.
The Gallic name of the city afterwards called Mediomatrici--now Metz.
DIVONA. Modern Cahors.
See CADURCI.
DIWANI.
See INDIA: A. D. 1757-1772.
DIX, General John A.: Message to New Orleans.
See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1860-1861 (DECEMBER-FEBRUARY).
DJEM, OR JEM, Prince, The Story of.
See TURKS: A. D. 1481-1520.
DOAB, The English acquisition of the.
See INDIA: A. D. 1798-1805.
DOBRIN, Knights of the Order of the Brethren of.
See PRUSSIA: 13TH CENTURY.
DOBRUDJA, The.
The peninsula formed between the Danube, near its mouth, and the Black Sea.
DOBUNI, The. A tribe of ancient Britons who held a region between the two Avons.
See BRITAIN, CELTIC TRIBES.
DOCETISM.
"We note another phase of gnosticism in the doctrine so directly and warmly combated in the epistles of John: we refer to docetism--that is, the theory which refused to recognize the reality of the human body of Christ."
E. Reuss, History of Christian Theology in the Apostolic Age, page 323.
DODONA.
See HELLAS.
DOGE.
See VENICE: A. D. 697-810.
DOGGER BANKS, Naval Battle of the (1781).
See NETHERLANDS (HOLLAND): A. D. 1746-1787.
DOKIMASIA.
"All magistrates [in ancient Athens] whether elected by cheirotonia or by lot, were compelled, before entering upon their office, to subject themselves to a Dokimasia, or scrutiny into their fitness for the post."
_G. F. Schöman, Antiquity of Greece: The State, part 3, chapter 3._
DÖLICHOCEPHALIC MEN.
A term used in ethnology, signifying "long-headed," as distinguishing one class of skulls among the remains of primitive men, from another class called brachycephalic, or "broad-headed."
DOLLINGER, Doctor, and the dogma of Papal Infallibility.
See PAPACY: A. D. 1869-1870.
DOLMENS.
See CROMLECHS.
DOMESDAY, OR DOOMSDAY BOOK.
See ENGLAND: A. D. 1085-1086.
DOMINICAN REPUBLIC, The.
See HAYTI: A. D. 1804-1880.
DOMINICANS.
See MENDICANT ORDERS: also, INQUISITION: A. D. 1203-1525.
DOMINION OF CANADA.-DOMINION DAY.
See CANADA: A. D. 1867.
DOMINUS.
See IMPERATOR, FINAL SIGNIFICATION OF THE ROMAN TITLE.
DOMITIAN, Roman Emperor, A. D. 81-96.
DOMITZ, Battle of (1635).
See GERMANY: A. D. 1634-1639.
DON JOHN OF AUSTRIA.
See JOHN (DON) OF AUSTRIA.
DON PACIFICO AFFAIR, The.
See ENGLAND: A. D. 1849-1850; and GREECE: A. D. 1846-1850.
DONALD BANE, King of Scotland, A. D. 1093-1098 (expelled during part of the period by Duncan II.)
DONATI, The.
See FLORENCE: A. D. 1295-1300, and 1301-1313.
DONATION OF CONSTANTINE.
See PAPACY: A. D. 774 (?).
DONATION OF THE COUNTESS MATILDA.
See PAPACY: A. D. 1077-1102.
DONATIONS OF PEPIN AND CHARLEMAGNE.
See PAPACY: A. D. 755-774.
DONATISTS, The.
"The Donatist controversy was not one of doctrine, but of ecclesiastical discipline; the contested election for the archbishopric of Carthage. Two competitors, Cecilius and Donatus, had been concurrently elected while the church was yet in a depressed state, and Africa subject to the tyrant Maxentius [A. D. 306-312]. Scarcely had Constantine subdued that province, when the two rivals referred their dispute to him. Constantine, who still publicly professed paganism, but had shown himself very favourable to the Christians, instituted a careful examination of their respective claims, which lasted from the year 312 to 315, and finally decided in favour of Cecilius. Four hundred African bishops protested against this decision; from that time they were designated by the name of Donatists. ... In compliance with an order of the emperor, solicited by Cecilius, the property of the Donatists was seized and transferred to the antagonist body of the clergy. They revenged themselves by pronouncing sentence of excommunication against all the rest of the Christian world. ... Persecution on one side and fanaticism on the other were perpetuated through three centuries, up to the period of the extinction of Christianity in Africa. The wandering preachers of the Donatist faction had no other means of living than the alms of their flocks. ... As might be expected, they outdid each other in extravagance, and soon gave in to the most frantic ravings: thousands of peasants, drunk with the effect of these exhortations, forsook their ploughs and fled to the deserts of Getulia. Their bishops, assuming the title of captains of the saints, put themselves at their head, and they rushed onward, carrying death and desolation into the adjacent provinces: they were distinguished by the name of Circumcelliones: Africa was devastated by their ravages."
J. C. L. de Sismondi, Fall of the Roman Empire, chapter 4.
ALSO IN: P. Schaff, History of the Christian Church, volume 2, chapter 6.
DONAUWÖRTH: A. D. 1632. Taken by Gustavus Adolphus.
See GERMANY: A. D. 1631-1632.
DONAUWÖRTH: A. D. 1704. Taken by Marlborough.
See GERMANY: A. D. 1704.
----------DONAUWÖRTH: End----------
DONELSON, Fort, Capture of.
See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1862 (JANUARY-FEBRUARY: KENTUCKY-TENNESSEE).
{664}
DONGAN CHARTER, The.
See NEW YORK (CITY): A. D. 1686.
DONUM.
See TALLAGE.
DONUS I., Pope, A. D. 676-678. Donus II., Pope, A. D. 974-975.
DONZELLO.
See DÂMOISEL.
DOOMS OF INE, The.
"These laws were republished by King Alfred as 'The Dooms of Ine' who [Ine] came to the throne in A. D. 688. In their first clause they claim to have been recorded by King Ine with the counsel and teaching of his father Cenred and of Hedde, his bishop (who was Bishop of Winchester from A. D. 676 to 705) and of Eorcenweld, his bishop (who obtained the see of London in 675); and so, if genuine, they seem to represent what was settled customary law in Wessex during the last half of the seventh century."
F. Seebohm, English Village Community, chapter 4.
DOOMSDAY, OR DOMESDAY BOOK.
See ENGLAND: A. D. 1085-1086.
DOORANEES, OR DURANEES, The
See INDIA: A. D. 1747-1761.
DORDRECHT, OR DORT, Synod of.
See DORT; also, NETHERLANDS: A. D. 1603-1619.
DORIA, Andrew, The deliverance of Genoa by.
See ITALY: A. D. 1527-1529.
DORIANS AND IONIANS, The.
"Out of the great Pelasgian population [see PELASGIANS], which covered Anterior Asia Minor and the whole European peninsular land, a younger people had issued forth separately, which we find from the first divided into two races. These main races we may call, according to the two dialects of the Greek language, the Dorian and the Ionian, although these names are not generally used until a later period to designate the division of the Hellenic nation. No division of so thorough a bearing could have taken place unless accompanied by an early local separation. We assume that the two races parted company while yet in Asia Minor. One of them settles in the mountain-cantons of Northern Hellas, the other along the Asiatic coast. In the latter the historic movement begins. With the aid of the art of navigation, learnt from the Phœnicians the Asiatic Greeks at an early period spread over the sea; domesticating themselves in lower Egypt, in countries colonized by the Phœnicians, in the whole Archipelago, from Crete to Thrace; and from their original as well as from their subsequent seats send out numerous settlements to the coast of European Greece, first from the East side, next, after conquering their timidity, also taking in the country, beyond Cape Malea from the West. At first they land as pirates and enemies, then proceed to permanent settlements in gulfs and straits of the sea, and by the mouths of rivers, where they unite with the Pelasgian population. The different periods of this colonization may be judged of by the forms of divine worship, and by the names under which the maritime tribes were called by the natives. Their rudest appearance is as Carians; as Leleges their influence is more beneficent and permanent."
Dr. E. Curtius, History of Greece, book 1, chapter 2.
In the view of Dr. Curtius, the later migration of Ionian tribes from Southern Greece to the coasts of Asia Minor,--which is an undoubted historic fact,--was really a return "into the home of their ancestors"--"the ancient home of the great Ionic race." Whether that be the true view or not, the movement in question was connected, apparently, with important movements among the Dorian Greeks in Greece itself. These latter, according to all accounts, and the agreement of all historians, were long settled in Thessaly, at the foot of Olympus (see GREECE: THE MIGRATIONS). It was there that their moral and political development began; there that they learned to look at Olympus as the home of the gods, which all Greeks afterwards learned to do from them. "The service rendered by the Dorian tribe," says Dr. Curtius, "lay in having carried the germs of national culture out of Thessaly, where the invasion of ruder peoples disturbed and hindered their farther growth, into the land towards the south, where these germs received an unexpectedly new and grand development. ... A race claiming descent from Heracles united itself in this Thessalian coast-district with the Dorians and established a royal dominion among them. Ever afterwards Heraclidæ and Dorians remained together, but without ever forgetting the original distinction between them. In their seats by Olympus the foundations were laid of the peculiarity of the Dorians in political order and social customs; at the foot of Olympus was their real home."-
Dr. E. Curtius, History of Greece, book 1, chapter 4.
From the neighborhood of Olympus the Dorians moved southwards and found another home in "the fertile mountain-recess between Parnassus and Œta, ... the most ancient Doris known to us by name." Their final movement was into Peloponnesus, which was "the most important and the most fertile in consequences of all the migrations of Grecian races, and which continued, even to the latest periods to exert its influence upon the Greek character." Thenceforwards the Dorians were the dominant race in Peloponnesus, and to their chief state, Lacedæmonia, or Sparta, was generally conceded the headship of the Hellenic family. This Doric occupation of Peloponnesus, the period of which is supposed to have been about 1100 B. C., no doubt caused the Ionic migration from that part of Greece and colonization of Asia Minor.
C. O. Müller, History and Antiquities of the Doric race, book 1, chapter 3.
The subsequent division of the Hellenic world between Ionians and Dorians is thus defined by Schömann: "To the Ionians belong the inhabitants of Attica, the most important part of the population of Eubœa, and the islands of the Ægean included under the common name of Cyclades, as well as the colonists both on the Lydian and Carian coasts of Asia Minor and in the two larger islands Of Chios and Samos which lie opposite. To the Dorians within the Peloponnese belong the Spartans, as well as the dominant populations of Argos, Sicyon, Philus, Corinth, Troezene and Epidaurus, together with the island of Ægina; outside the Peloponnese, but nearest to it, were the Megarid, and the small Dorian Tetrapolis [also called Pentapolis and Tripolis] near Mount Parnassus; at a greater distance were the majority of the scattered islands and a large portion of the Carian coasts of Asia Minor and the neighbouring islands, of which Cos and Rhodes were the most important. Finally, the ruling portion of the Cretan population was of Dorian descent."
_G. F. Schömann, Antiquities of Greece: The State, part 1, chapter 1._
See, also, GREECE: THE MIGRATIONS; ASIA MINOR: THE GREEK COLONIES; HERACLIDÆ; SPARTA; and ÆOLIANS.
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DORIS AND DRYOPIS.
"The little territory [in ancient Greece] called Doris and Dryopis occupied the southern declivity of Mount Œta, dividing Phokis on the north and northwest from the Ætolians, Ænianes and Malians. That which was called Doris in the historical times, and which reached in the times of Herodotus nearly as far eastward as the Maliac gulf, is said to have formed a part of what had been once called Dryopis; a territory which had comprised the summit of Œta as far as the Sperchius, northward, and which had been inhabited by an old Hellenic tribe called Dryopes. The Dorians acquired their settlement in Dryopis by gift from Hêraklês, who, along with the Malians (so ran the legend), had expelled the Dryopes and compelled them to find for themselves new seats at Hermionê, and Asinê, in the Argolic peninsula of Peloponnesus,--at Styra and Karystus in Eubœa,--and in the island of Kythnus; it is only in these five last-mentioned places that history recognizes them. The territory of Doris was distributed into four little townships,--Pindus, or Akyphas, Bœon, Kytinion and Erineon. ... In itself this tetrapolis is so insignificant that we shall rarely find occasion to mention it; but it acquired a factitious consequence by being regarded as the metropolis of the great Dorian cities in Peloponnesus, and receiving on that ground special protection from Sparta."
G. Grote, History of Greece, part 2, chapter 3.
ALSO IN: C. O. Müller, History and Antiquity of the Doric Race, book 1, chapter 2.
See also, DORIANS AND IONIANS.
DORMANS, Battle of (1575).
See FRANCE: A. D. 1573-1576.
DORNACH, Battle of (1499).
See SWITZERLAND: A. D. 1396-1499.
DORR REBELLION, The.
See RHODE ISLAND: A. D. 1841-1843.
DORT, OR DORDRECHT, The Synod of.
"In the low-countries the supreme government, the states-general, interfered [in the Calvinistic controversy], and in the year 1618 convoked the first and only synod bearing something of the character of a general council that has been convened by protestants. It assembled at Dort, and continued its sittings from November till May following. Its business was to decide the questions at issue between the Calvinists and Arminians; the latter party were also termed remonstrants. James [I.] was requested to send over representatives for the English Church, and chose four divines:--Carlton bishop of Llandaff, Hall dean of Worcester, afterwards bishop successively of Exeter and Norwich, Davenant afterwards bishop of Salisbury, and Dr. S. Ward of Cambridge. They were men of learning and moderation. ... The history of this famous synod is told in various ways. Its decisions were in favour of the doctrines termed Calvinistic, and the remonstrants were expelled from Holland. ... The majority were even charged by the other party with having bound themselves by an oath before they entered upon business, to condemn the remonstrants."
J. B. Marsden, History of Early Puritans, page 329.
See NETHERLANDS: A. D. 1603-1619.
DORYLAEUM, Battle of (1097). See CRUSADES: A. D. 1096-1099.
DOUAI: A. D.1667. Taken by the French.
See NETHERLANDS (THE SPANISH PROVINCES): A. D. 1667.
DOUAI: A. D. 1668. Ceded to France.
See NETHERLANDS (HOLLAND): A. D. 1668.
DOUAI: A. D. 1710. Siege and capture by Marlborough.
See NETHERLANDS: A. D. 1710-1712.
----------DOUAI: End----------
DOUAI, The Catholic Seminary at.
See ENGLAND: A. D. 1572-1603.
DOUBLOON.-DOBLON.
See SPANISH COINS.
DOUGHFACES.
The "Missouri Compromise," of 1820, in the United States, "was a Northern measure, carried by Northern votes. With some the threats of disunion were a sufficient influence; some, whom in the debate Randolph [John Randolph, of Virginia] called doughfaces, did not need even that. ... There has been always a singular servility in the character of a portion of the American people. In that class the slaveholder has always found his Northern servitor. Randolph first gave it a name to live by in the term doughface."
_W. C. Bryant and S. H. Gay, Popular History of the United States, volume 4, pages 270 and 294._
DOUGLAS, Stephen A., and the doctrine of Squatter Sovereignty.
See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1854.
Defeat in Presidential election.
See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1860 (APRIL.-NOVEMBER).
DOURO, Battle of the (1580).
See PORTUGAL: A. D. 1579-1580.
Wellington's passage of the.
See SPAIN: A. D. 1809 (FEBRUARY-JULY).
DOVER, Roman Origin of.
See DUBRIS
DOVER, Tennessee, Battle at.
See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1863 (FEBRUARY-APRIL: TENNESSEE).
DOVER, Treaty of.
See ENGLAND: A. D. 1668-1670.
DOWLAH, Surajah, and the English in India.
See INDIA: A. D. 1755-1757, and 1757.
DRACHMA.
See TALENT.
DRACONIAN LAWS.
See ATHENS: B. C. 624.
DRAFT RIOTS, The.
See NEW YORK (CITY): A. D. 1863.
DRAGON.--PENDRAGON.
A title sometimes given in Welsh poetry to a king or great military leader. Supposed to be derived from the figure of a dragon on their flags, which they borrowed from the Romans.
See CUMBRIA.
DRAGONNADES, The.
See FRANCE: A. D. 1681-1698.
DRAKE'S PIRACIES, and his famous voyage.
See AMERICA: A. D. 1572-1580.
DRANGIANS, The.
See SARANGIANS.
DRAPIER'S LETTERS, The.
See IRELAND: A. D. 1722-1724.
DRAVIDIAN RACES.
See TURANIAN RACES; also, INDIA: THE ABORIGINAL INHABITANTS.
DRED SCOTT CASE, The.
See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1857.
DREPANA, Naval battle at, B. C. 249.
See PUNIC WAR, THE FIRST.
DRESDEN: A. D. 1756. Capture and occupation by Frederick the Great.
See GERMANY: A. D. 1756.
DRESDEN: A. D. 1759-1760. Capture by the Austrians. Bombardment by Frederick.
See GERMANY: A. D. 1759 (JULY-NOVEMBER), and 1760.
DRESDEN: A. D. 1813. Occupied by the Prussians and Russians. Taken by the French. Invested by the Allies. Great battle before the city and victory for Napoleon. French reverses. St Cyr's surrender.
See GERMANY: A. D. 1812-1813; 1813 (APRIL-MAY); (AUGUST); (SEPTEMBER-OCTOBER); and (OCTOBER-DECEMBER).
----------DRESDEN: End----------
{666}
DRESDEN, Treaty of.
See AUSTRIA: A. D. 1744-1745.
DREUX, Battle of (1562).
See FRANCE: A. D. 1560-1563.
DROGHEDA, OR TREDAH, Cromwell's massacre at.
See IRELAND: A. D. 1649-1650.
DROITWICH, Origin of.
See SALINÆ.
DROMONES. A name given to the light galleys of the Byzantine empire.
E. Gibbon, Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, chapter 53. https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/25717
DRUIDS.
The priesthood of a religion which existed among the Celts of Gaul and Britain before they were Christianized. "Greek and Roman writers give us very little information on this subject and the early Welsh records and poetry none at all. Modern Welsh writers have, however, made up for this want in their genuine literature by inventing an elaborate Druidical system of religion and philosophy which, they pretend, survived the introduction of Christianity and was secretly upheld by the Welsh bards in the Middle Ages. This Neo-Druidic imposture has found numerous adherents."
_W. K. Sullivan, Article, "Celtic Literature," Encyclopedia Britannica._
"Pliny, alluding to the Druids' predilection for groves of oak, adds the words: 'ut inde appellati quoque interpretatione Græca possint Druidæ videri.' ... Had he possessed knowledge enough of the Gaulish language, he would have seen that it supplied an explanation which rendered it needless to have recourse to Greek, namely in the native word 'dru,' which we have in 'Drunemeton,' or the sacred Oak-grove, given by Strabo as the name of the place of assembly of the Galatians. In fact, one has, if I am not mistaken, been skeptic with regard to this etymology, not so much on phonological grounds as from failing exactly to see how the oak could have given its name to such a famous organization as the druidic one must be admitted to have been. But the parallels just indicated, as showing the importance of the sacred tree in the worship of Zeus and the gods representing him among nations other than the Greek one, help to throw some light on this point. According to the etymology here alluded to, the Druids would be the priests of the god associated or identified with the oak; that is, as we are told, the god who seemed to those who were familiar with the pagan theology of the Greeks, to stand in the same position in Gaulish theology that Zeus did in the former. This harmonizes thoroughly with all that is known about the Druids."
_J. Rhys, Hibbert Lectures., 1886, on Celtic Heathendom, lecture 2, part. 2._
"Our traditions of the Scottish and Irish Druids are evidently derived from a time when Christianity had long been established. These insular Druids are represented as being little better than conjurors, and their dignity is as much diminished as the power of the king is exaggerated. ... He is a Pharaoh or Belshazzar with a troop of wizards at his command; but his Druids are sorcerers and rain-doctors. ... The Druids of Strabo's description walked in scarlet and gold brocade and wore golden collars and bracelets; but their doctrines may have been much the same as those of the soothsayers by the Severn, the Irish medicine-men or those rustic wizards by the Loire. ... After the conversion of Ireland was accomplished the Druids disappear from history. Their mystical powers were transferred without much alteration to the abbots and bishops who ruled the 'families of the saints.'"
C. Elton, Origins of English History, chapter 10.
ALSO IN: Julius Cæsar, Gallic War, book 6, chapters 13-18.
Strabo, Geography, book 4, chapter 4, sections 4-6.
For an account of the final destruction of the Druids, in their last retreat, on the island of Mona, or Anglesey,
See BRITAIN: A. D. 61.
DRUMCLOG, The Covenanters at.
See SCOTLAND: A. D. 1679 (MAY-JUNE).
DRURY'S BLUFF, Battle of.
See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1864 (MAY: VIRGINIA) THE ARMY OF THE JAMES.
DRUSUS, Germanic campaigns of.
See GERMANY: B. C. 12-9.
DRYOPIANS, The.
One of the aboriginal nations of ancient Greece, whose territory was in the valley of the Spercheus and extended as far as Parnassus and Thermopylæ; but who were afterwards widely dispersed in many colonies. It is, says C. O. Müller, "historically certain that a great part of the Dryopians were consecrated as a subject people to the Pythian Apollo (an usage of ancient times, of which there are many instances) and that for a long time they served as such."
History and Antiquity of the Doric Race, book 1, chapter 2.
See, also, DORIS; and HIERODULI.
DUBARRY, Countess, Ascendancy of.
See FRANCE: A. D. 1723-1774.
DUBH GALLS.
See IRELAND: 9TH-10TH CENTURIES.
DUBIENKA, Battle of(1792).
See POLAND: A. D. 1791-1792.
DUBITZA: Taken by the Austrians (1787).
See TURKS: A. D. 1776-1792.
DUBLIN: The Danish Kingdom.
See IRELAND: 9TH-10TH CENTURIES: also NORMANS. NORTHMEN: 8TH-9TH CENTURIES.
DUBLIN: A. D. 1014. The battle of Clontarf and the great defeat of the Danes.
See IRELAND: A. D. 1014.
DUBLIN: A. D. 1170 Taken by the Norman-English.
See IRELAND: A. D. 1169-1175.
DUBLIN: A. D. 1646-1649. Sieges in the Civil War.
See IRELAND: A. D. 1646-1649.
DUBLIN: A. D. 1750. The importance of the city.
"In the middle of the 18th century it was in dimensions and population the second city in the empire, containing, according to the most trustworthy accounts, between 100,000 and 120,000 inhabitants. Like most things in Ireland, it presented vivid contrasts, and strangers were equally struck with the crowds of beggars, the inferiority of the inns, the squalid wretchedness of the streets of the old town, and with the noble proportions of the new quarter, and the brilliant and hospitable society that inhabited it. The Liffey was spanned by four bridges, and another on a grander scale was undertaken in 1753. St. Stephen's Green was considered the largest square in Europe. The quays of Dublin were widely celebrated."
_W. E. H. Lecky, History of England, 18th Century, chapter 7 (volume 2)._
----------DUBLIN: End----------
DUBRIS, OR DUBRÆ.
The Roman port on the east coast of Britain which is now known as Dover. In Roman times, as now, it was the principal landing-place on the British side of the channel.
T. Wright, Celt, Roman and Saxon, chapter 5.
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DUCAT, Spanish.
See SPANISH COINS.
DUCES.
See COUNT AND DUKE.
DUDLEY, Thomas, and the colony of Massachusetts Bay.
See MASSACHUSETTS: A. D. 1629-1630, and after.
DUFFERIN, Lord. The Indian Administration of.
See INDIA: A. D. 1880-1888.
DU GUESCLIN'S CAMPAIGNS:
See FRANCE: A. D. 1360-1380.
DUKE, The Roman. Origin of the title.
See COUNT AND DUKE.
DUKE'S LAWS, The.
See NEW YORK: A. D. 1665.
DULGIBINI AND CHASAURI, The.
"These people [tribes of the ancient Germans] first resided near the head of the Lippe, and then removed to the settlements of the Chamavi and the Angrevarii, who had expelled the Bructeri."
Tacitus, Germany, chapter 34, Oxford trans., note.
See also, SAXONS.
DUMBARTON, Origin of.
See ALCLYDE.
DUMBARTON CASTLE, Capture of (1571).
Dumbarton Castle, held by the party of Mary Queen of Scots, in the civil war which followed her deposition and detention in England, was captured in 1571, for the regent Lennox, by an extraordinary act of daring on the part of one Capt. Crawford.
P. F. Tytler, History of Scotland, volume 3, chapter 10.
DUMNONIA, OR DAMNONIA, The kingdom of.
See ENGLAND: A. D. 477-527.
DUMNONII, The.
"It is ... a remarkable circumstance that the Dumnonii, whom we find in the time of Ptolemy occupying the whole of the southwestern extremity of Britain, including both Devonshire and Cornwall, and who must therefore have been one of the most powerful nations in the island, are never once mentioned in the history of the conquest of the country by the Romans; nor is their name found in any writer before Ptolemy. ... The conjecture of Mr. Beale Poste . . . that they were left in nominal independence under a native king ... appears to me highly probable."
E. H. Bunbury, History of Ancient Geography, chapter 23, note B.
There appears to have been a northern branch of the Dumnonii or Damnonii, which held an extensive territory on the Clyde and the Forth.
See BRITAIN, CELTIC TRIBES.
DUMOURIEZ, Campaigns and treason of.
See FRANCE: A. D. 1792 (SEPTEMBER-DECEMBER); 1792-1793; and 1793 (FEBRUARY-APRIL).
DUNBAR: A. D. 1296.-Battle.
See SCOTLAND: A. D. 1290-1305.
DUNBAR: A. D. 1339. Siege.
The fortress of Dunbar, besieged by the English under the Earl of Salisbury in 1339, was successfully defended in the absence of the governor, the Earl of March, by his wife, known afterwards in Scotch history and tradition as "Black Agnes of Dunbar."
DUNBAR: A. D. 1650.-Battle.
See SCOTLAND: A. D. 1650 (SEPTEMBER).
----------DUNBAR: End----------
DUNCAN I., King of Scotland, A. D. 1033-1039.. Duncan II., A. D. 1094-1095.
DUNDALK, Battle of (1318).
See IRELAND: A. D. 1314-1318.
DUNDEE (CLAVERHOUSE) AND THE COVENANTERS.
See SCOTLAND: A. D. 1679 (MAY-JUNE); 1681-1689; and 1689 (JULY).
DUNDEE: A. D. 1645. Pillaged by Montrose.
See SCOTLAND: A. D. 1644-1645.
DUNDEE: A. D. 1651. Storm and massacre by Monk.
See SCOTLAND: A. D. 1651 (AUGUST'--SEPTEMBER).
----------DUNDEE: End----------
DUNES, Battle of the (1658).
See ENGLAND: A. D. 1655-1658.
DUNKELD, Battle of.
See SCOTLAND: A. D. 1689 (AUGUST).
DUNKIRK: A. D. 1631. Unsuccessful siege by the Dutch.
See NETHERLANDS: A. D. 1621-1633.
DUNKIRK: A. D. 1646. Siege and capture by the French. Importance of the port. Its harborage of pirates.
See NETHERLANDS: A. D. 1645-1646.
DUNKIRK: A. D. 1652. Recovered by the Spaniards.
See FRANCE: A. D. 1652.
DUNKIRK: A. D. 1658. Acquired by Cromwell for England.
See ENGLAND: A. D. 1655-1658; and FRANCE: A. D. 1655-1658.
DUNKIRK: A. D. 1662. Sold by Charles II. to France.
See ENGLAND: A. D. 1662.
DUNKIRK: A. D. 1713. Fortifications and harbor destroyed.
See UTRECHT: A. D. 1712-1713.
DUNKIRK: A. D. 1748. Demolition of fortifications again stipulated.
See AIX-LA-CHAPELLE: THE CONGRESS.
DUNKIRK: A. D. 1763. The demolition of fortifications pledged once more.
See SEVEN YEARS WAR: THE TREATIES.
DUNKIRK: A. D. 1793. Unsuccessful siege by the English.
See FRANCE: A. D. 1793 (JULY-DECEMBER); PROGRESS OF THE WAR.
----------DUNKIRK: End----------
DUNMORE, Lord, and the end of royal government in Virginia.
See VIRGINIA: A. D. 1775 (JUNE); and 1775-1776.
DUNMORE'S WAR.
See OHIO (VALLEY): A. D. 1774.
DUNNICHEN, Battle of (A. D. 685).
See SCOTLAND: 7TH CENTURY.
DUPLEIX AND THE FRENCH IN INDIA.
See INDIA: A. D. 1743-1752.
DUPONT, Admiral Samuel F. Naval attack on Charleston.
See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1863 (APRIL: SOUTH CAROLINA).
DÜPPEL, Siege and capture of (1864).
See GERMANY: A. D. 1861-1866.
DUPPELN, Battle of (1848).
See SCANDINAVIAN STATES (DENMARK): A. D. 1848-1862.
DUPPLIN MOOR, Battle of (1332).
See SCOTLAND: A. D. 1332-1333.
DUQUESNE, Fort.
See PITTSBURGH.
DURA, Treaty of.
The humiliating treaty of peace concluded with the Persians, A. D. 363, after the defeat and death of the Roman emperor Julian, by his successor Jovian.
G. Rawlinson, Seventh Great Oriental Monarchy chapter 10.
DURANEES, OR DOORANEES, The.
See INDIA: A. D. 1747-1761.
DURAZZO, Neapolitan dynasty of.
See ITALY (SOUTHERN): A. D. 1343-1389; 1386-1414, and ITALY: A. D. 1412-1447.
DURBAR, OR DARBAR.
An audience room in the palace of an East Indian prince. Hence applied to a formal audience or levee given by the governor-general of India, or by one of the native princes.
Century Dictionary
DURHAM, OR NEVILLE'S CROSS, Battle of (A. D. 1346).
See SCOTLAND: A. D. 1333-1370.
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DUROBRIVÆ.
A name given to two Roman towns in Britain; one of which has been identified with modern Rochester, the other with the town of Castor, near Peterborough.
DUROBRIVIAN WARE.
See CASTOR WARE.
DUROCOBRIVÆ.
An important market-town in Roman Britain, supposed to have been situated at or near modern Dunstable.
T. Wright, Celt, Roman and Saxon, chapter 5.
DUROTRIGES.
One of the tribes of ancient Britain whose home was in the modern county of Dorset.
See BRITAIN, CELTIC TRIBES.
DUROVERNUM.
A Roman town in Britain, identified with the modern Canterbury. Durovernum was destroyed by the Jutes in 455.
See ENGLAND: A. D. 449-473.
DUTCH EAST INDIA COMPANY.
See EAST INDIA COMPANY, THE DUTCH.
DUTCH GAP CANAL.
See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1864 (AUGUST: VIRGINIA).
DUTCH REPUBLIC, The constitution and declared independence of the.
See NETHERLANDS: A. D. 1577-1581, and 1584-1585.
DUTCH WEST INDIA COMPANY.
See NEW YORK: A. D. 1621-1646; and BRAZIL: A. D. 1510-1661.
DÜTLINGEN, OR TUTTLINGEN, Battle of (1643).
See GERMANY: A. D. 1643-1644.
DYAKS, OR DAYAKS, The.
See MALAYAN RACE.
DYRRHACHIUM: The founding of.
See KORKYRA.
DYRRHACHIUM: Provoking cause of the Peloponnesian War.
See GREECE: B. C. 435-432.
DYRRHACHIUM: B. C. 48. Cæsar's reverse.
See ROME: B. C. 48.
DYRRHACHIUM: A. D. 1081-1082. Siege by Robert Guiscard.
See BYZANTINE EMPIRE: A. D. 1081-1085.
DYRRHACHIUM: A. D. 1204. Acquired by the Despot of Epirus.
See EPIRUS: A. D. 1204-1350.
----------DYRRHACHIUM: End----------
DYRRHACHIUM, Peace of.
See GREECE: B. C. 214-146.
DYVED.
See BRITAIN: 6TH CENTURY.
E.
EADMUND, EADWINE, ETC.
See EDMUND, ETC.
EALDORMAN.
"The chieftains of the first settlers in our own island bore no higher title than Ealdorman or Heretoga. ... The name of Ealdorman is one of a large class; among a primitive people age implies command and command implies age; hence in a somewhat later stage of language the elders are simply the rulers and the eldest are the highest in rank, without any thought of the number of years which they may really have lived. It is not perfectly clear in what the authority or dignity of the King exceeded that of the Ealdorman. ... Even the smallest Kingdom was probably formed by the union of the districts of several Ealdormen."
E. A. Freeman, Norman Conquest, chapter 3, section 1.
"The organisation of the shire was of much the same character as that of the hundred [each shire containing, however, a number of hundreds], but it was ruled by an ealdorman as well as by a gerefa, and in some other respects bore evidence of its previous existence as an independent unity. Its gemot was not only the scir-gemot but the folc-gemot also, the assembly of the people; its ealdorman commanded not merely the military force of the hundreds, but the lords of the franchises and the church vassals with their men. Its gerefa or sheriff collected the fiscal us well as the local imposts. Its ealdorman was one of the king's witan. The ealdorman, the princeps of Tacitus, and princeps, or satrapa, or subregulus of Bede, the dux of the Latin chroniclers and the comes of the Normans, was originally elected in the general assembly of the nation. ... The hereditary principle appears however in the early days of the kingdom as well as in those of Edward the Confessor; in the case of an under-kingdom being annexed to a greater the old royal dynasty seems to have continued to hand down its delegated authority from father to son. The under-kings of Hwiccia thus continued to act as ealdormen under Mercia for a century; and the ealdormanship of the Gyrwas or fen-countrymen seems likewise to have been hereditary. The title of ealdorman is thus much older than the existing division of shires, nor was it ever the rule for every shire to have an ealdorman to itself as it had its sheriff. ... But each shire was under an ealdorman, who sat with the sheriff and bishop in the folkmoot, received a third part of the profits of the jurisdiction, and commanded the military force of the whole division. From the latter character he derived the name of heretoga, leader of the host ('here'), or dux, which is occasionally given him in charters."
William Stubbs, Constitutional History of England, chapter 5, sections. 48-49.
EARL.
"The title of earl had begun to supplant that of ealdorman in the reign of Ethelred; and the Danish jarl, from whom its use in this sense was borrowed, seems to have been more certainly connected by the tie of comitatus with his king than the Anglo-Saxon ealdorman need be supposed to have been."
William Stubbs, Constitutional History of England, chapter 6, section 66.
See, also, EORL and EALDORMAN.
EARLDOMS, English: Canute's creation.
See ENGLAND: A. D. 1016-1042.
EARLDOMS: The Norman change.
See PALATINE, THE ENGLISH COUNTIES.
----------EARLDOMS: End----------
EARLY, General Jubal, Campaigns in the Shenandoah.
See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1864 (MAY-JUNE: VIRGINIA); (JULY: VIRGINIA-MARYLAND); (AUGUST-OCTOBER: VIRGINIA); and 1865 (FEBRUARY-MARCH: VIRGINIA).
EARTHQUAKE: B. C. 464. Sparta.
See MESSENIAN WAR, THE THIRD.
EARTHQUAKE: A. D. 115. At Antioch.
See ANTIOCH: A. D. 115.
EARTHQUAKE: A. D. 365. In the Roman world.
"In the second year of the reign of Valentinian and Valens [A. D. 365], on the morning of the 21st day of July, the greater part of the Roman world was shaken by a violent and destructive earthquake. The impression was communicated to the waters; the shores of the Mediterranean were left dry by the sudden retreat of the sea. ... But the tide soon returned with the weight of an immense and irresistible deluge, which was severely felt on the coasts of Sicily, of Dalmatia, of Greece and of Egypt. ... The city of Alexandria annually commemorated the fatal day on which 50,000 persons had lost their lives in the inundation."
E. Gibbon, Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, chapter 26. https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/25717
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EARTHQUAKE: A. D. 526. In the reign of Justinian.
See ANTIOCH: A. D. 526; also, BERYTUS.
EARTHQUAKE: A. D. 1692. In Jamaica.
See JAMAICA: A. D. 1692.
EARTHQUAKE: A. D. 1755. At Lisbon.
See LISBON: A. D. 1755.
EARTHQUAKE: A. D. 1812. In Venezuela.
See COLOMBIAN STATES: A. D. 1810-1819.
----------EARTHQUAKE: End----------
EAST AFRICA ASSOCIATIONS, British and German.
See AFRICA: A.. D. 1884-1889.
EAST ANGLIA.
The kingdom formed in Britain by that body of the Angles which settled in the eastern district now embraced in the counties of Norfolk and Suffolk (North-folk and South-folk).
EAST INDIA COMPANY, The Dutch: A. D. 1602.
Its formation and first enterprises.
See NETHERLANDS: A. D. 1594-1620.
EAST INDIA COMPANY: A. D. 1652. Settlement at Cape of Good Hope.
See SOUTH AFRICA: A. D. 1486-1806.
EAST INDIA COMPANY: A. D. 1799. Its dissolution.
See FRANCE: A. D. 1799 (SEPTEMBER-OCTOBER).
----------EAST INDIA COMPANY (DUTCH): End----------
EAST INDIA COMPANY, The English: A. D. 1600-1702. Its rise and early undertakings.
See INDIA: A. D. 1600-1702.
EAST INDIA COMPANY: A. D. 1773. Constitution of the Company changed by the Acts of Lord North.
See INDIA: A. D. 1770-1773.
EAST INDIA COMPANY: A. D. 1813-1833.- Deprived of its monopoly of trade. Reconstitution of government.
See INDIA: A. D. 1823-1833.
EAST INDIA COMPANY: A. D. 1858. The end of its rule.
See INDIA: A. D. 1858.
----------EAST INDIA COMPANY (ENGLISH): End----------
EAST INDIA COMPANY, The French.
See INDIA: A. D. 1665-1743.
EAST INDIES, Portuguese in the.
See INDIA: A. D. 1498-1580.
EASTERN CHURCH, The.
See CHRISTIANITY: A. D. 330-1054.
EASTERN EMPIRE, The.
See ROME: 717-800; and BYZANTINE EMPIRE.
EASTERN QUESTION, The.
"For a number of generations in Europe there has been one question that, carelessly or maliciously touched upon, has never failed to stimulate strife and discord among the nations. This is 'the Eastern Question,' the problem how to settle the disputes, political and religious, in the east of Europe."
H. Murdock, The Reconstruction of Europe, page 17.
The first occasion in European politics on which the problems of the Ottoman empire received the name of the Eastern Question seems to have been that connected with the revolt of Mehemet Ali in 1831 (see TURKS: A. D. 1831-1840). M. Guizot, in his "Memoirs," when referring to that complication, employs the term, and remarks: "I say the Eastern Question, for this was in fact the name given by all the world to the quarrel between the Sultan Mahmoud, and his subject the Pacha of Egypt, Mehemet Ali. Why was this sounding title applied to a local contest? Egypt is not the whole Ottoman empire. The Ottoman empire is not the entire East. The rebellion, even the dismemberment of a province, cannot comprise the fate of a sovereignty. The great states of Western Europe have alternately lost or acquired, either by internal dissension or war, considerable territories; yet under the aspect of these circumstances no one has spoken of the Western question. Why then has a term never used in the territorial crises of Christian Europe, been considered and admitted to be perfectly natural and legitimate when the Ottoman empire is in argument? It is that there is at present in the Ottoman empire no local or partial question. If a shock is felt in a corner of the edifice, if a single stone is detached, the entire building appears to be, and is in fact, ready to fall. ... The Egyptian question was in 1839 the question of the Ottoman empire itself. And the question of the Ottoman empire is in reality the Eastern question, not only of the European but of the Asiatic East; for Asia is now the theatre of the leading ambitions and rivalries of the great powers of Europe; and the Ottoman empire is the highway, the gate, and the key of Asia."
F. P. Guizot, Memoirs to Illustrate the History of My Own Time, volume 4, page 322.
The several occasions since 1840 on which the Eastern Question has troubled Europe may be found narrated under the following captions:
RUSSIA: A. D. 1853-1854, to 1854-1856; TURKS: A. D. 1861-1877, 1877-1878, and 1878; also BALKAN AND DANUBIAN STATES.
Among English writers, the term "the Eastern Question" has acquired a larger meaning, which takes in questions connected with the advance of Russia upon the Afghan and Persian frontiers.
Duke of Argyll, The Eastern Question.
See AFGHANISTAN: A. D. 1860-1881.
EATON, Dorman B., and Civil-Service Reform.
See CIVIL-SERVICE REFORM IN THE UNITED STATES.
EBBSDORF, OR LUNEBURG HEATH, Battle of.
A great and disastrous battle of the Germans with the Danes, or Northmen, fought February 2, 880. The Germans were terribly beaten, and nearly all who survived the fight were swept away into captivity and slavery. The slain received "martyrs' honours; and their commemoration was celebrated in the Sachsen-land churches till comparatively recent times. An unexampled sorrow was created throughout Saxony by this calamity, which, for a time, exhausted the country; --Scandinavia and Jutland and the Baltic isles resounded with exultation."
Sir F. Palgrave, History of Normandy and England, book 1, chapter 4.
EBBSFLEET.
The supposed first landing-place in Britain of the Jutes, under Hengest, A. D. 449 or 450, when English history, as English, begins. It was also the landing-place, A. D. 597, of Augustine and his fellow missionaries when they entered the island to undertake the conversion of its new inhabitants to Christianity. Ebbsfleet is in the Isle of Thanet, at the mouth of the Thames.
See ENGLAND: 449-473, and 597-685.
EBERSBURG, Battle of.
See GERMANY: A. D. 1809 (JANUARY-JUNE).
EBIONISM.
The heresy (so branded) of a sect of Jewish Christians, which spread somewhat extensively in the second, third and fourth centuries. "The characteristic marks of Ebionism in all its forms are: degradation of Christianity to the level of Judaism; the principle of the universal and perpetual validity of the Mosaic law; and enmity to the apostle Paul." The name of the Ebionites came from a Hebrew word signifying "poor."
P. Schaff, History of the Christian Church, second period, chapter 4, section 68.
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EBLANI, The.
See IRELAND, TRIBES OF EARLY CELTIC INHABITANTS.
EBORACUM, OR EBURACUM.
The military capital of Roman Britain, and afterwards of the Anglian kingdoms of Deira and Northumbria. In Old English its name became Eorforwick, whence, by further corruption, resulted the modern English name York. The city was one of considerable splendor in Roman times, containing the imperial palace with many temples and other imposing buildings.
See ENGLAND: A. D. 457-633.
EBURONES, Destruction of the.
The Eburones were a strong Germanic tribe, who occupied in Cæsar's time the country between Liége and Cologne, and whose ancestors were said to have formed part of the great migrant horde of the Cimbri and Teutones. Under a young chief, Ambiorix, they had taken the lead in the formidable revolt which occurred among the Belgic tribes, B. C. 54-53. Cæsar, when he had suppressed the revolt, determined to bring destruction on the Eburones, and he executed his purpose in a singular manner. He circulated a proclamation through all the neighboring parts of Gaul and Germany, declaring the Eburones to be traitors to Rome and outlaws, and offering them and their goods as common prey to any who would fall on them. This drew the surrounding barbarians like vultures to a feast, and the wretched Eburones were soon hunted out of existence. Their name disappeared from the annals of Gaul.
C. Merivale, History of the Romans, chapter 10.
ALSO IN: Cæsar, Gallic Wars, book 5, chapter 25-58; book 6, chapters 1-34.
G. Long, Decline of the Roman Republic, volume 4, chapters 13-14.
See, also, BELGÆ.
ECBATANA.
"The Southern Ecbatana or Agbatana,--which the Medes and Persians themselves knew as Hagmatán,--was situated, as we learn from Polybius and Diodorus, on a plain at the foot of Mount Orontes, a little to the east of the Zagros range. The notices of these authors ... and others, render it as nearly certain as possible that the site was that of the modern town of Hamadan. ... The Median capital has never yet attracted a scientific expedition. ... The chief city of northern Media, which bore in later times the names of Gaza, Gazaca, or Canzaca, is thought to have been also called Ecbatana, and to have been occasionally mistaken by the Greeks for the southern or real capital."
G. Rawlinson, Five Great Monarchies: Media, chapter 1.
ECCELINO, OR EZZELINO DI ROMANO, The tyranny of, and the crusade against.
See VERONA: A. D. 1236-1259.
ECCLESIA. The general legislative assembly of citizens in ancient Athens and Sparta.
G. F. Schömann, Antiquity of Greece: The State, part 3.
ALSO IN: G. Grote, History of Greece, chapter 31.
See ATHENS: B. C. 445-429.
ECCLESIASTICAL TITLES BILL, The.
See PAPACY: A. D. 1850.
ECENI, OR ICENI, The.
See BRITAIN: A. D. 61.
ECGBERHT, King of Wessex, A. D. 800-836.
ECKMÜHL, Battle of.
See GERMANY: A. D. 1809 (JANUARY-JUNE).
ECNOMUS, Naval battle of (B. C. 256).
See PUNIC WAR, THE FIRST.
ECORCHEURS, Les.
In the later period of the Hundred Years War, after the death of the Maid of Orleans, when the English were being driven from France and the authority of the king was not yet established, lawless violence prevailed widely. "Adventurers spread themselves over the provinces under a name, 'the Skinners,' Les Ecorcheurs, which sufficiently betokens the savage nature of their outrages, if we trace it to even its mildest derivation, stripping shirts, not skins."
E. Smedley, History of France, part 1, chapter 14.
ECTHESIS OF HERACLIUS.
See MONOTHELITE CONTROVERSY.
ÉCU, The order of the.
See BOURBON, THE HOUSE OF.
ECUADOR: Aboriginal inhabitants.
See AMERICAN ABORIGINES: ANDESIANS.
ECUADOR: The aboriginal kingdom of Quito and its conquest by the Peruvians and the Spaniards.
"Of the old Quitu nation which inhabited the highlands to the north and south of the present capital, nothing is known to tradition but the name of its last king, Quitu, after whom his subjects were probably called. His domains were invaded and conquered by the nation of the Caras, or Carans, who had come by sea in balsas (rafts) from parts unknown. These Caras, or Carans, established the dynasty of the Scyris at Quito, and extended their conquests to the north and south, until checked by the warlike nation of the Puruhas, who inhabited the present district of Riobamba. ... In the reign of Hualcopo Duchicela, the 13th Scyri, the Peruvian Incas commenced to extend their conquests to the north. ... About the middle of the 15th century the Inca Tupac Yupanqui, father of Huaynacapac, invaded the dominions of the Scyris, and after many bloody battles and sieges, conquered the kingdom of Puruha and returned in triumph to Cuzco. Hualcopo survived his loss but a few years. He is said to have died of grief, and was succeeded by his son Cacha, the 15th and last of the Scyris. Cacha Duchicela at once set out to recover his paternal dominions. Although of feeble health, he seems to have been a man of great energy and intrepidity. He fell upon the garrison which the Inca had left at Mocha, put it to the sword, and reoccupied the kingdom of Puruha, where he was received with open arms. He even carried his banners further south, until checked by the Cañares, the inhabitants of what is now the district of Cuenca, who had voluntarily submitted to the Inca, and now detained the Scyri until Huaynacapac, the greatest of the Inca dynasty, came to their rescue." On the plain of Tiocajas, and again on the plain of Hatuntaqui, great battles were fought, in both of which the Scyri was beaten, and in the last of which he fell. "On the very field of battle the faithful Caranquis proclaimed Pacha, the daughter of the fallen king, as their Scyri. Huaynacapac now regulated his conduct by policy. He ordered the dead king to be buried with all the honors due to royalty, and made offers of marriage to young Pacha, by whom he was not refused. ... The issue of the marriage was Atahuallpa, the last of the native rulers of Peru. ... {671} As prudent and highly politic as the conduct of Huaynacapac is generally reputed to have been, so imprudent and unpolitic was the division of the empire which he made on his death bed, bequeathing his paternal dominions to his first-born and undoubtedly legitimate son, Huascar, and to Atahuallpa the kingdom of Quito. He might have foreseen the evil consequences of such a partition. His death took place about the year 1525. For five or seven years the brothers lived in peace." Then quarrels arose, leading to civil war, resulting in the defeat and death of Huascar. Atahuallpa had just become master of the weakened and shaken empire of the Incas, when the invading Spaniards, under Pizarro, fell on the doomed land and made its riches their own. The conquest of the Spaniards did not include the kingdom of Quito at first, but was extended to the latter in 1533 by Sebastian de Benalcazar, whom Pizarro had put in command of the Port of San Miguel. Excited by stories of the riches of Quito, and invited by ambassadors from the Canares, the old enemies of the Quito tribes, Benalcazar, "without orders or permission from Pizarro ... left San Miguel, at the head of about 150 men. His second in command was the monster Juan de Ampudia." The fate of Quito was again decided on the plain of Tiocajas, where Rumiñagui, a chief who had seized the vacant throne, made a desperate but vain resistance. He gained time, however, to remove whatever treasures there may have been at Quito beyond the reach of its rapacious conquerors, and "where he hid them is a secret to the present day. ... Traditions of the great treasures hidden in the mountains by Rumiñagui are eagerly repeated and believed at Quito. ... Having removed the gold and killed the Virgins of the Sun, and thus placed two objects so eagerly coveted by the invaders beyond their reach, Rumiñagui set fire to the town, and evacuated it with an his troops and followers. It would be difficult to describe the rage, mortification and despair of the Spaniards, on finding smoking ruins instead of the treasures which they had expected. ... Thousands of innocent Indians were sacrificed to their disappointed cupidity. ... Every nook and corner of the province was searched; but only in the sepulchres some little gold was found. ... Of the ancient buildings of Quito no stone was left upon the other, and deep excavations were made under them to search for hidden treasures. Hence there is no vestige left at Quito of its former civilization; not a ruin, not a wall, not a stone to which the traditions of the past might cling. ... On the 28th of August, 1534, the Spanish village of Quito [San Francisco de Quito] was founded."
F. Hassaurek, Fours Years among Spanish Americans, chapter 16.
ALSO IN: W. H. Prescott, History of Conquest of Peru, book 3, chapter 2 (volume 1), and chapter 9 (volume 2).
ECUADOR: In the empire of the Incas.
See PERU: THE EMPIRE OF THE INCAS.
ECUADOR: A. D. 1542. The Audiencia of Quito established.
See AUDIENCIAS.
ECUADOR: A. D. 1821-1854. Emancipation of slaves.
See COLOMBIAN STATES: A. D. 1821-1854.
ECUADOR: A. D. 1822-1888. Confederated with New Granada and Venezuela in the Colombian Republic.
Dissolution of the Confederacy.
The rule of Flores.
In 1822 "the Province of Quito was incorporated into the Colombian Republic [see COLOMBIAN STATES: A. D. 1819-1830]. It was now divided into three departments on the French system: and the southernmost of these received its name from the Equator (Ecuador) which passes through it. Shortly after Venezuela had declared itself independent of the Colombian Republic [1826--see, as above], the old province of Quito did the same, and placed its fortunes in the hands of one of Bolivar's lieutenants, named Flores. The name of Ecuador was now extended to all three departments. Flores exercised the chief authority for 15 years. The constitution limited the Presidency to four: but Flores made an arrangement with one of his lieutenants called Roca-Fuerte, by which they succeeded each other, the outgoing President becoming governor of Guayaquil. In 1843 Flores found himself strong enough to improve upon this system. He called a convention, which reformed the constitution in a reactionary sense, and named him dictator for ten years. In 1845 the liberal reaction had set in all over Colombia; and it soon became too strong for Flores. Even his own supporters began to fail him, and he agreed to quit the country on being paid an indemnity of $20,000." During the next 15 years Ecuador was troubled by the plots and attempts of Flores to regain his lost power. In 1860, with Peruvian help, he succeeded in placing one of his party, Dr. Moreno, in the presidency, and he, himself, became governor of Guayaquil. In August, 1875, Moreno was assassinated.
E. J. Payne, History of European Colonies, pages 251-252.
After the assassination of President Moreno, "the clergy succeeded in seating Dr. Antonio Barrero in the presidential chair by a peaceful and overwhelming election. ... Against his government the liberal party made a revolution, and, September 8, 1876, succeeded in driving him from power, seating in his place General Ygnacio de Veintemilla, who was one of Barrero's officers, bound to him by many tics. ... He called an obedient convention at Ambato, in 1878, which named him President ad interim, and framed a constitution, the republicanism of which it is difficult to find. Under this he was elected President for four years, terminating 30th August, 1882, without right of re-election except after an interval of four years."
_G. E. Church, Report on Ecuador (Senate Ex. Doc. 69, U. S. 47th Congress, 2d session, volume 3)._
President Veintemilla seized power as a Dictator, by a pronunciamento, April 2, 1882; but civil war ensued and he was overthrown in 1883. Senor José M. P. Caamaño was then chosen Provisional President, and in February, 1884, he was elected President, by the Legislative body. He was succeeded in 1888 by Don Antonio Flores.
Statesman's Year-book, 1889.
----------ECUADOR: End----------
ECUMENICAL, OR ŒCUMENICAL COUNCIL. A general or universal council of the Christian Church.
See COUNCILS OF THE CHURCH.
EDDAS, The.
"The chief depositories of the Norse mythology are the Elder or Saemund's Edda (poetry) and the Younger or Snorre's Edda. (prose). In Icelandic Edda means 'great-grand-mother,' and some think this appellation refers to the ancient origin of the myths it contains. Others connect it with the Indian 'Veda' and the Norse 'vide,' (Swedish 'vela,' to know)."
R. B. Anderson, Norse Mythology, chapter 7.
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"The word Edda is never found at all in any of the dialects of the Old Northern tongue, nor indeed in any other tongue known to us. The first time it is met with is in the Lay of Righ, where it is used as a title for great-grandmother, and from this poem the word is cited (with other terms from the same source) in the collection at the end of Scaldscaparmal. How or why Snorri's book on the Poetic Art came to be called Edda we have no actual testimony. ... Snorri's work, especially the second part of it, Scaldscaparmal, handed down in copies and abridgments through the Middle Ages, was looked on as setting the standard and ideal of poetry. It seems to have kept up indeed the very remembrance of court-poetry, the memory of which, but for it, would otherwise have perished. But though the mediæval poets do not copy Edda (i. e., Snorri's rules) they constantly allude to it, and we have an unbroken series of phrases from 1340 to 1640 in which Edda is used as a synonym for the technical laws of the court-metre (a use, it may be observed, entirely contrary to that of our own days)."
_G. Vigfusson and F. Y. Powell, Corpus Poeticum Boreale, volume 1, introduction, section 4._
EDESSA (Macedonia).
Edessa, or Ægre, the ancient Macedonian capital, "a place of primitive antiquity, according to a Phrygian legend the site of the gardens of Midas, at the northern extremity of Mount Bermius, where the Lydias comes forth from the mountains. ... Ægre was the natural capital of the land. With its foundation the history of Macedonia had its beginning; Ægre is the germ out of which the Macedonian empire grew."
E. Curtius, History of Greece, book 7, ch 1.
See, also, MACEDONIA.
EDESSA (Mesopotamia).
See OSRHŒNE.
EDESSA: The Church.
See CHRISTIANITY: A. D. 33-100, and 100-312.
EDESSA: The Theological School.
Sec NESTORIANS.
EDESSA: A. D. 260. Battle of.
See PERSIA: A. D. 226-627.
EDESSA: A. D. 1097-1144. The Frank principality.
On the march of the armies of the First Crusade, as they approached Syria, Baldwin, the able, selfish and self-willed brother of Godfrey of Bouillon, left the main body of the crusaders, with a band of followers, and moved off eastwards, seeking the prizes of a very worldly ambition, and leaving his devouter comrades to rescue the holy sepulchre without his aid. Good fortune rewarded his enterprise and he secured possession of the important city of Edessa. It was governed by a Greek prince, who owed allegiance to the Byzantine emperor, but who paid tribute to the Turks. "It had surrendered to Pouzan, one of the generals of Malek-shah, in the year 1087, but during the contests of the Turks and Saracens in the north of Syria it had recovered its independence. Baldwin now sullied the honour of the Franks, by exciting the people to murder their governor Theodore, and rebel against the Byzantine authority [other historians say that he was guilty of no more than a passive permission of these acts]; he then took possession of the place in his own name and founded the Frank principality of Edessa, which lasted about 47 years."
_G. Finlay, History of Byzantine and Greek Empires A. D. 716-1453, book 3, chapter 2, section 1._
See, also, CRUSADES: A. D, 1006-1099, and 1147-1149; also, JERUSALEM: A. D. 1099-1144.
----------EDESSA: End----------
EDGAR, King of Scotland, A. D.1098-1107. Edgar, King of Wessex, A. D. 958-975.
EDGECOTE, Battle of.
See BANBURY, BATTLE OF.
EDGEHILL OR KEYNTON, Battle of.
See ENGLAND: A. D. 1642 (OCTOBER-DECEMBER).
EDHEL
See ADEL.
EDHILING, OR ÆDHILING, The.
See ETHELING.
EDICT OF NANTES, and its revocation.
See FRANCE: A. D. 1508-1599, and 1681-1608.
EDICT OF RESTITUTION, The.
See GERMANY: A, D. 1627-1620.
EDICTS, Roman imperial.
See CORPUS JURIS CIVILIS.
EDINBURGH: Origin of the city.
See ENGLAND: A. D. 547-633.
EDINBURGH:11th Century. Made the capital of Scotland.
See SCOTLAND: A. D. 1066-1003.
EDINBURGH: A. D. 1544. Destroyed by the English.
See SCOTLAND: A. D. 1544-1548.
EDINBURGH: A. D. 1559-1560. Seized by the Lords of the Congregation. The Treaty of July, 1560.
See SCOTLAND: A. D. 1558-1560.
EDINBURGH: A. D. 1572-1573. n the civil war.
See SCOTLAND: A. D. 1570-1573.
EDINBURGH: A. D. 1637. Laud's Liturgy and the tumult at St. Giles'.
See SCOTLAND: A. D. 1637.
EDINBURGH: A. D. 1638. The signing of the National Covenant.
See SCOTLAND: A. D. 1638.
EDINBURGH: A. D. 1650. Surrender to Cromwell. Siege and reduction of the Castle.
See SCOTLAND: A. D. 1650 (SEPTEMBER); and 1651 (AUGUST).
EDINBURGH: A. D. 1688. Rioting and revolution.
See SCOTLAND: A. D. 1688-1690.
EDINBURGH: A. D. 1707. The city at the time of the union.
"Edinburgh, though still but a small town, excited the admiration of travellers who were acquainted with the greatest cities of England and the Continent; nor was their admiration entirely due to the singular beauty of its situation. The quaint architecture of the older houses--which sometimes rose to the height of nine, ten or eleven stories--indeed, carried back the mind to very barbarous times; for it was ascribed to the desire of the population to live as near as possible to the protection of the castle. The filth of the streets in the early years of the 18th century was indescribable. ... The new quarter, which now strikes every stranger by its spacious symmetry, was not begun till the latter half of the 18th century, but as early as 1723 an English traveller described the High Street as 'the stateliest street in the world.' ... Under the influence of the Kirk the public manners of the town were marked by much decorum and even austerity, but the populace were unusually susceptible of fierce political enthusiasm, and when excited they were extremely formidable. ... A city guard, composed chiefly of fierce Highlanders, armed and disciplined like regular soldiers, and placed under the control of the magistrates, was established in 1606; and it was not finally abolished till the present century. Edinburgh, at the beginning of the 18th century, was more than twice as large as any other Scotch town. Its population at the time of the union slightly exceeded 30,000, while that of Glasgow was not quite 15,000, that of Dundee not quite 10,000, and that of Perth about 7,000."
W. E. H. Lecky, History of England in the 18th Century, chapter 5 (volume 2).
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EDINBURGH: A. D. 1736. The Porteous Riot.
"The circumstances of the Porteous Riot are familiar wherever the English tongue is spoken, because they were made the dramatic opening of one of his finest stories by that admirable genius who, like Shakespeare in his plays, has conveyed to plain men more of the spirit and action of the past in noble fiction, than they would find in most professed chronicles of fact. The early scenes of the 'Heart of Midlothian' are an accurate account of the transaction which gave so much trouble to Queen Caroline and the minister [Walpole]. A smuggler who had excited the popular imagination by his daring and his chivalry was sentenced to be hanged; after his execution the mob pressed forward to cut down his body: Porteous, the captain of the City Guard, ordered his men to fire, and several persons were shot dead: he was tried for murder, convicted, and sentenced, but at the last moment a reprieve arrived from London, to the intense indignation of a crowd athirst for vengeance: four days later, under mysterious ringleaders who could never afterwards be discovered, fierce throngs suddenly gathered together at nightfall to the beat of drum, broke into the prison, dragged out the unhappy Porteous, and sternly hanged him on a dyer's pole close by the common place of public execution."
J. Morley, Walpole, chapter 9.
ALSO IN: J. McCarthy, History of the Four Georges, chapter 24 (volume 2).
EDINBURGH: A. D. 1745. The Young Pretender in the city.