Henley's Twentieth Century Formulas, Recipes and Processes (part 3 of 7)
Another point to be remembered in all cases of disinfection by formaldehyde is that a mechanical cleansing must precede the action of the antiseptic. If there are thick deposits of organic matter which can be easily dislodged with a scrubbing brush, they can only be disinfected by the use of large quantities of formaldehyde used during a long period of time.
«General Disinfectants.»—
I.—Alum 10 ounces Sodium carbonate 10 ounces Ammonium chloride 2 ounces Zinc chloride 1 ounce Sodium chloride 2 ounces Hydrochloric acid, quantity sufficient. Water to make 1 gallon.
Dissolve the alum in one half gallon of boiling water, and add the sodium carbonate; then add hydrochloric acid until the precipitate formed is dissolved. Dissolve the other salt in water and add to the previous solution. Finally add enough water to make the whole measure 1 gallon, and filter.
In use, this is diluted with 7 parts of water.
II.—For the Sick Room.—In using this ventilate frequently: Guaiac, 10 parts; eucalyptol, 8 parts; phenol, 6 parts; menthol, 4 parts; thymol, 2 parts; oil of cloves, 1 part; alcohol of 90 per cent, 170 parts.
Atomizer Liquid for Sick Rooms.—
III.—Eucalyptol 10 parts by weight Thyme oil 5 parts by weight Lemon oil 5 parts by weight Lavender oil 5 parts by weight Spirit, 90 per cent 110 parts by weight
To a pint of water a teaspoonful for evaporation.
Non-Poisonous Sheep Dips.—Paste.—
I.—Creosote (containing 15 per cent to 20 per cent of carbolic acid) 2 parts Stearine or Yorkshire grease specific gravity, 1340 1 part Black rosin, 5 per cent to 10 per cent.
Melt the rosin and add grease and soda lyes, and then add creosote cold.
II.—Creosote 1 part Crude hard rosin oil 1 part
Put rosin oil in copper and heat to about 220° F., and add as much caustic soda powder, 98 per cent strength, as the oil will take up. The quantity depends upon the amount of acetic acid in the oil. If too much soda is added it will remain at the bottom. When the rosin oil has taken up the soda add creosote, and let it stand.
«Odorless Disinfectants.»—
I.—Ferric chloride 4 parts Zinc chloride 5 parts Aluminum chloride 5 parts Calcium chloride 4 parts Manganese chloride 3 parts Water 69 parts
If desired, 10 grains thymol and 2 fluidrachms oil of rosemary, previously dissolved in about 12 fluidrachms of alcohol, may be added to each gallon.
II.—Alum 10 parts Sodium carbonate 10 parts Ammonium chloride 2 parts Sodium chloride 2 parts Zinc chloride 1 part Hydrochloric acid, sufficient. Water 100 parts
Dissolve the alum in about 50 parts boiling water and add the sodium carbonate. The resulting precipitate of aluminum hydrate dissolve with the aid of just sufficient hydrochloric acid, and add the other ingredients previously dissolved in the remainder of the water.
III.—Mercuric chloride 1 part Cupric sulphate 10 parts Zinc sulphate 50 parts Sodium chloride 65 parts Water to make 1,000 parts.
«Paris Salts.»—The disinfectant known by this name is a mixture made from the following recipe:
Zinc sulphate 49 parts Ammonia alum 49 parts Potash permanganate 1 part Lime 1 part
The ingredients are fused together, mixed with a little calcium chloride, and perfumed with thymol.
«Platt’s Chlorides.»—
I.—Aluminum sulphate 6 ounces Zinc chloride 1 1/2 ounces Sodium chloride 2 ounces Calcium chloride 3 ounces Water enough to make 2 pints.
II.—A more elaborate formula for a preparation said to resemble the proprietary article is as follows: {265}
Zinc, in strips 4 ounces Lead carbonate 2 ounces Chlorinated lime 1 ounce Magnesium carbonate 1/2 ounce Aluminum hydrate 1 1/2 ounces Potassium hydrate 1/2 ounce Hydrochloric acid 16 ounces Water 16 ounces Whiting, enough.
Dissolve the zinc in the acid; then add the other salts singly in the order named, letting each dissolve before the next is added. When all are dissolved add the water to the solution, and after a couple of hours add a little whiting to neutralize any excess of acid; then filter.
Zinc chloride ranks very low among disinfectants, and the use of such solutions as these, by giving a false sense of security from disease germs, may be the means of spreading rather than of checking the spread of sickness.
«Disinfecting Coating.»—Carbolic acid, 2 parts; manganese, 3 parts; calcium chloride, 2 parts; china clay, 10 parts; infusorial earth, 4 parts; dextrin, 2 parts; and water, 10 parts.
DISTEMPER IN CATTLE: See Veterinary Formulas.
DIURETIC BALL: See Veterinary Formulas.
DOG APPLICATIONS: See Insecticides.
«DOG BISCUIT.»
The waste portions of meat and tallow, including the skin and fiber, have for years been imported from South American tallow factories in the form of blocks. Most of the dog bread consists principally of these remnants, chopped and mixed with flour. They contain a good deal of firm fibrous tissue, and a large percentage of fat, but are lacking in nutritive salts, which must be added to make good dog bread, just as in the case of the meat flour made from the waste of meat extract factories. The flesh of dead animals is not used by any reputable manufacturers, for the reason that it gives a dark color to the dough, has an unpleasant odor, and if not properly sterilized would be injurious to dogs as a steady diet.
Wheat flour, containing as little bran as possible, is generally used, oats, rye, or Indian meal being only mixed in to make special varieties, or, as in the case of Indian meal, for cheapness. Rye flour would give a good flavor, but it dries slowly, and the biscuits would have to go through a special process of drying after baking, else they would mold and spoil. Dog bread must be made from good wheat flour, of a medium sort, mixed with 15 or 16 per cent of sweet, dry chopped meat, well baked and dried like pilot bread or crackers. This is the rule for all the standard dog bread on the market. There are admixtures which affect more or less its nutritive value, such as salt, vegetables, chopped bones, or bone meal, phosphate of lime, and other nutritive salts. In preparing the dough and in baking, care must be taken to keep it light and porous.
DOG DISEASES AND THEIR REMEDIES: See Veterinary Formulas.
DOG SOAP: See Soap.
DONARITE: See Explosives.
DOORS, TO CLEAN: See Cleaning Preparations and Methods.
«DOSES FOR ADULTS AND CHILDREN.»
The usual method pursued by medical men in calculating the doses of medicine for children is to average the dose in proportion to their approximate weight or to figure out a dose upon the assumption that at 12 years of age half of an adult dose will be about right. Calculated on this basis the doses for those under 12 will be in direct proportion to the age in years plus 12, divided into the age. By this rule a child 1 year old should get 1 plus 12, or 13, dividing 1, or 1/13 of an adult dose. If the child is 2 years old it should get 2 plus 12, or 14, dividing 2, or 1/7 of an adult dose. A child of 3 years should get 3 plus 12, or 15, dividing 3, or 1/5 of an adult dose. A child of 4 should get 4 plus 12, or 16, dividing 4, or 1/4 of an adult dose.
As both children and adults vary materially in size when of the same age the calculation by approximate weights is the more accurate way. Taking the weight of the average adult as 150 pounds, then a boy, man, or woman, whatever the age, weighing only 75 pounds should receive only one-half of an adult dose, and a man of 300 pounds, provided his weight is the result of a properly proportioned body, and not due to mere adipose {266} tissue, should be double that of the average adult. If the weight is due to mere fat or to some diseased condition of the body, such a calculation would be entirely wrong. The object of the calculation is to get as nearly as possible to the amount of dilution the dose undergoes in the blood or in the intestinal contents of the patient. Each volume of blood should receive exactly the same dose in order to give the same results, other conditions being equal.
DOSE TABLE FOR VETERINARY PURPOSES: See Veterinary Formulas.
«DRAWINGS, PRESERVATION OF.»
Working designs and sketches are easily soiled and rendered unsuitable for further use. This can be easily avoided by coating them with collodion, to which 24 per cent of stearine from a good stearine candle has been added. Lay the drawing on a glass plate or a board, and pour on the collodion, as the photographer treats his plates. After 10 or 20 minutes the design will be dry and perfectly white, possessing a dull luster, and being so well protected that it may be washed off with water without fear of spoiling it.
DRAWINGS, TO CLEAN: See Cleaning Preparations and Methods.
DRIERS: See Siccatives.
DRILLING, LUBRICANT FOR: See Lubricants.
DRINKS FOR SUMMER AND WINTER: See Beverages.
DROPS, TABLE OF: See Tables.
DRYING OILS: See Oil.
DRY ROT: See Rot.
DUBBING FOR LEATHER: See Lubricants.
DUST-LAYING: See Oil.
DUST PREVENTERS AND DUST CLOTHS: See Household Formulas.
«Dyes»
In accordance with the requirements of dyers, many of the following recipes describe dyes for large quantities of goods, but to make them equally adapted for the use of private families they are usually given in even quantities, so that it is an easy matter to ascertain the quantity of materials required for dyeing, when once the weight of the goods is known, the quantity of materials used being reduced in proportion to the smaller quantity of goods.
Employ soft water for all dyeing purposes, if it can be procured, using 4 gallons water to 1 pound of goods; for larger quantities a little less water will do. Let all the implements used in dyeing be kept perfectly clean. Prepare the goods by scouring well with soap and water, washing out the soap well, and dipping in warm water, before immersion in the dye or mordant. Goods should be well aired, rinsed, and properly hung up after dyeing. Silks and fine goods should be tenderly handled, otherwise injury to the fabric will result.
«Aniline Black.»—Water, 20 to 30 parts; chlorate of potassa, 1 part; sal ammoniac, 1 part; chloride of copper, 1 part; aniline and hydrochloric acid, each 1 part, previously mixed together. It is essential that the preparation should be acid, and the more acid it is the more rapid will be the production of the blacks; if too much so, it may injure the fabric. The fabric or yarn is dried in ageing rooms at a low temperature for 24 hours, and washed afterwards.
«Black on Cotton.»—For 40 pounds goods, use sumac, 30 pounds; boil 3/4 of an hour; let the goods steep overnight, and immerse them in limewater, 40 minutes, remove, and allow them to drip 3/4 of an hour; add copperas, 4 pounds, to the sumac liquor, and dip 1 hour more; next work them through limewater for 20 minutes; then make a new dye of logwood, 20 pounds, boil 2 1/2 hours, and enter the goods 3 hours; then add bichromate of potash, 1 pound, to the new dye, and dip 1 hour more. Work in clean cold water and dry out of the sun.
«Black Straw Hat Varnish.»—Best alcohol, 4 ounces; pulverized black sealing wax, 1 ounce. Place in a phial, and put the phial into a warm place, stirring or shaking occasionally until the wax is dissolved. Apply it when warm before the fire or in the sun. This makes a beautiful gloss. {267}
«Chrome Black for Wool.»—For 40 pounds of goods, use blue vitriol, 3 pounds; boil a short time, then dip the wool or fabric 3/4 of an hour, airing frequently. Take out the goods, and make a dye with logwood, 24 pounds; boil 1/2 hour, dip 3/4 of an hour, air the goods, and dip 1/4 of an hour longer; then wash in strong soapsuds. A good fast color.
«Black Dye on Wool, for Mixtures.»—For 50 pounds of wool, take bichromate of potash, 1 pound, 4 ounces; ground argal, 15 ounces; boil together and put in the fabric, stirring well, and let it remain in the dye 5 hours. Take it out, rinse slightly in clean water, then make a new dye, into which put logwood, 1 1/2 pounds. Boil 1 1/4 hours, adding chamber lye, 5 pints. Let the fabric remain in all night, and wash out in clean water.
«Bismarck Brown.»—Mix together 1 pound Bismarck, 5 gallons water, and 3/4 pound sulphuric acid. This paste dissolves easily in hot water and may be used directly for dyeing. A liquid dye may be prepared by making the bulk of the above mixture to 2 gallons with alcohol. To dye, sour with sulphuric acid; add a quantity of sulphate of soda, immerse the wool, and add the color by small portions, keeping the temperature under 212° F. Very interesting shades may be developed by combining the color with indigo paste or picric acid.
«Chestnut Brown for Straw Bonnets.»—For 25 hats, use ground sanders, 1 1/2 pounds; ground curcuma, 2 pounds; powdered gallnuts or sumac, 3/4 pound; rasped logwood, 1/10 pound. Boil together with the hats in a large kettle (so as not to crowd), for 2 hours, then withdraw the hats, rinse, and let them remain overnight in a bath of nitrate of 4° Bé., when they are washed. A darker brown may be obtained by increasing the quantity of sanders. To give the hats the desired luster, they are brushed with a brush of couchgrass, when dry.
«Cinnamon or Brown for Cotton and Silk.»—Give the goods as much color, from a solution of blue vitriol, 2 ounces, to water, 1 gallon, as they will take up in dipping 15 minutes; then turn them through limewater. This will make a beautiful sky blue of much durability. The fabric should next be run through a solution of prussiate of potash, 1 ounce, to water, 1 gallon.
«Brown Dye for Cotton or Linen.»—Give the pieces a mixed mordant of acetate of alumina and acetate of iron, and then dye them in a bath of madder, or madder and fustic. When the acetate of alumina predominates, the dye has an amaranth tint. A cinnamon tint is obtained by first giving a mordant of alum, next a madder bath, then a bath of fustic, to which a little green copperas has been added.
«Brown for Silk.»—Dissolve annatto, 1 pound; pearlash, 4 pounds, in boiling water, and pass the silk through it for 2 hours; then take it out, squeeze well, and dry. Next give it a mordant of alum, and pass through a bath of brazil wood, and afterwards through a bath of logwood, to which a little green copperas has been added; wring it out and dry; afterwards rinse well.
«Brown Dye for Wool.»—This may be induced by a decoction of oak bark, with variety of shade according to the quantity employed. If the goods be first passed through a mordant of alum the color will be brightened.
«Brown for Cotton.»—Catechu or terra japonica gives cotton a brown color; blue vitriol turns it to the bronze; green copperas darkens it, when applied as a mordant and the stuff is boiled in the bath. Acetate of alumina as a mordant brightens it. The French color Carmelite is given with catechu, 1 pound; verdigris, 4 ounces; and sal ammoniac, 5 ounces.
«Dark Snuff Brown for Wool.»—For 50 pounds of goods, take camwood, 10 pounds, boil for 20 minutes, then dip the goods for 3/4 of an hour; take them out, and add to the dye, fustic, 25 pounds, boil 12 minutes, and dip the goods 3/4 of an hour; then add blue vitriol, 10 ounces, copperas, 2 pounds, 8 ounces; dip again 40 minutes. Add more copperas if the shade is required darker.
«Brown for Wool and Silk.»—Infusion or decoction of walnut peels dyes wool and silk a brown color, which is brightened by alum. Horse-chestnut peels also impart a brown color; a mordant of muriate of tin turns it on the bronze, and sugar of lead the reddish brown.
«Alkali Blue and Nicholson’s Blue.»—Dissolve 1 pound of the dye in 10 gallons boiling water, and add this by small portions to the dye bath, which should be rendered alkaline by borax. The fabric should be well worked about between each addition of the color. The temperature must be kept under 212° F. To develop the color, wash with water {268} and pass through a bath containing sulphuric acid.
«Aniline Blue.»—To 100 pounds of fabric, dissolve 1 1/4 pounds aniline blue in 3 quarts hot alcohol, strain through a filter, and add it to a bath of 130° F.; also 10 pounds Glauber’s salts, and 5 pounds acetic acid. Immerse the goods and handle them well for 20 minutes. Next heat slowly to 200° F.; then add 5 pounds sulphuric acid diluted with water. Let the whole boil 20 minutes longer; then rinse and dry. If the aniline be added in 2 or 3 proportions during the process of coloring, it will facilitate the evenness of the color.
«Blue on Cotton.»—For 40 pounds of goods, use copperas, 2 pounds; boil and dip 20 minutes; dip in soapsuds, and return to the dye 3 or 4 times; then make a new bath with prussiate of potash, 1/2 pound; oil of vitriol, 1 1/4 pints; boil 1/2 hour, rinse out and dry.
«Sky Blue on Cotton.»—For 60 pounds of goods, blue vitriol, 5 pounds. Boil a short time, then enter the goods, dip 3 hours, and transfer to a bath of strong limewater. A fine brown color will be imparted to the goods if they are then put through a solution of prussiate of potash.
«Blue Dye for Hosiery.»—One hundred pounds of wool are colored with 4 pounds Guatemala or 3 pounds Bengal indigo, in the soda or wood vat. Then boil in a kettle a few minutes, 5 pounds of cudbear or 8 pounds of archil paste; add 1 pound of soda, or, better, 1 pail of urine; then cool the dye to about 170° F. and enter the wool. Handle well for about 20 minutes, then take it out, cool, rinse, and dry. It makes no difference whether the cudbear is put in before or after the indigo. Three ounces of aniline purple dissolved in alcohol, 1/2 pint, can be used instead of the cudbear. Wood spirit is cheaper than alcohol, and is much used by dyers for the purpose of dissolving aniline colors. It produces a very pretty shade, but should never be used on mixed goods which have to be bleached.
«Dark-Blue Dye.»—This dye is suitable for thibets and lastings. Boil 100 pounds of the fabric for 1 1/2 hours in a solution of alum, 25 pounds; tartar, 4 pounds; mordant, 6 pounds; extract of indigo, 6 pounds; cool as usual. Boil in fresh water from 8 to 10 pounds of logwood, in a bag or otherwise, then cool the dye to 170° F. Reel the fabric quickly at first, then let it boil strongly for 1 hour. This is a very good imitation of indigo blue.
«Saxon Blue.»—For 100 pounds thibet or comb yarn, use alum, 20 pounds; cream of tartar, 3 pounds; mordant, 2 pounds; extract of indigo, 3 pounds; or carmine, 1 pound, makes a better color. When all is dissolved, cool the kettle to 180° F.; enter and handle quickly at first, then let the fabric boil 1/2 hour, or until even. Long boiling dims the color. Zephyr worsted yarn ought to be prepared, first, by boiling it in a solution of alum and sulphuric acid; the indigo is added afterwards.
«Logwood and Indigo Blue.»—For 100 pounds of cloth. Color the cloth first by one or two dips in the vat of indigo blue, and rinse it well, and then boil it in a solution of 20 pounds of alum, 2 pounds of half-refined tartar, and 5 pounds of mordant, for 2 hours; finally take it out and cool. In fresh water boil 10 pounds of good logwood for half an hour in a bag or otherwise; cool off to 170° F. before entering. Handle well over a reel, let it boil for half an hour; then take it out, cool and rinse. This is a very firm blue.
«Blue Purple for Silk.»—For 40 pounds of goods, take bichromate of potash, 8 ounces; alum, 1 pound; dissolve all and bring the water to a boil, and put in the goods; boil 1 hour. Then empty the dye, and make a new dye with logwood, 8 pounds, or extract of logwood, 1 pound 4 ounces, and boil in this 1 hour longer. Grade the color by using more or less logwood, as dark or light color is wanted.
«Blue Purple for Wool.»—One hundred pounds of wool are first dipped in the blue vat to a light shade, then boiled in a solution of 15 pounds of alum and 3 pounds of half-refined tartar, for 1 1/2 hours, the wool taken out, cooled, and let stand 24 hours. Then boil in fresh water 8 pounds of powdered cochineal for a few minutes, cool the kettle to 170° F. Handle the prepared wool in this for 1 hour, when it is ready to cool, rinse and dry. By coloring first with cochineal, as aforesaid, and finishing in the blue vat, the fast purple or dahlia, so much admired in German broadcloths, will be produced. Tin acids must not be used in this color.
«To Make Extract of Indigo Blue.»—Take of vitriol, 2 pounds, and stir into it finely pulverized indigo, 8 ounces, stirring briskly for the first half hour; then {269} cover up, and stir 4 or 5 times daily for a few days. Add a little pulverized chalk, stirring it up, and keep adding it as long as it foams; it will neutralize the acid. Keep it closely corked.
«Light Silver Drab.»—For 50 pounds of goods, use logwood, 1/2 pound; alum, about the same quantity; boil well, enter the goods, and dip them for 1 hour. Grade the color to any desired shade by using equal parts of logwood and alum.
«GRAY DYES:»
«Slate Dye for Silk.»—For a small quantity, take a pan of warm water and about a teacupful of logwood liquor, pretty strong, and a piece of pearlash the size of a nut; take gray-colored goods and handle a little in this liquid, and it is finished. If too much logwood is used, the color will be too dark.
«Slate for Straw Hats.»—First, soak in rather strong warm suds for 15 minutes to remove sizing or stiffening; then rinse in warm water to get out the soap. Scald cudbear, 1 ounce, in sufficient water to cover the hat; work it in this dye at 180° F., until a light purple is obtained. Have a vessel of cold water, blued with the extract of indigo, 1/2 ounce, and work or stir the bonnet in this until the tint pleases. Dry, then rinse out with cold water, and dry again in the shade. If the purple is too deep in shade the final slate will be too dark.
«Silver Gray for Straw.»—For 25 hats, select the whitest hats and soften them in a bath of crystallized soda to which some clean limewater has been added. Boil for 2 hours in a large vessel, using for a bath a decoction of the following: Alum, 4 pounds; tartaric acid, 3/8 pound; some ammoniacal cochineal, and carmine of indigo. A little sulphuric acid may be necessary in order to neutralize the alkali of the cochineal dye. If the last-mentioned ingredients are used, let the hats remain for an hour longer in the boiling bath, then rinse in slightly acidulated water.
«Dark Steel.»—Mix black and white wool together in the proportion of 50 pounds of black wool to 7 1/2 pounds of white. For large or small quantities, keep the same proportion, mixing carefully and thoroughly.
«GREEN DYES:»
«Aniline Green for Silk.»—Iodine green or night green dissolves easily in warm water. For a liquid dye 1 pound may be dissolved in 1 gallon alcohol, and mixed with 2 gallons water, containing 1 ounce sulphuric acid.
«Aniline Green for Wool.»—Prepare two baths, one containing the dissolved dye and a quantity of carbonate of soda or borax. In this the wool is placed, and the temperature raised to 212° F. A grayish green is produced, which must be brightened and fixed in a second bath of water 100° F., to which some acetic acid has been added. Cotton requires preparation by sumac.
«Green for Cotton.»—For 40 pounds of goods, use fustic, 10 pounds; blue vitriol, 10 ounces; soft soap, 2 1/2 quarts; and logwood chips, 1 pound 4 ounces. Soak the logwood overnight in a brass vessel, and put it on the fire in the morning, adding the other ingredients. When quite hot it is ready for dyeing; enter the goods at once, and handle well. Different shades may be obtained by letting part of the goods remain longer in the dye.
«Green for Silk.»—Boil green ebony in water, and let it settle. Take the clear liquor as hot as the hands can bear, and handle the goods in it until of a bright yellow. Take water and put in a little sulphate of indigo; handle goods in this till of the shade desired. The ebony may previously be boiled in a bag to prevent it from sticking to the silk.
«Green for Wool and Silk.»—Take equal quantities of yellow oak and hickory bark, make a strong yellow bath by boiling, and shade to the desired tint by adding a small quantity of extract of indigo.
«Green Fustic Dye.»—For 50 pounds of goods, use 50 pounds of fustic with alum, 11 pounds. Soak in water until the strength is extracted, put in the goods until of a good yellow color, remove the chips, and add extract of indigo in small quantities at a time, until the color is satisfactory.
«PURPLE AND VIOLET DYES:»
«Aniline Violet and Purple.»—Acidulate the bath by sulphuric acid, or use sulphate of soda; both these substances render the shade bluish. Dye at 212° F. To give a fair middle shade to 10 pounds of wool, a quantity of solution equal to 1/2 to 3/4 ounces of the solid dye will be required. The color of the dyed fabric is improved by washing in soap and water, and then passing through a bath soured by sulphuric acid.
«Purple.»—For 40 pounds of goods, use {270} alum, 3 pounds; muriate of tin, 4 teacups; pulverized cochineal, 1 pound; cream of tartar, 2 pounds. Boil the alum, tin, and cream of tartar, for 20 minutes, add the cochineal and boil 5 minutes; immerse the goods 2 hours; remove and enter them in a new dye composed of brazil wood, 3 pounds; logwood, 7 pounds; alum, 4 pounds, and muriate of tin, 8 cupfuls, adding a little extract of indigo.
«Purple for Cotton.»—Get up a tub of hot logwood liquor, enter 3 pieces, give them 5 ends, and hedge out. Enter them in a clean alum tub, give them 5 ends, and hedge out. Get up another tub of logwood liquor, enter, give them 5 ends, and hedge out; renew the alum tub, give 5 ends in that, and finish.
«Purple for Silk.»—For 10 pounds of goods, enter the goods in a blue dye bath, and secure a light-blue color, dry, and dip in a warm solution containing alum, 2 1/2 pounds. Should a deeper color be required, add a little extract of indigo.
«Solferino and Magenta for Woolen, Silk, or Cotton.»—For 1 pound of woolen goods, magenta shade, 96 grains, apothecaries’ weight, of aniline red, will be required. Dissolve in a little warm alcohol, using, say, 6 fluidounces, or about 6 gills alcohol per ounce of aniline. Many dyers use wood spirits because of its cheapness. For a solferino shade, use 64 grains aniline red, and dissolve in 4 ounces alcohol, to each 1 pound of goods. Cold water, 1 quart, will dissolve these small quantities of aniline red, but the cleanest and quickest way will be found by using the alcohol, or wood spirits. Clean the cloth and goods by steeping at a gentle heat in weak soapsuds, rinse in several masses of clean water and lay aside moist. The alcoholic solution of aniline is to be added from time to time to the warm or hot dye bath, till the color on the goods is of the desired shade. The goods are to be removed from the dye bath before each addition of the alcoholic solution, and the bath is to be well stirred before the goods are returned. The alcoholic solution should be first dropped into a little water, and well mixed, and the mixture should then be strained into the dye bath. If the color is not dark enough after working from 20 to 30 minutes, repeat the removal of the goods from the bath, and the addition of the solution, and the re-immersion of the goods from 15 to 30 minutes more, or until suited, then remove from the bath and rinse in several masses of clean water, and dry in the shade. Use about 4 gallons water for dye bath for 1 pound of goods; less water for larger quantities.
«Violet for Silk or Wool.»—A good violet dye may be given by passing the goods first through a solution of verdigris, then through a decoction of logwood, and lastly through alum water. A fast violet may be given by dyeing the goods crimson with cochineal, without alum or tartar, and after rinsing passing them through the indigo vat. Linens or cottons are first galled with 18 per cent of gallnuts, next passed through a mordant of alum, iron liquor, and sulphate of copper, working them well, then worked in a madder bath made with an equal weight of root, and lastly brightened with soap or soda.
«Violet for Straw Bonnets.»—Take alum, 4 pounds; tartaric acid, 1 pound; chloride of tin, 1 pound. Dissolve and boil, allowing the hats to remain in the boiling solution 2 hours; then add enough decoction of logwood, carmine, and indigo to induce the desired shade, and rinse finally in water in which some alum has been dissolved.
«Wine Color.»—For 50 pounds of goods, use camwood, 10 pounds, and boil 20 minutes; dip the goods 1/2 hour, boil again, and dip 40 minutes; then darken with blue vitriol, 15 ounces, and 5 pounds of copperas.
«Lilac for Silk.»—For 5 pounds of silk, use archil, 7 1/2 pounds, and mix well with the liquor. Make it boil 1 hour, and dip the silk quickly; then let it cool, and wash in river water. A fine half violet, or lilac, more or less full, will be obtained.
«RED, CRIMSON, AND PINK DYES:»
«Aniline Red.»—Inclose the aniline in a small muslin bag. Have a kettle (tin or brass) filled with moderately hot water and rub the substance out. Then immerse the goods to be colored, and in a short time they are done. It improves the color to wring the goods out of strong soapsuds before putting them in the dye. This is a permanent color on wool or silk.
«Red Madder.»—To 100 pounds of fabric, use 20 pounds of alum, 5 pounds of tartar, and 5 pounds of muriate of tin. When these are dissolved, enter the goods and let them boil for 2 hours, then take out, let cool, and lay overnight. Into fresh water, stir 75 pounds of good {271} madder, and enter the fabric at 120° F. and bring it up to 200° F. in the course of an hour. Handle well to secure evenness, then rinse and dry.
«Red for Wool.»—For 40 pounds of goods, make a tolerably thick paste of lac dye and sulphuric acid, and allow it to stand for a day. Then take tartar, 4 pounds, tin liquor, 2 pounds 8 ounces, and 3 pounds of the paste; make a hot bath with sufficient water, and enter the goods for 3/4 hour; afterwards carefully rinse and dry.
«Crimson for Silk.»—For 1 pound of goods, use alum, 3 ounces; dip at hand heat 1 hour; take out and drain, while making a new dye, by boiling for 10 minutes, cochineal, 3 ounces; bruised nutgalls, 2 ounces; and cream of tartar, 1/2 ounce, in 1 pail of water. When a little cool begin to dip, raising the heat to a boil, continuing to dip 1 hour. Wash and dry.
«Aniline Scarlet.»—For every 40 pounds of goods, dissolve 5 pounds white vitriol (sulphate of zinc) at 180° F., place the goods in this bath for 10 minutes, then add the color, prepared by boiling for a few minutes, 1 pound aniline scarlet in 3 gallons water, stirring the same continually. This solution has to be filtered before being added to the bath. The goods remain in the latter for 15 minutes, when they have become browned and must be boiled for another half hour in the same bath after the solution of sal ammoniac. The more of this is added the deeper will be the shade.
«Scarlet with Cochineal.»—For 50 pounds of wool, yarn, or cloth, use cream of tartar, 1 pound 9 ounces; cochineal, pulverized, 12 1/2 ounces; muriate of tin or scarlet spirit, 8 pounds. After boiling the dye, enter the goods, work them well for 15 minutes, then boil them 1 1/2 hours, slowly agitating the goods while boiling, wash in clean water, and dry out of the sun.
«Scarlet with Lac Dye.»—For 100 pounds of flannel or yarn, take 25 pounds of ground lac dye, 15 pounds of scarlet spirit (made as per directions below), 5 pounds of tartar, 1 pound of flavine, or according to shade, 1 pound of tin crystals, 5 pounds of muriatic acid. Boil all for 15 minutes, then cool the dye to 170° F. Enter the goods, and handle them quickly at first. Let boil 1 hour, and rinse while yet hot, before the gum and impurities harden. This color stands scouring with soap better than cochineal scarlet. A small quantity of sulphuric acid may be added to dissolve the gum.
«Muriate of Tin or Scarlet Spirit.»—Take 16 pounds muriatic acid, 22° Bé.; 1 pound feathered tin, and water, 2 pounds. The acid should be put in a stoneware pot, and the tin added, and allowed to dissolve. The mixture should be kept a few days before using. The tin is feathered or granulated by melting in a suitable vessel, and pouring it from a height of about 5 feet into a pailful of water. This is a most powerful agent in certain colors, such as scarlets, oranges, pinks, etc.
«Pink for Cotton.»—For 40 pounds of goods, use redwood, 20 pounds; muriate of tin, 2 1/2 pounds. Boil the redwood 1 hour, turn off into a large vessel, add the muriate of tin, and put in the goods. Let it stand 5 or 10 minutes, and a good fast pink will be produced.
«Pink for Wool.»—For 60 pounds of goods, take alum, 5 pounds 12 ounces; boil and immerse the goods 50 minutes; then add to the dye cochineal well pulverized, 1 pound, 4 ounces; cream of tartar, 5 pounds; boil and enter the goods while boiling, until the color is satisfactory.
«YELLOW, ORANGE, AND BRONZE DYES:»
«Aniline Yellow.»—This color is slightly soluble in water, and for dyers’ use may be used directly for the preparation of the bath dye, but is best used by dissolving 1 pound of dye in 2 gallons alcohol. Temperature of bath should be under 200° F. The color is much improved and brightened by a trace of sulphuric acid.
«Yellow for Cotton.»—For 40 pounds goods, use sugar of lead, 3 pounds 8 ounces; dip the goods 2 hours. Make a new dye with bichromate of potash, 2 pounds; dip until the color suits, wring out and dry. If not yellow enough repeat the operation.
«Yellow for Silk.»—For 10 pounds of goods, use sugar of lead, ounces; alum, 2 pounds. Enter the goods, and let them remain 12 hours; remove them, drain, and make a new dye with fustic, 10 pounds. Immerse until the color suits.
«Orange.»—I.—For 50 pounds of goods, use argal, 3 pounds; muriate of tin, 1 quart; boil and dip 1 hour; then add to the dye, fustic, 25 pounds; madder, 2 1/2 {272} quarts; and dip again 40 minutes. If preferred, cochineal, 1 pound 4 ounces, may be used instead of the madder, as a better color is induced by it.
II.—For 40 pounds of goods, use sugar of lead, 2 pounds, and boil 15 minutes. When a little cool, enter the goods, and dip for 2 hours, wring them out, make a fresh dye with bichromate of potash, 4 pounds; madder, 1 pound, and immerse until the desired color is secured. The shade may be varied by dipping in limewater.
«Bronze.»—Sulphate or muriate of manganese dissolved in water with a little tartaric acid imparts a beautiful bronze tint. The stuff after being put through the solution must be turned through a weak lye of potash, and afterwards through another of chloride of lime, to brighten and fix it.
Prussiate of copper gives a bronze or yellowish-brown color to silk. The piece well mordanted with blue vitriol may be passed through a solution of prussiate of potash.
«Mulberry for Silk.»—For 5 pounds of silk, use alum, 1 pound 4 ounces; dip 50 minutes, wash out, and make a dye with brazil wood, 5 ounces, and logwood, 1 1/4 ounces, by boiling together. Dip in this 1/2 hour; then add more brazil wood and logwood, equal parts, until the color suits.
«FEATHER DYES.»
I.—Cut some white curd soap in small pieces, pour boiling water on them, and add a little pearlash. When the soap is quite dissolved, and the mixture cool enough for the hand to bear, plunge the feathers into it, and draw them through the hand till the dirt appears squeezed out of them; pass them through a clean lather with some blue in it; then rinse them in cold water with blue to give them a good color. Beat them against the hand to shake off the water, and dry by shaking them near a fire. When perfectly dry, coil each fiber separately with a blunt knife or ivory folder.
II.—Black.—Immerse for 2 or 3 days in a bath, at first hot, of logwood, 8 parts, and copperas or acetate of iron, 1 part.
III.—Blue.—Same as II, but with the indigo vat.
IV.—Brown.—By using any of the brown dyes for silk or woolen.
V.—Crimson.—A mordant of alum, followed by a hot bath of brazil wood, afterwards by a weak dye of cudbear.
VI.—Pink or Rose.—With safflower or lemon juice.
VII.—Plum.—With the red dye, followed by an alkaline bath.
VIII.—Red.—A mordant of alum, followed by a bath of brazil wood.
IX.—Yellow.—A mordant of alum, followed by a bath of turmeric or weld.
X.—Green.—Take of verdigris and verditer, of each 1 ounce; gum water, 1 pint; mix them well and dip the feathers, they having been first soaked in hot water, into the said mixture.
XI.—Purple.—Use lake and indigo.
XII.—Carnation.—Vermilion and smalt.
«DYES FOR ARTIFICIAL FLOWERS.»
The French employ velvet, fine cambric, and kid for the petals, and taffeta for the leaves. Very recently thin plates of bleached whalebone have been used for some portions of the artificial flowers.
Colors and Stains.—I.—Blue.—Indigo dissolved in oil of vitriol, and the acid partly neutralized with salt of tartar or whiting.
II.—Green.—A solution of distilled verdigris.
III.—Lilac.—Liquid archil.
IV.—Red.—Carmine dissolved in a solution of salt of tartar, or in spirits of hartshorn.
V.—Violet.—Liquid archil mixed with a little salt of tartar.
VI.—Yellow.—Tincture of turmeric. The colors are generally applied with the fingers.
«DYES FOR FURS:»
I.—Brown.—Use tincture of logwood.
II.—Red.—Use ground brazil wood, 1/2 pound; water, 1 1/2 quarts; cochineal, 1/2 ounce; boil the brazil wood in the water 1 hour; strain and add the cochineal; boil 15 minutes.
III.—Scarlet.—Boil 1/2 ounce saffron in 1/2 pint of water, and pass over the work before applying the red.
IV.—Blue.—Use logwood, 7 ounces; blue vitriol, 1 ounce; water, 22 ounces; boil.
V.—Purple.—Use logwood, 11 ounces; alum, 6 ounces; water, 29 ounces.
VI.—Green.—Use strong vinegar, 1 1/2 pints; best verdigris, 2 ounces, ground fine; sap green, 1/4 ounce; mix all together and boil. {273}
«DYES FOR HATS.»
The hats should be at first strongly galled by boiling a long time in a decoction of galls with a little logwood so that the dye may penetrate into their substance; after which a proper quantity of vitriol and decoction of logwood, with a little verdigris, are added, and the hats kept in this mixture for a considerable time. They are afterwards put into a fresh liquor of logwood, galls, vitriol, and verdigris, and, when the hats are costly, or of a hair which with difficulty takes the dye, the same process is repeated a third time. For obtaining the most perfect color, the hair or wool is dyed blue before it is formed into hats.
The ordinary bath for dyeing hats, employed by London manufacturers, consists, for 12 dozen, of 144 pounds of logwood; 12 pounds of green sulphate of iron or copperas; 7 1/2 pounds verdigris. The logwood having been introduced into the copper and digested for some time, the copperas and verdigris are added in successive quantities, and in the above proportions, along with every successive 2 or 3 dozen of hats suspended upon the dripping machine. Each set of hats, after being exposed to the bath with occasional airings during 40 minutes, is taken off the pegs, and laid out upon the ground to be more completely blackened by the peroxydizement of the iron with the atmospheric oxygen. In 3 or 4 hours the dyeing is completed. When fully dyed, the hats are well washed in running water.
Straw hats or bonnets may be dyed black by boiling them 3 or 4 hours in a strong liquor of logwood, adding a little copperas occasionally. Let the bonnets remain in the liquor all night; then take out to dry in the air. If the black is not satisfactory, dye again after drying. Rub inside and out with a sponge moistened in fine oil; then block.
I.—Red Dye.—Boil ground brazil wood in a lye of potash, and boil your straw hats in it.
II.—Blue Dye.—Take a sufficient quantity of potash lye, 1 pound of litmus or lacmus, ground; make a decoction and then put in the straw, and boil it.
«TO DYE, STIFFEN, AND BLEACH FELT HATS.»
Felt hats are dyed by repeated immersion, drawing and dipping in a hot watery solution of logwood, 38 parts; green vitriol, 3 parts; verdigris, 2 parts; repeat the immersions and drawing with exposure to the air 13 or 14 times, or until the color suits, each step in the process lasting from 10 to 15 minutes. Aniline colors may be advantageously used instead of the above. For a stiffening, dissolve borax, 10 parts; carbonate of potash, 3 parts, in hot water; then add shellac, 50 parts, and boil until all is dissolved; apply with a sponge or a brush, or by immersing the hat when it is cold, and dip at once in very dilute sulphuric or acetic acid to neutralize the alkali and fix the shellac. Felt hats can be bleached by the use of sulphuric acid gas.
«LIQUID DYE COLORS.»
These colors, thickened with a little gum, may be used as inks in writing, or as colors to tint maps, foils, artificial flowers, etc., or to paint on velvet:
I.—Blue.—Dilute Saxon blue or sulphate of indigo with water. If required for delicate work, neutralize with chalk.
II.—Purple.—Add a little alum to a strained decoction of logwood.
III.—Green.—Dissolve sap green in water and add a little alum.
IV.—Yellow.—Dissolve annatto in a weak lye of subcarbonate of soda or potash.
V.—Golden Color.—Steep French berries in hot water, strain, and add a little gum and alum.
VI.—Red.—Dissolve carmine in ammonia, or in weak carbonate of potash water, or infuse powdered cochineal in water, strain, and add a little gum in water.
«UNCLASSIFIED DYERS’ RECIPES:»
«To Cleanse Wool.»—Make a hot bath composed of water, 4 parts; and urine, 1 part; enter the wool, teasing and opening it out to admit the full action of the liquid. After 20 minutes’ immersion, remove from the liquid and allow it to drain; then rinse in clean running water, and spread out to dry. The liquid is good for subsequent operations, only keep up the proportions, and use no soap.
«To Extract Oil Spots from Finished Goods.»—Saturate the spot with benzine; then place two pieces of very soft blotting paper under and two upon it, press well with a hot iron, and the grease will be absorbed.
«New Mordant for Aniline Colors.»—Immerse the goods for some hours in a bath of cold water in which chloride or acetate of zinc has been dissolved until the solution shows 2° Bé. For the wool the {274} mordanting bath should be at a boiling heat, and the goods should also be placed in a warm bath of tannin, 90° F., for half an hour. In dyeing, a hot solution of the color must be used to which should be added, in the case of the cotton, some chloride of zinc, and, in the case of the wool, a certain amount of tannin solution.
«To Render Aniline Colors Soluble in Water.»—A solution of gelatin in acetic acid of almost the consistence of syrups is first made, and the aniline in fine is gradually added, stirring all the time so as to make a homogeneous paste. The mixture is then to be heated over a water bath to the temperature of boiling water and kept at that heat for some time.
«Limewater for Dyers’ Use.»—Put some lime, 1 pound, and strong limewater, 1 1/2 pounds, into a pail of water; rummage well for 7 or 8 minutes. Then let it rest until the lime is precipitated and the water clear; add this quantity to a tubful of clear water.
«To Renew Old Silks.»—Unravel and put them in a tub, cover with cold water, and let them remain 1 hour. Dip them up and down, but do not wring; hang up to drain, and iron while very damp.
«Fuller’s Purifier for Cloths.»—Dry, pulverize, and sift the following ingredients: Fuller’s earth, 6 pounds; French chalk, 4 ounces; pipe clay, 1 pound. Make into a paste with rectified oil of turpentine, 1 ounce; alcohol, 2 ounces; melted oil soap, 1 1/2 pounds. Compound the mixture into cakes of any desired size, keeping them in water, or small wooden boxes.
«To Fix Dyes.»—Dissolve 20 ounces of gelatin in water, and add 3 ounces of bichromate of potash. This is done in a dark room. The coloring matter is then added and the goods submitted thereto, after which they are exposed to the action of light. The pigment thus becomes insoluble in water and the color is fast.
«DYES AND DYESTUFFS.»
Prominent among natural dyestuffs is the coloring matter obtained from logwood and known as “hæmatein.” The color-forming substance (or chromogen), hæmatoxylin, exists in the logwood partly free and partly as a glucoside. When pure, hæmatoxylin forms nearly colorless crystals, but on oxidation, especially in the presence of an alkali, it is converted into the coloring matter hæmatein, which forms colored lakes with metallic bases, yielding violets, blues, and blacks with various mordants. Logwood comes into commerce in the form of logs, chips, and extracts. The chips are moistened with water and exposed in heaps so as to induce fermentation, alkalies and oxidizing agents being added to promote the “curing” or oxidation. When complete and the chips have assumed a deep reddish-brown color, the decoction is made which is employed in dyeing. The extract offers convenience in transportation, storage, and use. It is now usually made from logwood chips that have not been cured. The chips are treated in an extractor, pressure often being used. The extract is sometimes adulterated with chestnut, hemlock, and quercitron extracts, and with glucose or molasses.
Fustic is the heart-wood of certain species of trees indigenous to the West Indies and tropical South America. It is sold as chips and extract, yields a coloring principle which forms lemon-yellow lakes with alumina and is chiefly used in dyeing wool. Young fustic is the heart-wood of a sumac native to the shores of the Mediterranean, which yields an orange-colored lake with alumina and tin salts.
Cutch, or catechu, is obtained from the wood and pods of the Acacia catechu, and from the betel nut, both native in India. Cutch appears in commerce in dark-brown lumps, which form a dark-brown solution with water. It contains catechu-tannic acid, as tannin and catechin, and is extensively used in weighting black silks, as a mordant for certain basic coal-tar dyes, as a brown dye on cotton, and for calico printing.
Indigo, which is obtained from the glucoside indican existing in the indigo plant and in woad, is one of the oldest dyestuffs. It is obtained from the plant by a process of fermentation and oxidation. Indigo appears in commerce in dark-blue cubical cakes, varying very much in composition as they often contain indigo red and indigo brown, besides moisture, mineral matters, and glutinous substances. Consequently the color varies. Powdered indigo dissolves in concentrated fuming sulphuric acid, forming monosulphonic and disulphonic acids. On neutralizing these solutions with sodium carbonate and precipitating the indigo carmine with common salt there is obtained the indigo extract, soluble indigo, and indigo carmine of commerce. True indigo carmine is the sodium salt of the disulphonic acid, and when sold dry it is called “indigotine.”
One of the most important of the recent {275} achievements of chemistry is the synthetic production of indigo on a commercial scale.
Artificial dyestuffs assumed preponderating importance with the discovery of the lilac color mauve by Perkin in 1856, and fuchsine or magenta by Verguin in 1895, for with each succeeding year other colors have been discovered, until at the present time there are several thousand artificial organic dyes or colors on the market. Since the first of these were prepared from aniline or its derivatives the colors were known as “aniline dyes,” but as a large number are now prepared from other constituents of coal tar than aniline they are better called “coal-tar dyestuffs.” There are many schemes of classification. Benedikt-Knecht divides them into I, aniline or amine dyes; II, phenol dyes; III, azo dyes; IV, quinoline and acridine derivatives; V, anthracene dyes; and VI, artificial indigo.
Of the anthracene dyes, the alizarine is the most important, since this is the coloring principle of the madder. The synthesis of alizarine from anthracene was effected by Grabe and Liebermann in 1868. This discovery produced a complete revolution in calico printing, turkey-red dyeing, and in the manufacture of madder preparations. Madder finds to-day only a very limited application in the dyeing of wool.
In textile dyeing and printing, substances called mordants are largely used, either to fix or to develop the color on the fiber. Substances of mineral origin, such as salts of aluminum, chromium, iron, copper, antimony, and tin, principally, and many others to a less extent and of organic origin, like acetic, oxalic, citric, tartaric, and lactic acid, sulphonated oils, and tannins are employed as mordants.
Iron liquor, known as black liquor or pyrolignite of iron, is made by dissolving scrap iron in pyroligneous acid. It is used as a mordant in dyeing silks and cotton and in calico printing.
Red liquor is a solution of aluminum acetate in acetic acid, and is produced by acting on calcium or lead acetate solutions with aluminum sulphate or the double alums, the supernatant liquid forming the red liquor. The red liquor of the trade is often the sulpho-acetate of alumina resulting when the quantity of calcium or lead acetate is insufficient to completely decompose the aluminum salt. Ordinarily the solutions have a dark-brown color and a strong pyroligneous odor. It is called red liquor because it was first used in dyeing reds. It is employed as a mordant by the cotton dyer and largely by the printer.
«Non-Poisonous Textile and Egg Dyes for Household Use.»—The preparation of non-poisonous colors for dyeing fabrics and eggs at home constitutes a separate department in the manufacture of dyestuffs.
Certain classes of aniline dyes may be properly said to form the materials. The essence of this color preparation consists chiefly in diluting or weakening the coal-tar dyes, made in the aniline factories, and bringing them down to a certain desired shade by the addition of certain chemicals suited to their varying characteristics, which, though weakening the color, act at the same time as the so-called mordants.
The anilines are divided with reference to their characteristic reactions into groups of basic, acid, moderately acid, as well as dyes that are insoluble in water.
In cases where combinations of one or more colors are needed, only dyes of similar reaction can be combined, that is, basic with basic, and acid with acid.
For the purpose of reducing the original intensity of the colors, and also as mordants, dextrin, Glauber’s salt, alum, or aluminum sulphate is pressed into service. Where Glauber’s salt is used, the neutral salt is exclusively employed, which can be had cheaply and in immense quantities in the chemical industry. Since it is customary to pack the color mixtures in two paper boxes, one stuck into the other, and moreover since certain coal-tar dyes are only used in large crystals, it is only reasonable that the mordants should be calcined and not put up in the shape of crystallized salts, particularly since these latter are prone to absorb the moisture from the air, and when thus wet likely to form a compact mass very difficult to dissolve. This inconvenience often occurs with the large crystals of fuchsine and methyl violet. Because these two colors are mostly used in combination with dextrin to color eggs, and since dextrin is also very hygroscopic, it is better in these individual cases to employ calcined Glauber’s salt. In the manufacture of egg colors the alkaline coloring coal-tar dyes are mostly used, and they are to be found in a great variety of shades.
Of the non-poisonous egg dyes, there are some ten or a dozen numbers, new red, carmine, scarlet, pink, violet, blue, yellow, orange, green, brown, black, heliotrope, etc., which when mixed will {276} enable the operator to form shades almost without number.
The manufacture of the egg dyes as carried on in the factory consists in a mechanical mixing of basic coal-tar dyestuffs, also some direct coloring benzidine dyestuffs, with dextrin in the ratio of about 1 part of aniline dye to 8 parts of dextrin; under certain circumstances, according to the concentrated state of the dyes, the reducing quantity of the dextrin may be greatly increased. As reducing agents for these colors insoluble substances may also be employed. A part also of the egg dyes are treated with the neutral sulphate; for instance, light brilliant green, because of its rubbing off, is made with dextrin and Glauber’s salt in the proportion of 1:3:3.
For the dyeing of eggs such color mixtures are preferably employed as contain along with the dye proper a fixing agent (dextrin) as well as a medium for the superficial mordanting of the eggshell. The colors will then be very brilliant.
Here are some recipes:
Parts Color Dyestuff by Cit. Dextrin Weight Acid Blue Marine blue B. N. 3.5 35.0 60.0 Brown Vesuvin S. 30.0 37.5 30.0 Green Brilliant green O. 13.5 18.0 67.5 Orange Orange II. 9.0 18.0 75.0 Red Diamond fuchsine I. 3.5 18.0 75.0 Pink Eosin A. 4.5 — 90.0 Violet Methyl violet 6 B. 3.6 18.0 75.0 Yellow Naphthol yellow S. 13.5 36.0 67.5
Very little of these mixtures suffices for dyeing five eggs. The coloring matter is dissolved in 600 parts by weight of boiling water, while the eggs to be dyed are boiled hard, whereupon they are placed in the dye solution until they seem sufficiently colored. The dyes should be put up in waxed paper.
«Fast Stamping Color.»—Rub up separately, 20 parts of cupric sulphate and 20 parts of anilic hydrochlorate, then mix carefully together, after adding 10 parts of dextrin. The mixture is next ground with 5 parts of glycerine and sufficient water until a thick, uniform, paste-like mass results, adapted for use by means of stencil and bristle-brush. Aniline black is formed thereby in and upon the fiber, which is not destroyed by boiling.
«New Mordanting Process.»—The ordinary method of mordanting wool with a bichromate and a reducing agent always makes the fiber more or less tender, and Amend proposed to substitute the use of a solution of chromic acid containing 1 to 2 per cent of the weight of the wool, at a temperature not exceeding 148° F., and to treat it afterwards with a solution of sodium bisulphite. According to a recent French patent, better results are obtained with neutral or slightly basic chromium sulphocyanide. This salt, if neutral or only slightly basic, will mordant wool at 148° F. The double sulphocyanide of chromium and ammonium, got by dissolving chromic oxide in ammonium sulphocyanide, can also be used. Nevertheless, in order to precipitate chromium chromate on the fiber, it is advisable to have a soluble chromate and a nitrate present, as well as a soluble copper salt and a free acid. One example of the process is as follows: Make the bath with 2 to 3 per cent of ammonio-chromium sulphocyanide, one-half of 1 per cent sodium bichromate, one-third of 1 per cent sodium nitrite, one-third of 1 per cent sulphate of copper, and 1.5 per cent sulphuric acid—percentages based on the weight of the wool. Enter cold and slowly heat to about 140° to 150° F. Then work for half an hour, lift and rinse. The bath does not exhaust and can be reinforced and used again.
«Process for Dyeing in Khaki Colors.»—Bichromate of potash or of soda, chloride of manganese, and a solution of acetate of soda or formiate of soda (15° Bé.) are dissolved successively in equal quantities.
The solution thus composed of these three salts is afterwards diluted at will, according to the color desired, constituting a range from a dark brown to a light olive green shade. The proportions of the three salts may be increased or diminished, in order to obtain shades more or less bister.
Cotton freed from its impurities by the usual methods, then fulled as ordinarily, is immersed in the bath. After a period, varying according to the results desired, the cotton, threads, or fabrics of cotton, are washed thoroughly and plunged, still wet, into an alkaline solution, of which the concentration ought never to be less than 14° Bé. This degree of concentration is necessary to take hold of the fiber when the cotton comes in contact with the alkaline bath, and by the contraction which takes place the oxides of chrome and of manganese remain fixed in the fibers.
This second operation is followed by washing in plenty of water, and then the cotton is dried in the open air. If the color is judged to be too pale, the threads or fabrics are immersed again in the initial bath, left the necessary time for obtaining the desired shade, and then {277} washed, but without passing them through an alkaline bath. This process furnishes a series of khaki colors, solid to light, to fulling and to chlorine.
«LAKES:»
Scarlet Lake.—In a vat holding 120 gallons provided with good agitating apparatus, dissolve 8 pounds potash alum in 10 gallons hot water and add 50 gallons cold water. Prepare a solution of 2 pounds ammonia soda and add slowly to the alum solution, stirring all the time. In a second vessel dissolve 5 pounds of brilliant scarlet aniline, by first making it into a paste with cold water and afterwards pouring boiling water over it; now let out steam into the vat until a temperature of 150° to 165° F. is obtained. Next dissolve 10 pounds barium chloride in 10 gallons hot water in a separate vessel, add this very slowly, stir at least 3 hours, keeping up temperature to the same figures. Fill up vat with cold water and leave the preparation for the night. Next morning the liquor (which should be of a bright red color) is drawn off, and cold water again added. Wash by decantation 3 times, filter, press gently, and make into pulp.
It is very important to precipitate the aluminum cold, and heat up before adding the dyestuff. The chemicals used for precipitating must be added very slowly and while constantly stirring. The quantity used for the three washings is required each time to be double the quantity originally used.
I.—Madder Lakes.—Prepare from the root 1 pound best madder, alum water (1 pound alum with 1 1/2 gallons of water), saturated solution of carbonate of potash (3/4 pound carbonate of potash to 1/2 gallon of water).
The madder root is inclosed in a linen bag of fine texture, and bruised with a pestle in a large mortar with 2 gallons of water (free from lime) added in small quantities at a time, until all the coloring matter is extracted. Make this liquor boil, and gradually pour into the boiling water solution. Add the carbonate of potash solution gradually, stirring all the time. Let the mixture stand for 12 hours and drop and dry as required.
II.—Garancine Process.—This is the method usually employed in preference to that from the root. Garancine is prepared by steeping madder root in sulphate of soda and washing.
Garancine 2 pounds Alum (dissolved in a little water) 2 pounds Chloride of tin 1/2 ounce Sufficient carbonate of potash or soda to precipitate the alum.
Boil the garancine in 4 gallons of pure water; add the alum, and continue boiling from 1 to 2 hours. Allow the product to partially settle and filter through flannel before cooling. Add to the filtrate the chloride of tin, and sufficient of the potash or soda solution to precipitate the alum; filter through flannel and wash well. The first filtrate may be used for lake of an inferior quality, and the garancine originally employed may also be treated as above, when a lake slightly inferior to the first may be obtained.
Maroon Lake.—Take of a mixture made of:
2/3 Sapan wood, 1/3 Lima wood 56 parts Soda crystals 42 parts Alum 56 parts
Extract the color from the woods as for rose pink, and next boil the soda and alum together and add to the woods solution cold. This must be washed clean before adding to the wood liquor.
Carnation Lake.—
Water 42 gallons Cochineal 12 pounds Salts of tartar 1 1/2 pounds Potash alum 3/4 pound Nitrous acid, nitromuriate of tin 44 pounds Muriatic acid, nitromuriate of tin 60 pounds Pure block tin, nitromuriate of tin 22 pounds
Should give specific gravity 1.310.
Boil the water with close steam, taking care that no iron touches it; add the cochineal and boil for not more than five minutes; then turn off the steam and add salts of tartar and afterwards carefully add the alum. If it should not rise, put on steam until it does, pass through a 120-mesh sieve into a settling vat, and let it stand for 48 hours (not for precipitation). Add gradually nitromuriate of tin until the test on blotting paper (given below) shows that the separation is complete. Draw off clear water after it has settled, and filter. To test, rub a little of the paste on blotting paper, then dry on steam chest or on the hand, and if on bending it cracks, too much tin has been used.
To Test the Color to See if it is Precipitating.—Put a drop of color on white blotting paper, and if the color spreads, it is not precipitating. If there is a {278} colorless ring around the spot of color it shows that precipitation is taking place; if the white ring is too strong, too much has been used.
«BLACK LAKES FOR WALL-PAPER MANUFACTURE:»
Bluish-Black Lake.—Boil well 220 parts of Domingo logwood in 1,000 parts of water to which 2 parts of ammonia soda have been added; to the boiling logwood add next 25 parts of green vitriol and then 3.5 parts of sodium bichromate. The precipitated logwood lake is washed out well twice and then filtered.
Black Lake AI.—Logwood extract, Sanford, 120 parts; green vitriol, 30 parts; acetic acid, 7° Bé., 10 parts; sodium bichromate, 16 parts; powdered alum, 20 parts. The logwood extract is first dissolved in boiling water and brought to 25° Bé. by the addition of cold water. Then the remaining ingredients are added in rotation, the salts in substance, finely powdered, with constant stirring. After the precipitation, wash twice and filter.
Aniline Black Lake.—In the precipitating vat filled with 200 parts of cold water enter with constant stirring in the order mentioned the following solutions kept in readiness: Forty parts of alum dissolved in 800 parts of water; 10 parts of calcined soda dissolved in 100 parts of water; 30 parts of azo black dissolved in 1,500 parts of water; 0.6 parts of “brilliant green” dissolved in 100 parts of water; 0.24 parts of new fuchsine dissolved in 60 parts of water; 65 parts of barium chloride dissolved in 1,250 parts of water. Allow to settle for 24 hours, wash the lake three times and filter it.
«Carmine Lake for Wall Paper and Colored Papers.»—Ammonia soda (98 per cent), 57.5 parts by weight; spirits (96 per cent), 40 parts by weight; corallin (dark), 10 parts by weight; corallin (pale), 5 parts by weight; spirit of sal ammoniac (16° Bé.), 8 parts by weight; sodium phosphate, 30 parts by weight; stannic chloride, 5 parts by weight; barium chloride, 75 parts by weight. Dissolve the corallin in the spirit, and filter the solution carefully into eight bottles, each containing 1 part of the above quantity of spirit of sal ammoniac, and let stand. The soda should meanwhile be dissolved in hot water and the solution run into the stirring vat, in which there is cold water to the height of 17 inches. Add the sodium phosphate, which has been dissolved in a copper vessel, then the corallin solution, and next the stannic chloride diluted with 3 pailfuls of cold water. Lastly the barium chloride solution is added. The day previous barium chloride is dissolved in a cask in as little boiling water as possible, and the receptacle is filled entirely with cold water. On the day following, allow the same to run in slowly during a period of three-fourths of an hour, stir till evening, allow to settle for 2 days, draw off and filter.
«English Pink.»—
Quercitron bark 200 parts Lime 10 parts Alum 10 parts Terra alba 300 parts Whiting 200 parts Sugar of lead 7 parts
Put the bark into a tub, slake lime in another tub, and add the clear limewater to wash the bark; repeat this 3 times, letting the bark stand in each water 24 hours. Run liquor into the tub below and add the terra alba and whiting; wash well in the top tub and run into liquor below through a hair sieve, stirring well.
Dissolve the sugar of lead in warm water and pour gently into the tub, stirring all the time; then dissolve the alum and run in while stirring; press slightly, drop, and dry as required.
«Dutch Pink.»—
I.—Quercitron bark 200 parts Lime 20 parts Alum 20 parts Whiting 100 parts Terra alba 200 parts White sugar of lead 10 parts
II.—Quercitron bark 300 parts Lime 10 parts Alum 10 parts Terra alba 400 parts Whiting 100 parts Sugar of lead 7 parts
Put the bark into a tub with cold water, slake 28 pounds of lime, and add the limewater to the bark. (This draws all the color out of the wood.) Dissolve alum in water and run it into bark liquor. The alum solution must be just warm. Dissolve sugar of lead and add it to above, and afterwards add the terra alba and whiting. The product should now be in a pulp, and must be dropped and dried as required.
«Rose Pink.»—I.—Light.
Sapan wood 100 parts Lima 100 parts Paris white 200 parts Alum 210 parts {279}
II.—Deep. Sapan wood 300 parts Lima 300 parts Terra alba 400 parts Paris white 120 parts Lime 12 parts Alum 200 parts
III.—Sapan wood 200 parts Alum 104 parts Whiting 124 parts
Boil the woods together in 4 waters and let the products stand until cold; wash in the whiting and terra alba through a hair sieve, and afterwards run in the alum. If a deep color is required slake 12 pounds lime and run it in at the last through a hair sieve. Let the alum be just warm or it will show in the pink.
«DYES, COLORS, ETC., FOR TEXTILE GOODS:»
«Aniline Black.»—This black is produced by carefully oxidizing aniline hydrochloride. The exact stage of oxidation must be carefully regulated or the product will be a different body (quinone). There are several suitable oxidizing agents, such as chromic acid, potassic bichromate, ferrocyanide of potassium, etc., but one of the easiest to manipulate is potassic chlorate, which by reacting on copper sulphate produces potassic sulphate and copper chlorate. This is easily decomposed, its solution giving off gases at 60° F. which consist essentially of chloride anhydrate. But one of the most useful agents for the production of aniline black is vanadate of ammonia, 1 part of which will do the work of 4,000 parts of copper. Many other salts besides copper may be used for producing aniline black, but the following method is one of the best to follow in making this dye:
Aniline hydrochloride 40 parts Potassic chlorate 20 parts Copper sulphate 40 parts Chloride of ammonia (sal ammoniac) 16 parts Warm water at 60° F 500 parts
After warming a few minutes the mass froths up. The vapor should not be inhaled. Then set aside, and if the mass is not totally black in a few hours, again heat to 60° F., and expose to the air for a few days, and finally wash away all the soluble salts and the black is fit for use.
«Aniline Black Substitutes.»—I.—Make a solution of
Aniline (fluid measure) 30 parts Toluidine (by weight) 10 parts Pure hydrochloric acid, B. P. (fluid measure) 60 parts Soluble gum arabic (fluid measure) 60 parts
Dissolve the toluidine in the aniline and add the acid, and finally the mucilage.
II.—Mix together at gentle heat:
Starch paste 13 quarts Potassic chlorate 350 scruples Sulphate of copper 300 scruples Sal ammoniac 300 scruples Aniline hydrochloride 800 scruples
Add 5 per cent of alizarine oil, and then steep it for 2 hours in the dye bath of red liquor of 2 1/2° Tw. Dye in a bath made up of 1/2 ounce of rose bengal and 1 1/2 ounces of red liquor to every 70 ounces of cotton fabric dyed, first entering the fabric at 112° F., and raising it to 140° F., working for 1 hour, or until the desirable shade is obtained; then rinse and dry.
«Blush Pink on Cotton Textile.»—Rose bengal or fast pink will give this shade. The mordant to use is a 5 per cent solution of stannate of soda and another 5 per cent solution of alum.
Dissolve in a vessel (a) 8 1/2 parts of chloride of copper in 30 parts of water, and then add 10 parts chloride of sodium and 9 1/2 parts liquid ammonia.
In a second vessel dissolve (b) 30 parts aniline hydrochlorate in 20 parts of water, and add 20 parts of a solution of gum arabic prepared by dissolving 1 part of gum in 2 parts of water.
Finally mix 1 part of a with 4 parts of b; expose the mixture to the air for a few days to develop from a greenish to a black color. Dilute for use, or else dry the thick compound to a powder.
If new liquor is used as the mordant, mix 1 part of this with 4 parts of water, and after working the fabric for 1 to 2 hours in the cold liquor, wring or squeeze it out and dry; before working it in the dye liquor, thoroughly wet the fabric by rinsing it in hot water at a spring boil; then cool by washing in the dye bath until the shade desired is attained, and again rinse and dry.
The red liquor or acetate of aluminum may be made by dissolving 13 ounces of alum in 69 ounces of water and mixing this with a solution made by dissolving 7 1/2 ounces of acetate of lime, also dissolved in 69 ounces of water. Stir well, allow it to settle, and filter or decanter {280} off the clear fluid for use, and use this mixture 2 1/2° Tw.
The fabric is first put into the stannate of soda mordant for a few minutes, then wrung out and put into the alum mordant for about the same time; then it is again wrung out and entered in the dye bath at 120° F. and dyed to shade desired, and afterwards rinsed in cold water and dried.
The dye bath is made of 1/4 ounce of rose bengal per gallon of water. If fast pink is the dye used, the mordant used would be Turkey red oil and red liquor. Use 8 ounces of Turkey red oil per gallon of water. Put the fabric into this, then wring out the textile and work in red liquor of 7° Tw. for about 2 hours, then wring out and dye in a separate bath made up of eosine, or fast pink, in water in which a little alum has been dissolved.
«To Dye Woolen Yarns, etc., Various Shades of Magenta.»—To prepare the dye bath dissolve 1 pound of roseine in 15 gallons of water. For a concentrated solution use only 10 gallons of water, while if a very much concentrated color is needed, dissolve the dye in methylated spirit of wine, and dilute this spirituous tincture with an equal quantity of water.
No mordant is required in using this color in dyeing woolen goods. The dyeing operation consists simply in putting the goods into the dye bath at 190° F. and working them therein until the desired shade is obtained, then rinsing in cold water and drying.
If the water used in preparing the dye is at all alkaline, make use of the acid roseine dissolved in water in which a little sulphuric acid has been mixed, and work, gradually raising to the boiling point, and keep up the temperature for 30 minutes, or according to the shade desired. Put about 20 per cent sulphate of soda into the dye bath.
«Maroon Dye for Woolens.»—To prepare the dye bath, dissolve about 1 pound of maroon dye in boiling water, with or without the addition of methylated spirit of wine. For dark shades dissolve in boiling water, only slightly acidulated with hydrochloric acid, and filter before use. No mordant is required with this dye when dyeing wool, but for the bright shade a little curd soap may be dissolved in the dye bath before proceeding to dye the wool, while for the dark shade it is best to put in a little acetate of soda. To use the dye, first dye in a weak bath and gradually strengthen it until the desired shade is obtained, at the same time gradually increasing the temperature until just below the boiling point.
«To Dye Woolens with Blue de Lyons.»—Dissolve 8 ounces of blue dye in 1 gallon of methylated spirit, which has been slightly soured with sulphuric acid, and boil the solution over a water bath until it is perfectly clear. To prepare the dye bath, add more or less of the spirituous tincture to a 10- or 15-gallon dye bath of water, which has been slightly soured with sulphuric acid.
«Rich Orange on Woolen.»—Dissolve 1 pound of phosphine in 15 gallons of boiling water, and stir the fluid until the acid has dissolved. No mordant is required to dye wool. First work the goods about in a weak solution, and finally in one of full strength, to which a little acetate of soda has been added. Keep up the temperature to just below the boiling point while working the goods in the dye bath.
«DYEING SILK OR COTTON FABRICS WITH ANILINE DYES:»
«Aniline Blue on Cotton.»—Prepare a dye bath by dissolving 1 pound of aniline blue (soluble in spirit) in 10 gallons of water, and set it aside to settle. Meanwhile prepare a mordant while boiling 35 ounces of sumac (or 5 1/2 ounces tannic acid in 30 gallons of water) and then dissolve therein 17 ounces of curd soap. Boil up and filter. Put the cotton goods in the hot liquid and let them remain therein for 12 hours. Then wring them out and make up a dye bath of 2 1/2° Tw. with red liquor. Add dye color according to the shade desired. Put in the goods and work them until the color is correct, keeping the temperature at the boiling point.
«To Dye Silk a Delicate Greenish Yellow.»—Dissolve 2 ounces of citronine in 1 gallon of methylated spirit and keep the solution hot over a water bath until perfectly clear.
To prepare silk fabrics, wash them in a weak soap liquor that has been just sweetened (i. e., its alkalinity turned to a slight sourness) with a little sulphuric acid. Work the goods until dyed to shade, and then rinse them in cold water that has been slightly acidulated with acetic, tartaric, or citric acid.
«To Dye Cotton Dark Brown.»—Prepare a mordant bath of 10 pounds of catechu, 2 pounds of logwood extract, and 1/4 pound magenta (roseine), and bring to a boil; work the goods therein for 3 hours at that temperature; then put {281} into a fresh dye bath made up of 3 pounds of bichromate of potash and 2 pounds of sal soda, and dye to shade. These proportions are for a dye bath to dye 100 pounds of cotton goods at a time.
«To Dye Silk Peacock Blue.»—Make up a dye bath by putting 1 pint of sulphuric acid at 170° Tw., and 10 ounces of methylin blue crystal dye liquor of 120° to 160° Tw., with a dye bath that will hold 80 pounds of goods. Put in the silk at 130° F., and raise to 140° F., and work up to shade required.
«To Dye Felt Goods.»—Owing to this material being composed of animal and vegetable fiber it is not an easy matter always to produce evenness of shade. The best process to insure success is to steep well the felt in an acid bath of from 6° to 12° Bé., and then wash away all traces of acid. Some dyers make the fulling stock the medium of conveying the dye, while others partially dye before fulling, or else dye after that process.
The fulling stock for 72 ounces of beaver consists of a mixture of
Black lead or plumbago 16 ounces Venetian red 48 ounces Indigo extract (fluid) 5 ounces
Ordinary Drab.—
Common plumbago 12 ounces Best plumbago 12 ounces Archil extract (fluid) 15 ounces Indigo extract 10 ounces
Mix into fluid paste with water and add sulphuric acid at 30° Tw. For the dye liquor make a boiling-hot solution of the aniline dye and allow it to cool; then put into an earthenware vessel holding water and heat to 83° F., and add sufficient dye liquor to give the quantity of felt the desired shade. First moisten well the felted matter (or the hair, if dyed before felting) with water, and then work it about in the above dye bath at 140° F. To deepen the shade, add more dye liquor, lifting out the material to be dyed before adding the fresh dye liquor, so that it can be well stirred up and thoroughly mixed with the exhausted bath.
«Brown Shades.»—Bismarck brown will give good results, particularly if the dyed goods are afterwards steeped or passed through a weak solution (pale straw color) of bichromate of potash. This will give a substantial look to the color. Any of the aniline colors suitable for cotton or wool, or those suited for mixed cotton and wool goods may be used.
«Blue.»—Use either China blue, dense ferry blue, or serge blue, first making the material acid before dyeing.
«Green.»—Use brilliant green and have the material neutral, i. e., neither acid nor alkali; or else steep in a bath of sumac before dyeing.
«Plum Color.»—Use maroon (neutral or acid) and work in an acid bath or else sumac.
«Black.»—Use negrosin in an acid bath, or else mordant in two salts and dye slightly acid.
«Soluble Blue, Ball Blue, etc.»—A soluble blue has for many years been readily obtainable in commerce which is similar in appearance to Prussian blue, but, unlike the latter, is freely soluble in water. This blue is said to be potassium ferri-ferrocyanide.
To prepare instead of buying it ready made, gradually add to a boiling solution of potassium ferricyanide (red prussiate of potash) an equivalent quantity of hot solution of ferrous sulphate, boiling for 2 hours and washing the precipitate on a filter until the washings assume a dark-blue color. The moist precipitate can at once be dissolved by the further addition of a sufficient quantity of water. About 64 parts of the iron salt is necessary to convert 100 parts of the potassium salt into the blue compound.
If the blue is to be sent out in the liquid form, it is desirable that the solution should be a perfect one. To attain that end the water employed should be free from mineral substances, and it is best to filter the solution through several thicknesses of fine cotton cloth before bottling; or if made in large quantities this method may be modified by allowing it to stand some days to settle, when the top portion can be siphoned off for use, the bottom only requiring filtration.
The ball blue sold for laundry use consists of ultramarine. Balls or tablets of this substance are formed by mixing it with glucose or glucose and dextrin, and pressing into shape. When glucose alone is used, the product has a tendency to become soft on keeping, which tendency may be counteracted by a proper proportion of dextrin. Bicarbonate of sodium is added as a filler to cheapen the product, the quantity used and the quality of the ultramarine employed being both regulated by the price at which the product is to sell.
«New Production of Indigo.»—Forty parts of a freshly prepared ammonium sulphide solution containing 10 per cent {282} of hydrogen sulphide are made to flow quickly and with constant stirring into a heated solution of 20 parts of isatine anilide in 60 parts of alcohol. With spontaneous heating and temporary green and blue coloration, an immediate separation of indigo in small crystalline needles of a faint copper luster takes place. Boil for a short time, whereupon the indigo is filtered off, rewashed with alcohol, and dried.
«To Dye Feathers.»—A prerequisite to the dyeing of feathers appears to be softening them, which is sometimes accomplished by soaking them in warm water, and sometimes an alkali, such as ammonium or sodium carbonate, is added. This latter method would apparently be preferable on account of the removal of any greasy matter that may be present.
When so prepared the feathers may be dyed by immersion in any dye liquor. An old-time recipe for black is immersion in a bath of ferric nitrate suitably diluted with water, and then in an infusion of equal parts of logwood and quercitron. Doubtless an aniline dye would prove equally efficient and would be less troublesome to use.
After dyeing, feathers are dipped in an emulsion formed by agitating any bland fixed oil with water containing a little potassium carbonate, and are then dried by gently swinging them in warm air. This operation gives the gloss.
Curling where required is effected by slightly warming the feathers before a fire, and then stroking with a blunt metallic edge, as the back of a knife. A certain amount of manual dexterity is necessary to carry the whole process to a successful ending.
DYES FOR FOOD: See Foods.
DYES FOR LEATHER: See Leather.
DYE STAINS, THEIR REMOVAL FROM THE SKIN: See Cleaning Preparations and Methods.
DYNAMITE: See Explosives.
EARTHENWARE: See Ceramics.
EAU DE QUININE: See Hair Preparations.
EBONY: See Wood.
EBONY LACQUER: See Lacquers.
«ECZEMA DUSTING POWDER FOR CHILDREN.»
Starch, French chalk, lycopodium, of each, 40 parts; bismuth subnitrate, 2 parts; salicylic acid, 2 parts; menthol, 1 part. Apply freely to the affected parts.
«Eggs»
The age of eggs may be approximately judged by taking advantage of the fact that as they grow old their density decreases through evaporation of moisture. According to Siebel, a new-laid egg placed in a vessel of brine made in the proportion of 2 ounces of salt to 1 pint of water, will at once sink to the bottom. An egg 1 day old will sink below the surface, but not to the bottom, while one 3 days old will swim just immersed in the liquid. If more than 3 days old the egg will float on the surface, the amount of shell exposed increasing with age; and if 2 weeks old, only a little of the shell will dip in the liquid.
The New York State Experiment Station studied the changes in the specific gravity of the eggs on keeping and found that on an average fresh eggs had a specific gravity of 1.090; after they were 10 days old, of 1.072; after 20 days, of 1.053; and after 30 days, of 1.035. The test was not continued further. The changes in specific gravity correspond to the changes in water content. When eggs are kept they continually lose water by evaporation through the pores in the shell. After 10 days the average loss was found to be 1.60 per cent of the total water present in the egg when perfectly fresh; after 20 days, 3.16 per cent; and after 30 days, 5 per cent. The average temperature of the room where the eggs were kept was 63.8° F. The evaporation was found to increase somewhat with increased temperature. None of the eggs used in the 30-day test spoiled.
Fresh eggs are preserved in a number of ways which may, for convenience, be grouped under two general classes: (1) Use of low temperature, i. e., cold storage; and (2) excluding the air by coating, covering, or immersing the eggs, some material or solution being used which may or may not be a germicide. The two methods are often combined. The {283} first method owes its value to the fact that microörganisms, like larger forms of plant life, will not grow below a certain temperature, the necessary degree of cold varying with the species. So far as experiment shows, it is impossible to kill these minute plants, popularly called “bacteria” or “germs,” by any degree of cold; and so, very low temperature is unnecessary for preserving eggs, even if it were not undesirable for other reasons, such as injury by freezing and increased cost. According to a report of the Canadian commission of agriculture and dairying:
Eggs are sometimes removed from the shells and stored in bulk, usually on a commercial scale, in cans containing about 50 pounds each. The temperature recommended is about 30° F., or a little below freezing, and it is said they will keep any desired length of time. They must be used soon after they have been removed from storage and have been thawed.
Water glass or soluble glass is the popular name for potassium silicate, or sodium silicate, the commercial article often being a mixture of the two. The commercial water glass is used for preserving eggs, as it is much cheaper than the chemically pure article which is required for many scientific purposes. Water glass is commonly sold in two forms, a syrup-thick liquid of about the consistency of molasses, and a powder. The thick syrup, the form perhaps most usually seen, is sometimes sold wholesale as low as 1 3/4 cents per pound in carboy lots. The retail price varies, though 10 cents per pound, according to the North Dakota Experiment Station, seems to be the price commonly asked. According to the results obtained at this station a solution of the desired strength for preserving eggs may be made by dissolving 1 part of the syrup-thick water glass in 10 parts, by measure, of water. If the water-glass powder is used, less is required for a given quantity of water. Much of the water glass offered for sale is very alkaline. Such material should not be used, as the eggs preserved in it will not keep well. Only pure water should be used in making the solution, and it is best to boil it and cool it before mixing with the water glass.
The solution should be carefully poured over the eggs packed in a suitable vessel, which must be clean and sweet, and if wooden kegs or barrels are used they should be thoroughly scalded before packing the eggs in them. The packed eggs should be stored in a cool place. If they are placed where it is too warm, silicate deposits on the shell and the eggs do not keep well. The North Dakota Experiment Station found it best not to wash the eggs before packing, as this removes the natural mucilaginous coating on the outside of the shell. The station states that 1 gallon of the solution is sufficient for 50 dozen eggs if they are properly packed.
It is, perhaps, too much to expect that eggs packed in any way will be just as satisfactory for table use as the fresh article. The opinion seems to be, however, that those preserved with water glass are superior to most of those preserved otherwise. The shells of eggs preserved in water glass are apt to crack in boiling. It is stated that this may be prevented by puncturing the blunt end of the egg with a pin before putting it into the water.
«To Discover the Age of Eggs.»—The most reliable method of arriving at the age of hens’ eggs is that by specific gravity. Make a solution of cooking salt (sodium chloride) in rain or distilled water, of about one part of salt to two parts of water, and in this place the eggs to be tested. A perfectly fresh egg (of from 1 to 36 hours old) will sink completely, lying horizontally on the bottom of the vessel; when from two to three days old, the egg also sinks, but not to the bottom, remaining just below the surface of the water, with a slight tendency of the large end to rise. In eggs of four or five days old this tendency of the large end to rise becomes more marked, and it increases from day to day, until at the end of the fifth day the long axis of the egg (an imaginary line drawn through the center lengthwise) will stand at an angle of 20° from the perpendicular. This angle is increased daily, until at the end of the eighth day it is at about 45°; on the fourteenth day it is 60°; on the twenty-first day it is 75°, while at the end of 4 weeks the egg stands perfectly upright in the liquid, the point or small end downward.
This action is based on the fact that the air cavity in the big end of the egg increases in size and capacity, from day to day, as the egg grows older. An apparatus (originally devised by a German poultry fancier) based on this principle, and by means of which the age of an egg maintained at ordinary temperature may be told approximately to within a day, is made by placing a scale of degrees, drawn from O° to 90° (the latter representing the perpendicular) behind the vessel {284} containing the solution, and observing the angle made by the axis of the egg with the perpendicular line. This gives the age of the egg with great accuracy.
«Weights of Eggs.»—The following table shows the variation in weight between eggs of the same family of chickens and of the comparative value of the product of different kinds of fowls:
Weight of Whole Eggs, Shell, Grains. Grains. Net. Common hen, small 635.60 84.86 550.54 Common hen, mean 738.35 92.58 645.77 Common hen, large 802.36 93.25 709.11 Italian hen 840.00 92.50 747.50 Houdan 956.60 93.50 853.10 La Flesche 926.50 94.25 835.25 Brahma 1,025.50 114.86 910.64
From this it will be seen that the Houdans and Brahmas are the most profitable producers, as far as food value of the product is concerned—provided, of course, they are equally prolific with the ordinary fowl.
Another calculation is the number of eggs to the pound, of the various weights. This is as follows:
Small ordinary eggs (635 grains) 12.20 to pound Large ordinary eggs (802 grains) 9.25 to pound Houdan eggs 8.0 to pound Brahma, mean 7.4 to pound Brahma, large 7.1 to pound
«Dried Yolk of Egg.»—To prepare this, the yolks of eggs, separated from the whites, are thoroughly mixed with 1/3 their weight of water. The resulting emulsion is strained and evaporated under reduced pressure at a temperature of 87° to 122° F., to a paste. The latter is further dried over quicklime or a similar absorbent of moisture, at a temperature of 77° to 86° F., and ground to a fine powder.
«Egg Oil.»—
Yolks of eggs (about 250) 5.0 parts Distilled water 0.3 parts
Beat this together and heat the mass with constant stirring in a dish on the water bath until it thickens and a sample exhibits oil upon pressing between the fingers. Squeeze out between hot plates, mix the turbid oil obtained with 0.05 parts of dehydrated Glauber’s salt, shake repeatedly, and finally allow to settle. The oil, which must be decanted clear from the sediment, gives a yield of at least 0.5 parts of egg oil.
«Artificial Egg Oil.»—
Yellow beeswax 0.2 parts Cacao oil 0.5 parts
Melt on the water bath and gradually add 9 parts of olive oil.
«Egg Powder.»—
Sodium bicarbonate 8 ounces Tartaric acid 3 ounces Cream tartar 5 ounces Turmeric, powdered 3 drachms Ground rice 16 ounces
Mix and pass through a fine sieve. One teaspoonful to a dessertspoonful (according to article to be made), to be mixed with each half pound of flour.
«The Preservation of Eggs.»—The spoiling of eggs is due to the entrance of air carrying germs through the shells. Normally the shell has a surface coating of mucilaginous matter, which prevents for a time the entrance of these harmful organisms into the egg. But if this coating is removed or softened by washing or otherwise the keeping quality of the egg is much reduced. These facts explain why many methods of preservation have not been entirely successful, and suggest that the methods employed should be based upon the idea of protecting and rendering more effective the natural coating of the shell, so that air bearing the germs that cause decomposition may be completely excluded.
Eggs are often packed in lime, salt, or other products, or are put in cold storage for winter use, but such eggs are very far from being perfect when they come upon the market. German authorities declare that water glass more closely conforms to the requirements of a good preservative than any of the substances commonly employed. A 10 per cent solution of water glass is said to preserve eggs so effectually that at the end of three and one-half months eggs still appeared to be perfectly fresh. In most packed eggs the yolk settles to one side, and the egg is then inferior in quality. In eggs preserved in water glass the yolk retained its normal position in the egg, and in taste they were not to be distinguished from fresh, unpacked store eggs.
Of twenty methods tested in Germany, the three which proved most effective were coating the eggs with vaseline, preserving them in limewater, and preserving them in water glass. The conclusion was reached that the last is preferable, because varnishing the eggs with vaseline takes considerable time, and treating them with limewater is likely to give the eggs a limy flavor. {285}
Other methods follow:
I.—Eggs can be preserved for winter use by coating them, when perfectly fresh, with paraffine. As the spores of fungi get into eggs almost as soon as they are laid, it is necessary to rub every egg with chloroform or wrap it a few minutes in a chloroform soaked rag before dipping it into the melted paraffine. If only a trace of the chloroform enters the shell the development of such germs as may have gained access to freshly laid eggs is prevented. The paraffine coating excludes all future contamination from germ-laden air, and with no fungi growing within, they retain their freshness and natural taste.
II.—Preserving with Lime.—Dissolve in each gallon of water 12 ounces of quicklime, 6 ounces of common salt, 1 drachm of soda, 1/2 drachm saltpeter, 1/2 drachm tartar, and 1 1/2 drachms of borax. The fluid is brought into a barrel and sufficient quicklime to cover the bottom is then poured in. Upon this is placed a layer of eggs, quicklime is again thrown in and so on until the barrel is filled so that the liquor stands about 10 inches deep over the last layer of eggs. The barrel is then covered with a cloth, upon which is scattered some lime.
III.—Melt 4 ounces of clear beeswax in a porcelain dish over a gentle fire, and stir in 8 ounces of olive oil. Let the solution of wax in oil cool somewhat, then dip the fresh eggs one by one into it so as to coat every part of the shell. A momentary dip is sufficient, all excess of the mixture being wiped off with a cotton cloth. The oil is absorbed in the shell, the wax hermetically closing all the pores.
IV.—The Reinhard method is said to cause such chemical changes in the surface of the eggshell that it is closed up perfectly air-tight and an admittance of air is entirely excluded, even in case of long-continued storing. The eggs are for a short time exposed to the direct action of sulphuric acid, whereby the surface of the eggshell, which consists chiefly of lime carbonate, is transformed into lime sulphate. The dense texture of the surface thus produced forms a complete protection against the access of the outside air, which admits of storing the egg for a very long time, without the contents of the egg suffering any disadvantageous changes regarding taste and odor. The egg does not require any special treatment to prevent cracking on boiling, etc.
Some object to this on the ground that sulphuric acid is a dangerous poison, that might, on occasion, penetrate the shell.
V.—Take about half a dozen eggs and place them in a netting (not so many as would chill the water below the boiling point, even for an instant), into a boiling solution of boric acid, withdraw immediately, and pack. Or put up, in oil, carrying 2 per cent or 3 per cent of salicylic acid. Eggs treated in this way are said to taste, after six months, absolutely as fresh as they were when first put up. The eggs should be as fresh as possible, and should be thoroughly clean before dipping. The philosophy of the process is that the dipping in boiling boric acid solution not only kills all bacteria existing on, or in, the shell and membrane, but reinforces these latter by a very thin layer of coagulated albumen; while the packing in salicylated oil prevents the admission of fresh germs from the atmosphere. Salicylic acid is objected to on the same grounds as sulphuric acid.
VI.—Dissolve sodium silicate in boiling water, to about the consistency of a syrup (or about 1 part of the silicate to 3 parts water). The eggs should be as fresh as possible, and must be thoroughly clean. They should be immersed in the solution in such manner that every part of each egg is covered with the liquid, then removed and let dry. If the solution is kept at or near the boiling temperature, the preservative effect is said to be much more certain and to last longer.
EGG CHOCOLATE: See Beverages.
EGG DYES: See Dyes.
EGG LEMONADE: See Beverages, under Lemonade.
EGG PHOSPHATE: See Beverages.
EGG-STAIN REMOVER: See Cleaning Preparations and Methods.
EGGS, TESTS FOR: See Foods.
EIKONOGEN DEVELOPER: See Photography.
EKTOGAN: See Antiseptics. {286}
«ELAINE SUBSTITUTE.»
A substitute for elaine for woolen yarns is obtained by boiling 4 pounds carrageen moss in 25 gallons water for 3 hours. The soda is then put in and the boiling continued for another half hour; 2 pounds fleabane seeds are gradually added, and a little water to make up for the evaporation. After a further 1 1/2 hours boiling, the extract is passed through a fine sieve and well mixed with 25 pounds cottonseed oil, 12 1/2 pounds sweet oil, and 12 1/2 pounds ammonia solution of 0.96 specific gravity. Next day stir in 25 pounds saponified elaine and 13 pounds of odorless petroleum of 0.885 specific gravity. The resulting emulsion keeps well, dissolves perfectly in lukewarm water, and answers its purpose excellently.
ELECTRODEPOSITION PROCESSES: See Plating.
ELECTROLYSIS IN BOILERS: See Boiler Compounds.
«Electroplating and Electrotyping»
(See also Plating.)
«PROCESS OF ELECTROPLATING.»
First, clean the articles to be plated. To remove grease, warm the pieces before a slow fire of charcoal or coke, or in a dull red stove. Delicate or soldered articles should be boiled in a solution of caustic potash, the latter being dissolved in 10 times its weight of water.
The scouring bath is composed of 100 parts of water to from 5 to 20 parts of sulphuric acid. The articles may be put in hot and should be left in the bath till the surface turns to an ocher red tint.
The articles, after having been cleansed of grease by the potash solution, must be washed in water and rinsed before being scoured. Copper or glass tongs must then be used for moving the articles, as they must not afterwards be handled. For small pieces, suitable earthenware or porcelain strainers may be used.
The next stage is the spent nitric acid bath. This consists of nitric acid weakened by previous use. The articles are left in until the red color disappears, so that after rinsing they show a uniform metallic tint. The rinsing should be thoroughly carried out.
Having been well shaken and drained, the articles are next subjected to the strong nitric acid bath, which is made up as follows:
Nitric acid of 36° Bé 100 volumes Chloride of sodium (common salt) 1 volume Calcined soot (lampblack) 1 volume
The articles must be immersed in this bath for only a few seconds. Avoid overheating or using too cold a bath. They are next rinsed thoroughly with cold water and are again subjected to a strong nitric acid bath to give them a bright or dull appearance as required.
To produce a bright finish, plunge them for a few seconds (moving them about rapidly at the same time) in a cold bath of the following composition:
Nitric acid 100 volumes Sulphuric acid 100 volumes Chloride of sodium 1 volume
Again rinse thoroughly in cold water. The corresponding bath giving a dull or matt appearance is composed of:
Nitric acid 200 volumes Sulphuric acid 100 volumes Sea salt 1 volume Sulphate of zinc 1 to 5 volumes
The duration of immersion in this bath varies from 5 to 20 minutes, according to the dullness required. Wash with plenty of water. The articles will then have an unpleasant appearance, which will disappear on plunging them for a moment into the brightening bath and rinsing quickly.
The pieces are next treated with the nitrate of mercury bath for a few seconds.
Plain water 10,000 parts Nitrate of mercury 10 parts Sulphuric acid 20 parts
It is necessary to stir this bath before using it. For large articles the proportion of mercury should be greater. An article badly cleaned will come out in various shades and lacking its metallic brightness. It is better to throw a spent bath away than attempt to strengthen it.
The various pieces, after having passed through these several processes, are then ready for the plating bath.
A few words on the subject of gilding may not be amiss. Small articles are gilded hot, large ones cold. The cold cyanide of gold and potassium bath is composed as follows:
Distilled water 10,000 parts Pure cyanide of potassium 200 parts Pure gold 100 parts
The gold, transformed into chloride, is dissolved in 2,000 parts of water and {287} the cyanide in 8,000 parts. The two solutions are then mixed and boiled for half an hour.
The anode must be entirely submerged in the bath, suspended from platinum wires and withdrawn immediately the bath is out of action.
«Hot Gold Bath.»—Zinc, tin, lead, antimony and the alloys of these metals are better if previously covered with copper.
The following are the formulas for the other metals per 10,000 parts of distilled water:
Crystallized phosphate of soda, 600 parts; alloys rich in copper castings, 500 parts.
Bisulphide of soda, 100 parts; alloys rich in copper, 125 parts.
Pure cyanide of potassium, 10 parts; alloys rich in copper, 5 parts. Pure gold transformed into chloride, 10 parts; alloys rich in copper, 10 parts.
Dissolve the phosphate of soda hot in 8,000 parts water, let the chloride of gold cool in 1,000 parts water; mix little by little the second solution with the first; dissolve the cyanide and bisulphide in 1,000 parts water and mix this last solution with the other two. The temperature of the bath may vary between 122° and 175° F.
«Silvering.»—For amateurs a bath of 10 parts silver per 1,000 is sufficient. Dissolve 150 parts nitrate of silver, equivalent to 100 parts pure silver, in 10,000 parts of water and add 250 parts pure cyanide of potassium. Stir it up until completely dissolved, and then filter the solution. Silvering is generally effected cold, except in the case of small articles. Iron, steel, zinc, lead, and tin are better if previously copper-plated and then silvered hot. The cleaned articles are first treated in a nitrate of mercury bath, being kept continually in motion.
With excess of current the pieces become gray, and blacken. In the cold bath anodes of platinum or silver should be employed. Old baths are, in this case, preferable to new. They may, if required, be artificially aged by the addition of 1 or 2 parts in 1,000 of liquid ammonia.
If the anode blackens, the bath is too weak. If it becomes white, there is too much current, and the deposit, being too rapid, does not adhere. The deposit may be taken as normal and regular when the anode becomes gray during the passage of the current and white again when it ceases to flow.
The nickel vat should be of glass, porcelain, or earthenware, or a case lined with impermeable gum. The best nickel bath is prepared by dissolving to saturation, in hot distilled water, nickel sulphate and ammonium, free from oxides or alkalies and alkaline earthy metals. The proportion of salt to dissolve is 1 part, by weight, to 10 of water. Filter after cooling and the bath is then ready for use.
When the bath is ready and the battery set up, the wires from the latter are joined by binding screws to two metal bars resting on the edge of the vat. The bar joined to the positive pole of the battery supports, through the intervention of a nickel-plated copper hook, a plate of nickel, constituting the soluble anode, which restores to the bath the metal deposited on the cathode by the electrolytic action. From the other bar are suspended the articles to be plated. These latter should be well polished before being put into the bath. To remove all grease, scrub them with brushes soaked in a hot solution of whiting, boiled in water and carbonate of soda.
Copper and its alloys are cleaned well in a few seconds by immersion in a bath composed of 10 parts, by weight, of water, and 1 part of nitric acid. For rough articles, 2 parts water, 1 nitric acid, and 1 sulphuric acid. For steel and polished castings, 100 parts water to 1 sulphuric acid. The articles should remain in the bath until the whole surface is of a uniform gray tint. They are then rubbed with powdered pumice stone till the solid metal appears. Iron and steel castings are left in the bath for three or four hours and then scrubbed with well-sifted sand.
If the current be too strong, the nickel is deposited gray or even black. An hour or so is time enough to render the coat sufficiently thick and in a condition to stand polishing. When the articles are removed from the bath they are washed in water and dried in hot sawdust.
To polish the articles they should be taken in one hand and rubbed rapidly backward and forward on a strip of cloth soaked in polishing powder boiled in water, the cloth being firmly fixed at one end and held in the other hand. The hollow parts are polished by means of cloth pads of various sizes fixed on sticks. These pads must be dipped in the polishing paste when using them. The articles, when well brightened, are washed in water to get rid of the paste and the wool threads, and finally dried in sawdust. {288}
«SOME NOTES ON ELECTROTYPING, PLATING, AND GILDING.»
The first step in the process is the preparation of the mold. The substance originally used for the construction of this was plaster of Paris. This substance is, however, porous and must be rendered impermeable. The materials most commonly used of later years are stearine, wax, marine glue, gelatin, india rubber, and fusible alloys. With hollow molds it is a good plan to arrange an internal skeleton of platinum, for ultimate connection with the anodes, in order to secure a good electrical contact with all parts of the mold. When covering several pieces at once, it is as well to connect each of them with the negative pole by an iron or lead wire of suitable dimensions.
Having prepared the molds in the usual way—by obtaining an impression in the material when soft, and allowing it to set—they should be given a metallic coating on their active surfaces of pure powdered plumbago applied with a polishing brush.
For delicate and intricate objects, the wet process is most suitable. It consists in painting the object with two or more coats of nitrate of silver and ultimately reducing it by a solution of phosphorus in bisulphide of carbon.
The plating baths are prepared as follows:
A quantity of water is put in a jar and to it is added from 8 to 10 parts in 100 of sulphuric acid, in small quantities, stirring continually in order to dissipate the heat generated by the admixture of acid and water. Sulphate of copper (bluestone) is then dissolved in the acidulated water at the normal temperature until it will take up no more. The solution is always used cold and must be maintained in a saturated condition by the addition of copper sulphate crystals or suitable anodes.
For use it should be poured into vessels of clay, porcelain, glass, hard brown earthenware, or india rubber. For large baths wood may be used, lined on the interior with an impervious coating of acid-proof cement, india rubber, marine glue, or even varnished lead sheets.
If the solution be too weak and the current on the other hand be too strong, the resulting deposit will be of a black color. If too concentrated a solution and too weak a current be employed, a crystalline deposit is obtained. To insure a perfect result, a happy medium in all things is necessary.
During the process of deposition, the pieces should be moved about in the bath as much as possible in order to preserve the homogeneity of the liquid. If this be not attended to, stratification and circulation of the liquid is produced by the decomposition of the anode, and is rendered visible by the appearance of long, vertical lines on the cathode.
For amateurs and others performing small and occasional experiments, the following simple apparatus will be serviceable. Place the solution of sulphate of copper in an earthenware or porcelain jar, in the center of which is a porous pot containing amalgamated zinc and a solution of sulphuric acid and water, about 2 or 3 parts in 100. At the top of the zinc a brass rod is fixed, supporting a circle of the same metal, the diameter of which is between that of the containing vessel and the porous pot. From this metallic circle the pieces are suspended in such a manner that the parts to be covered are turned toward the porous pot. Two small horsehair bags filled with copper sulphate crystals are suspended in the solution to maintain its saturation.
«ELM TEA.»
Powdered slippery elm bark 2 teaspoonfuls (or the equivalent in whole bar) Boiling water 1 cup Sugar, enough. Lemon juice, enough.
Pour the water upon the bark. When cool, strain and flavor with lemon juice and add sugar. This is soothing in case of inflammation of the mucous membrane.
«EMBALMING FLUIDS.»
Success in the use of any embalming fluid depends largely on manipulation, an important part of the process being the thorough removal of fluid from the circulatory system before undertaking the injection of the embalming liquid.
I.—Solution zinc chloride (U. S. P.) 1 gallon Solution sodium chloride 6 ounces to pint 6 pints Solution mercury bichloride, 1 ounce to pint 4 pints Alcohol 4 pints Carbolic acid (pure) 8 ounces Glycerine 24 fluidounces
{289}
Mix the glycerine and carbolic acid, then all the other ingredients, when a clear solution of 3 gallons results, which is the proper amount for a body weighing 150 pounds.
II.—Arsenious acid 100 parts Sodium hydrate 50 parts Carbolic acid and water, of each a sufficient quantity.
Dissolve the arsenious acid and the soda in 140 parts of water by the aid of heat. When the solution is cold, drop carbolic acid into it until it becomes opalescent, and finally add water until the finished product measures 700 parts.
III.—Salicylic acid 4 drachms Boric acid 5 drachms Potassium carbonate 1 drachm Oil of cinnamon 3 drachms Oil of cloves 3 drachms Glycerine 5 ounces Alcohol 12 ounces Hot water 12 ounces
Dissolve the first 3 ingredients in the water and glycerine, the oils in the alcohol, and mix the solutions.
IV.—Thymol 15 grains Alcohol 1/2 ounce Glycerine 10 ounces Water 5 ounces
V.—Cooking salt 500 parts Alum 750 parts Arsenious acid 350 parts Zinc chloride 120 parts Mercury chloride 90 parts Formaldehyde solution, 40 per cent 6,000 parts Water, up to 24,000 parts
VI.—Arsenious acid 360 grains Mercuric chloride 1 1/4 ounces Alcohol 9 ounces Sol. ac. carbolic, 5 per cent 120 ounces
From 10 to 12 pints are injected into the carotid artery—at first slowly and afterwards at intervals of from 15 to 30 minutes.
EMERALD (IMITATION): See Gems, Artificial.
«EMERY:»
«Emery Grinder.»—Shellac, melted together with emery and fixed to a short metal rod, forms the grinder used for opening the holes in enameled watch dials and similar work. The grinder is generally rotated with the thumb and forefinger, and water is used to lubricate its cutting part, which soon wears away. The grinder is reshaped by heating the shellac and molding the mass while it is in a plastic condition.
«Preparing Emery for Lapping.»—To prepare emery for lapping screw-gages, plugs, etc., fill a half-pint bottle with machine oil and flour emery, 7 parts oil to 1 part emery, by bulk. Mix thoroughly and let stand for 20 minutes to settle. Take the bottle and pour off one-half the contents without disturbing the settlings. The portion poured off contains only the finest emery and will never scratch the work.
For surface lapping put some flour emery in a linen bag and tie up closely with a string. Dust out the emery by striking the bag against the surface plate; use turpentine for rough lapping and the dry surface plate for finishing.
«Removing Glaze from Emery Wheels.»—If the wheel is not altogether too hard, it can sometimes be remedied by reducing the face of the wheel to about 1/8 inch, or by reducing the speed, or by both. Emery wheels should be turned off so that they will run true before using. A wheel that glazes immediately after it has been turned off, can sometimes be corrected by loosening the nut, and allowing the wheel to assume a slightly different position, when it is again tightened.
«Emery Substitute.»—For making artificial emery, 1,634 parts of the following substances may be employed: Seven hundred and fifty-nine parts of bauxite, 700 parts of coke, and 96 parts of a flux, which may be a carbonate of lime, of potash, or of soda, preferably carbonate of lime on account of its low price. These materials are arranged in alternate layers and fused in an oven having a good draught. They are said to yield an artificial emery similar to the natural emery of Smyrna and Naxos, and at low cost.
«EMULSIFIERS:»
«Rosin Soap as an Emulsifier.»—The soap should be made by boiling gently for 2 hours, in an evaporating dish, a mixture of 1,800 grains rosin and 300 caustic soda with 20 fluidounces water. Upon cooling, the soap separates as a yellow mass, which is drained from the liquid, squeezed, then heated on a water bath until it is dry and friable. Fixed oils may be emulsified by adding 1 ounce {290} to a solution of 10 grains soap in 1 ounce water. Volatile oils require 10 grains rosin soap, 2 3/4 ounces water, and 2 drachms oil. Creosote requires double this amount of soap. Thymol may be rendered miscible with water by dissolving 18 grains together with 20 grains soap in 3 fluidounces alcohol, then adding enough water to make 6 fluidounces. Of course many other substances may be emulsified with the same emulsifier.
«Yolk of Egg as an Emulsifier.»—The domestic ointment of Unona, consisting of a mixture of oil and yolk of egg, is miscible in all proportions with water. It is proposed to utilize this fact by substituting a diluted ointment for the gum emulsions in general use, the following being given as a general formula:
Yolk of egg 10 parts Balsam Peru 1 to 2 parts Zinc oxide 5 to 10 parts Distilled water 100 parts
If desired, 33 parts of vinegar may be substituted for the same amount of water, while oil of cade, oil of birch, lianthral or storax may be substituted for the balsam Peru, and an equal quantity of talc, magnesium carbonate, sulphur of bismuth subcarbonate, may be introduced in place of the oxide of zinc. A further variation in the character of the liquid may be introduced by the use of medicated or perfumed waters instead of the plain distilled water. Where so diluted, as in the above formula, the yolk of egg separates out after long standing, but the mixture quickly reëmulsifies upon shaking. Tar and balsams can be emulsified by mixing with double their quantity of yolk of egg, then diluting by the addition of small quantities of water or milk.
«Emulgen.»—This emulsifying agent has the following composition: Gluten, 5; gum acacia, 5; gum tragacanth, 20; glycerine, 20; water, 50; alcohol, 10. This mixture forms a clear grayish jelly.
EMULSIONS OF PETROLEUM: See Petroleum.
«Enameling»
(See also Ceramics, Glazes, Paints, Waterproofing, and Varnishes.)
«COMMERCIAL ENAMELING.»
Commercial enameling includes: (1) Hollow ware enameling for domestic use; (2) hollow ware enameling for chemical use; (3) enameling locomotive and other tubes; (4) enameling drain and water pipes; (5) signboard enameling.
There is one defect to which all enamel ware is subject, and that is chipping. This may be caused by (1) imperfect mixing of the enamels; (2) imperfect fusing; (3) imperfect pickling of the iron; (4) rough usage. With ordinary care a well-enameled article has been known to last in daily use for 10 or 12 years, whereas defective enameling, say, on a sign tablet—which is exempt from rough usage—may not have a life exceeding a few months. All enameled articles, such as hollow ware and sign tablets, first receive a coating of a composition chiefly composed of glass called “gray,” and this is followed by a deposit of “white,” any additional color required being laid above the white. In the mixing and depositing of these mixtures lie the secrets of successful enameling. The “gray” has to be fused not only on but also into the metal at a bright red—almost white—heat, and it is obvious that its constituents must be arranged and proportioned to expand and contract in a somewhat uniform manner with the iron itself. The “white” has to be fused on the surface of the gray, but the gray being much harder is not affected by the second firing. If it were liquid it would become mixed with the white and destroy its purity. Frequently, owing to inferior chemicals, imperfect mixing or fusing, a second coating of white is necessary, in order to produce a surface of the necessary purity and luster. The difficulties of enameling are thus easily understood. Unless the metals and chemicals are so arranged and manipulated that their capacities of expansion and contraction are approximately the same, inferior work will be produced. Oxide of iron on the surface of the plates, inferior chemicals, incorrect mixings, insufficient or overheating in the process of fusing, prevent that chemical combination which is essential to successful enameling. The coatings will be laid on and not combined, with the result that there will be inequalities in expansion and contraction which will cause the enamel to chip off immediately if submitted to anything approaching rough usage, and in a very short time if submitted to chemical or ordinary atmospheric conditions.
The manufacture of sign tablets is the simplest form to which this important art is adapted. Sign-tablet enameling is, however, kept as great a secret as any other type. This branch of the industry {291} is divided up as follows: (1) Setting the plates; (2) scaling and pickling the plates; (3) mixing the enamel constituents; (4) melting the enamel constituents; (5) grinding the enamel constituents; (6) applying the enamel; (7) drying the enamel coatings; (8) fusing the enamel on the articles; (9) lettering—including alphabetical and other drawing, spacing, and artistic art in arrangement; (10) stencil cutting on paper and stencil metal; (11) brushing; (12) refusing. Distinctive branches of this work have distinctive experts, the arrangement being generally as follows: Nos. 1 and 2 may or may not be combined; Nos. 3 and 5 may or may not be combined; Nos. 4, 7, 8, and 12 generally combined; No. 6 generally the work of girls; Nos. 9 and 10 generally combined; No. 11 generally the work of girls and boys. The twelve processes, therefore, require six classes of trained workpeople, and incompetence or carelessness at any section can only result in imperfect plates or “wasters.”
A brief description of these processes will enable the reader to understand the more detailed and technical description to follow, and is, therefore, not out of place. Ordinary iron sheets will do for the manufacture of sign tablets; but a specially prepared charcoal plate can be had at a slightly increased price. The latter type is the best, for in many cases the scaling and pickling may, to a certain extent, be dispensed with. To make this article, however, as complete as possible, we shall begin from the lowest rung of the manufacturing ladder—i. e., from the first steps in the working of suitable iron.
I.—Setting.—The plates may be received in sheets, and cut to the required size at the enameling factory, or, what is more general, received in sizes according to specification. The former are more liable to have buckled slightly or become dented, and have to be restored to a smooth and uniform surface by hammering on a flat plate. The operation seems simple, but an inexperienced operator may entirely fail to produce the desired result, and, if he does succeed, it is with the expenditure of a great amount of time. An expert setter with comparatively few and well-directed strokes brings an imperfect plate into truth and in readiness for the next operation.
II.—Scaling and Pickling.—The annealing of the sheets in special furnaces loosens the scale, which can then be easily removed, after which immersion for some time in diluted sulphuric or muriatic acid thoroughly cleans the plate. Firing to a red heat follows, and then a generous course of scrubbing, and the last traces of acid are removed by dipping in boiling soda solution. Scouring with sand and washing in clean water may follow, and the metal has then a perfect and chemically clean surface.
III.—Mixing the Enamel Constituents.—Ground, foundation, or gray.—All articles, whether hollow ware or plates, are operated upon in a very similar manner. Both require the foundation coating generally called “gray.” The gray constituents vary considerably in different manufactures; but as regards the use of lead, it is universally conceded that while it may in many instances be used with advantage in the enameling of sign tablets, etc., it should under no circumstances be introduced into the coating of articles for culinary purposes, or in which acids are to be used. The first successful commercial composition of this covering was: Cullet (broken glass), carbonate of soda, and boracic acid. This composition remained constant for many years, but ultimately gave place to the following: Cullet, red lead, borax, niter. The borax and red lead form the fluxes, while the niter is to “purify” the mass. Some of the later mixings consist of the following: Silica powder, crystallized or calcium borax, white lead, fused together. This would be called a frit, and with it should be pulverized powdered silica, clay, magnesia. This recipe is one requiring a very high temperature for fusing: Silica powder, borax, fused and ground with silica, clay, magnesia. This requires a slightly lower temperature: Frit of silica powder, borax, feldspar, fused together, and then ground with clay, feldspar, and magnesia.
The approximate quantities of each constituent will be given later, but it must always be remembered that no hard-and-fast line can be laid down. Chemicals vary in purity, the furnaces vary in temperature, the pounding, grinding, and mixing are not always done alike, and each of these exerts a certain influence on the character of the “melt.” These compositions may be applied to the metal either in the form of a powder or of a liquid. Some few years ago the powder coating was in general use, but at the present time the liquid form is in favor, as it is considered easier of application, capable of giving a coating more uniform in thickness and less costly. In using the powder coating the plate is rubbed with a cloth dipped in a gum {292} solution, and the powder then carefully dusted through a sieve over the surface. In this condition the plate is submitted to the fusing process. In using the liquid material the plate surface is dipped into or has the liquid mixing carefully poured over it, any surplus being drained off, and any parts which are not to be coated being wiped clean by a cloth. The coating is then dried in suitable stoves, after which it is ready for fusing on to the iron. The gray coating should be fairly uniform and smooth, free from holes or blisters, and thoroughly covering every part of the iron which is to be subjected to any outside influence. Cooling slowly is important. Rapid cooling frequently causes chipping of the coating, and in any case it will greatly reduce the tenacity of the connection existing between the glaze and the metal.
Generally the next surface is a white one, and it depends upon the class of article, the character of the enamels, and the efficiency of application, whether one coat or two will be required. Roughly speaking, the coating is composed of a glass to which is added oxide of tin, oxide of lead, or some other suitable opaque white chemical. The mixture must be so constituted as to fuse at a lower temperature than the foundation covering. If its temperature of fusion were the same the result would be that the gray would melt on the iron and become incorporated with the white, thus loosening the attachment of the mass to the iron and also destroying the purity of the white itself. Bone ash is sometimes used, as it becomes uniformly distributed throughout the melt, and remains in suspension instead of settling. Bone ash and oxide of lead are, however, in much less demand than oxide of tin. The lead is especially falling into disfavor, for the following reasons: Firstly, it requires special and laborious treatment; secondly, it gives a yellowish-white color; thirdly, it cannot resist the action of acids. The following is a recipe which was in very general use for some years: Glass (cullet), powdered flint, lead, soda (crystals), niter, arsenic. Another consists of the following: Borax, glass, silica powder, oxide of tin, niter, soda, magnesia, clay. These are fused together, and when being ground a mixture of Nos. 1, 3, 7, and boracic acid is added.
Enamel mixings containing glass or china are now generally in use, although for several years the experience of manufacturers using glass was not satisfactory. Improved compositions and working now make this constituent a most useful, and, in fact, an almost essential element. The glass should be white broken glass, and as uniform in character as possible, as colored glass would impart a tinge of its own color to the mixing.
The following are two distinct glazes which do not contain glass or porcelain: Feldspar, oxide of tin, niter, soda. This is free from any poisonous body and requires no additions: Silica powder, oxide of tin, borax, soda, niter, carbonate of ammonia, or magnesia.
Alkalies.—Of the alkalies which are necessary to produce complete fusion of and combination with the quartz, soda is chiefly applied in enamel manufactures, as the fusing temperature is then lower.
Bone Ash.—This material will not add opacity, but only semi-transparency to the enamel, and is therefore not much used.
Boracic Acid.—Boracic acid is sometimes substituted for silicic acid, but generally about 15 per cent of the former to 85 per cent of the latter is added. Borax as a flux is, however, much more easily used and is therefore largely employed in enamel factories.
Borax.—Calcined borax, that is, borax from which a large proportion of the natural moisture has been eliminated, is best for enamel purposes. It is a flux that melts at medium heat, and enters into the formation of the vitreous basis. Borax has also the property of thoroughly distributing oxide colors in the enamels.
Clay.—Only a fairly pure clay can be used in enamel mixings, and the varieties of clay available are therefore limited. The two best are pipe—or white—clay and china clay—kaolin. The latter is purer than the former, and in addition to acting as a flux, it is used to increase the viscosity of mixings and therefore the opacity. It is used in much the same way as oxide of tin.
Cryolite.—Ground cryolite is a white mineral, easily fusible, and sometimes used in enamel mixings. It is closely associated with aluminum.
Cullet.—This is the general material used as a basis. Clear glass only should be introduced; and as the compositions of glass vary greatly, small experimental frits should always be made to arrive at the correct quantity to be added.
Feldspar.—The introduction of feldspar into an enamel frit increases consistency. The common white variety is {293} generally used, and its preliminary treatment by pounding is similar to that adopted with quartz.
Fluor-Spar.—In this mineral we have another flux, which fuses at a red heat.
Fluxes.—These are for the purpose of regulating the temperature of fusion of a mixing—frit—some being better adapted for this purpose than others. This, however, is not the only consideration, for the character of the flux depends upon the composition or chemical changes to which the ingredients are to be subjected. The fluxes are borax, clays, cullet, porcelain, feldspar, gypsum, and fluorspar.
Glass.—Glass is composed of lime, silicic acid, and soda or potash. The use of the glass is to form the hard, crystal-like foundation.
Gypsum.—This mineral is sometimes used in conjunction with baryta and fluor-spar.
Lead.—Crystallized carbonate of lead, or “lead white,” is frequently used in enamels when a low temperature for fusion is required. It should never be used on articles to be submitted to chemical action, or for culinary use. Minium is a specially prepared oxide of lead, and suitable for enameling purposes, but is expensive.
Lime.—Lime is in the form of carbonate of calcium when used.
Magnesium Carbonate is used only in small quantities in enamel mixings. It necessitates a higher temperature for fusion, but does not affect the color to the slightest extent if pure.
Manganese.—As a decolorant, this mineral is very powerful, and therefore only small quantities must be used. Purity of the mineral is essential—i. e., it should contain from 95 to 98 per cent of binoxide of manganese.
Niter.—At a certain temperature niter shows a chemical change, which, when affected by some of the other constituents, assists in the formation of the vitreous base.
Porcelain.—Broken uncolored porcelain is sometimes used in enamel manufacture. Its composition: Quartz, china clay, and feldspar. It increases viscosity.
Red Lead.—This decolorant is sometimes called purifier. It will, however, interfere with certain coloring media, and when this is the case its use should at once be discontinued.
Silicic Acid.—Quartz, sand, rock crystal, and flint stone are all forms of this acid in crystallized form. By itself it is practically infusible, but it can be incorporated with other materials to form mixings requiring varying temperatures for fusion.
Soda.—The soda in general use is carbonate of soda—58 per cent—or enameling soda. The latter is specially prepared, so as to free it almost entirely from iron, and admit of the production of a pure white enamel when such is required.
Tin Oxide.—All enamels must contain white ingredients to produce opacity, and the most generally used is oxide of tin. By itself it cannot be fused, but with proper manipulation it becomes diffused throughout the enamel mass. On the quantity added depends the denseness or degree of opacity imparted to the enamel.
It will be understood that the enamel constituents are divided into four distinct groups: I. Fundamental media. II. Flux media. III. Decolorant media. IV. Coloring media. We have briefly considered the three first named, and we will now proceed to No. IV. The coloring material used is in every case a metallic oxide, so that, so far as this goes, the coloring of an enamel frit is easy enough. Great care is, however, necessary, and at times many difficulties present themselves, which can only be overcome by experience. Coloring oxides are very frequently adulterated, and certain kinds of the adulterants are injurious to the frit and to the finish of the color.
«Comparison of Hollow Ware and Sign-Tablet Enameling.»—The enameling for sign tablets is much the same as for hollow ware; the mixings are practically alike, but, as a general rule, the mixing is applied in a much more liquid form on the latter. It is easy to understand that hollow ware in everyday use receives rougher usage than tablets. By handling, it is submitted to compression, expansion, and more or less violence due to falls, knocks, etc., and unless, therefore, the enamel coating follows the changes of the metal due to these causes, the connection between the two will become loosened and chipping will take place.
The enamel, therefore, though much alike for both purposes, should be so prepared for hollow ware that it will be capable of withstanding the changes to which we have referred. In all cases it must be remembered that the thinner the coat of the enamel the better it will be {294} distributed over the iron, and the greater will be its adherence to the iron. Any article heavily enameled is always liable to chip, especially if submitted to the slightest bending action, and therefore any excess of material added to a plate means that it will always be readily liable to separate from the plate. In hollow-ware enameling the preparation of each frit generally receives somewhat more attention than for plate enameling. The grinding is more effectively carried out, in order to remove almost every possibility of roughness on any part of the surface, especially the inside surface.
The iron used in tablet and hollow-ware manufacture is rolled sheet iron. It is supplied in a variety of qualities. Charcoal iron is purer than ordinary plate iron, more ductile, and therefore capable of being driven out to various forms and depths by stamping presses. The surface of the charcoal iron is not so liable to become oxidized, and therefore can be more readily made chemically clean for the reception of the enamels. Some manufacturers use charcoal plates for tablet work, but these are expensive; the ordinary plates, carefully pickled and cleaned, adapt themselves to the work satisfactorily.
The sheet irons generally used for the enameling purposes referred to vary in gauge. The finer the iron the greater must be the care used in coating it with enamel. Thin iron will rapidly become hot or cool, the temperatures changing much more quickly than that of the mixing. Unless care, therefore, is used, the result of fusing will be that the enamel mass will not have become thoroughly liquid, and its adherence to the iron will be imperfect.
If, however, the temperature is gradually raised to the maximum, and sympathetic combination takes place, the dangers of rapid cooling are avoided. Again, the iron, in losing its temperature more rapidly than the enamel, will contract, thus loosening its contact with the glaze, and the latter will either then, or after a short period of usage, chip off. We then arrive at the following hard-and-fast rules: (1) In all classes of enameling, but particularly where thin iron sheets are used, the temperature of the plate and its covering must be raised very gradually and very uniformly. (2) In all cases a plate which has had a glaze fused on its surface must be cooled very gradually and very uniformly. The importance of these rules cannot be over-estimated, and will, therefore, be referred to in a more practical way later.
In enameling factories no causes are more prolific in the production of waste than these, and in many cases the defects produced are erroneously attributed to something else. Cast iron is much easier to enamel than wrought iron. This is due to the granular character of its composition. It retains the enamels in its small microscopic recesses, and greater uniformity can be arrived at with greater ease. Cast-iron enameled sign tablets and hollow ware were at one time made, but their great weight made it impossible for them ever to come into general use.
Wrought-iron plates, if examined microscopically, will show that they are of a fibrous structure, the fibers running in the direction in which they have been rolled. The enamels, therefore, will be more liable to flow longitudinally than transversely, and this tendency will be more accentuated at some places than at others. This, however, is prevented by giving the iron sheets what might be described as a cast-iron finish. The sheets to be enameled should be thoroughly scoured in all directions by quartz or flint sand, no part of the surface being neglected. This thorough scrubbing will roughen the surface sufficiently to make it uniformly retentive of enamel mixture, and in no cases should it be omitted or carelessly carried out.
«Copper Enameling.»—On a clean copper surface the enameling process is easy. The foundation glaze is not essential, and when required the most beautiful results of blended colors can be obtained by very little additional experience to ordinary enameling.
When the vase or other article has been hammered out to the required shape in copper, it is passed on to another class of artisans, who prepare it for the hands of the enameler. The design or designs are sketched carefully. The working appliances consist only of a pointed tool, two or three small punches of varying sizes, and a hammer. With this small equipment the operator sets to work. The spaces between each dividing line are gradually lowered by hammering, and when this has been uniformly completed, each little recess is ready to receive its allotment of enamel. More accurate work even than this can be obtained by the introduction of flat wire. This wire is soldered or fixed on the vase, and forms the outline for the entire design. It may be of brass, copper, or gold, but is fixed and built round every item of the whole design with the most {295} laborious care. It stands above the surface of the design on the copper articles, but the little recesses formed by it are then gradually filled up by enamel in successive fusings. The whole surface of the article is now ground perfectly smooth and polished until its luster is raised to the highest point possible, and when this stage has been reached the article is ready for the market.
«From the Sheet to the Sign Tablet.»—The plates are generally in lengths of 6 feet by 2 feet, 6 feet by 3 feet, etc., the gauge generally being from 14 to 22, according to the size and class of plates to be enameled. These must be cut, but some enamelers prefer to order their plates in specified sizes, which does away with the necessity of cutting at the enameling factory. In order, however, to make this article complete, we will assume that a stock of large plates is kept on hand, the sizes being 6 feet by 3 feet and 6 feet by 2 feet. An order for sign tablets is given; particulars, say as follows: Length, 2 feet by 12 inches, white letters on blue ground; lettering, The Engineer, 33 Norfolk Street; block letters, no border line, 2 holes. For ordinary purposes these particulars would be sufficient for the enameler.
Stage I.—Cutting the plate is the first operation. The plates 6 feet by 2 feet would first be cut down the center in a circular cutting machine, thus forming two strips, 6 feet by 12 inches. Each strip would then be cut into three lengths of 2 feet each. If a guillotine had to be used instead of a circular cutter, the plate would be first cut transversely at distances of 2 feet, thus forming three square pieces of 2 feet by 2 feet. These would then be subdivided longitudinally into two lengths each, the pieces being then 2 feet by 12 inches. Each sheet would thus be cut into six plates.
Stage II.—The cut plates should next have any roughness removed from the edges, then punched with two holes—one at each end, followed by leveling or setting. This is done by hammering carefully on a true flat surface.
Stage III.—The plates should then be taken and dipped into a hydrochloric acid bath made up of equal quantities of the acid and water. The plates are then raised to a red heat in the stoves, and on removal it will be found that the scale—iron oxide—has become loosened, and will readily fall off, leaving a clean metallic surface. A second course of cleaning then follows in diluted sulphuric acid—1 part acid to 20 parts water. In this bath the iron may be kept for about 12 hours. In some cases a much stronger bath is used, and the plates are left in only a very short time. The bath is constructed of hard wood coated inside with suitable varnish.
In mixing the sulphuric acid bath it must be remembered that the acid should be slowly poured into the water under continuous stirring. Following the bath, the metal is rinsed in water, after which it is thoroughly scoured with fine flinty sand. Rinsing again follows, but in boiling water, and then the metal is allowed to dry. The enameling process should immediately follow the drying, for if kept for any length of time the surface of the metal again becomes oxidized. In hollow-ware enameling the hydrochloric acid bath may be omitted.
Stage IV.—The plates are now ready for the reception of the foundation or gray coating. If powder is used the plate is wiped over with a gum solution, and then the powder is carefully and uniformly dusted through a fine sieve over the surface. The plate is then reversed and the operation repeated on the other side. If a liquid “gray” is to be used it should have a consistency of cream, and be poured or brushed with equal care over the two surfaces in succession, after the plate has been heated to be only just bearable to the touch. The plates are then put on rests, or petits, in a drying stove heated to about 160° F., and when thoroughly dry they are ready for the fusing operation. The petits, with the plates, are placed on a long fork fixed on a wagon, which can be moved backward and forward on rails; the door of the fusing oven is then raised and the wagon moved forward. The fork enters the oven just above fire clay brick supports arranged to receive the petits. The fork is then withdrawn and the door closed. The stove has a cherry-red, almost white, heat and in a few minutes the enamel coating has been uniformly melted, and the plates are ready to be removed on the petits and fork in the same manner as they were inserted. Rapid cooling must now be carefully avoided, otherwise the enamel and the iron will be liable to separate, and chipping will result. The temperature of fusion should be about 2,192° F.† When all the plates have been thus prepared they are carefully examined and defective ones laid aside, the others being now ready for the next operation. {296}
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† Melting a piece of copper will approximately represent this temperature.
Stage V.—The coating of the plate with white is the next stage. The temperature of fusion of the white glaze is lower than that of the gray, so that the plate will remain a shorter time in the stove, or be submitted to a somewhat lower temperature. The latter system is to be strongly recommended in order to prevent any possibility of fusion of the ground mass. The white should be made as liquid as possible consistent with good results. The advantages of thin coatings have already been explained, but if the mixing is too thin the ground coating will not only be irregularly covered. but, in fusion, bubbles will be produced, owing to the steam escaping, and these are fatal to the sale of any kind of enameled ware. When the plate has been thoroughly dried and fusion has taken place, slow and steady cooling is absolutely essential. Special muffles are frequently built for this purpose, and their use is the means of preventing a large number of wasters. Before putting on the glaze, care must be taken to remove the gray from any part which is not to be coated. The temperature of fusion should be about 1,890° F.,† and the time taken is about 5 minutes.
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† Melting a piece of brass will represent this temperature.
Stage VI.—The stencil must be cut with perfect exactitude. The letters should be as clear as possible, proportioned, and spaced to obtain the best effects as regards boldness and appearance. Stencils may be cut either from paper or from specially prepared soft metal, called stencil metal. The former are satisfactory enough when only a few plates are required from one stencil, but when large quantities are required, say, 60 upward, metal stencils should be used. The paper should be thick, tough, and strong, and is prepared in the following manner: Shellac is dissolved in methylated spirits to the ordinary liquid gum form, and this is spread over both sides of the paper with a brush. When thoroughly dry a second protective coating is added, and the paper is then ready for stencil work. The stencil cutter’s outfit consists of suitable knives, steel rule, scales of various fractions to an inch, a large sheet of glass on which the cutting is done, and alphabets and numerals of various characters and types. For ordinary lettering one stencil is enough, but for more intricate designs 2, 3, and even 4 stencils may be required. In the preparation of the plates referred to in the paragraph preceding Stage I, only 1 stencil would be necessary. The paper before preparation would be measured out to the exact size of the plate, and the letters would be drawn in. The cutting would then be done, and the result shown at Fig. 1 would be obtained, the black parts being cut out. The lines or corners of each letter or figure should be perfectly clear and clean, for any flaw in the stencil will be reproduced on the plate.
Stage VII.—The next stage is the application of the blue enamel. The operation is almost identical with that of the white, but when the coating has been applied and dried, the lettering must be brushed out before it is fused. The coating is generally applied by a badger brush after a little gum water has been added; the effect of this is to make the blue more compact.
Stage VIII.—The next operation is brushing; the stencil is carefully placed over the plate, and held in position, and with a small hand brush with hard bristles the stencil is brushed over. This brushing removes all the blue coating, which shows the lettering and leaves the rest of the white intact. When this has been done, the stencil is removed and the connecting ribs of the lettering—some of which are marked X in Fig. 2—are then removed by hand, the instrument generally being a pointed stick of box or other similar wood.
Stage IX.—Fusing follows as in the case of the white glaze, and the plate is complete. One coat of blue should be sufficient, but if any defects are apparent a second layer is necessary.
The white and blue glazes are applied only on the front side of the plate, the back side being left coated with gray only.
«From the Sheet to the Hollow Ware.»—In hollow-ware enameling, the iron is received in squares, circles, or oblongs, of the size required for the ware to be turned out. It is soft and ductile, and by means of suitable punches and dies it is driven in a stamping press to the necessary shape. For shallow articles only one operation is necessary, but for deeper articles from 2 to 6 operations may be {297} required, annealing in a specially constructed furnace taking place between each. Following the “drawing” operations comes that of trimming; this may be done in a press or spinning lathe, the object being to trim the edges and remove all roughness. The articles are now ready for enameling. For explanation, let us suppose they are tumblers, to be white inside, and blue outside. The gray is first laid on, then the white, and lastly the blue—that is, after the pickling and cleaning operations have been performed. The line of demarcation between the blue and white must be clear, otherwise the appearance of the article will not be satisfactory. The process of enameling is exactly the same as for sign-plate enameling, but more care must be exercised in order to obtain a smoother surface. While the liquid enamels are being applied, circular articles should be steadily rotated in order to let the coating flow uniformly and prevent thick and thin places. The enameling of “whole drawn” ironware presents no difficulty to the ordinary enameler, but with articles which are seamed or riveted, special care and experience is necessary.
Seamed or riveted parts are, of course, thicker than the ordinary plate, will expand and contract differently, will take longer to heat and longer to cool, and the conclusion, therefore, that must be arrived at is that the thickness should be reduced as much as possible, and the joints be made as smooth as possible. Unless special precautions are taken, cracks will be seen on articles of this kind running in straight lines from the rivets or seams. To avoid these, the enamel liquid must be reduced to the greatest stage of liquidity, the heat must be raised slowly, and in cooling the articles should pass through, say, 2 or 3 muffles, each one having a lower temperature than the preceding one. It is now generally conceded that the slower and more uniform the cooling process, the greater will be the durability of the enamel. Feldspar is an almost absolutely necessary addition to the gray in successful hollow-ware enameling, and the compositions of both gray and white should be such as to demand a high temperature for fusion. The utensils with the gray coating should first be raised to almost a red heat in a muffle, and then placed in a furnace raised to a white heat. The white should be treated similarly, and in this way the time taken for complete fusion at the last stage will be about 4 minutes.
The outside enamel on utensils is less viscous than the inside enamel, and should also be applied as thinly as possible.
«Stoves and Furnaces.»—Fritting and Fusing.—The best results are obtained in enameling when the thoroughly ground and mixed constituents are fused together, reground, and then applied to the metal surface. In cheap enamels the gray is sometimes applied without being previously melted, but it lacks the durability which is obtained by thorough fusion and regrinding. In smelting enamel one of two kinds of furnaces may be used, viz., tank or crucible. The former is better adapted to the melting of considerable quantities of ordinary enamel, while the latter is more suitable for smaller quantities or for finer enamels as the mixture is protected from the direct action of the flames by covers on the crucibles. The number of tanks and crucibles in connection with each furnace depends upon the heating capacity of the furnace and upon the out-turn required. They are so arranged that all or any of them can be used or put out of use readily by means of valves and dampers. Generally, they are arranged in groups of from 6 to 12, placed in a straight or circular line, but the object aimed at is complete combustion of the fuel, and the utilization of the heat to the fullest extent. One arrangement is to have the flame pass along the bottom and sides of the tank and then over the top to the chimney.
The general system in use is, however, the crucible system. The crucibles are made from the best fire clay, and the most satisfactory are sold under the name of “Hessian crucibles.” The chief objection to the use of the crucibles is that of cost. They are expensive, and in many factories the life of the crucible is very short, in some cases not extending beyond one period of fusion. When this, however, is the rule rather than the exception, the results are due to carelessness. Sudden heating or cooling of the crucible will cause it to crack or fall to pieces, but for this there is no excuse. Running the molten material quickly out of the crucible and replacing it hurriedly with a fresh cold mixing is liable—in fact, almost certain—to produce fracture, not only causing the destruction of the crucible, but also the loss of the mixing. New crucibles should be thoroughly dried in a gentle heat for some days and then gradually raised to the requisite temperature which they {298} must sustain for the purposes of fusion. Sometimes unglazed porcelain crucibles specially prepared with a large proportion of china clay are used. These are, however, expensive and require special attention during the first melt. The life of all crucibles can be lengthened by: (1) Gradually heating them before putting them into the fire; (2) never replacing a frit with a cold mass for the succeeding one; it should first be heated in a stove and then introduced into the crucible; (3) carefully protecting the hot crucibles from cold draughts or rapid cooling.
«Melting and Melting Furnaces.»—The arrangement of the melting furnace must be such as to protect the whole of the crucible from chills. The usual pit furnaces, with slight modifications, are suitable for this purpose. The crucible shown at b in Fig. 3 is of the type already described; at the top it is fitted with a lid, a, hinged at the middle, and at the bottom it is pierced by a 2-inch conical hole.† The hole, while melting is going on, is plugged up with a specially prepared stopper. The crucible stands on a tubular fireproof support, c, which allows the molten mass to be easily run off into a tub of water, which is placed in the chamber, d. The fuel is thrown in from the top, and the supply must be kept uniform. From 4 to 6 of these furnaces are connected with the same chimney; but before passing to the chimney the hot gases are in some cases used for heating purposes in connection with the drying stove. The plug used may be either a permanent iron one coated with a very hard enamel or made from a composition of quartz powder and water. An uncovered iron plug would be unsuitable owing to the action of the iron on the ingredients of the mixing.
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† Two inches for gray, one inch for glaze; the hole should he wider at the top.
In some cases only a very small hole is made in the crucible and no stopper used, the fusion of the mixing automatically closing up the hole. In some other factories no hole is made in the crucible, and when fusion is complete the crucible is removed and the mixing poured out. The two latter systems are bad; in the first there is always some waste of material through leakage, and in the latter the operation of removing the crucible is clumsy and difficult, while the exposure to the colder atmosphere frequently causes rupture.
The plug used should be connected with a rod, as shown in Fig. 3, which passes through a slot in one-half of the hinged lid, a. When fusion is complete this half is turned over, and the plug pulled up, thus allowing the molten mass to fall through into the vat of water placed underneath. The mixing in the crucibles, as it becomes molten, settles down, and more material can then be added until the crucible is nearly full. If the mixing is correctly composed, and has been thoroughly fused, it should flow freely from the crucible when the plug is withdrawn. Fusing generally requires only to be done once, but for fine enamels the operation may be repeated. The running off into the water is necessary in order to make the mass brittle and easy to grind. If this was not done it would again form into hard flinty lumps and require much time and labor to reduce to a powder.
A careful record should be kept of the loss in weight of the dried material at each operation. The weighings should be made at the following points: (1) Before and after melting; (2) after crushing.
The time required for melting varies greatly, but from 6 to 9 hours may be considered as the extreme limits. Gas is much used for raising the necessary heat for melting. The generator may be {299} placed in any convenient position, but a very good system is to have it in the center of a battery of muffles, any or all of which can be brought into use. When quartz stoppers are used there is considerable trouble in their preparation, and as each new batch of material requires a fresh stopper, wrought-iron stoppers have been introduced in many factories. These are coated with an enamel requiring a much higher temperature of fusion than the fundamental substance, and this coating prevents the iron having any injurious action on the frit.
«Fusing.»—For fusing the enamel muffle furnaces are used; these furnaces are simple in construction, being designed specially for: (1) Minimum consumption of fuel; (2) maximum heat in the muffle; (3) protection of the inside of the muffle from dust, draughts, etc.
The muffle furnaces may be of any size, but in order to economize fuel, it is obvious that they should be no larger than is necessary for the class and quantity of work being turned out. For sign-plate enameling the interior of the muffle may be as much as 10 feet by 5 feet wide by 3 feet in height, but a furnace of this kind would be absolutely ruinous for a concern where only about a dozen small hollow-ware articles were enameled at a time. The best system is to have 2 or 3 muffle furnaces of different dimensions, as in this way all or any one of them can be brought into use as the character and number of the articles may require. The temperature throughout the muffle is not uniform, the end next to the furnace being hotter than that next to the door. In plate enameling it is therefore necessary that the plates should be turned so that uniform fusion of the enamel may take place. In the working of hollow ware the articles should be first placed at the front of the muffle and then moved toward the back. The front of the furnace is closed in by a vertically sliding door or lid, and in this an aperture is cut, through which the process of fusion can be inspected. All openings to the muffle should be used as little as possible; otherwise cold air is admitted, and the inside temperature rapidly lowered.
Fig. 4 shows a simple arrangement of a muffle furnace; a is the furnace itself, with an opening, e, through which the fuel is fed; b is the muffle; c shows the firebars, and d the cinder box; f is a rest or plate on which is placed the articles to be enameled. The plate or petits on which the articles rest while being put into the muffle should be almost red hot, as the whole heat of the muffle in this way begins to act immediately on the enamel coating. The articles inside the muffles can be moved about when necessary, either by a hook or a pair of tongs, but care must be taken that every part of the vessel or plate is submitted to the same amount of heat.
In Figs. 5, 6, and 7 are given drawings of an arrangement of furnaces, etc., connected with an enameling factory at {300} present working. The stoves shown in Fig. 5 are drying stoves fired from the end by charcoal, and having a temperature of about 160° F. Fig. 6 shows the arrangement of the flues for the passage of the gases round the fusing oven. The section through the line A B, Fig. 5, as shown in Fig. 7, and the section through the frit kilns, as shown in Fig. 8, are sufficiently explanatory. The frit kilns and the fusing oven flues both lead to the brick chimney, but the stoves are connected to a wrought-iron chimney shown in Fig. 6. Another arrangement would have been to so arrange the stoves that the gases from the frit kilns could have been utilized for heating purposes.
«Fuel.»—The consumption of fuel in an enameling factory is the most serious item of the expenditure. Ill-constructed or badly proportioned stoves may represent any loss of coal from a quarter to one ton per day, and as great and uniform temperatures must be maintained, fuel of low quality and price is not desirable. In the melting stoves either arranged as tank or crucible furnaces, the character of the coal must not be neglected, as light dust, iron oxide, or injurious gases will enter into the crucibles through any opening, especially if the draught is not very great. Almost any of the various kinds of fuel may be used, provided that the system of combustion is specially arranged for in the construction of the furnaces. Charcoal is one of the best fuels available, its calorific value being so great; but its cost is in some places almost prohibitive. Wood burns too quickly, and is therefore expensive, and necessitates incessant firing.
For practical purposes we are thus often left to a selection of some type of coal. A coal with comparatively little heating power at a cheap price will be found more expensive in the end than one costing more, but capable of more rapid combustion and possessing more heat yielding gases. Cheap and hard coals give the fireman an amount of labor which is excessive. The proper maintenance of the temperature of the stove is almost impossible. Anthracite is excellent in every way, as it consists of nearly pure carbon, giving off a high degree of heat without smoke. Its use, of course, necessitates the use of a blower, but to this there can be no objection. Any coal which will burn freely and clean, giving off no excessive smoke, and capable of almost complete combustion, will give satisfaction in enameling; but it must not be forgotten that the consumption of fuel is so large that both price and quality must be carefully considered. Experimental tests must be made from time to time. A cheap, common coal will never give good results, and a good expensive coal will make the cost of manufacture so great that the prices of the enameled articles will render them unsalable. Any ordinary small factory will use from 2 to 4 tons per day of coal, and it will thus be seen that the financial success of a concern lies to a very great extent at the mouth of the furnace. Coke is a good medium for obtaining the necessary heat required in enameling if it can be got at a reasonable price. With a good draught a uniform temperature can be easily kept up, and the use of this by-product is, therefore, to be recommended. {301}
With good coal and a furnace constructed to utilize the heat given off to the fullest extent, there may still be unnecessary waste. The arrangement of the bars should only be made by those who fully understand the character of the coal and the objects in view. The fireman in charge should be thoroughly experienced and reliable, as much waste is frequently traced to imperfect feeding of the fuel.
Each charge of articles should be as large as possible, as fusing will take place equally as well on many articles as on few. The charges should follow one another as rapidly as can be conveniently carried out; and where this is not done there is a lack of organization which should be immediately remedied.
«Mills.»—Any hard substances must first be broken up and pounded in a pounding or stamping mill, or in any other suitable manner, thus reducing the lumps to a granular condition. When this has been done, the coarse is separated from the fine parts and the former again operated on. The next process is roller grinding for reducing the hard fritted granular particles to a fine powder. These mills vary in construction, but a satisfactory type is shown in Fig. 9. Motion is conveyed by a belt to the driving pulley, and this is transmitted from the pinion to the large bevel, which is connected by a shaft to the ground plate. As this revolves the material causes the mill wheels to revolve, and in this way the material is reduced to a powder. The rollers are of reduced diameter on the inner side to prevent slippage, and when all the parts are made of iron, the metal must be close grained and of very hard structure, so as to reduce the amount removed by wear to a minimum. When the materials are ground wet, the powder should be carefully protected from dust and thoroughly dried before passing to the next operation.
The glazing or enamel mills are shown in Fig. 10. These mills consist of a strong iron frame securely bolted to a stone foundation. In the sketch shown the framing carries 2 mills, but 3 or 4 can be arranged for. A common arrangement for small factories consists of 2 large mills, and 1 smaller mill, driven from the same shaft. One of the mills is used for foundation or gray mixings, the second for white, and the smallest one for colored mixings. In these mills it is essential that the construction is such as to prevent any iron fitting coming into contact with the mixing, for, as has already been explained, the iron will cause discoloration. The ground plate is composed of quartz and is immovable. It is surrounded by a wooden casing—as shown at a—and bound together by iron hoops. The millstones are heavy, rectangular blocks of quartz, called “French burr stone,” and into the center the spindle, b, is led. The powdered material mixed with about three times its bulk of water is poured into the vats, a, and the grinding stones are then set in motion. When a condition ready for enameling has been reached the mixture is run off through the valves, c. Each mill can be thrown out of gear when required, by means of a clutch box, without interfering with the working of the others. The grinding stones wear rapidly and require to be refaced from time to time. To avoid stoppage of the work, therefore, it is advisable to always have a spare set in readiness to replace those removed for refacing. The composition of the stones should not be neglected, for, in many cases, faults in the enamel have been traced to the wearing away of stones containing earthy or metallic matter. {302}
«Enamel Mixing.»—All constituents of which an enamel glaze is composed must be intimately mixed together. This can only be done by reducing each to a fine powder and thoroughly stirring them up together. This part of the work is often carried out in a very superficial manner, one material showing much larger lumps than another. Under circumstances such as these it is absurd to imagine that in fusion equal distribution will take place. What really happens is that some parts of the mass are insufficiently supplied with certain properties while others have too much. A mixture of this class can produce only unsatisfactory results in every respect, for the variations referred to will produce variations in the completeness of fusion in the viscous character of the mass, and in the color.
The mixing can be done by thoroughly stirring the various ingredients together, and a much better and cheaper system is mixing in rotating barrels or churns. These are mounted on axles which rest in bearings, one axle being long enough to carry a pulley. From the driving shaft a belt is led to the cask, which then rotates at a speed of from 40 to 60 revolutions per minute, and in about a quarter of an hour the operation is complete. The cask should not exceed the 5-gallon size, and should at no time be more than two-thirds full. Two casks of this kind give better results than one twice the size. The materials are shot into the cask in their correct proportions through a large bung hole, which is then closed over by a close-fitting lid.
«Mixings.»—For gray or fundamental coatings:
I.—Almost any kind of glass 49 per cent Oxide of lead 47 per cent Fused borax 4 per cent
II.—Glass (any kind) 61 per cent Red lead 22 per cent Borax 16 per cent Niter 1 per cent
III.—Quartz 67.5 per cent Borax 29.5 per cent Soda (enameling) 3 per cent
The above is specially adapted for iron pipes.
IV.—Frit of silica powder 60 per cent Borax 33 per cent White lead 7 per cent
Fused and then ground with—
Three-tenths weight of silica frit. Clay, three-tenths weight of silica frit. Magnesia, one-sixth weight of white lead.
V.—Silica 65 per cent Borax 14 per cent Oxide of lead 4 per cent Clay 15 per cent Magnesia 2 per cent
No. V gives a fair average of several mixings which are in use, but it can be varied slightly to suit different conditions of work.
«Defects in the Gray or Ground Coating.»—Chipping is the most disastrous. This may be prevented by the addition of some bitter salt, say from 3 to 4 per cent of the weight of the frit.
The addition of magnesia when it has been omitted from the frit may also act as a preventive, but it should only be added in very small quantities, not exceeding 2.5 per cent, otherwise the temperature required for fusion will be very great.
«Coating and Fusion.»—Difficulties of either may generally be done away with by reducing the magnesia used in the frit to a minimum.
A soft surface is always the outcome of a mixing which can be fused at a low temperature. It is due to too much lead or an insufficiency of clay or silica powder.
A hard surface is due to the quantity of lead in the mixing being too small. Increase the quantity and introduce potash, say about 2.5 per cent.
The gray or fundamental mixing should be kept together in a condition only just sufficiently liquid to allow of being poured out. When required to be applied to the plate, the water necessary to lower it to the consistency of thick cream can then be added gradually, energetic stirring of the mass taking place simultaneously in order to obtain uniform distribution.
The time required for fusion may vary from 15 minutes to 25 minutes, but should never exceed the latter. If it does, it shows that the mixing is too viscous, and the remedy would be the addition and thorough intermixture of calcined borax or boracic acid. Should this fail, then remelting or a new frit is necessary.
A highly glazed surface on leaving the muffle shows that the composition is too fluid and requires the addition of clay, glass, silica powder or other substance to increase the viscosity.
As has been already explained, the glaze is much more important than the fundamental coating. Discoloration or slight flaws which could be tolerated in the latter would be fatal to the former. {303}
In glazes, oxide of lead need not be used. It should never be used in a coating for vessels which are to contain acids or be used as cooking utensils. It may be used in sign-tablet production.
For pipes the following glaze gives good results:
I.—Feldspar 33 per cent Borax 22.5 per cent Quartz 16.5 per cent Oxide of tin 15 per cent Soda 8 per cent Fluorspar 3.75 per cent Saltpeter 2.25 per cent
For sign tablets the following gives fair results, although some of the succeeding ones are in more general use:
II.—Cullet 20 per cent Powdered flint 15 per cent Lead 52 per cent Soda 4.5 per cent Arsenic 4.5 per cent Niter 4 per cent
III.—Frit of silica powder 30 per cent Oxide of tin 18 per cent Borax 17 per cent Soda 8.6 per cent Niter 7.5 per cent White lead 5.5 per cent Carbonate of ammonia 5.5 per cent Magnesia 4 per cent Silica powder 4 per cent
The following are useful for culinary utensils, as they do not contain lead:
IV.—Frit of silica powder 26 per cent Oxide of tin 21 per cent Borax 20 per cent Soda 10.25 per cent Niter 7 per cent Carbonate of ammonia 5 per cent Magnesia 3.25 per cent
This should be ground up with the following:
Silica powder 4.25 per cent Oxide of tin 2.25 per cent Soda 0.5 per cent Magnesia 0.5 per cent
V.—Feldspar 41 per cent Borax 35 per cent Oxide of tin 17 per cent Niter 7 per cent
VI.—Borax 30 per cent Feldspar 22 per cent Silicate powder 17.5 per cent Oxide of tin 15 per cent Soda 13.5 per cent Niter 2 per cent
Borax will assist fusion. Quartz mixings require more soda than feldspar mixings.
VII.—Borax 28 per cent Oxide of tin 19.5 per cent Cullet (powdered white glass) 18 per cent Silica powder 17.5 per cent Niter 9.5 per cent Magnesia 5 per cent Clay 2.5 per cent
VIII.—Borax 26.75 per cent Cullet 19 per cent Silica powder 18.5 per cent Oxide of tin 19 per cent Niter 9.25 per cent Magnesia 4.5 per cent Soda 3 per cent
To No. VII must be added—while being ground—the following percentages of the weight of the frit:
Silica powder 18 per cent Borax 9 per cent Magnesia 5.25 per cent Boracic acid 1.5 per cent
To No. VIII should be similarly added the following percentages of the frit:
Silica powder 1.75 per cent Magnesia 1.75 per cent Soda 1 per cent
This mixing is one which is used in the production of some of the best types of hollow ware for culinary purposes. The glaze should be kept in tubs mixed with water until used, and it should be carefully protected from dust.
«Defects in the Glaze or White.»—A bad white may be due to its being insufficiently opaque. More oxide of tin is required. Cracks may be prevented by the addition of carbonate of ammonia. Insufficient luster can be avoided by adding to the quantity of soda and reducing the borax. If the gray shows through the white it proves that the temperature of fusion is too high or the viscosity of the mixing is too great. If the coating is not uniformly spread it may be due to the glaze being too thin; add magnesia. If the glaze separates from the gray add some bitter salt. Viscosity will be increased by reducing the quantity of borax. Immunity against chemical reaction is procured by increasing the quantity of borax. An improved luster will be obtained by adding native carbonate of soda. The greater the quantity of silicic acid the greater must be the temperature for fusion. To reduce the temperature add borax. Clay will increase the difficulty {304} of fusion. Oxide of lead will make a frit more easily fusible. A purer white can be obtained by adding a small quantity of smalt.
«Water.»—The character of the water used in the mixing of enamels is too frequently taken for granted, for unsuitable water may render a mixing almost entirely useless. Clean water, and with little or no sulphur present, is essential. For very fine enamels it is advisable to use carefully filtered water which has shown, after analysis, that it is free from any matter which is injurious to any of the enamel constituents.
«How to Tell the Character of Enamel.»—In the case of sign tablets the characteristics looked to are appearance and the adherence of the coatings to the iron. For the latter the tests are simple. The plate if slightly bent should not crack the coating. An enamel plate placed in boiling water for some time and then plunged into very cold water should not show any cracks, however small, even after repeated treatment of this kind.
Culinary utensils, and those to hold chemicals, should not only look well, but should be capable of resisting the action of acids. Lead should never enter into the composition of enamels of this class, as they then become easily acted upon, and in the case of chipping present a menace to health. The presence of lead is easily detected. Destroy the outside coating of the enamel at some spot by the application of strong nitric acid. Wash the part and apply a drop of ammonium sulphide. If lead is present, the part will become almost black, but remains unchanged in color if it is absent.
Another simple test is to switch up an egg in a vessel and allow it to stand for about 24 hours. When poured out and rinsed with water a dark stain will remain if lead is present in the enamel. To test the power of chemical resistance is equally simple. Boil diluted vinegar in the vessel for several minutes, and if a sediment is formed and the luster and smoothness of the glaze destroyed or partially destroyed, it follows that it is incapable of resisting the attacks of acids for any length of time. There are several other tests adopted, but those given present little difficulty in carrying out, and give reliable results.
«Wasters and Seconds: Repairing Old Articles.»—In all enameling there must be certain articles turned out which are defective, but the percentage should never be very great. The causes which most frequently tend to the production of wasters are new mixings and a temperature of fusion which is either too high or too low. There are two ways of disposing of defective articles, viz.: (1) Chipping off the bad spots, patching them up and selling them as “seconds”; (2) throwing the articles into the waste heap. The best firms adopt the latter course, because the recoating and firing of defective parts practically means a repetition of the whole process, thus adding greatly to the cost, while the selling price is reduced. Overheating in fusion is generally shown by blisters or by the enamel being too thin in various places. Chipping may be also due to this cause, the excessive heat having practically fused the fundamental coating.
At this stage the defects may be remedied by breaking off the faulty parts, patching them up, and then recoating the whole. With sign tablets there is no objection to doing so, but with hollow ware the fact remains that the article is faulty, no matter how carefully defects may be hidden. As white is the most general coating used, and shows up the defects more than the colored coatings, the greatest care is necessary at every stage of the manufacture. While glowing on the article, it should appear uniformly yellow, but on cooling it should revert to a pure white shade. On examining different makes of white coated articles, it will be found that some are more opaque than others. The former are less durable than the latter, because they contain a large percentage of oxide of tin, which reduces the elasticity. To ensure hardness the mixing must be very liquid, and this cannot be arrived at when a large quantity of oxide of tin is introduced.
Old utensils which have become broken or chipped can be repaired, although, except in the case of large articles, this is rarely done. The operations necessary are: (1) The defective parts chipped off; (2) submitted to a red heat for a few moments; (3) coated with gray on the exposed iron; (4) fused; (5) coated with the glaze on the gray; (6) fused.
«To Repair Enameled Signs.»—
Copal 5 parts Damar 5 parts Venice turpentine 4 parts
Powder the rosins, mix with the turpentine and add enough alcohol to form a thick liquid. To this add finely powdered zinc white in sufficient quantity to yield a plastic mass. Coloring {305} matter may, of course, be added if desired.
The mass after application is polished when it has become sufficiently hard.
«Enamel for Copper Cooking Vessels.»—White fluorspar is ground to a fine powder and strongly calcined with an equal volume of unburnt gypsum, at a light glowing heat, stirring diligently. Grind the mixture to a paste with water, paint the vessel with it, using a brush, or pour in the paste like a glaze and dry the same. Increase the heat gradually and bring the vessels with the glass substance quickly into strong heat, under a suitable covering or a mantle of burnt clay. The substance soon forms a white opaque enamel, which adheres firmly to the copper. It can stand pretty hard knocks without cracking, is adapted for cooking purposes and not attacked by acid matters. If the glassy substance is desired to cling well and firmly to the copper, a sudden and severe heat must be observed.
«To Pickle Black Iron-Plate Scrap Before Enameling.»—The black iron-plate scraps are first dipped clean in a mixture of about 1 part of sulphuric acid and 20 to 22 parts of water heated to 30° to 40° C. (86° to 104° F.), and sharp quartz sand is then used for scouring. They are then plunged for a few seconds in boiling water, taken out, and allowed to dry. Rinsing with cold water and allowing to dry thus may cause rust. The grains of quartz cut grooves in the fibers of the iron; this helps the grounding to adhere well. With many kinds of plate it is advisable to anneal after pickling, shutting off the air; by this means the plates will be thoroughly clean and free from oxidation. Much practice is required.—The Engineer.
«ENAMELED IRON RECIPES.»
The first thing is to produce a flux to fuse at a moderate heat, which, by flowing upon the plate, forms a uniform surface for the white or colored enamels to work upon.
Flux for Enameled Iron.—
White lead 10 parts Ball clay 1 part Flint glass 10 parts Whiting 1 part
The plates may then be coated with any of the following mixtures, which may either be spread on as a powder with a little gum, as in the case of the flux, or the colors may be mixed with oil and the plates dipped therein when coated; the plate requires heating sufficiently to run the enamels bright.
Soft Enamels for Iron, White.—
Flint glass 16 parts Oxide of tin 1 1/2 parts Niter 1 1/2 parts Red lead 4 parts Flint or china clay 1 part
Black.—
Red oxide of iron 1 1/4 parts Carbonate of cobalt 1 1/4 parts Red lead 6 parts Borax 2 parts Lynn sand 2 parts
Yellow Coral.—
Chromate of lead 1 part Red lead 2 3/4 parts Flint 1 part Borax 1/4 part
Canary.—
Oxide of uranium 1 part Red lead 4 1/2 parts Flint 1 1/2 parts Flint glass 1 part
Turquoise.—
Red lead 40 parts Flint glass 12 parts Borax 16 parts Flint 12 parts Enamel white 14 parts Oxide of copper 7 parts Oxide of cobalt 1/4 part
Red Brown.—
Calcined sulphate of iron 1 part Flux No. 8 (see page 307) 3 parts
Mazarine Blue.—
Oxide of cobalt 10 parts Paris white 9 parts Sulphate barytes 1 part
Fire the above at an intense heat and for use take
Above stain 1 part Flux No. 8 (see page 307) 3 parts
Sky Blue.—
Flint glass 30 parts White lead 10 parts Pearlash 2 parts Common salt 2 parts Oxide of cobalt 4 parts Enamel, white 4 parts
Chrome Green.—
Borax 10 parts Oxide of chrome 4 1/2 parts White lead 9 parts Flint glass 9 parts Oxide of cobalt 2 parts Oxide of tin 1 part {306}
Coral Red.—
Bichromate potash 1 part Red lead 4 1/2 parts Sugar of lead 1 1/2 parts Flint 1 1/2 parts Flint glass 1 part
Enamel White.—Soft:
Red lead 80 parts Opal glass 50 parts Flint 50 parts Borax 24 parts Arsenic 8 parts Niter 6 parts
Enamel White.—
Red lead 10 parts Flint 6 parts Boracic acid 4 parts Niter 1 part Soda crystals 1 part
Where the enameled work is intended to be exposed to the weather do not use flux No. 8, but substitute the following:
White lead 1 part Ground flint glass 1 part
All the enamels should, after being mixed, be melted in crucibles, poured out when in liquid, and powdered or ground for use.
«FUSIBLE ENAMEL COLORS.»
The following colors are fusible by heat, and are all suitable for the decoration of china and glass. In the following collection of recipes certain terms are employed which may not be quite understood by persons who are not connected with either the glass or porcelain industries, such as “glost fire” and “run down,” and in such cases reference must be made to the following definitions:
“Run down.” Sufficient heat to melt into liquid.
“Glost fire.” Ordinary glaze heat.
“Grind only.” No calcination required.
“Hard fire.” Highest heat attainable.
“Frit.” The ingredients partly composing a glaze, which require calcination.
“Stone.” Always best Cornwall stone.
“Paris white.” Superior quality of whiting.
“Parts.” Always so many parts by weight, unless otherwise stated.
“D. L. Zinc.” Particular brand not essential. Any good quality oxide of zinc will do.
Ruby and Maroon.—Preparation of silver:
Nitric acid 1 ounce Water 1 ounce
Dissolve the silver till saturated, then put a plate of copper in the solution to precipitate the silver in a metallic state. Wash well with water to remove the acetate of copper.
Flux for Above.—Six dwts. white lead to 1 ounce prepared silver.
Tin Solution.—Put the acid (aqua regia) in a bottle, add tin in small quantities until it becomes a dark-red color; let it stand about 4 days before use. When the acid becomes saturated it will turn red at the bottom of the bottle, then shake it up and add more tin; let it stand and it will become clear.
Aqua Regia.—
Nitric acid 2 parts Muriatic acid 1 part
Dissolve grain gold in the aqua regia so as to make a saturated solution. Take a basin and fill it 3 parts full of water; drop the solution of gold into it till it becomes an amber color. Into this solution of gold gradually drop the solution of tin, until the precipitate is complete. Wash the precipitate until the water becomes tasteless, then dry slowly and flux as follows:
Flux No. I.—
Borax 3 parts Red lead 3 parts Flint 2 parts
Run down.
Rose Mixture.—
Purple of Cassius 1 ounce Flux No. 1 6 ounces Prepared silver 3 dwts. Flint glass 2 ounces
Grind.
Purple Mixture.—
Purple of Cassius 1 ounce Flux No. 8 (see page 307) 2 1/2 ounces Flint glass 2 ounces
Grind.
Ruby.—
Purple mixture 2 1/2 parts Rose mixture 1 1/2 parts
Grind.
Maroon.—
Rose mixture 1 part Purple mixture 2 parts
Grind. {307}
Black—Extra quality.—
Red oxide of iron 12 parts Carbonate of cobalt 12 parts Oxide of cobalt 1 part Black flux A (see next formula) 80 parts
Glost fire.
Black Flux A.—
Red lead 3 parts Calcined borax 1/2 part Lynn sand 1 part
Run down.
Black No. 2.—
Oxide of copper 1 part Carbonate of cobalt 1/2 part Flux No. 8 (see next column) 4 parts
Grind only.
Enamel White.—
Arsenic 2 1/2 parts Niter 1 1/2 parts Borax 4 parts Flint 16 parts Glass 16 parts Red lead 32 parts
Glost fire.
Turquoise.—China:
Calcined copper 5 parts Whiting 5 parts Phosphate of soda 8 parts Oxide of zinc 16 parts Soda crystals 4 parts Magnesia 2 parts Red lead 8 parts Flux T (see next formula) 52 parts
Glost fire.
Flux T.—
Borax 2 parts Sand 1 part
Run down.
Orange.—
Orange U. G. 1 part Flux No. 8 (see next column) 3 parts
Grind only.
Blue Green.—
Flint glass 8 parts Enamel white 25 parts Borax 8 parts Red lead 24 parts Flint 6 parts Oxide of copper 2 1/2 parts
Glost heat.
Coral Red.—
Chromate of potash 1 part Sugar of lead 1 1/2 parts
Dissolve in hot water, then dry. Take 1 part of above, 3 parts flux for coral. Grind.
Flux for Coral.—
Red lead 4 1/2 parts Flint 1 1/2 parts Flint glass 1 1/2 parts
Run down.
Turquoise.—
Oxide of copper 5 parts Borax 10 parts Flint 12 parts Enamel white 14 parts Red lead 40 parts
Glost fire.
Flux No. 8.—
Red lead 6 parts Borax 4 parts Flint 2 parts
Run down.
Russian Green.—
Malachite green 10 parts Enamel yellow 5 parts Majolica white 5 parts Flux No. 8 (see previous formula) 2 parts
Grind only.
Amber.—
Oxide of uranium 1 part Coral flux 8 parts
Grind only.
Gordon Green.—
Yellow U. G. 5 parts Flux No. 8 (see above) 15 parts Malachite green 10 parts
Grind only.
Celadon.—
Enamel light blue 1 part Malachite green 1 part Flux No. 8 (see above) 15 parts
Grind only.
Red Brown.—
Sulphate of iron, fired 1 part Flux No. 8 (see above) 3 parts
Grind only.
Matt Blue.—
Flux No. 8 (see above) 10 1/2 parts Oxide of zinc 5 parts Oxide of cobalt 4 parts
Glost fire, then take
Of above base 1 part Flux No. 8 (see above) 1 1/8 parts
Grind only. {308}
«PREPARATION OF ENAMELS.»
The base of enamel is glass, colored different shades by the addition of metallic oxides mixed and melted with it.
The oxide of cobalt produces blue; red is obtained by the Cassius process. The purple of Cassius, which is one of the most brilliant of colors, is used almost exclusively in enameling and miniature painting; it is produced by adding to a solution of gold chloride a solution of tin chloride mixed with ferric chloride until a green color appears. The oxide of iron and of copper also produces red, but of a less rich tone; chrome produces green, and manganese violet; black is produced by the mixture of these oxides. Antimony and arsenic also enter into the composition of enamels.
Enamels are of two classes—opaque and transparent. The opacity is caused by the presence of tin.
When the mingled glass and oxides have been put in the crucible, this is placed in the furnace, heated to a temperature of 1,832° or 2,200° F. When the mixture becomes fused, it is stirred with a metal rod. Two or three hours are necessary for the operation. The enamel is then poured into water, which divides it into grains, or formed into cakes or masses, which are left to cool.
For applying enamels to metals, gold, silver, or copper, it is necessary to reduce them to powder, which is effected in an agate mortar with the aid of a pestle of the same material. During the operation the enamel ought to be soaked in water.
For dissolving the impurities which may have been formed during the work, a few drops of nitric acid are poured in immediately afterwards, well mixed, and then got rid of by repeated washing with filtered water. This should be carefully done, stirring the enamel powder with a glass rod, in order to keep the particles in suspension.
The powder is allowed to repose at the bottom of the vessel, after making sure by the taste of the water that it does not contain any trace of acid; only then is the enamel ready for use.
For enameling a jewel or other object it is necessary, first to heat it strongly, in order to burn off any fatty matter, and afterwards to cleanse it in a solution of nitric acid diluted with boiling water. After rinsing with pure water and wiping with a very clean cloth, it is heated slightly and is then ready to receive the enamel.
Enamels are applied with a steel tool in the form of a spatula; water is the vehicle. When the layers of enamel have been applied, the contained water is removed by means of a fine linen rag, pressing slightly on the parts that have received the enamel. The tissue absorbs the water, and nothing remains on the object except the enamel powder. It is placed before the fire to remove every trace of moisture. Thus prepared and put on a fire-clap slab, it is ready for its passage to the heat which fixes the enamel. This operation is conducted in a furnace, with a current of air whose temperature is about 1,832° F. In this operation the fire-chamber ought not to contain any gas.
Enamels are fused at a temperature of 1,292° to 1,472° F. Great attention is needed, for experience alone is the guide, and the duration of the process is quite short. On coming from the fire, the molecules composing the enamel powder have been fused together and present to the eye a vitreous surface covering the metal and adhering to it perfectly. Under the action of the heat the metallic oxides contained in the enamel have met the oxide of the metal and formed one body with it, thus adhering completely.
«JEWELERS’ ENAMELS.»
Melt together:
Transparent Red.—Cassius gold purple, 65 parts, by weight; crystal glass, 30 parts, by weight; borax, 4 parts, by weight.
Transparent Blue.—Crystal glass, 34 parts, by weight; borax, 6 parts, by weight; cobalt oxide, 4 parts, by weight.
Dark Blue.—Crystal glass, 30 parts, by weight; borax, 6 parts, by weight; cobalt oxide, 4 parts, by weight; bone black, 4 parts, by weight; arsenic acid, 2 parts, by weight.
Transparent Green.—Crystal glass, 80 parts, by weight; cupric oxide, 4 parts, by weight; borax, 2 parts, by weight.
Dark Green.—Crystal glass, 30 parts, by weight; borax, 8 parts, by weight; cupric oxide, 4 parts, by weight; bone black, 4 parts by weight; arsenic acid, 2 parts, by weight.
Black.—Crystal glass, 30 parts, by weight; borax, 8 parts, by weight; cupric oxide, 4 parts, by weight; ferric oxide, 3 parts, by weight; cobalt oxide, 4 parts, by weight; manganic oxide, 4 parts, by weight.
White.—I.—Crystal glass, 30 parts, by weight; stannic oxide, 6 parts, by weight; borax, 6 parts, by weight; arsenic acid, 2 parts, by weight.
II.—Crystal glass, 30 parts, by weight; sodium antimonate, 10 parts, by weight. {309}
The finely pulverized colored enamel is applied with a brush and lavender oil on the white enamel already fused in and then only heated until it melts. For certain purposes, the color compositions may also be fused in without a white ground. The glass used for white, No. 2, must be free from lead, otherwise the enamel will be unsightly.
«Various Enamels for Precious Metals»: White.—Crystal glass, 30 parts, by weight; oxide of tin, 6 parts, by weight; borax, 6 parts, by weight; dioxide of arsenic, 2 parts, by weight, or silicious sand, 50 parts, by weight; powder, consisting of 15 of tin per 100 of lead, 100 parts, by weight; carbonate of potassium, 40 parts, by weight. Fuse the whole with a quantity of manganese. To take away the accidental coloring, pour it into water, and after having pulverized it, melt again 3 or 4 times.
Opaque Blue.—Crystal glass, 30 parts, by weight; borax, 6 parts, by weight; cobalt oxide, 4 parts, by weight; calcined bone, 4 parts, by weight; dioxide of arsenic, 2 parts, by weight.
Transparent Green.—Crystal glass, 30 parts, by weight; blue verditer, 4 parts, by weight; borax, 2 parts, by weight.
Opaque Green.—Crystal glass, 30 parts, by weight; borax, 8 parts, by weight; blue verditer, 4 parts, by weight; calcined bone, 4 parts, by weight; dioxide of arsenic, 2 parts, by weight.
Black.—I.—Crystal glass, 30 parts, by weight; borax, 8 parts, by weight; oxide of copper, 4 parts, by weight; oxide of iron, 3 parts, by weight; oxide of cobalt, 4 parts, by weight; oxide of manganese, 4 parts, by weight.
II.—Take 1/2 part, by weight, of silver; 2 1/2 parts of copper; 3 1/2 parts of lead, and 2 1/2 parts of muriate of ammonia. Melt together and pour into a crucible with twice as much pulverized sulphur; the crucible is then to be immediately covered that the sulphur may not take fire, and the mixture is to be calcined over a smelting fire until the superfluous sulphur is burned away. The compound is then to be coarsely pounded, and, with a solution of muriate of ammonia, to be formed into a paste which is to be placed upon the article it is designed to enamel. The article must then be held over a spirit lamp till the compound upon it melts and flows. After this it may be smoothed and polished up in safety.
See also Varnishes and Ceramics for other enamel formulas.
ENAMEL COLORS, QUICK DRYING: See Varnishes.
ENAMEL REMOVERS: See Cleaning Preparations and Methods.
ENAMELING ALLOYS: See Alloys.
ENGINES (GASOLINE), ANTI-FREEZING SOLUTION FOR: See Freezing Preventives.
«ENGRAVING SPOON HANDLES.»
After the first monogram has been engraved, rub it with a mixture of 3 parts of beeswax, 3 of tallow, 1 of Canada balsam, and 1 of olive oil. Remove any superfluous quantity, then moisten a piece of paper with the tongue, and press it evenly upon the engraving. Lay a dry piece of paper over it, hold both firmly with thumb and forefinger of left hand, and rub over the surface with a polishing tool of steel or bone. The wet paper is thereby pressed into the engraving, and, with care, a clear impression is made. Remove the paper carefully, place it in the same position on another handle, and a clear impression will be left. The same paper can be used 2 dozen times or more.
ENGRAVING ON STEEL: See Steel.
«Engravings: Their Preservation»
(See also Pictures, Prints, and Lithographs.)
«Cleaning of Copperplate Engravings.»—Wash the sheet on both sides by means of a soft sponge or brush with water to which 40 parts of ammonium carbonate has been added per 1,000 parts of water, and rinse the paper each time with clear water. Next moisten with water in which a little wine vinegar has been admixed, rinse the sheet again with water containing a little chloride of lime, and dry in the air, preferably in the sun. The paper will become perfectly clear without the print being injured.
«Restoration of Old Prints.»—Old engravings, woodcuts, or printed sheets that have turned yellow may be rendered white by first washing carefully in water containing a little hyposulphite of soda, and then dipping for a minute in javelle water. To prepare the latter, put 4 pounds of bicarbonate of soda in a pan, pour over it 1 gallon of boiling water; boil for 15 minutes, then stir in 1 {310} pound of chloride of lime. When cold, pour off the clear liquid, and keep in a jug ready for use.
Surprising results are obtained from the use of hydrogen peroxide in the restoration of old copper or steel engravings or lithographs which have become soiled or yellow, and this without the least injury to the picture. The cellulose which makes the substance of the paper resists the action of ozone, and the black carbon color of these prints is indestructible.
To remove grease or other spots of dirt before bleaching, the engravings are treated with benzine. This is done by laying each one out flat in a shallow vessel and pouring the benzine over it. As benzine evaporates very rapidly, the vessel must be kept well covered, and since its vapors are also exceedingly inflammable, no fire or smoking should be allowed in the room. The picture is left for several hours, then lifted out and dried in the air, and finally brushed several times with a soft brush. The dust which was kept upon the paper by the grease now lies more loosely upon it and can easily be removed by brushing.
In many cases the above treatment is sufficient to improve the appearance of the picture. In the case of very old or badly soiled engravings, it is followed by a second, consisting in the immersion of the picture in a solution of sodium carbonate or a very dilute solution of caustic soda, it being left as before for several hours. After the liquid has been poured off, the picture must be repeatedly rinsed in clear water, to remove any remnant of the soda.
By these means the paper is so far cleansed that only spots of mold or other discolorations remain. These may be removed by hydrogen peroxide, in a fairly strong solution. The commercial peroxide may be diluted with 2 parts water.
The picture is laid in a shallow vessel, the peroxide poured over it, and the vessel placed in a strong light. Very soon the discolorations will pale.
«To Reduce Engravings.»—Plaster casts, as we know, can be perceptibly reduced in size by treatment with water or alcohol, and if this is properly done, the reduction is so even that the cast loses nothing of its clear outline, but sometimes even gains in this respect by contraction. If it is desired to reduce an engraved plate, make a plaster cast of it, treat this with water or alcohol, and fill the new cast with some easily fusible metal. This model, which will be considerably smaller than the original, is to be made again in plaster, and again treated, until the desired size is reached. In this way anything of the kind, even medallions, can be reproduced on a smaller scale.
ENLARGEMENTS: See Photography.
ENVELOPE GUM: See Adhesives, under Mucilages.
EPIZOOTY: See Veterinary Formulas.
«Essences and Extracts of Fruits»
«Preservation of Fruit Juices.»—The juices of pulpy fruits, when fresh, contain an active principle known as pectin, which is the coagulating substance that forms the basis of fruit jellies. This it is which prevents the juice of berries and similar fruits from passing through filtering media. Pectin may be precipitated by the addition of alcohol, or by fermentation. The latter is the best, as the addition of alcohol to the fresh juices destroys their aroma and injures the taste. The induction of a light fermentation is far the better method, not only preserving, when carefully conducted, the taste and aroma of the fruit, but yielding far more juice. The fruit is crushed and the juice subsequently carefully but strongly pressed out. Sometimes the crushed fruit is allowed to stand awhile, and to proceed to a light fermentation before pressure is applied; but while a greater amount of juice is thus obtained, the aroma and flavor of the product are very sensibly injured by the procedure.
To the juice thus obtained, add from 1 to 2 per cent of sugar, and put away in a cool place (where the temperature will not rise over 70° or 75° F.). Fermentation soon begins, and will proceed for a few days. As soon as the development of carbonic acid gas ceases, the juice begins to clear itself, from the surface downward, and in a short time all solid matter will lie in a mass at the bottom, leaving the liquid bright and clear. Draw off the latter with a siphon, very carefully, so as not to disturb the sedimentary matter. Fermentation should be induced in closed vessels only, as when conducted in open containers a fungoid growth is apt to form on the surface, sometimes causing putrefactive, and at others, an acetic, fermentation, in either event spoiling the juice for {311} subsequent use, except as a vinegar. The vessels, to effect the end desired, should be filled only two-thirds or three-fourths full, and then carefully closed with a tight-fitting cork, through which is passed a tube of glass, bent at the upper end, the short end of which passes below the surface of a vessel filled with water. As soon as fermentation commences the carbonic acid developed thereby escapes through the tube into the water, whence it passes off into the atmosphere. When bubbles no longer pass off from the tube the operation should be interrupted, and decantation or siphoning, with subsequent filtration, commenced.
By proceeding in this manner all the aroma and flavor of the juices are retained. If it is intended for preservation for any length of time the juice should be heated on a water bath to about 176° F. and poured, while hot, into bottles which have been asepticized by filling with cold water, and placing in a vessel similarly filled, bringing to a boiling temperature, and maintaining at this temperature until the juice, while still hot, is poured into them. If now closed with corks similarly asepticized, or by dipping into hot melted paraffine, the juice may be kept unaltered for years. It is better, however, to make the juice at once into syrup, using the best refined sugar, and boiling in a copper kettle (iron or tin spoil the color), following the usual precautions as to skimming, etc. The syrup should be poured hot into the bottles previously heated as before described.
Ripe fruit may be kept in suitable quantities for a considerable time if covered with a solution of saccharine and left undisturbed, this, too, without deteriorating the taste, color, or aroma of the fruit if packed with care.
Whole fruit may be stored in bulk, by carefully and without fracture filling into convenient-sized jars or bottles, and pouring thereon a solution containing a quarter of an ounce of refined saccharine to the gallon of water, so filling each vessel that the solution is within an inch of the cork when pressed into position. The corks should first of all be immersed in melted paraffine wax, then drained, and allowed to cool. When fruit juices alone are required for storage purposes they are prepared by subjecting the juicy fruits to considerable pressure, by which process the juices are liberated.
The sound ripe fruits are crushed and packed into felt or flannel bags. The fruit should be carefully selected, rotten or impaired portions being carefully removed; this is important, or the whole stock would be spoiled. Several methods are adopted for preserving and clarifying fruit juices.
A common way in which they are kept from fermenting is by the use of salicylic acid or other antiseptic substance, which destroys the fermentative germ, or otherwise retards its action for a considerable time. The use of this acid is seriously objected to by some as injurious to the consumer. About 2 ounces of salicylic acid, previously dissolved in alcohol, to 25 gallons of juice, or 40 grains to the gallon, is generally considered the proper proportion.
Another method adopted is to fill the freshly prepared cold juice into bottles until it reaches the necks, and on the top of this fruit juice a little glycerine is placed.
Juices thus preserved will keep in an unchanged condition in any season. Probably one of the best methods of preserving fruit juices is to add 15 per cent of 95 per cent alcohol. On such an addition, albumen and mucilaginous matter will be deposited. The juice may then be stored in large bottles, jars, or barrels, if securely closed, and when clear, so that further clarification is unnecessary, the juice should finally be decanted or siphoned off.
A method applicable to most berries is as follows:
Take fresh, ripe berries, stem them, and rub through a No. 8 sieve, rejecting all soft and green fruit. Add to each gallon of pulp thus obtained 8 pounds of granulated sugar. Put on the fire and bring just to a boil, stirring constantly. Just before removing from the fire, add to each gallon 1 ounce of a saturated alcoholic solution of salicylic acid, stirring well. Remove the scum, and, while still hot, put into jars and hermetically seal. Put the jars in cold water, and raise them to the boiling point, to prevent them from bursting by sudden expansion on pouring hot fruit into them. Fill the jars entirely full, so as to leave no air space when fruit cools and contracts.
«Prevention of Foaming and Partial Caramelization of Fruit Juices.»—Fresh fruit juices carry a notable amount of free carbonic acid, which must make its escape on heating the liquid. This will do easily enough if the juice be heated in its natural state, but the addition of the sugar so increases the density of the fluid that the acid finds escape difficult, and often the result is foaming. As to the burning or partial caramelization of {312} the syrup, that is easily accounted for in the greater density of the syrup at the bottom of the kettle—the lighter portion, or that still carrying imprisoned gases, remaining on top until it is freed from them. Constant stirring can prevent this only partially, since it cannot entirely overcome the results of the natural forces in action. The consequence is more or less caramelization. The remedy is very simple. Boil the juices first, adding distilled water to make up for the loss by evaporation, and add the sugar afterwards.
«ESSENCES AND EXTRACTS:»
«Almond Extracts.»—
I.—Oil of bitter almonds 90 minims Alcohol, 94 per cent, quantity sufficient to make 8 ounces.
II.—Oil of bitter almonds 80 minims Alcohol 7 ounces Distilled water, quantity sufficient to make 8 ounces.
III.—Oil of bitter almonds, deprived of its hydrocyanic acid 1 ounce Alcohol 15 ounces
In order to remove the hydrocyanic acid in oil of bitter almonds, dissolve 2 parts of ferrous sulphate in 16 parts of distilled water; in another vessel slake 1 part freshly burned quicklime in a similar quantity of distilled water, and to this add the solution of iron sulphate, after the same has cooled. In the mixture put 4 parts of almond oil, and thoroughly agitate the liquids together. Repeat the agitation at an interval of 5 minutes, then filter. Put the filtrate into a glass retort and distil until all the oil has passed over. Remove any water that may be with the distillate by decantation, or otherwise.
«Apricot Extract.»—
Linalyl formate 90 minims Glycerine 1 ounce Amyl valerianate 4 drachms Alcohol 11 ounces Fluid extract orris 1 ounce Water, quantity sufficient to make 1 pint.
«Apple Extract.»—
Glycerine 1 ounce Amyl valerianate 4 drachms Linalyl formate 45 minims Fluid extract orris 1 ounce Alcohol 11 ounces Water, quantity sufficient to make 1 pint.
«Apple Syrup.»—I.—Peel and remove the cores of, say, 5 parts of apples and cut them into little bits. Put in a suitable vessel and pour over them a mixture of 5 parts each of common white wine and water, and let macerate together for 5 days at from 125° to 135° F., the vessel being closed during the time. Then strain the liquid through a linen cloth, using gentle pressure on the solid matter, forcing as much as possible of it through the cloth. Boil 30 parts of sugar and 20 parts of water together, and when boiling add to the resulting syrup the apple juice; let it boil up for a minute or so, and strain through flannel.
II.—Good ripe apples are cut into small pieces and pounded to a pulp in a mortar of any metal with the exception of iron. To 1 part of this pulp add 11 parts of water. Allow this to stand for 12 hours. Colate. To 11 parts of the colature add 1 part of sugar. Boil for 5 minutes. Skim carefully. Bottle slightly warm. A small quantity of tartaric acid may be added to heighten the flavor.
«Banana Syrup.»—Cut the fruit in slices and place in a jar; sprinkle with sugar and cover the jar, which is then enveloped in straw and placed in cold water and the latter is heated to the boiling point. The jar is then removed, allowed to cool, and the juice poured into bottles.
«Cinnamon Essence.»—
Oil of cinnamon 2 drachms Cinnamon, powdered 4 ounces Alcohol, deodorized 16 ounces Distilled water 16 ounces
Dissolve the oil in the alcohol, and add the water, an ounce at a time, with agitation after each addition. Moisten the cinnamon with a little of the water, add, and agitate. Cork tightly, and put in a warm place, to macerate, 2 weeks, giving the flask a vigorous agitation several times a day. Finally, filter through paper, and keep in small vials, tightly stoppered.
«Chocolate Extract.»—Probably the best form of chocolate extract is made as follows:
Curaçao cocoa 400 parts Vanilla, chopped fine 1 part Alcohol of 55 per cent 2,000 parts
Mix and macerate together for 15 days, express and set aside. Pack the residue in a percolator, and pour on boiling water (soft) and percolate until 575 parts pass through. Put the percolate {313} in a flask, cork, and let cool, then mix with the alcoholic extract. If it be desired to make a syrup, before mixing the extract, add 1,000 parts of sugar to the percolate, and with gentle heat dissolve the sugar. Mix the syrup thus formed, after cooling, with the alcoholic extract.
«Coffee Extracts.»—In making coffee extract, care must be used to avoid extracting the bitter properties of the coffee, as this is where most manufacturers fail; in trying to get a strong extract they succeed only in getting a bitter one.
I.—The coffee should be a mixture of Mocha, 3 parts; Old Government Java, 5 parts; or, as some prefer, Mocha, 3 parts; Java, 3 parts; best old Rio, 2 parts.
Coffee, freshly roasted and pulverized 100 parts Boiling water 600 parts
Pack the coffee, moistened with boiling water, in a strainer, or dipper, placed in a vessel standing in the water bath at boiling point, and let 400 parts of the water, in active ebullition, pass slowly through it. Draw off the liquid as quickly as possible (best into a vessel previously heated by boiling water to nearly the boiling point), add 200 parts of boiling water, and pass the whole again through the strainer (the container remaining in the water bath). Remove from the bath; add 540 parts of sugar, and dissolve by agitation while still hot.
II.—The following is based upon Liebig’s method of making coffee for table use: Moisten 50 parts of coffee, freshly roasted and powdered as before, with cold water, and add to it a little egg albumen and stir in. Pour over the whole 400 parts of boiling water, set on the fire, and let come to a boil. As the liquid foams, stir down with a spoon, but let it come to a boil for a moment; add a little cold water, cover tightly, and set aside in a warm place. Exhaust the residual coffee with 300 parts of boiling water, as detailed in the first process, and to the filtrate add carefully the now clarified extract, up to 600 parts, by adding boiling water. Proceed to make the syrup by the method detailed above.
III.—To make a more permanent extract of coffee saturate 600 parts of freshly roasted coffee, ground moderately fine, with any desired quantity of a 1 in 3 mixture of alcohol of 94 per cent and distilled water, and pack in a percolator. Close the faucet and let stand, closely stoppered, for 24 hours; then pour on the residue of the alcohol and water, and let run through, adding sufficient water, at the last, so as to compensate for what boils away. Set this aside, and continue the percolation, with boiling water, until the powder is exhausted. Evaporate the resultant percolate down to the consistency of the alcoholic extract, and mix the two. If desired, the result may be evaporated down to condition of an extract. To dissolve, add boiling water.
IV.—This essence is expressly adapted to boiling purposes. Take 3 pounds of good coffee, 4 ounces of granulated sugar, 4 pints of pure alcohol, 6 pints of hot water. Have coffee fresh roasted and of a medium grinding. Pack in a glass percolator, and percolate it with a menstruum, consisting of the water and the alcohol. Repeat the percolation until the desired strength is obtained, or the coffee exhausted; then add the sugar and filter.
V.—Mocha coffee 1 pound Java coffee 1 pound Glycerine, quantity sufficient. Water, quantity sufficient.
Grind the two coffees fine, and mix, then moisten with a mixture of 1 part of glycerine and 3 parts of water, and pack in a glass percolator, and percolate slowly until 30 ounces of the percolate is obtained. It is a more complete extraction if the menstruum be poured on in the condition of boiling, and it be allowed to macerate for 20 minutes before percolation commences. Coffee extract should, by preference, be made in a glass percolator. A glycerine menstruum is preferable to one of dilute alcohol, giving a finer product.
VI.—Coffee, Java, roasted, No. 20 powder 4 ounces Glycerine, pure 4 fluidounces Water, quantity sufficient. Boiling, quantity sufficient.
Moisten the coffee slightly with water, and pack firmly in a tin percolator; pour on water, gradually, until 4 fluidounces are obtained, then set aside. Place the coffee in a clean tin vessel, with 8 fluidounces of water, and boil for 5 minutes. Again place the coffee in the percolator with the water (infusion), and when the liquid has passed, or drained off, pack the grounds firmly, and pour on boiling water until 8 fluidounces are obtained. When cold, mix the first product, and add the glycerine, bottle, and cork well.
The excellence of this extract of coffee, from the manner of its preparation, will be found by experience to be incomparably superior to that made by the {314} formulas usually recommended, the reason being apparent in the first step in the process.
«Coffee Essence.»—
Best ground Mocha coffee 4 pounds Best ground chicory 2 pounds
Boil with 2 gallons of water in a closed vessel and when cold, strain, press, and make up to 2 gallons, and to this add
Rectified spirit of wine 8 ounces Pure glycerine (fluid) 16 ounces
Add syrup enough to make 4 gallons, and mix intimately.
«Cucumber Essence.»—Press the juice from cucumbers, mix with an equal volume of alcohol and distil. If the distillate is not sufficiently perfumed, more juice may be added and the mixture distilled. It is said that the essence thus prepared will not spoil when mixed with fats in the preparation of cosmetics.
«Fruit Jelly Extract.»—Fill into separate paper bags:
Medium finely powdered gelatin 18 parts Medium finely powdered citric acid 3 parts
Likewise into a glass bottle a mixture of any desired
Fruit essence 1 part Spirit of wine 1 part
and dissolve in the mixture for obtaining the desired color, raspberry red or lemon yellow, 1/10 part.
For use, dissolve the gelatin and the citric acid in boiling water, adding
Sugar 125 parts
and mixing before cooling with the fruit essence mixture.
«Ginger Extracts.»—The following is an excellent method of preparing a soluble essence or extract of ginger:
I.—Jamaica ginger 24 ounces Rectified spirits, 60 per cent 45 ounces Water 15 ounces
Mix and let macerate together with frequent agitations for 10 days, then percolate, press off, and filter. The yield should be 45 ounces. Of this take 40 ounces and mix with an equal amount of distilled water. Dissolve 6 drachms of sodium phosphate in 5 ounces of boiling water; let cool and add the solution to the filtrate and water, mixing well. Add 2 drachms of calcium chloride dissolved in 5 ounces of water, nearly cold, and again thoroughly shake the whole. Let stand for 12 hours; then filter.
Put the filtrate in a still, and distil off, at as slow a temperature as possible, 30 ounces. Set this distillate to one side, and continue the distillation till another 40 ounces have passed, then let the still cool. The residue in the still, some 18 ounces, is the desired essence. Pour out all that is possible and wash the still with the 30 ounces of distillate first set aside. This takes up all that is essential. Finally, filter once more, through double filter paper and preserve the filtrate—about 40 ounces, of an amber-colored liquid containing all of the essentials of Jamaica ginger.
Soluble Essence of Ginger.—II.—The following is Harrop’s method of proceeding:
Fluid extract of ginger (U.S.) 4 ounces Pumice, in moderately fine powder 1 ounce Water enough to make 12 ounces
Pour the fluid extract into a bottle, add the pumice and shake the mixture and repeat the shaking in the course of several hours. Now add the water in proportion of about 2 ounces, shaking well and frequently after each addition. When all is added repeat the agitation occasionally during 24 hours, then filter, returning the last portion of the filtrate until it comes through clear, and if necessary add sufficient water to make 12 ounces.
III.—Jamaica ginger, ground 2 pounds Pumice stone, ground 2 ounces Lime, slaked 2 ounces Alcohol, dilute 4 pints
Rub the ginger with the pumice stone and lime until thoroughly mixed. Moisten with the dilute alcohol until saturated and place in a narrow percolator, being careful not to use force in packing, but simply putting it in to obtain the position of a powder to be percolated, so that the menstruum will go through uniformly. Finally, add the dilute alcohol and proceed until 4 pints of percolate are obtained. Allow the liquid to stand for 24 hours; then filter if necessary.
IV.—Tincture ginger 480 parts Tincture capsicum 12 parts Oleoresin ginger 8 parts Magnesium carbonate 16 parts
Rub the oleoresin with the magnesia, and add the tinctures; add about 400 {315} parts of water, in divided portions, stirring vigorously the while. Transfer the mixture to a bottle, and allow to stand 1 week, shaking frequently; then filter, and make up 960 parts with water.
V.—Fluid extract of ginger (U. S. P.) 4 ounces Pumice, powdered and washed 1 ounce Water enough to make 12 ounces
Pour the fluid extract of ginger into a bottle, and add the pumice, shake thoroughly, set aside, and repeat the operation in the course of several hours. Add the water, in the proportion of about 2 ounces at a time, agitating vigorously after each addition. When all is added, repeat the agitation occasionally during 24 hours, then filter, returning the first portion of the filtrate until it comes through bright and clear. If necessary, pass water through the filter, enough to make 12 fluidounces of filtrate.
VI.—Strongest tincture of ginger 1 pint Fresh slaked lime. 1 1/2 ounces Salt of tartar 1/4 ounce
VII.—Jamaica ginger, ground 32 parts Pumice stone, powdered 32 parts Lime, slaked 2 parts Alcohol, dilute, sufficient to make 32 parts
Rub the ginger with the pumice stone and lime, then moisten with alcohol until it is saturated with it. Put in a narrow percolator, using no force in packing. Allow the mass to stand for 24 hours, then let run through. Filter if necessary.
VIII.—The following is insoluble:
Cochin ginger, cut fine 1,000 parts Alcohol, 95 per cent 2,500 parts Water 1,250 parts Glycerine 250 parts
Digest together for 8 days in a very warm, not to say hot, place. Decant, press off the roots, and add to the colature, then filter through paper. This makes a strong, natural tasting essence.
IX.—Green Ginger Extract.—The green ginger root is freed from the epidermis and surface dried by exposure to the air for a few hours. It is then cut into thin slices and macerated for some days with an equal weight of rectified spirit, which when filtered will yield an essence possessing a very fine aroma and forming an almost perfectly clear solution in water. If the ginger is allowed to dry more than the few hours mentioned it will not produce a soluble essence. It is used in some of the imported ginger ales as a flavoring only, and makes a lovely ginger flavor.
«Hop Syrup.»—A palatable preparation not inferior to many of the so-called hop bitters:
Hops 2 parts Dandelion 2 parts Gentian 2 parts Chamomile 2 parts Stillingia 2 parts Orange peel 2 parts Alcohol 75 parts Water 75 parts Syrup, simple 50 parts
Coarsely powder the drugs and exhaust with the water and alcohol mixed. Decant, press out and filter, and finally add the syrup. The dose is a wineglassful 2 or 3 times daily.
«Lemon Essences.»—I.—Macerate the cut-up fresh peelings of 40 lemons and 30 China oranges in 8 quarts of alcohol and 2 quarts of water, for 2 or 3 days, then distil off 8 quarts. Every 100 parts of this distillate is mixed with 75 parts of citric acid dissolved in 200 parts of water, colored with a trace of orange and filtered through talc. Each 200 parts of the filtrate is then mixed with 2 quarts of syrup.
II.—Twenty-five middle-sized lemons are thinly peeled, the peelings finely cut, and the whole, lemons and peels, put to macerate in a mixture of 3 pints 90 per cent alcohol and 5 quarts water. Let macerate for 24 hours. Add 10 drops lemon and 10 drops orange oil; then slowly distil off 4 quarts. The distillate will be turbid, but if left to stand in a cool, dark place for a week it will filter off clear, and should make a clear mixture with equal parts of water and simple syrup. If it does not, add with a pipette, drop by drop, sufficient alcohol to make it do so. Finally, dissolve in the mixture 4 drachms of vanillin, and color with a few drops of tincture of turmeric and a little caramel.
III.—Peel thinly and lightly, 25 medium-sized fresh lemons and 1 orange, and cut the peelings into very small pieces. Macerate in 55 drachms 96 per cent alcohol, for 6 hours. Filter off the macerate without pressing. Dilute the filtrate with 3 pints water and set aside for eight days, shaking frequently. At {316} the end of this time filter. The filtrate is usually clear, and if so, add 4 drachms of vanillin. If not, proceed as in the second formula above.
IV.—Oil of lemon, select, 8 fluidounces; oil of lemon grass (fresh), 1 fluidrachm; peel, freshly grated, of 12 lemons; alcohol, 7 pints; boiled water, 1 pint.
Mix and macerate for 7 days. If in a hurry for the product, percolate through the lemon peel and filter. The addition of any other substance than the oil and rind of the lemon is not recommended.
V.—Fresh oil of lemon 64 parts Lemon peel (outer rind) freshly grated 32 parts Oil of lemon grass 1 part Alcohol 500 parts
Mix, let macerate for 14 days, and filter.
VI.—Essence of lemon 1 3/4 ounces Rectified spirit of wine 6 ounces Pure glycerine 3 ounces Pure phosphate calcium 4 ounces Distilled water to make 1 pint.
Mix essence of lemon, spirit of wine, glycerine, and 8 ounces of distilled water, agitate briskly in a quart bottle for 10 minutes, and introduce phosphate of calcium and again shake. Put in a filter and let it pass through twice. Digest in filtrate for 2 or 3 days, add 1 1/2 ounces fresh lemon peel, and again filter.
VII.—Oil of lemon 6 parts Lemon peel (freshly grated) 4 parts Alcohol, sufficient.
Dissolve the oil of lemon in 90 parts of alcohol, add the lemon peel, and macerate for 24 hours. Filter through paper, adding through the filter enough alcohol to make the filtrate weigh 100 parts.
VIII.—Exterior rind of lemon 2 ounces Alcohol, 95 per cent, deodorized 32 ounces Oil of lemon, recent 3 fluidounces
Expose the lemon rind to the air until perfectly dry, then bruise in a wedgwood mortar, and add it to the alcohol, agitating until the color is extracted; then add the lemon oil.
«Natural Lemon Juice.»—I.—Take 4.20 parts of crystallized citric acid; 2 parts essence of lemons; 3 parts of alcohol of 96 per cent; 1/2 part calcium carbonate; 50 1/20 parts sodium phosphate, and 1/200 part calcium citrate, and dissolve the whole in sufficient water to make 60 parts.
II.—Squeeze out the lemon juice, strain it to get rid of the seeds and larger particles of pulp, etc., heat it to the boiling point, let it cool down, add talc, shake well together and filter. If it is to be kept a long time (as on a sea voyage) a little alcohol is added.
«Limejuice.»—This may be clarified by heating it either alone or mixed with a small quantity of egg albumen, in a suitable vessel, without stirring, to near the boiling point of water, until the impurities have coagulated and either risen to the top or sunk to the bottom. It is then filtered into clean bottles, which should be completely filled and closed (with pointed corks), so that each cork has to displace a portion of the liquid to be inserted. The bottles are sealed and kept at an even temperature (in a cellar). In this way the juice may be satisfactorily preserved.
«Nutmeg Essence.»—Oil of nutmeg, 2 drachms; mace, in powder, 1 ounce; alcohol, 95 per cent, deodorized, 32 ounces.
Dissolve the oil in the alcohol by agitation, add the mace, agitate, then stopper tightly, and macerate 12 hours. Filter through paper.
«Orange Extract.»—Grated peel of 24 oranges; alcohol, 1 quart; water, 1 quart; oil of orange, 4 drachms. Macerate the orange peel and oil of orange with alcohol for 2 weeks. Add distilled water and filter.
«Orange Extract, Soluble.»—I.—Pure oil of orange, 1 1/4 fluidounces; carbonate of magnesium, 2 ounces; alcohol, 12 fluidounces; water, quantity sufficient to make 2 pints.
II.—Dissolve oil of orange in the alcohol, and rub it with the carbonate of magnesium, in a mortar. Pour the mixture into a quart bottle, and fill the bottle with water. Allow to macerate for a week or more, shaking every day. Then filter through paper, adding enough water through the paper to make filtrate measure 2 pints.
«Orange Peel, Soluble Extract.»—
Freshly grated orange rind 1 part Deodorized alcohol 1 part
Macerate for 4 days and express. Add the expressed liquid to 10 per cent of its weight of powdered magnesium carbonate {317} in a mortar, and rub thoroughly until a smooth, creamy mixture results; then gradually add the water, constantly stirring. Let stand for 48 hours, then filter through paper. Keep in an amber bottle and cool place. To make syrup of orange, add 1 part of this extract to 7 parts of heavy simple syrup.
«Peach Extract.»—
Linalyl formate 120 minims Amyl valerianate 8 drachms Fluid extract orris 2 ounces Oenanthic ether 2 drachms Oil rue (pure German) 30 minims Chloroform 2 drachms Glycerine 2 ounces Alcohol, 70 per cent, to 3 pints.
«Pineapple Essence.»—A ripe, but not too soft, pineapple, weighing about, say, 1 pound, is mashed up in a mortar with Tokay wine, 6 ounces. The mass is then brought into a flask with 1 pint of water, and allowed to stand 2 hours. Alcohol, 90 per cent, 3/4 pint, is then added and the mixture distilled until 7 quarts of distillate have been collected. Cognac, 9 ounces, is then added to the distillation.
«Pistachio Essence.»—
I.—Essence of almond 2 fluidounces Tincture of vanilla 4 fluidounces Oil of neroli 1 drop
II.—Oil of orange peel 4 fluidrachms Oil of cassia 1 fluidrachm Oil of bitter almond 15 minims Oil of calamus 15 minims Oil of nutmeg 1 1/2 fluidrachms Oil of clove 30 minims Alcohol 12 fluidounces Water 4 fluidounces Magnesium carbonate 2 drachms
Shake together, allow to stand 24 hours, and filter.
«Pomegranate Essence.»—
Oil of sweet orange 3 parts Oil of cloves 3 parts Tincture of vanilla 15 parts Tincture of ginger 10 parts Maraschino liqueur 150 parts Tincture of coccionella 165 parts Distilled water 150 parts Phosphoric acid, dilute 45 parts Alcohol, 95 per cent, quantity sufficient to make 1000 parts.
Mix and dissolve.
«Quince Extract.»—
Fluid extract orris 2 ounces Oenanthic ether 1 1/2 ounces Linalyl formate 90 minims Glycerine 2 ounces Alcohol, 70 per cent, to 3 pints.
«Raspberry Syrup, without Alcohol or Antiseptics.»—The majority of producers of fruit juices are firmly convinced that the preservation of these juices without the addition of alcohol, salicylic acid, etc., is impossible. Herr Steiner’s process to the contrary is here reproduced:
The fruit is crushed and pressed; the juice, with 2 per cent of sugar added, is poured into containers to about three-quarters of their capacity, and there allowed to ferment. The containers are stoppered with a cork through which runs a tube, whose open end is protected by a bit of gum tubing, the extremity of which is immersed in a glass filled with water. It should not go deeper than 4/10 of an inch high. The evolution of carbonic gas begins in about 4 hours and is so sharp that the point of the tube must not be immersed any deeper.
Ordinarily fermentation ceases on the tenth day, a fact that may be ascertained by shaking the container sharply, when, if it has ceased, no bubbles of gas will appear on the surface of the water.
The fermented juice is then filtered to get rid of the pectinic matters, yeast, etc., and the filtrate should be poured back on the filter several times. The juice filters quickly and comes off very clear. The necessary amount of sugar to make a syrup is now added to the liquid and allowed to dissolve gradually for 12 hours. At the end of this time the liquid is put on the fire and allowed to boil up at once, by which operation the solution of the sugar is made complete. Straining through a tin strainer and filling into heated bottles completes the process.
The addition of sugar to the freshly pressed juice has the advantage of causing the fermentation to progress to the full limit, and also to preserve, by the alcohol produced by fermentation, the beautiful red color of the juice.
Any fermentation that may be permitted prior to the pressing out of the juices is at the expense of aroma and flavor; but whether fermentation occurs before or after pressure of the berry, the ordinary alcohol test cannot determine whether the juice has been completely fermented (and consequently whether the pectins have been completely separated) or not. Since, in spite of the fact that the liquid remains limpid after 4 days’ {318} fermentation, the production of alcohol is progressing all the time—a demonstration that fermentation cannot then be completed, and that at least 10 days will be required for this purpose.
An abortive raspberry syrup is always due to an incomplete or faulty fermentation, for too often does it occur that incompletely fermented juices after a little time lose color and become turbid.
The habit of clarifying juices by shaking up with a bit of paper, talc, etc., or boiling with albumen is a useless waste of time and labor. By the process indicated the entire process of clarification occurs automatically, so to speak.
«Deep Red Raspberry Syrup.»—A much deeper and richer color than that ordinarily attained may be secured by adding to crushed raspberries, before fermentation, small quantities of sugar, sifted over the surface in layers. The ethylic alcohol produced by fermentation in this manner aids in the extraction of the red coloring matter of the fruit. Moreover, the fermented juice should never be cooked over a fire, but by superheated steam. Only in this way can caramelization be completely avoided. Only sugar free from ultramarine and chalk should be used in making the syrup, as these impurities also have a bad influence on the color.
«Raspberry Essences.»—
I.—Raspberries, fresh 16 ounces Angelica (California) 6 fluidounces Brandy (California) 6 ounces Alcohol 6 ounces Water, quantity sufficient.
Mash the berries to a pulp in a mortar or bowl, and transfer to a flask, along with the Angelica, brandy, alcohol, and about 8 ounces of water. Let macerate overnight, then distil off until 32 ounces have passed over. Color red. The addition of a trifle of essence of vanilla improves this essence.
II.—Fresh raspberries 200 grams Water, distilled 100 grams Vanilla essence 2 grams
Pulp the raspberries, let stand at a temperature of about 70° F. for 48 hours, and then add 100 grams of water. Fifty grams are then distilled off, and alcohol, 90 per cent, 25 grams, in which 0.01 vanillin has been previously dissolved, is added to the distillate.
«Sarsaparilla, Soluble Extract.»—
Pure oil of wintergreen 5 fluidrachms Pure oil of sassafras 5 fluidrachms Pure oil of anise 5 fluidrachms Carbonate of magnesium 2 1/2 ounces Alcohol 1 pint Water, quantity sufficient to make 2 pints.
Dissolve the various oils in the alcohol, and rub with carbonate of magnesium in a mortar. Pour the mixture into a quart bottle, and fill the bottle with water. Allow to macerate for a week or more, shaking every day. Then filter through the paper, adding enough water through the paper to make the finished product measure 2 pints.
«Strawberry Juice.»—Put into the water bath 1,000 parts of distilled water and 600 parts of sugar and boil, with constant skimming, until no more scum arises. Add 5 parts of citric acid and continue the boiling until about 1,250 parts are left. Stir in, little by little, 500 parts of fresh strawberries, properly stemmed, and be particularly careful not to crush the fruit. When all the berries are added, cover the vessel, remove from the fire, put into a warm place and let stand, closely covered, for 3 hours, or until the mass has cooled down to the surrounding temperature, then strain off through flannel, being careful not to crush the berries. Prepare a sufficient number of pint bottles by filling them with warm water, putting them into a kettle of the same and heating them to boiling, then rapidly emptying and draining as quickly as possible. Into these pour the hot juice, cork and seal the bottles as rapidly as possible. Juice thus prepared retains all the aroma and flavor of the fresh berry, and if carefully corked and sealed up will retain its properties a year.
«Strawberry Essence.»—
Strawberries, fresh 16 ounces Angelica (California) 6 fluidounces Brandy (California) 6 ounces Alcohol 8 ounces Water, quantity sufficient.
Mash the berries to a pulp in a mortar or bowl, and transfer to a flask, along with the Angelica, brandy, alcohol, and about 8 ounces of water. Let macerate overnight, then distil off until 32 ounces have passed over. Color strawberry red. The addition of a little essence of vanilla and a hint of lemon improves this essence. {319}
«Tea Extract.»—
I.—Best Souchong tea 175 parts Cinnamon 3 parts Cloves 3 parts Vanilla 1 part Arrack 800 parts Rum 200 parts
Coarsely powder the cinnamon, clove, etc., mix the ingredients, and let macerate for 3 days, then filter, press off, and make up to 1,000 parts, if necessary, by adding rum. The Souchong may be replaced by any other brand of tea, and the place of the arrack may be occupied by Santa Cruz, or New England rum. The addition of fluid extract of kola nut not only improves the taste, but gives the drink a remarkably stimulating property. The preparation makes a clear solution with either hot or cold water and keeps well.
II.—Tea, any desirable variety, 16 ounces; glycerine, 4 ounces; hot water, 4 pints; water, sufficient to make 1 pint.
Reduce the tea to a powder, moisten with sufficient of the glycerine and alcohol mixed, with 4 ounces of water added, pack in percolator, and pour on the alcohol (diluted with glycerine and water) until 12 ounces of percolate have been obtained. Set this aside, and complete the percolation with the hot water. When this has passed through, evaporate to 4 ounces, and add it to the percolate first obtained.
«Tonka Extract.»—
Tonka beans 1 ounce Magnesium carbonate, quantity sufficient. Balsam of Peru 2 drachms Sugar 4 ounces Alcohol 8 ounces Water sufficient to make 16 ounces.
Mix the tonka, balsam of Peru, and magnesia, and rub together, gradually adding the sugar until a homogeneous powder is obtained. Pack in a percolator; mix the alcohol with an equal amount of water, and pour over the powder, close the exit of the percolator, and let macerate for 24 to 36 hours, then open the percolator, and let pass through, gradually adding water until 16 ounces pass through.
«Vanilla Extracts.»—I.—Vanilla, in fine bits, 250 parts, is put into 1,350 parts of mixture, of 2,500 parts 95 per cent alcohol, and 1,500 parts distilled water. Cover tightly, put on the water bath, and digest for 1 hour, at 140° F. Pour off the liquid and set aside. To the residue in the bath, add half the remaining water, and treat in the same manner. Pack the vanilla in an extraction apparatus, and treat with 250 parts of alcohol and water, mixed in the same proportions as before. Mix the results of the three infusions first made, filter, and wash the filter paper with the results of the percolation, allowing the filtered percolate to mingle with the filtrate of the mixed infusions.
II.—Take 60 parts of the best vanilla beans, cut into little pieces, and put into a deep vessel, wrapped with a cloth to retain the heat as long as possible. Shake over the vanilla 1 part of potassium carbonate in powder, and immediately add 240 parts distilled water, in an active state of ebullition. Cover the vessel closely, set aside until it is completely cold, and then add 720 parts alcohol. Cover closely, and set aside in a moderately warm place for 15 days, when the liquid is strained off, the residue pressed, and the whole colate filtered. The addition of 1 part musk to the vanilla before pouring on the hot water improves this essence.
To prepare vanilla fountain syrup with extracts I or II, mix 25 minims of the extract with 1 pint simple syrup. Color with caramel.
III.—Vanilla beans, cut fine 1 ounce Sugar 3 ounces Alcohol, 50 per cent 1 pint
Beat sugar and vanilla together to a fine powder. Pour on the dilute alcohol, cork the vessel, and let stand for 2 weeks, shaking it up 2 or 3 times a day.
IV.—Vanilla beans, chopped fine 30 parts Potassium carbonate 1 part Boiling water 1,450 parts Alcohol 450 parts Essence of musk 1 part
Dissolve the potassium carbonate in the boiling water, add the vanilla, cover the vessel, and let stand in a moderately warm place until cold. Transfer to a wide-mouthed jar, add the alcohol, cork, and let macerate for 15 days; then decant the clear essence and filter the remainder. Mix the two liquids and add the essence of musk.
V.—Cut 60 parts of best vanilla beans into small bits; put into a deep vessel, which should be well wrapped in a woolen cloth to retain heat as long as possible. Shake over the beans 1 part of potassium carbonate, in powder, then pour over the mass 240 parts distilled water, in an {320} active state of ebullition, cover the vessel closely, and set aside in a moderately warm place. When quite cold add 720 parts alcohol, close the vessel tightly, and set aside in a moderately warm place, to macerate for 15 days, then strain off, press out, and set aside for a day or two. The liquid may then be filtered and bottled. The addition of a little musk to the beans before pouring on the hot water, is thought by many to greatly improve the product. One part of this extract added to 300 parts simple syrup is excellent for fountain purposes.
VI.—Vanilla beans 8 ounces Glycerine 6 ounces Granulated sugar 1 pound Water 4 pints Alcohol of cologne spirits 4 pints
Cut or grind the beans very fine; rub with the glycerine and put in a wooden keg; dissolve the sugar in the water, first heating the water, if convenient; mix the water and spirits, and add to the vanilla; pour in keg. Keep in a warm place from 3 to 6 months before using. Shake often. To clear, percolate through the dregs. If a dark, rich color is desired add a little sugar coloring.
VII.—Vanilla beans, good quality 16 ounces Alcohol 64 fluidounces Glycerine 24 fluidounces Water 10 fluidounces Dilute alcohol, quantity sufficient.
Mix and macerate, with frequent agitation, for 3 weeks, filter, and add dilute alcohol to make 1 gallon.
VIII.—Vanilla beans, good quality 8 ounces Pumice stone, lump 1 ounce Rock candy 8 ounces Alcohol and water, of each a sufficiency.
Cut the beans to fine shreds and triturate well with the pumice stone and rock candy. Place the whole in a percolator and percolate with a menstruum composed of 9 parts alcohol and 7 parts water until the percolate passes through clear. Bring the bulk up to 1 gallon with the same menstruum and set aside to ripen.
IX.—Cut up, as finely as possible, 20 parts of vanilla bean and with 40 parts of milk sugar (rendered as dry as possible by being kept in a drying closet until it no longer loses weight) rub to a coarse powder. Moisten with 10 parts of dilute alcohol, pack somewhat loosely in a closed percolator and let stand for 2 hours. Add 40 parts of dilute alcohol, close the percolator, and let stand 8 days. At the end of this time add 110 parts of dilute alcohol, and let pass through. The residue will repay working over. Dry it well, add 5 parts of vanillin, and 110 parts of milk sugar and pass through a sieve, then treat as before.
The following are cheap extracts:
X.—Vanilla beans, chopped fine 5 parts Tonka beans, powdered 10 parts Sugar, powdered 14 parts Alcohol, 95 per cent 25 parts Water, quantity sufficient to make 100 parts.
Rub the sugar and vanilla to a fine powder, add the tonka beans, and incorporate. Pack into a filter, and pour on 10 parts of alcohol, cut with 15 parts of water; close the faucet, and let macerate overnight. In the morning percolate with the remaining alcohol, added to 80 parts of water, until 100 parts of percolate pass through.
XI.—Vanilla beans 4 ounces Tonka beans 8 ounces Deodorized alcohol 8 pints Simple syrup 2 pints
Cut and bruise the vanilla beans, afterwards bruising the tonka beans. Macerate for 14 days in one-half of the spirit, with occasional agitation. Pour off the clear liquor and set aside; pour the remaining spirits in the magma, and heat by means of the water bath to about 170° F. in a loosely covered vessel. Keep at this temperature 2 or 3 hours, and strain through flannel, with slight pressure. Mix the two portions of liquid, and filter through felt. Add the syrup.
«White Pine and Tar Syrup.»—
White pine bark 75 parts Wild cherry bark 75 parts Spikenard root 10 parts Balm of Gilead buds 10 parts Sanguinaria root 8 parts Sassafras bark 7 parts Sugar 750 parts Chloroform 6 parts Syrup of tar 75 parts Alcohol, enough. Water, enough. Syrup enough to make 1,000 parts.
Reduce the first six ingredients to a coarse powder and by using a menstruum composed of 1 in 3 alcohol, obtain 500 parts of a tincture from them. In this {321} dissolve the sugar, add the syrup of tar and the chloroform, and, finally, enough syrup to bring the measure of the finished product up to 1,000 parts.
«Wild Cherry Extract.»—
Oenanthic ether 2 fluidrachms Amyl acetate 2 fluidrachms Oil of bitter almonds (free from hydrocyanic acid) 1 fluidrachm Fluid extract of wild cherry 3 fluidounces Glycerine 2 fluidounces Deodorized alcohol enough to make 16 fluidounces.
«HARMLESS COLORS FOR USE IN SYRUPS, ETC.:»
Red.—Cochineal syrup, prepared as follows:
I.—Cochineal in coarse powder 6 parts Potassium carbonate 3 parts Distilled water 15 parts Alcohol, 95 per cent 12 parts Simple syrup to make 500 parts.
Rub the cochineal and potassium together, adding the water and alcohol little by little, under constant trituration. Let stand overnight, add the syrup, and filter.
II.—Carmine, in fine powder 1 part Stronger ammonia water 4 parts Distilled water to make 24 parts.
Rub up the carmine and ammonia and to the solution add the water, little by little, under constant trituration. If in standing this shows a tendency to separate, a drop or two of ammonia will correct the trouble.
Besides these there is caramel, which, of course, you know.
Pink.—
III.—Carmine 1 part Liquor potassæ 6 parts Distilled water 40 parts
Mix. If the color is too high, dilute with distilled water until the requisite color is obtained.
«To Test Fruit Juices and Syrups for Aniline Colors.»—Add to a sample of the syrup or juice, in a test tube, its own volume of distilled water, and agitate to get a thorough mixture, then add a few drops of the standard solution of lead diacetate, shake, and filter. If the syrup is free from aniline coloring matter the filtrate will be clear as crystal, since the lead salt precipitates natural coloring matters, but has no effect upon the aniline colors.
«To Test Fruit Juices for Salicylic Acid.»—Put a portion of the juice to be tested in a large test tube, add the same volume of ether, close the mouth of the tube and shake gently for 30 seconds. Set aside until the liquid separates into two layers. Draw off the supernatant ethereal portion and evaporate to dryness in a capsule. Dissolve the residue in alcohol, dilute with 3 volumes of water, and add 1 drop of tincture of iron chloride. If salicylic acid be present the characteristic purple color will instantly disappear.
«Syrups Selected from the Formulary of the Pharmaceutical Society of Antwerp.»—
Dionine Syrup.—Dionine, 1 part; distilled water, 19 parts; simple syrup, 1,980 parts. Mix.
Jaborandi Syrup.—Tincture of jaborandi, 1 part; simple syrup, 19 parts. Mix.
Convallaria Syrup.—Extract of convallaria, 1 part; distilled water, 4 parts; simple syrup, 95 parts. Dissolve the extract in the water and mix.
Codeine Phosphate Syrup.—Codeine phosphate, 3 parts; distilled water, 17 parts; simple syrup, 980 parts. Dissolve the codeine in the water and mix with the syrup.
Licorice Syrup.—Incised licorice root, 4 parts; dilute solution of ammonia, 1 part; water, 20 parts. Mix and macerate for 12 hours at 58° to 66° F. with frequent agitation; press, heat the liquid to boiling, then evaporate to two parts on the water bath; add alcohol, 2 parts; allow to stand for 12 hours; then filter. Add to the filtrate enough simple syrup to bring the final weight to 20 parts.
Maize Stigma Syrup.—Extract of maize stigmas, 1 part; distilled water, 4 parts; simple syrup, 95 parts. Dissolve the extract in the water, filter, and add the syrup.
Ammonium Valerianate Solution.—Ammonium valerianate, 2 parts; alcoholic extract of valerian, 1 part; distilled water, 47 parts.
Kola Tincture.—Powdered kola nuts, 1 part; alcohol, 60 per cent, 5 parts. Macerate for 6 days, press, and filter.
Bidet’s Liquid Vesicant.—Tincture of cantharides, tincture of rosemary, chloroform, equal parts.
Peptone Wine.—Dried peptone, 1 part; Malaga wine, 19 parts. Dissolve without heat and filter after standing for several days. {322}
«Etching»
«General Instructions for Etching.»—In etching, two factors come into consideration, (1) that which covers that part of the metal not exposed to the etching fluid (the resist), and (2) the etching fluid itself.
In the process, a distinction is to be made between etching in relief and etching in intaglio. In relief etching, the design is drawn or painted upon the surface with the liquid etching-ground, so that after etching and removal of the etching-ground, it appears raised. In intaglio etching, the whole surface is covered with the etching-ground, and the design put on with a needle; the ground being thus removed at the points touched by the drawing, the latter, after etching and removal of the etching-ground, is sunken.
«Covering Agents or Resists.»—The plate is enclosed by a border made of grafting wax (yellow beeswax, 8 parts; pine rosin, 10 parts; beef tallow, 2 parts; turpentine, 10 parts); or a mixture of yellow wax, 8 parts; lard, 3 parts; Burgundy pitch, 1/2 part. This mixture is also used to cover the sides of vessels to be etched. Another compound consists of wax, 5 parts; cobbler’s wax, 2 1/2 parts; turpentine, 1 part.
«Etching-Ground.»—I.—Soft: Wax, 2 parts; asphalt, 1 part; mastic, 1 part. II.—Wax, 3 parts; asphalt, 4 parts. III.—Mastic, 16 parts; Burgundy pitch, 50 parts; melted wax, 125 parts; and melted asphalt, 200 parts added successively, and, after cooling, turpentine oil, 500 parts. If the ground should be deep black, lampblack is added.
Hard: Burgundy pitch, 125 parts; rosin, 125 parts, melted; and walnut oil, 100 parts, added, the whole to be boiled until it can be drawn out into long threads.
«Etching-Ground for Copper Engraving.»—White wax, 120 parts; mastic, 15 parts; Burgundy pitch, 60 parts; Syrian asphalt, 120 parts, melted together; and 5 parts concentrated solution of rubber in rubber oil added.
«Ground for Relief Etching.»—I.—Syrian asphalt, 500 parts, dissolved in turpentine oil, 1,000 parts. II.—Asphalt, rosin, and wax, 200 parts of each, are melted, and dissolved in turpentine oil, 1,200 parts. The under side of the metal plate is protected by a coating of a spirituous shellac solution, or by a solution of asphalt, 300 parts, in benzol, 600 parts.
«For Strongly Acid Solutions.»—I.—Black pitch, 1 part; Japanese wax, 2 parts; rosin, 1 1/2 parts; Damar rosin, 1 part, melted together and mixed with turpentine oil, 1 part. II.—Heavy black printers’ ink, 3 parts; rosin, 1 part; wax, 1 part.
For electro-etching, the following ground is recommended: Wax, 4 parts; asphalt, 4 parts; pitch, 1 part.
If absolute surety is required respecting the resistance of the etching-ground to the action of the etching fluids, several etching-grounds are put on, one over the other; first (for instance), a solution of rubber in benzol, then a spirituous shellac solution, and a third stratum of asphalt dissolved in turpentine oil.
If the etching is to be of different degrees of depth, the places where it is to be faint are stopped out with varnish, after they are deep enough, and the object is put back into the bath for further etching.
For putting on a design before the etching, the following method may be used: Cover the metal plate, tin plate for example, with a colored or colorless spirit varnish; after drying, cover this, in a dark room, with a solution of gelatin, 5 parts, and red potassium chromate, 1 part, in water, 100 parts; or with a solution of albumen, 2 parts; ammonium bichromate, 2 parts, in water, 200 parts. After drying, put the plate, covered with a stencil, in a copying or printing frame, and expose to light. The sensitive gelatin stratum will become insoluble at the places exposed. Place in water, and the gelatin will be dissolved at the places covered by the stencil; dry, and remove the spirit varnish from the places with spirit, then put into the etching fluid.
«Etching Fluids.»—The etching fluid is usually poured over the metallic surface, which is enclosed in a border, as described before. If the whole object is to be put into the fluid, it must be entirely covered with the etching-ground. After etching it is washed with pure water, dried with a linen cloth, and the etching-ground is then washed off with turpentine oil or a light volatile camphor oil. The latter is very good for the purpose.
«Etching Fluids for Iron and Steel.»—I.—Pure nitric acid, diluted for light etching with 4 to 8 parts of water, for deep etching with an equal weight of water.
II.—Tartaric acid, 1 part, by weight; mercuric chloride, 15 parts, by weight; water, 420 parts; nitric acid, 16 to 20 drops, if 1 part equals 28 1/2 grains. {323}
III.—Spirit, 80 per cent, 120 parts, by weight; pure nitric acid, 8 parts; silver nitrate, 1 part.
IV.—Pure acetic acid, 30 per cent, 40 parts, by weight; absolute alcohol, 10 parts; pure nitric acid, 10 parts.
V.—Fuming nitric acid, 10 parts, by weight; pure acetic acid, 30 per cent, 50 parts, diluted with water if necessary or desired.
VI.—A chromic acid solution.
VII.—Bromine, 1 part; water, 100 parts. Or—mercuric chloride, 1 part; water, 30 parts.
VIII.—Antimonic chloride, 1 part; water, 6 parts; hydrochloric acid, 6 parts.
«For Delicate Etchings on Steel.»—I.—Iodine, 2 parts; potassium iodide, 4 parts; water, 40 parts.
II.—Silver acetate, 8 parts, by weight; alcohol, 250 parts; water, 250 parts; pure nitric acid, 260 parts; ether, 64 parts; oxalic acid, 4 parts.
III.—A copper chloride solution.
«Etching Powder for Iron and Steel.»—Blue vitriol, 50 parts; common salt, 50 parts; mixed and moistened with water.
For lustrous figures on a dull ground, as on sword blades, the whole surface is polished, the portions which are to remain bright covered with stencils and the object exposed to the fumes of nitric acid. This is best done by pouring sulphuric acid, 20 parts, over common salt, 10 parts.
«Relief Etching of Copper, Steel, and Brass.»—Instead of nitric acid, which has a tendency to lift up the etching-ground, by evolution of gases, it is better to use a mixture of potassium bichromate, 150 parts; water, 800 parts; and concentrated sulphuric acid, 200 parts. The etching is slow, but even, and there is no odor.
«For Etching Copper, Brass, and Tombac.»—Pure nitric acid diluted with water to 18° Bé. The bubbles of gas given out should immediately be removed with a feather that the etching may be even.
Another compound consists of a boiling solution of potassium chlorate, 2 parts, in water, 20 parts, poured into a mixture of nitric acid, 10 parts, and water, 70 parts. For delicate etchings dilute still more with 100 to 200 parts of water.
«Etching Fluid for Copper.»—Weak: A boiling solution of potassium chlorate, 20 parts, in water, 200 parts, poured into a mixture of pure hydrochloric acid, 20 parts; water, 500 parts.
Stronger: A boiling solution of potassium chlorate, 25 parts, in water, 250 parts, poured into a mixture of pure hydrochloric acid, 250 parts; water, 400 parts.
Very strong: A boiling solution of potassium chlorate, 30 parts, in water, 300 parts, poured into a mixture of pure hydrochloric acid, 300 parts; water, 300 parts.
For etching on copper a saturated solution of bromine in dilute hydrochloric acid may also be used; or a mixture of potassium bichromate, 1/2 part; water, 1 part; crude nitric acid, 3 parts.
The following are also much used for copper and copper alloys:
I.—A copper chloride solution acidified with hydrochloric acid.
II.—Copper nitrate dissolved in water.
III.—A ferric chloride solution of 30° to 45° Bé. If chrome gelatin or chrome albumen is used for the etching-ground, a spirituous ferric chloride solution is employed. The etching process can be made slower by adding common salt to the ferric chloride solution.
«Matt Etching of Copper.»—White vitriol, 1 to 5 parts; common salt, 1 part; concentrated sulphuric acid, 100 parts; nitric acid (36° Bé.), 200 parts, mixed together. The sulphuric acid is to be poured carefully into the nitric acid, not the reverse.
«Etching Fluid for Brass.»—Nitric acid, 8 parts; mixed with water, 80 parts; into this mixture pour a hot solution of potassium chlorate, 3 parts, in water, 50 parts.
«Etching Fluid for Brass to Make Stencils.»—Mix nitric acid, of 1.3 specific weight, with enough fuming nitric acid to give a deep yellow color. This mixture acts violently, and will eat through the strongest sheet brass.
«Etching Fluid for Zinc.»—Boil pounded gallnuts, 40 parts, with water, 560 parts, until the whole amounts to 200 parts; filter, and add nitric acid, 2 parts, and a few drops of hydrochloric acid. Ferric chloride and antimonic chloride solutions may also be used to etch zinc.
«Relief Etching of Zinc.»—The design is to be drawn with a solution of platinum chloride, 1 part, and rubber, 1 part, in water, 12 parts. The zinc plate is placed in dilute sulphuric acid (1 in 16). The black drawing will remain as it is.
Another compound for the drawing is made of blue vitriol, 2 parts; copper chloride, 3 parts; water, 64 parts; pure hydrochloric acid, 1.1 specific weight. After the drawing is made, lay the plate in dilute nitric acid (1 in 8). {324}
«Etching Fluid for Aluminum.»—Dilute hydrochloric acid serves this purpose. Aluminum containing iron can be matted with soda lye, followed by treatment with nitric acid. The lye dissolves the aluminum, and the nitric acid dissolves the iron. Aluminum bronze is etched with nitric acid.
«Etching Fluid for Tin or Pewter.»—Ferric chloride, or highly diluted nitric acid.
«Etching Fluids for Silver.»—I.—Dilute pure nitric acid.
II.—Nitric acid (specific weight, 1.185), 172 parts; water, 320 parts; potassium bichromate, 30 parts.
«Etching Fluid for Gold.»—Dilute aqua regia (= nitric and sulphuric acids, in the proportion of 1 in 3).
«Etching Fluid for Copper, Zinc, and Steel.»—A mixture of 4 parts of acetic acid (30 per cent), and alcohol, 1 part; to this is added gradually, nitric acid, 1 part.
«Etching Fluid for Lead, Antimony, and Britannia Metal.»—Dilute nitric acid.
«Etching Powder for Metals» (Tin, Silver, Iron, German Silver, Copper, and Zinc).—Blue vitriol, 1 part; ferric oxide, 4 parts. The powder, moistened, is applied to the places to be etched, as, for instance, knife blades. Calcined green vitriol can also be used.
«Electro-Etching.»—This differs from ordinary etching in the use of a bath, which does not of itself affect the metal, but is made capable of doing so by the galvanic current.
Ordinary etching, seen under the microscope, consists of a succession of uneven depressions, which widen out considerably at a certain depth. In electro-etching, the line under the microscope appears as a perfectly even furrow, not eaten out beneath, however deeply cut. The work is, accordingly, finer and sharper; the fumes from the acids are also avoided, and the etching can be modified by regulation of the current. The preparation of the surface, by covering, stopping-out, etc., is the same as in ordinary etching. At some uncovered place a conducting wire is soldered on with soft solder, and covered with a coat of varnish. The plate is then suspended in the bath, and acts as the anode, with another similar plate for the cathode. If gradations in etching are desired, the plates are taken out after a time, rinsed, and covered, and returned to the bath.
For the bath dilute acids are used, or saline solutions. Thus, for copper, dilute sulphuric acid, 1 in 20. For copper and brass, a blue vitriol solution. For zinc, white vitriol or a zinc chloride solution. For steel and iron, green vitriol, or an ammonium chloride solution. For tin, a tin-salt solution. For silver, a silver nitrate or potassium cyanide solution. For gold and platinum, gold chloride and platinum chloride solutions, or a potassium cyanide solution. For electro-etching a Leclauché or Bunsen battery is to be recommended. In the former, the negative zinc pole is connected with a plate of the same metal as that to be etched, and the positive iron pole with the plate to be etched. In the Bunsen battery, the carbon pole is connected with the object to be etched, the zinc pole with the metal plate.
«Etching Bath for Brass.»—1.—Mix nitric acid (specified gravity, 1.4), 8 parts, with water, 80 parts. 2.—Chlorate of potash, 3 parts, dissolved in 50 parts of water. Mix 1 and 2. For protecting those portions which are not to be etched, any suitable acid-proof composition can be used.
«Etching on Copper.»—I.—In order to do regular and quick etching on copper take a copper plate silvered on the etching side. Trace on this plate, either with varnish or lithographic ink, the design. When the tracing is dry, place the plate in an iron bath, using a battery. The designs traced with the varnish or ink are not attacked by the etching fluid. When the plate is taken from the bath and has been washed and dried, remove the varnish or ink with essence of turpentine; next pour mercury on the places reserved by the varnish or ink; the mercury will attack the silvered portions and the etching is quickly made. When the mercury has done its duty gather up the excess and return to the bottle with a paper funnel. Wash the plate in strong alum water, and heat.
II.—The plate must be first polished either with emery or fine pumice stone, and after it has been dried with care, spread thereon a varnish composed of equal parts of yellow wax and essence of turpentine. The solution of the wax in the essence is accomplished in the cold; next a little oil of turpentine and some lampblack are added. This varnish is allowed to dry on, away from dust and humidity. When dry, trace the design with a very fine point. Make a border with modeling wax, so as to prevent the acid from running off. Pour on nitric acid if the plate is of copper, or {325} hydrochloric acid diluted with water if the plate is of zinc, allow the acid to act according to the desired depth of the engraving; wash several times and remove the varnish by heating the plate lightly. Wash with essence of turpentine and dry well in sawdust or in the stove. For relief engraving the designs are traced before the engraving on the plate with the resist varnish instead of covering the plate entirely. These designs must be delicately executed and without laps, as the acid eats away all the parts not protected by the varnish.
«Etching Fluids for Copper.»—I.—A new etching fluid for copper plate is hydrogen peroxide, to which a little dilute ammonia water is added. It is said to bite in very rapidly and with great regularity and uniformity.
II.—Another fluid is fuming hydrochloric acid (specific gravity, 1.19), 10 parts; water, 70 parts. To this add a solution of potassium chlorate, 2 parts, dissolved in 20 parts of hot water. If the articles to be etched are very delicate and fine this should be diluted with from 100 to 200 parts of water.
«ETCHING ON GLASS.»
Names, designs, etc., can be etched on glass in three ways: First, by means of an engraving wheel, a method which requires some manual skill. Second, by means of a sand blast, making a stencil of the name, fixing this on the glass, and then, by means of a blast of air, blowing sand on the glass. Third, by the use of hydrofluoric acid. The glass is covered with beeswax, paraffine wax, or some acid resisting ink or varnish; the name or device is then etched out of the wax by means of a knife, and the glass dipped in hydrofluoric acid, which eats away the glass at those parts where the wax has been cut away.
Fancy work, ornamental figures, lettering, and monograms are most easily and neatly cut into glass by the sand-blast process. Lines and figures on tubes, jars, etc., may be deeply etched by smearing the surface of the glass with beeswax, drawing the lines with a steel point, and exposing the glass to the fumes of hydrofluoric acid. This acid is obtained by putting powdered fluorspar into a tray made of sheet lead and pouring sulphuric acid on it, after which the tray is slightly warmed. The proportions will vary with the purity of the materials used, fluorspar (except when in crystals) being generally mixed with a large quantity of other matter. Enough acid to make a thin paste with the powdered spar will be about right. Where a lead tray is not at hand, the powdered spar may be poured on the glass and the acid poured on it and left for some time. As a general rule, the marks are opaque, but sometimes they are transparent. In this case cut them deeply and fill up with black varnish, if they are required to be very plain, as in the case of graduated vessels. Liquid hydrofluoric acid has been recommended for etching, but is not always suitable, as it leaves the surface on which it acts transparent.
There are two methods of marking bottles—dry etching, or by stamping with etching inks. The first process is usually followed in glass factories. A rubber stamp is necessary for this process, and the letters should be made as large and clean cut as possible without crowding them too much. Besides this, an etching powder is required.
A small quantity of the powder is poured into a porcelain dish, and this is placed on a sand bath or over a gentle fire, and heated until it is absolutely dry, so that it can be rubbed down to an impalpable powder.
The bottle or other glass to be marked must be perfectly clean and dry. The etching powder takes better when the vessel is somewhat warm. The stamp should be provided with a roller which is kept constantly supplied with a viscid oil which it distributes on the stamp and which the stamp transfers to the glass surface. The powder is dusted on the imprint thus made, by means of a camel’s-hair brush. Any surplus falling on the unoiled surface may be removed with a fine long-haired pencil. The printed bottle is transferred to a damp place and kept for several minutes, the dampness aiding the etching powder in its work on the glass surface. The bottle is then well washed in plain water.
Glass cylinders, large flasks, carboys, etc., may be treated in a somewhat different manner. The stamp here is inserted, face upward, between two horizontal boards, in such a manner that its face projects about a quarter of a millimeter (say 0.01 inch) above the surface. Oil is applied to the surface, after which the cylinder, carboy, or what not, is rolled along the board and over the stamp. The design is thus neatly transferred to the glass surface, and the rest of the operation is as in the previous case.
For an etching ink for glassware the following is recommended:
Ammonium fluoride 2 drachms Barium sulphate 2 drachms
Reduce to a fine powder in a mortar, {326} then transfer to a lead dish and make into a thin writing-cream with hydrofluoric acid or fuming sulphuric acid. Use a piece of lead to stir the mixture. The ink may be put up in bottles coated with paraffine, which can be done by heating the bottle, pouring in some melted paraffine, and letting it flow all around. The writing is done with a quill, and in about half a minute the ink is washed off.
Extreme caution must be observed in handling the acid, since when brought in contact with the skin it produces dangerous sores very difficult to heal. The vapor is also dangerously poisonous when inhaled.
«Hydrofluoric Formulas.»—I.—Dissolve about 0.72 ounces fluoride of soda with 0.14 ounces sulphate of potash in 1/2 pint of water. Make another solution of 0.28 ounces chloride of zinc and 1.30 ounces hydrochloric acid in an equal quantity of water. Mix the solutions and apply to the glass vessel with a pin or brush. At the end of half an hour the design should be sufficiently etched.
II.—A mixture consisting of ammonium fluoride, common salt, and carbonate of soda is prepared, and then placed in a gutta-percha bottle containing fuming hydrofluoric acid and concentrated sulphuric acid. In a separate vessel which is made of lead, potassium fluoride is mixed with hydrochloric acid, and a little of this solution is added to the former, along with a small quantity of sodium silicate and ammonia. Some of the solution is dropped upon a rubber pad, and by means of a suitable rubber stamp, bearing the design which is to be reproduced, is transferred to the glass vessel that is to be etched.
«Etching with Wax.»—Spread wax or a preservative varnish on the glass, and trace on this wax or varnish the letters or designs. If letters are desired, trace them by hand or by the use of letters cut out in tin, which apply on the wax, the inside contours being taken with a fine point. When this is done, remove the excess of wax from the glass, leaving only the full wax letters undisturbed. Make an edge of wax all along the glass plate so as to prevent the acid from running over when you pour it on to attack the glass. At the end of 3 to 4 hours remove the acid, wash the glass well with hot water, next pour on essence of turpentine or alcohol to take off the wax or the preservative varnish. Pass again through clean water; the glass plate will have become dead wherever the acid has eaten in, only the letters remaining polished. For fancy designs it suffices to put on the back of the plate a black or colored varnish, or tin foil, etc., to obtain a brilliant effect.
«Etching Glass by Means of Glue.»—It is necessary only to cover a piece of ordinary or flint glass with a coat of glue dissolved in water in order to see that the layer of glue, upon contracting through the effect of drying, becomes detached from the glass and removes therefrom numerous scales of varying thickness. The glass thus etched presents a sort of regular and decorative design similar to the flowers of frost deposited on windowpanes in winter. When salts that are readily crystallizable and that exert no chemical action upon the gelatin are dissolved in the latter the figures etched upon the glass exhibit a crystalline appearance that recalls fern fronds.
Hyposulphite of soda and chlorate and nitrate of potash produce nearly the same effects. A large number of mineral substances are attacked by gelatin. Toughened glass is easily etched, and the same is the case with fluorspar and polished marble. A piece of rock crystal, cut at right angles with the axis and coated with isinglass, the action of which seems to be particularly energetic, is likewise attacked at different points, and the parts detached present a conchoidal appearance. The contraction of the gelatin may be rendered visible by applying a coating of glue to sheets of cardboard or lead, which bend backward in drying and assume the form of an irregular cylinder.
Such etching of glass and different mineral substances by the action of gelatin may be employed for the decoration of numerous objects.
Dissolve some common glue in ordinary water, heated by a water bath, and add 6 per cent of its weight of potash alum. After the glue has become perfectly melted, homogeneous, and of the consistency of syrup, apply a layer, while it is still hot, to a glass object by means of a brush. If the object is of ground glass the action of the glue will be still more energetic. After half an hour apply a second coat in such a way as to obtain a smooth, transparent surface destitute of air bubbles. After the glue has become so hard that it no longer yields to the pressure of the finger nail (say, in about 24 hours), put the article in a warmer place, in which the temperature must not exceed 105° F. When the object is removed from the oven, after a few hours, the glue will detach itself with {327} a noise and removes with it numerous flakes of glass. All that the piece then requires is to be carefully washed and dried.
The designs thus obtained are not always the same, the thickness of the coat of glue, the time of drying, and various other conditions seeming to act to modify the form and number of the flakes detached.
It is indispensable to employ glass objects of adequate thickness, since, in covering mousseline glass with a layer of glue, the mechanical action that it has to support during desiccation is so powerful that it will break with an explosion. Glue, therefore, must not be allowed to dry in glass vessels, since they would be corroded and broken in a short time.
«Indelible Labels on Bottles.»—To affix indelible labels on bottles an etching liquid is employed which is produced as follows:
Liquid I, in one bottle.—Dissolve 36 parts of sodium fluoride in 500 parts of distilled water and add 7 parts of potassium sulphate.
Liquid II, in another bottle.—Dissolve zinc chloride, 14 parts, in 500 parts of distilled water, and add 65 parts of concentrated hydrochloric acid.
For use mix equal parts together and add a little dissolved India ink to render the writing more visible.
The mixing cannot, however, be conducted in a vessel. It is best to use a cube of paraffine which has been hollowed out.
«Etching on Marble or Ivory» (see also Ivory).—Cover the objects with a coat of wax dissolved in 90 per cent alcohol, then trace the desired designs by removing the wax with a sharp tool and distribute on the tracing the following mixture: Hydrochloric acid, 1 part; acetic acid, 1 part. Repeat this operation several times, until the desired depth is attained. Then take off the varnish with alcohol. The etching may be embellished, filling up the hollows with any colored varnish, by wiping the surface with a piece of linen fixed on a stick, to rub the varnish into the cavities after it has been applied with a brush. The hollows may be gilded or silvered by substituting “mixtion” for the varnish and applying on this mixtion a leaf of gold or silver, cut in pieces a little larger than the design to be covered; press down the gold by means of a soft brush so as to cause it to penetrate to the bottom; let dry and remove the protruding edges.
«Etching on Steel.»—The print should be heavily inked and powdered with dragon’s blood several times. After each powdering heat slightly and additional powder will stick, forming a heavy coating in 2 or 3 operations. Before proceeding to heat up, the plate should receive a light etching in a weak solution of the acid described later on. The purpose of this preliminary etching is to clean up the print, so that the lines will not tend to thicken, as would be the case otherwise. Next a good strong heating should be given. On top the dragon’s blood plumbago may be used in addition. For etching use nitric acid mixed with an even amount of acetic acid. Some operators use vinegar, based on the same theory. When commencing the etching, start with a weak solution and increase as soon as the plate is deep enough to allow another powdering. If the operator is familiar with lithography, and understands rolling up the print with a lithoroller, the etching of steel is not harder than etching on zinc.
«Liquids for Etching Steel.»—
I.—Iodine 2 parts Potassium iodide 5 parts Water 40 parts
II.—Nitric acid 60 parts Water 120 parts Alcohol 200 parts Copper nitrate 8 parts
III.—Glacial acetic acid 4 parts Nitric acid 1 part Alcohol 1 part
IV.—Mix 1 ounce sulphate of copper, 1/4 ounce alum, 1/2 teaspoonful of salt (reduced to powder), with 1 gill of vinegar and 20 drops of nitric acid. This fluid can be used either for etching deeply or for frosting, according to the time it is allowed to act. The parts of the work which are not to be etched should be protected with beeswax or some similar substance.
V.—Nitric acid, 60 parts; water, 120 parts; alcohol, 200 parts; and copper nitrate, 8 parts. Keep in a glass-stoppered bottle. To use the fluid, cover the surface to be marked with a thin even coat of wax and mark the lines with a machinist’s scriber. Wrap clean cotton waste around the end of the scriber or a stick, and dip in the fluid, applying it to the marked surface. In a few minutes the wax may be scraped off, when fine lines will appear where the scriber marked the wax. The drippings from a lighted wax candle can be used for the {328} coating, and this may be evenly spread with a knife heated in the candle flame.
VI.—For Hardened Steel.—Heat an iron or an old pillar-file with a smooth side, and with it spread a thin, even coat of beeswax over the brightened surface to be etched. With a sharp lead pencil (which is preferable to a scriber) write or mark as wanted through the wax so as to be sure to strike the steel surface. Then daub on with a stick etching acid made as follows: Nitric acid, 3 parts; muriatic acid, 1 part. If a lead pencil has been used the acid will begin to bubble immediately. Two or three minutes of the bubbling or foaming will be sufficient for marking; then soak up the acid with a small piece of blotting paper and remove the beeswax with a piece of cotton waste wet with benzine, and if the piece be small enough dip it into a saturated solution of sal soda, or if the piece be large swab over it with a piece of waste. This neutralizes the remaining acid and prevents rusting, which oil will not do.
If it is desired to coat the piece with beeswax without heating it, dissolve pure beeswax in benzine until of the consistency of thick cream and pour on to the steel, and even spread it by rocking or blowing, and lay aside for it to harden; then use the lead pencil, etc., as before. This method will take longer. Keep work from near the fire or an open flame.
EUCALYPTUS BONBONS FOR COLDS AND COUGHS: See Cold and Cough Mixtures.
EXPECTORANTS: See Cold and Cough Mixtures.
«Explosives»
Explosives may be divided into two great classes—mechanical mixtures and chemical compounds. In the former the combustible substances are intimately mixed with some oxygen supplying material, as in the case of gunpowder, where carbon and sulphur are intimately mixed with potassium nitrate; while gun cotton and nitro-glycerine are examples of the latter class, where each molecule of the substance contains the necessary oxygen for the oxidation of the carbon and hydrogen present, the oxygen being in feeble combination with nitrogen. Many explosives are, however, mechanical mixtures of compounds which are themselves explosive, e. g., cordite, which is mainly composed of gun cotton and nitro-glycerine.
The most common and familiar of explosives is undoubtedly gunpowder. The mixture first adopted appears to have consisted of equal parts of the three ingredients—sulphur, charcoal, and niter; but some time later the proportions, even now taken for all ordinary purposes, were introduced, namely:
Potassium nitrate 75 parts Charcoal 15 parts Sulphur 10 parts ──── 100 parts
Since gunpowder is a mechanical mixture, it is clear that the first aim of the maker must be to obtain perfect incorporation, and, necessarily, in order to obtain this, the materials must be in a very finely divided state. Moreover, in order that uniformity of effect may be obtained, purity of the original substances, the percentage of moisture present, and the density of the finished powder are of importance.
The weighed quantities of the ingredients are first mixed in gun metal or copper drums, having blades in the interior capable of working in the opposite direction to that in which the drum itself is traveling. After passing through a sieve, the mixture (green charge) is passed on to the incorporating mills, where it is thoroughly ground under heavy metal rollers, a small quantity of water being added to prevent dust and facilitating incorporation, and during this process the risk of explosion is greater possibly than at any other stage in the manufacture. There are usually 6 mills working in the same building, with partitions between. Over the bed of each mill is a horizontal board, the “flash board,” which is connected with a tank of water overhead, the arrangement being such that the upsetting of one tank discharges the contents of the other tanks onto the corresponding mill beds below, so that in the event of an accident the charge is drowned in each case. The “mill cake” is now broken down between rollers, the “meal” produced being placed in strong oak boxes and subjected to hydraulic pressure, thus increasing its density and hardness, at the same time bringing the ingredients into more intimate contact. After once more breaking down the material (press cake), the powder only requires special treatment to adapt it for the various purposes for which it is intended.
The products of the combustion of powder and its manner of burning are {329} largely influenced by the pressure, a property well illustrated by the failure of a red-hot platinum wire to ignite a mass of powder in a vacuum, only a few grains actually in contact with the platinum undergoing combustion.
Nitro-glycerine is a substance of a similar chemical nature to gun cotton, the principles of its formation and purification being very similar, only in this case the materials and product are liquids, thereby rendering the operations of manufacture and washing much less difficult. The glycerine is sprayed into the acid mixture by compressed-air injectors, care being taken that the temperature during nitration does not rise above 86° F. The nitro-glycerine formed readily separates from the mixed acids, and being insoluble in cold water, the washing is comparatively simple.
Nitro-glycerine is an oily liquid readily soluble in most organic solvents, but becomes solid at 3° or 4° above the freezing point of water, and in this condition is less sensitive. It detonates when heated to 500° F., or by a sudden blow, yielding carbon dioxide, oxygen, nitrogen, and water. Being a fluid under ordinary conditions, its uses as an explosive were limited, and Alfred Nobel conceived the idea of mixing it with other substances which would act as absorbents, first using charcoal and afterwards an infusorial earth, “kieselguhr,” and obtaining what he termed “dynamite.” Nobel found that “collodion cotton”—soluble gun cotton—could be converted by treatment with nitro-glycerine into a jellylike mass which was more trustworthy in action than the components alone, and from its nature the substance was christened “blasting gelatin.”
Nobel took out a patent for a smokeless powder for use in guns, in which these ingredients were adopted with or without the use of retarding agents. The powders of this class are ballistite and filite, the former being in sheets, the latter in threads. Originally camphor was introduced, but its use has been abandoned, a small quantity of aniline taking its place.
Sir Frederick Abel and Prof. Dewar patented in 1889 the use of trinitro-cellulose and nitro-glycerine, for although, as is well known, this form of nitro-cellulose is not soluble in nitro-glycerine, yet by dissolving the bodies in a mutual solvent, perfect incorporation can be attained. Acetone is the solvent used in the preparation of “cordite,” and for all ammunition except blank charges a certain proportion of vaseline is also added. The combustion of the powder without vaseline gives products so free from solid or liquid substances that excessive friction of the projectile in the gun causes rapid wearing of the rifling, and it is chiefly to overcome this that the vaseline is introduced, for on explosion a thin film of solid matter is deposited in the gun, and acts as a lubricant.
The proportion of the ingredients are:
Nitro-glycerine 58 parts Gun-cotton 37 parts Vaseline 5 parts
Gun cotton to be used for cordite is prepared as previously described, but the alkali is omitted, and the mass is not submitted to great pressure, to avoid making it so dense that ready absorption of nitro-glycerine would not take place. The nitro-glycerine is poured over the dried gun cotton and first well mixed by hand, afterwards in a kneading machine with the requisite quantity of acetone for 3 1/2 hours. A water jacket is provided, since, on mixing, the temperature rises. The vaseline is now added, and the kneading continued for a similar period. The cordite paste is first subjected to a preliminary pressing, and is finally forced through a hole of the proper size in a plate either by hand or by hydraulic pressure. The smaller sizes are wound on drums, while the larger cordite is cut off in suitable lengths, the drums and cut material being dried at 100° F., thus driving off the remainder of the acetone.
Cordite varies from yellow to dark brown in color, according to its thickness. When ignited it burns with a strong flame, which may be extinguished by a vigorous puff of air. Macnab and Ristori give the yield of permanent gases from English cordite as 647 cubic centimeters, containing a much higher per cent of carbon monoxide than the gases evolved from the old form of powder. Sir Andrew Noble failed in attempts to detonate the substance, and a rifle bullet fired into the mass only caused it to burn quietly.
«Dynamite.»—Dynamite is ordinarily made up of 75 per cent nitro-glycerine, 25 per cent infusorial earth; dualine contains 80 per cent nitro-glycerine, 20 per cent nitro-cellulose; rend-rock has 40 per cent nitro-glycerine, 40 per cent nitrate of potash, 13 per cent cellulose, 7 per cent paraffine; giant powder, 36 per cent nitro-glycerine, 48 per cent nitrate of potash, 8 per cent sulphur, 8 per cent rosin or charcoal.
«Smokeless Powder.»—The base of smokeless powders is nitrated cellulose, {330} which has been treated in one of various ways to make it burn slower than gun cotton, and also to render it less sensitive to heat and shocks. As a rule, these powders are not only less inflammable than gun cotton, but require stronger detonators. As metallic salts cause smoke, they are not used in these powders. The smokeless powders now in use may be divided into three groups: (1) Those consisting of mixtures of nitro-glycerine and nitrated cellulose, which have been converted into a hard, hornlike mass, either with or without the aid of a solvent. To this group belongs ballistite, containing 50 per cent of nitro-glycerine, 49 per cent of nitrated cellulose, and 1 per cent of diphenylamin; also cordite (see further on), Lenord’s powder, and amberite. This last contains 40 parts of nitro-glycerine and 56 parts of nitrated cellulose. (2) Those consisting mainly of nitrated cellulose of any kind, which has been rendered hard and horny by treatment with some solvent which is afterwards evaporated. These are prepared by treating nitrated cellulose with ether or benzine, which dissolves the collodion, and when evaporated leaves a hard film of collodion on the surface of each grain. Sometimes a little camphor is added to the solvent, and, remaining in the powder, greatly retards its combustion. (3) Those consisting of nitro-derivatives of the aromatic hydrocarbons, either with or without the admixture of nitrated cellulose; to this group belong Dupont’s powder, consisting of nitrated cellulose dissolved in nitro-benzine; indurite, consisting of cellulose hexanitrate (freed from collodion by extraction with methyl alcohol), made into a paste with nitro-benzine, and hardened by treatment with steam until the excess of nitro-benzine is removed; and plastomeite, consisting of dinitrotoluene and nitrated wood pulp.
Cordite is the specific name of a smokeless powder which has been adopted by the English government as a military explosive. It contains nitro-glycerine, 58 parts; gun cotton, 37 parts; and petrolatum, 5 parts. The nitro-glycerine and gun cotton are first mixed, 19.2 parts of acetone added, and the pasty mass kneaded for several hours. The petrolatum is then added and the mixture again kneaded. The paste is then forced through fine openings to form threads, which are dried at about 105° F. until the acetone evaporates. The threads, which resemble brown twine, are then cut into short lengths for use.
Another process for the manufacture of smokeless powder is as follows: Straw, preferably oat-straw, is treated in the usual way with a mixture of nitric acid and concentrated sulphuric acid, and then washed in water to free it from these, then boiled with water, and again with a solution of potassium carbonate. It is next subjected, for 2 to 6 hours, to the action of a solution composed of 1,000 parts of water, 12.5 parts of potassium nitrate, 3.5 parts of potassium chlorate, 12.5 parts of zinc sulphate, and 12.5 parts of potassium permanganate. The excess of solution is pressed out, and the mass is then pulverized, granulated, and finally dried.
The warning as to the danger of experimenting with the manufacture of ordinary gunpowder applies with renewed force when nitro-glycerine is the subject of the experiment.
«Berge’s Blasting Powder.»—This is composed of chlorate of potash, 1 part; chromate of potash, 0.1 part; sugar, 0.45 parts; yellow wax, 0.09 parts. The proportions indicated may vary within certain limits, according to the force desired. For the preparation, the chlorate and the chromate of potash, as well as the sugar, are ground separately and very finely, and sifted so that the grains of the different substances may have the same size. At first any two of the substances are mixed as thoroughly as possible, then the third is added. The yellow wax, cut in small pieces, is finally added, and all the substances are worked together to produce a homogeneous product. The sugar may be replaced with charcoal or any other combustible body. For commercial needs, the compound may be colored with any inert matter, also pulverized.
«Safety in Explosives».—Ammoniacal salts have been used in the manufacture of explosives to render them proof against firedamp, but not with the full success desired. Ammonium chloride has been utilized, but inconveniences are met with, and the vapor is quite disagreeable. In coöperation with equivalent quantities of soda and potash, its action is regarded as favorable. Tests employing benzine vapor and coal dust were made, and the comparative security calculated to be as given below.
I.—Donarite, composed as follows: 80 per cent of nitrate of ammonia, 12 of trinitrotoluol, 4 of flour, 3.8 of nitro-glycerine, and 0.2 per cent of cotton collodion. Security: Donarite alone, 87 parts; 95 per cent of donarite and 5 per {331} cent of ammonium chloride, 125 parts; 90 per cent of donarite and 10 per cent of ammonium chloride, 250 parts; 86 per cent of donarite and 5.5 per cent of ammonium chloride, with 8.5 per cent of nitrate of soda, 425 parts. The force of the explosion is decreased about 8 per cent, while the security is quintupled.
II.—Roburite, with the following composition: 72.5 per cent nitrate of ammonia; 12 binitro-benzol; 10 nitrate of potash; 5 sulphate of ammonia; 0.5 per cent permanganate of potash. Security: Roburite only, 325 parts; ammonium chloride, taking the place of sulphate of ammonia, 400 parts. Here an intensification of the explosive force is simultaneously produced.
III.—Ammon carbonite I, composed thus: 4 per cent nitro-glycerine; 75.5 nitrate of ammonia; 9.5 nitrate of potash; 9.5 coal dust; 10.5 flour. Security: Ammon carbonite I only, 250 parts; 95 per cent A. C. I. and 5 per cent ammonium chloride, 400 parts; 92 per cent A. C. I. and 8 per cent ammonium chloride, 500 parts. The addition of 5 per cent ammonium chloride diminishes the explosive force only 3 per cent.
IV.—An explosive of nitro-glycerine base composed thus: 30 per cent nitro-glycerine; 1 per cent cotton collodion; 52.6 nitrate of ammonia; 13 nitrate of potash; 3 to 4 per cent starch. Security of this mixture, 150 parts.
V.—Thirty per cent nitro-glycerine; 1 per cent cotton collodion; 47.3 nitrate of ammonia; 11.6 nitrate of potash; 3.1 starch; 7 per cent ammonium chloride. This mixture has a security of 350 parts.
«Inflammable Explosive with Chlorate of Potash.»—Take as an agent promoting combustion, potassium chlorate; as a combustible agent, an oxidized, nitrated, or natural rosin. If, to such a mixture, another body is added in order to render it soft and plastic, such as oil, nitro-benzine, glucose, glycerine, the benefit of the discovery is lost, for the mixture is rendered combustible with nitro-benzine, fecula, sulphur, etc., and inexplosive with glycerine, glucose, and the oil.
Of all the chlorates and perchlorates, potassium chlorate (KClO_〈3〉) responds the best to what is desired. As to the rosins, they may be varied, or even mixed. To obtain the oxidation or nitration of the rosins, they are heated with nitric acid, more or less concentrated, and with or without the addition of sulphuric acid. An oxidation, sufficient and without danger, can be secured by a simple and practical means. This is boiling them for several hours in water containing nitric acid, which is renewed from time to time in correspondence with its decomposition. The rosins recommended by M. Turpin are of the terebinthine group, having for average formula C_〈20〉H_〈30〉O_〈2〉. Colophony is the type.
The products, thus nitrated, are washed with boiling water, and, on occasion, by a solution slightly alkaline, with a final washing with pure water, and dried at a temperature of 230° F. or in the open air.
The mixing of the constituents of this explosive is preferably cold. For this purpose they are used in the state of fine powder, and when mixed in the tub, 2 1/2 to 5 per cent of a volatile dissolvent is added, as alcohol, carbon sulphide, ether, or benzine. As soon as thoroughly mingled, the mass is put either in an ordinary grainer, or in a cylinder of wire cloth revolving horizontally on its axis, with glass gobilles forming a screen, by the aid of which the graining is rapidly accomplished. Thus a powder more or less finely granulated is produced free from dust.
The proportions preferably employed are:
1. Potassium chlorate 85 parts Natural rosin 15 parts
2. Potassium chlorate 80 parts Nitrated rosin 20 parts
For employment in firedamp mines, there is added to these compounds from 20 to 40 per cent of one of the following substances: Ammonium oxalate, ammonium carbonate, oxalic acid, sodium bicarbonate, calcium fluoride, or other substance of the nature to lower sufficiently the temperature of the explosive flame.
«Gun Cotton.»—For the production of a high-grade gun cotton, it is important that the cotton used should approach as near as possible pure cellulose. The waste from cotton mills, thoroughly purified, is usually employed. After careful chemical examination has been made to ascertain its freedom from grease and other impurities, the cotton waste is picked over by hand to remove such impurities as wood, cardboard, string, etc. The cotton is then passed through the “teasing machine,” which opens out all knots and lumps, thereby reducing it to a state more suitable for the acid treatment and exposing to view any foreign substances which may have escaped notice in the previous picking. The cotton is then dried. When {332} perfectly dry, it is removed to air-tight iron cases, in which it is allowed to cool. The iron cases are taken to the dipping houses, and the cotton waste weighed into small portions, which are then transferred as rapidly as possible to the mixed acids, allowed to remain a few minutes, then removed to the grating and the excess of acid squeezed out. The cotton now containing about ten times its weight of acid is placed in an earthenware pot and transferred to the steeping pits, where it is allowed to remain for 24 hours, a low temperature being maintained by a stream of cold water.
The cotton is now wholly converted into nitro-cellulose. The superfluous acid is next removed by a centrifugal extractor, after which the gun cotton is taken out of the machine and immediately immersed in a large volume of water, and thoroughly washed until it shows no acid reaction. The moisture is then run out and the gun cotton is conveyed by tramway to the boiling vats, where it undergoes several boilings by means of steam. When the “heat test” shows that a sufficient degree of stability has been obtained, the gun cotton is removed to a beating engine, and reduced to a very fine state of division. When this process is completed the pulp is run by gravity along wooden shoots, provided with “grit traps” and electromagnets, which catch any traces of sand, iron, etc., into large “poachers,” in which the gun cotton is continuously agitated, together with a large quantity of water. In this way it is thoroughly washed and a blend made of a large quantity of gun cotton.
«Soluble Gun Cotton.»—Soluble gun cotton is made on the same lines, except that greater attention has to be paid to the physical condition of the cotton used, and to the temperature and strength of acid mixture, etc.
The term “soluble” usually implies that the gun cotton is dissolved by a mixture of ethyl-ether and ethyl-alcohol, 2 parts of the former to 1 of the latter being the proportions which yield the best solvent action. The classification of nitro-celluloses according to their solubility in ether-alcohol is misleading, except when the nitrogen contents are also quoted.
The number of solvents for gun cotton which have at various times been proposed is very large. Among the more important may be mentioned the following: Alcohols (used chiefly in conjunction with other solvents), methyl, ethyl, propyl, and amyl, methyl-amyl ether, acetic ether, di-ethyl-ketone, methyl-ethyl ketone, amyl nitrate and acetate, nitro-benzole, nitro-toluol, nitrated oils, glacial acetic acid, camphor dissolved in alcohol, etc.
Some of the above may be called selective solvents, i. e., they dissolve one particular variety of gun cotton better than others, so that solubility in any given solvent must not be used to indicate solubility in another. No nitro-cotton is entirely soluble in any solvent. The solution, after standing some time, always deposits a small amount of insoluble matter. Therefore, in making collodion solutions, care should be taken to place the containing bottles in a place free from vibration and shock. After standing a few weeks the clear supernatant liquid may be decanted off. On a larger scale collodion solutions are filtered under pressure through layers of tightly packed cotton wool. The state of division is important. When the end in view is the production of a strong film or thread, it is advisable to use unpulped or only slightly pulped nitro-cellulose. In this condition it also dissolves more easily than the finely pulped material.
«FULMINATES:»
«Fulminating Antimony.»—Tartar emetic (dried), 100 parts; lampblack or charcoal powder, 3 parts. Triturate together, put into a crucible that it will three-fourths fill (previously rubbed inside with charcoal powder). Cover it with a layer of dry charcoal powder, and lute on the cover. After 3 hours’ exposure to a strong heat in a reverberatory furnace, and 6 or 7 hours’ cooling, cautiously transfer the solid contents of the crucible, as quickly as possible, without breaking, to a wide-mouthed stoppered phial, where, after some time, it will spontaneously crumble to a powder. When the above process is properly conducted, the resulting powder contains potassium, and fulminates violently on contact with water. A piece the size of a pea introduced into a mass of gunpowder explodes it on being thrown into water, or on its being moistened in any other manner.
«Fulminating Bismuth.»—Take bismuth, 120 parts; carbureted cream of tartar, 60 parts; niter, 1 part.
«Fulminating Copper.»—Digest copper (in powder of filings) with fulminate of mercury or of silver, and a little water. {333} It forms soluble green crystals that explode with a green flame.
«Fulminating Mercury.»—Take mercury, 100 parts; nitric acid (specific gravity, 1.4), 1,000 parts (or 740 parts, by measure). Dissolve by a gentle heat, and when the solution has acquired the temperature of 130° F., slowly pour it through a glass funnel tube into alcohol (specific gravity, .830), 830 parts (or 1,000 parts, by measure). As soon as the effervescence is over, and white fumes cease to be evolved, filter through double paper, wash with cold water, and dry by steam (not hotter than 212° F.) or hot water. The fulminate is then to be packed in 100-grain paper parcels, and these stored in a tight box or corked bottle. Product 130 per cent of the weight of mercury employed.
«Fulminating Powder.»—I.—Niter, 3 parts; carbonate of potash (dry), 2 parts; flowers of sulphur, 1 part; reduce them separately to fine powder, before mixing them. A little of this compound (20 to 30 grains), slowly heated on a shovel over the fire, first fuses and becomes brown, and then explodes with a deafening report.
II.—Sulphur, 1 part; chlorate of potassa, 3 parts. When triturated, with strong pressure, in a marble or wedgwood-ware mortar, it produces a series of loud reports. It also fulminates by percussion.
III.—Chlorate of potassa, 6 parts; pure lampblack, 4 parts; sulphur, 1 part. A little placed on an anvil detonates with a loud report when struck with a hammer.
EXPOSURES IN PHOTOGRAPHING: See Photography.
EXTRACTS: See Essences and Extracts.
EXTRACTS, TESTS FOR: See Foods.
«EYE LOTIONS:»
«“Black Eye” Lotion.»—“Black eyes” or other temporary discolorations of the skin may be disguised by the application of pink grease paint, or collodion colored by means of a little carmine. As lotions the following have been recommended:
I.—Ammonium chloride 1 part Alcohol 1 part Water 10 parts
Diluted acetic acid may be substituted for half of the water, and the alcohol may be replaced by tincture of arnica, with advantage.
II.—Potassium nitrate 15 grains Ammonium chloride 30 grains Aromatic vinegar 4 drachms Water to make 8 ounces.
III.—The following is to be applied with camel’s-hair pencil every 1, 2, or 3 hours. Be careful not to get it in the eyes, as it smarts. It will remove the black discoloration overnight:
Oxalic acid 15 grains Distilled water 1 ounce
«Foreign Matter in the Eye.»—If a piece of iron or other foreign matter in the eye irritates it, and there is no way of removing it until morning, take a raw Irish potato, grate it, and use as a poultice on the eye. It will ease the eye so one can sleep, and sometimes draws the piece out.
«Drops of Lime in the Eye.»—If lime has dropped in the eye, the pouring-in of or the wiping-out with a few drops of oil is the best remedy, as the causticity of the lime is Arrested thereby. Poppy-seed oil or olive oil is prescribed, but pure linseed oil ought to render the same service, as it is also used in the household. Subsequently, the eye may be rinsed out with syrup, as the saccharine substance will harden any remaining particles of lime and destroy all causticity entirely.
FABRIC CLEANERS: See Cleaning Preparations and Methods and also Household Formulas.
FABRICS, WATERPROOFING OF: See Waterproofing.
FACE BLACK AND FACE POWDER: See Cosmetics.
«Fats»
«Bear Fat.»—Fresh bears’ fat is white and very similar to lard in appearance. The flank fat is softer and more transparent than the kidney fat, and its odor recalls that of fresh bacon. Bears’ fat differs from the fats of the dog, fox, and cat in having a lower specific gravity, a very low melting point, and a fairly high iodine value.
«Bleaching Bone Fat.»—Bone fat, which is principally obtained from horse bones, is very dark colored in the crude state, and of an extremely disagreeable smell. To remedy these defects it may be bleached by the air or chemicals, the former method only giving good results {334} when the fat has been recovered by means of steam. It consists in cutting up the fat into small fragments and exposing it to the air for several days, the mass being turned over at intervals with a shovel. When sufficiently bleached in this manner, the fat is boiled with half its own weight of water, which done, about 3 or 4 per cent of salt is added, and the whole is boiled over again. This treatment, which takes 2 or 3 weeks, sweetens the fat, makes it of the consistency of butter, and reduces the color to a pale yellow. Light seems to play no part in the operation, the change being effected solely by the oxygen of the air. The chemical treatment has the advantage of being more rapid, sufficient decoloration being produced in a few hours. The fat, which should be free from gelatin, phosphate of lime, and water, is placed in an iron pan along with an equal weight of brine of 14° to 15° Bé. strength, with which it is boiled for 3 hours and left to rest overnight. Next day the fat is drawn off into a wooden vessel, where it is treated by degrees with a mixture of 2 parts of potassium bichromate, dissolved in 6 of boiling water, and 8 parts of hydrochloric acid (density 22° Bé.), this quantity being sufficient for 400 parts of fat. Decoloration proceeds gradually, and when complete the fat is washed with hot water.
«Bleaching Tallows and Fats.»—Instead of exposing to the sun, which is always attended with danger of rendering fats rancid, it is better to liquefy these at a gentle heat, and then add 1/5 in weight of a mixture of equal parts of kaolin and water. The fatty matter should be worked up for a time and then left to separate. Kaolin has the advantage of cheapness in price and of being readily procured.
Freshly burned animal charcoal would perhaps be a more satisfactory decolorizer than kaolin, but it is more expensive to start with, and not so easy to regenerate.
Exposure of tallow to the action of steam under high pressure (a temperature of 250° or 260° F.) is also said to render it whiter and harder.
«Coloring Matter in Fats.»—A simple method for the detection of the addition of coloring matter to fats is here described. Ten parts, by measure, of the melted fat are put into a small separating funnel and dissolved in 10 parts, by measure, of petroleum ether. The solution is then treated with 15 parts, by measure, of glacial acetic acid and the whole shaken thoroughly. The addition of coloring matter is known by the red or yellow coloration which appears in the lower layer of acetic acid after the contents of the funnel have been allowed to settle. If only a slight addition of coloring matter is suspected, the acetic acid solution is run off into a porcelain basin and the latter heated on a water bath, when the coloration will be seen more readily. This test is intended for butter and margarine, but is also suitable for tallow, lard, etc.
«Fatty Acid Fermentation Process.»—The production of fatty acids from fats and oils by fermentation is growing in importance. These particulars, which are the actual results from recent experiments on a somewhat extended scale, are given: Seven hundred and fifty pounds of cottonseed oil are mixed with 45 gallons of water and 3 1/2 pounds of acetic acid; this mixture is heated to a temperature of 85° F. Castor-oil seeds, 53 pounds, decorticated and ground, are mixed thoroughly with 3 gallons of water and 4 1/2 gallons of the oil, and this mixture is stirred into the oil and water; the whole mass is then kept mixed for 12 hours by blowing air through, after which it is allowed to stand for another 12 hours, being given a gentle stir by hand at the end of every hour. After 24 hours the mass is heated to a temperature of 180° F., which stops the fermentation and at the same time allows the fatty acids to separate more freely. To assist in this effect there is added 1 gallon of sulphuric acid (1 in 3) solution.
After 2 hours’ standing, the mass will have separated into three layers—fatty acids on the top, glycerine water below, and a middle, undefined layer. The glycerine water is run away, and the whole mass left to stand for 2 hours. The middle portion is run off from the separated fatty acids into another vessel, where it is mixed with 10 gallons of hot water, thoroughly stirred, and allowed to stand for 16 hours or more. The watery layer at the bottom, which contains some glycerine, is then run off, while the residue is mixed with a further quantity of 10 gallons of water, and again allowed to stand. The water which separates out, also the layer of fatty acids that forms on the top, are run off and mixed with the portions previously obtained. The various glycerine waters are treated to recover the glycerine, while the fatty acids are made marketable in any convenient way. {335}
«Preservation of Fats.»—To produce fats and oils containing both iodine and sulphur, whereby they are preserved from going rancid, and consequently can be utilized to more advantage for the usual purposes, such as the manufacture of soaps, candles, etc., following is the Loebell method:
The essential feature of the process is that the iodine is not merely held in solution by the oil or fat, but enters into chemical combination with the same; the sulphur also combines chemically with the oil or fat, and from their reactions the preserving properties are derived.
The process consists of heating, for example, 6 parts of oil with 1 part of sulphur to a temperature varying between 300° and 400° F., then, when at about 195° F., a solution of iodine and oil is added to the mixture, which is constantly agitated until cool to prevent lumps forming. A product is thus obtained which acquires the consistency of butter, and contains both iodine and sulphur in combination.
«Purifying Oils and Fats.»—In purifying fatty oils and fats for edible purposes the chief thing is to remove the free fatty acids, which is done by the aid of solutions of alkalies and alkaline earths. The subsequent precipitation of the resulting soapy emulsions, especially when lime is used, entails prolonged heating to temperatures sometimes as high as the boiling point of water. Furthermore, the amount of alkalies taken is always greater than is chemically necessary, the consequence being that some of the organic substances present are attacked, and malodorous products are formed, a condition necessitating the employment of animal charcoal, etc., as deodorizer.
To prevent the formation of these untoward products, which must injuriously affect the quality of edible oils, C. Fresenius proposes to accelerate the dispersion of the said emulsions by subjecting the mixtures to an excess pressure of 1 to 1 1/2 atmospheres and a corresponding temperature of about 220° F., for a short time, the formation of decomposition products, and any injurious influence on the taste and smell of the substance being prevented by the addition of fresh charcoal, etc., beforehand. Charcoal may, and must in certain cases, be replaced for this purpose by infusorial earth or fuller’s earth. When this process is applied to cottonseed oil, 100 parts of the oil are mixed with 1/10 part of fresh, pure charcoal, and 1/2 part of pure fuller’s earth. The mixture is next neutralized with lime-water, and placed in an autoclave, where it is kept for an hour under pressure, and at a temperature of 220° F. Under these conditions the emulsion soon separates, and when this is accomplished the whole is left to cool down in a closed vessel.
FATS, DECOMPOSITION OF: See Oil.
«FEATHER BLEACHING AND COLORING:»
See also Dyes.
«Bleaching and Coloring Feathers.»—Feathers, in their natural state, are not adapted to undergo the processes of dyeing and bleaching; they must be prepared by removing their oil and dirt. This is usually done by washing them in moderately warm soap and water, and rinsing in warm and cold water; or the oil may be chemically removed by the use of benzine. To remove it entirely, the feathers must be left in the cleansing fluid from a half hour to an hour, when they may be subjected to the process of bleaching.
«Bleaching Plumes.»—Plumes may be almost entirely bleached by the use of hydrogen peroxide, without injuring their texture.
In specially constructed glass troughs, made the length of an average ostrich feather, 15 or 20 of these feathers can be treated at a time. The bleaching fluid is made from a 30 per cent solution of hydrogen peroxide, with enough ammonia added to make it neutral; in other words when neutral, blue litmus paper will not turn red, and red will take a pale violet tinge. The previously cleansed feathers are entirely immersed in this bleaching bath, which may be diluted if desired. The trough is covered with a glass plate and put in a dark place. From time to time the feathers are stirred and turned, adding more hydrogen peroxide. This process requires 10 to 12 hours and if necessary should be repeated. After bleaching they are rinsed in distilled water or rain water, dried in the air, and kept in motion while drying.
To insure success in coloring feathers in delicate tints, they must be free from all impurities, and evenly white. It has been found of advantage to rub the quill of heavy ostrich plumes while still moist with carbonate of ammonia before the dyeing is begun.
«Methods of Dyeing Feathers.»—I.—A boiling hot neutral solution, the feathers to be dried in a rotating apparatus. Suitable dyes for this method are chrysoidin, {336} A, C; crystal vesuvin, 4 B C; phosphin extra, leather yellow, O H; leather red, O, G B; leather brown, O; morocco red, O; azophocphine, G O, B R O; fuchsine, cerise, G R; grenadine, O; safranine, O; methylene violet, malachite green, crystal brilliant green, methylene green, methylene gray, coal black II.
II.—A boiling hot sulphuric solution. Dyes, acid fuchsine, orseilline, R B; acid cerise, O; acid maroon, O; opal blue, blue de lyon, R B; cotton blue, No. 2, China blue No. 2, naphthalene green, O; patent blue, V A; fast blue, O R; fast blue black, O; deep black, G; azo yellow, victorine yellow, orange No. 2, fast brown O, ponceau G R R R, fast red O, Bordeaux, G B R.
III.—An acetic solution. Dyes, Bengal pink G B, phloxine G O, rosolan O B O F, rhodamine O 4 G, eosine A G, erythrosine.
By appropriate mixtures of the dyes of any one class, plumes can be dyed every possible color. After dyeing they are rinsed, and dried in a rotating apparatus. The final process is that of curling, which is done by turning them round and round over a gentle heat. For white feathers a little sulphur may be burned in the fire; for black or colored ones a little sugar.
IV.—The spray method. The solution of the dye to be used is put into an atomizer, and the spray directed to that part of the feather which it is desired to color. By using different colors the most marvelous effects and most delicate transitions from one color to another are obtained. Any kind of an atomizer can be used, the rubber bulb, pump, or bellows; the result is the same.
FELT WATERPROOFING: See Waterproofing.
FERMENTATION PROCESS, FATTY ACID: See Fats.
FERMENTATION, PREVENTION OF: See Anti-Ferments and Wines and Liquors.
FERROUS OXALATE DEVELOPER: See Photography.
«Fertilizers»
(See also Phosphate, Artificial.)
«Plant Fertilizers.»—Plants are as sensitive to excessively minute quantities of nutrient substances, such as salts of potassium, in the soil, as they are to minute quantities of poisonous substances. Poisons are said to be infinitely more sensitive reagents for the presence of certain metallic salts than the most delicate chemical, the statement having been made that a trace of copper which might be obtained by distilling in a copper retort is fatal to the white and yellow lupin, the castor-oil plant, and spirogyra. Coupin has found salts of silver, mercury, copper, and cadmium especially fatal to plants. With copper sulphate the limit of sensitiveness is placed at 1 in 700,000,000. Devaux asserts that both phanerogams and cryptogams are poisoned by solutions of salts of lead or copper diluted to the extent of 1 in 10,000,000, or less.
As a result of a series of experiments, Schloesing stated that the nitrification of ammonium salts is not for all plants a necessary preliminary to the absorption of nitrogen by the plant. While for some plants, as for example buckwheat, the preferable form of the food material is that of a nitrate, others, for instance, tropeolum, thrive even better when the nitrogen is presented to them in an ammoniacal form.
«Artificial Fertilizers for Pot Plants.»—Experiments on vegetation have shown that a plant will thrive when the lacking substances are supplied in a suitable form, e. g., in the following combinations:
I.—Calcium nitrate, potassium nitrate, potassium phosphate, magnesium phosphate, ferric phosphate (sodium chloride).
II.—Calcium nitrate, ammonium nitrate, potassium sulphate, magnesium phosphate, iron chloride (or sulphate) (sodium silicate).
It is well known that in nature nitrates are formed wherever decomposition of organic nitrogenous substances takes place in the air, the ammonia formed by the decomposition being oxidized to nitric acid. These conditions for the formation of nitrates are present in nearly every cornfield, and they are also the cause of the presence of nitrates in water that has its source near stables, etc. In Peruvian guano nitrogen is present partly in the form of potassium nitrate, partly as ammonium phosphate and sulphate. As a nitrate it acts more rapidly than in the form of ammonia, but in the latter case the effect is more lasting. Phosphoric acid occurs in guano combined with ammonia, potash, and chiefly with lime, the last being slower and more lasting in action than the others. {337}
Nearly all artificial fertilizers conform, more or less, to one of the following general formulas:
I.—Artificial Flower Fertilizer.—
1 2 3 Ammonium nitrate 0.40 1.60 40.0 parts Ammonium phosphate 0.20 0.80 20.0 parts Potassium nitrate 0.25 1.00 25.0 parts Ammonium chloride 0.05 0.20 5.0 parts Calcium sulphate 0.06 0.24 6.0 parts Ferrous sulphate 0.04 0.16 4.0 parts ──── ──── ───── 1.00 4.00 100.0 parts
Dissolve 1 part in 1,000 parts water, and water the flowers with it 2 or 3 times weekly. Dissolve 4 parts in 1,000 parts water, and water with this quantity 10 or 12 pots of medium size.
II.—Compost for Indoor Plants.—
1 2 3 Ammonium sulphate 0.30 1.20 30.0 parts Sodium chloride 0.30 1.20 30.0 parts Potassium nitrate 0.15 0.60 15.0 parts Magnesium sulphate 0.15 0.60 15.0 parts Magnesium phosphate 0.04 0.20 4.0 parts Sodium phosphate 0.06 0.24 6.0 parts ──── ──── ───── 1.00 4.00 100.0 parts
One part to be dissolved in 1,000 parts water and the flowers watered up to 3 times daily. Dissolve 4 parts in 1,000 parts water, and water with this solution daily:
III.—Plant Food Solution.—
1 2 Potassium chloride 0.16 or 12.5 parts Calcium nitrate 0.71 or 58.0 parts Magnesium sulphate 0.125 or 12.0 parts Potassium phosphate 0.133 or 15.0 parts Iron phosphate, recently precipitated 0.032 or 2.5 parts ───── ───── 1.160 or 100.0 parts
This turbid mixture (1 part in 1,000 parts) is used alternately with water for watering a pot of about 1 quart capacity; for smaller or larger pots in proportion. After using the amount indicated, the watering is continued with water alone.
IV.—Fertilizer with Organic Matter, for Pot Flowers.—
Potassium nitrate 100.0 parts Ammonium phosphate 100.0 parts Phosphoric acid 2.5 parts Simple syrup 1,000 parts
Add not more than 10 parts to 1,000 parts water, and water alternately with this and with water alone. For cactaceæ, crassulaceæ, and similar plants, which do not assimilate organic matter directly, use distilled water instead of syrup.
Chlorotic plants are painted with a dilute iron solution or iron is added to the soil, which causes them to assume their natural green color. The iron is used in form of ferric chloride or ferrous sulphate.
V.—Sodium phosphate 4 ounces Sodium nitrate 4 ounces Ammonium sulphate 2 ounces Sugar 1 ounce
Use 2 teaspoonfuls to a gallon of water.
VI.—Ammonium phosphate 30 parts Sodium nitrate 25 parts Potassium nitrate 25 parts Ammonium sulphate 20 parts Water 100,000 parts
One application of this a week is enough for the slower growing plants, and 2 for the more rapid growing herbaceous ones.
VII.—Calcium phosphate 4 ounces Potassium nitrate 1 ounce Potassium phosphate 1 ounce Magnesium sulphate 1 ounce Iron (ferric) phosphate 100 grains
VIII.—Pot plants, especially flowering plants kept around the house, should be treated to an occasional dose of the following:
Ammonium chloride 2 parts Sodium phosphate 4 parts Sodium nitrate 3 parts Water 80 parts
Mix and dissolve. To use, add 25 drops to the quart of water, and use as in ordinary watering.
IX.—Sugar 1 part Potassium nitrate 2 parts Ammonium sulphate 4 parts
X.—Ferric phosphate 1 part Magnesium sulphate 2 parts Potassium phosphate 2 parts Potassium nitrate 2 parts Calcium acid phosphate 8 parts
About a teaspoonful of either of these mixtures is added to a gallon of water, and the plants sprinkled with the liquid.
For hastening the growth of flowers, the following fertilizer is recommended: {338}
XI.—Potassium nitrate 30 parts Potassium phosphate 25 parts Ammonium sulphate 10 parts Ammonium nitrate 35 parts
The following five are especially recommended for indoor use:
XII.—Sodium chloride 10 parts Potassium nitrate 5 parts Magnesium sulphate 5 parts Magnesia 1 part Sodium phosphate 2 parts
Mixed and bottled. Dissolve a teaspoonful daily in a quart of water and water the plants with the solution.
XIII.—Ammonium nitrate 40 parts Potassium nitrate 90 parts Ammonium phosphate 50 parts
Two grams is sufficient for a medium-sized flower pot.
XIV.—Ammonium sulphate 10 parts Sodium chloride 10 parts Potassium nitrate 5 parts Magnesium sulphate 5 parts Magnesium carbonate 1 part Sodium phosphate 20 parts
One teaspoonful to 1 quart of water.
XV.—Ammonium nitrate 40 parts Ammonium phosphate 20 parts Potassium nitrate 0.25 parts Ammonium chloride 5 parts Calcium sulphate 6 parts Ferrous sulphate 4 parts
Dissolve 2 parts in 1,000 of water, and water the plants with the solution.
XVI.—Potassium nitrate 20 parts Potassium phosphate 25 parts Ammonium sulphate 10 parts Ammonium nitrate 35 parts
This mixture produces a luxuriant foliage. If blooms are desired, dispense with the ammonium nitrate.
XVII.—Saltpeter, 5 parts; cooking salt, 10 parts; bitter salt, 5 parts; magnesia, 1 part; sodium phosphate, 2 parts. Mix and fill in bottles. Dissolve a teaspoonful in 1 3/4 pints of hot water, and water the flower pots with it each day.
XVIII.—Ammonium sulphate, 30 parts; sodium chloride, 30 parts; potash niter, 15 parts; magnesium sulphate, 15 parts; magnesium phosphate, 4 parts; sodium phosphate, 6 parts. Dissolve 1 part in 1,000 parts water, and apply 3 times per day.
XIX.—Calcium nitrate, 71 parts; potassium chlorate, 15 parts; magnesium sulphate, 12.5 parts; potassium phosphate, 13.3 parts; freshly precipitated ferric phosphate, 3.2 parts. A solution of 1 in 1,000 of this mixture is applied, alternating with water, to the plants. After using a certain quantity, pour on only water.
XX.—Ammonium phosphate, 300 parts; sodium nitrate, 250 parts; potassium nitrate, 250 parts; and ammonium sulphate, 200 parts, are mixed together. To every 1,000 parts of water dissolve 2 parts of the mixture, and water the potted plants once a week with this solution.
XXI.—Potash niter, 20 parts; calcium carbonate, 20 parts; sodium chlorate, 20 parts; calcium phosphate, 20 parts; sodium silicate, 14 parts; ferrous sulphate, 1.5 parts. Dissolve 1 part of the mixture in 1,000 parts water.
«Preparing Bone for Fertilizer.»—Bone, in its various forms, is the only one of the insoluble phosphates that is now used directly upon the soil, or without other change than is accomplished by mechanical action or grinding. The terms used to indicate the character of the bone have reference rather to their mechanical form than to the relative availability of the phosphoric acid contained in them. The terms raw bone, fine bone, boiled and steamed bone, etc., are used to indicate methods of preparation, and inasmuch as bone is a material which is useful largely in proportion to its rate of decay, its fineness has an important bearing upon availability, since the finer the bone the more surface is exposed to the action of those forces which cause decay or solution, and the quicker will the constituents become available. In the process of boiling or steaming, not only is the bone made finer but its physical character in other respects is also changed, the particles, whether fine or coarse, being made soft and crumbly rather than dense or hard; hence it is more likely to act quickly than if the same degree of fineness be obtained by simple grinding. The phosphoric acid in fine steamed bone may all become available in 1 or 2 years, while the coarser fatty raw bone sometimes resists final decay for 3 or 4 years or even longer. {339} Bone contains considerable nitrogen, a fact which should be remembered in its use, particularly if used in comparison with other phosphatic materials which do not contain this element. Pure raw bone contains on an average 22 per cent of phosphoric acid and 4 per cent of nitrogen. By steaming or boiling, a portion of the organic substance containing nitrogen is extracted, which has the effect of proportionately increasing the phosphoric acid in the product; hence a steamed bone may contain as high as 28 per cent of phosphoric acid and as low as 1 per cent of nitrogen. Steamed bone is usually, therefore, much richer in phosphoric acid and has less nitrogen than the raw bone.
«Brewers’ Yeast and Fertilizers.»—A mixture is made of about 2 parts of yeast with 1 part of sodium chloride and 5 parts of calcium sulphate, by weight, for use as a manure. Pure or impure yeast, or yeast previously treated for the extraction of a portion of its constituents, may be used, and the gypsum may be replaced by other earthy substances of a similar non-corrosive nature.
Authorities seem to agree that lime is necessary to the plant, and if it be wholly lacking in the soil, even though an abundance of all the other essential elements is present, it cannot develop normally. Many soils are well provided with lime by nature and it is seldom or never necessary for those who cultivate them to resort to liming. It would be just as irrational to apply lime where it is not needed as to omit it where it is required, and hence arises the necessity of ascertaining the needs of particular soils in this respect.
The method usually resorted to for ascertaining the amount of lime in soils is to treat them with some strong mineral acid, such as hydrochloric acid, and determine the amount of lime which is thus dissolved. The fact that beets of all kinds make a ready response to liming on soils which are deficient in lime may be utilized as the basis of testing.
FEVER IN CATTLE: See Veterinary Formulas.
FIG SQUARES: See Confectionery.
«Files»
«Composition Files.»—These files, which are frequently used by watchmakers and other metal workers for grinding and polishing, and the color of which resembles silver, are composed of 8 parts copper, 2 parts tin, 1 part zinc, 1 part lead. They are cast in forms and treated upon the grindstone; the metal is very hard, and therefore worked with difficulty with the file.
«To Keep Files Clean» (see also Cleaning Preparations and Methods).—The uneven working of a file is usually due to the fact that filings clog the teeth of the file. To obviate this evil, scratch brush the files before use, and then grease them with olive oil. A file prepared in this manner lasts for a longer time, does not become so quickly filled with filings and can be conveniently cleaned with an ordinary rough brush.
«Recutting Old Files.»—Old files may be rendered useful again by the following process: Boil them in a potash bath, brush them with a hard brush and wipe off. Plunge for half a minute into nitric acid, and pass over a cloth stretched tightly on a flat piece of wood. The effect will be that the acid remains in the grooves, and will take away the steel without attacking the top, which has been wiped dry. The operation may be repeated according to the depth to be obtained. Before using the files thus treated they should be rinsed in water and dried.
FILE METAL: See Alloys.
FILLERS FOR LETTERS: See Lettering.
FILLERS FOR WOOD: See Wood.
«FILTERS FOR WATER.»
A filter which possesses the advantages of being easily and cheaply cleaned when dirty, and which frees water from mechanical impurities with rapidity, may be formed by placing a stratum of sponge between two perforated metallic plates, united by a central screw, and arranged in such a manner as to permit of the sponge being compressed as required. Water, under gentle pressure, flows with such rapidity through the pores of compressed sponge, that it is said that a few square feet of this substance will perfectly filter several millions of gallons of water daily.
The sponges are cleaned thoroughly, rolled together as much as possible, and placed in the escape pipe of a percolator in such a manner that the larger portion of the sponge is in the pipe while the smaller portion, spreading by itself, protrudes over the pipe toward the interior {340} of the percolator, thus forming a flat filter covering it. After a thorough moistening of the sponge it is said to admit of a very quick and clear filtration of large quantities of tinctures, juices, etc.
For filtering water on a small scale, and for domestic use, “alcarrazas,” diaphragms of porous earthenware and filtering-stone and layers of sand and charcoal, etc., are commonly employed as filtering.
A cheap, useful form of portable filter is the following, given in the proceedings of the British Association: “Take any common vessel, perforated below, such as a flower pot, fill the lower portion with coarse pebbles, over which place a layer of finer ones, and on these a layer of clean coarse sand. On the top of this a piece of burnt clay perforated with small holes should be put, and on this again a stratum of 3 or 4 inches thick of well-burnt, pounded animal charcoal. A filter thus formed will last a considerable time, and will be found particularly useful in removing noxious and putrescent substances held in solution by water.”
The “portable filters,” in stoneware, that are commonly sold in the shops, contain a stratum of sand, or coarsely powdered charcoal; before, however, having access to this, the water has to pass through a sponge, to remove the coarser portion of the impurities.
«Alum Process of Water Purification.»—Water may be filtered and purified by precipitation, by means of alum, by adding a 4 per cent solution to the water to be clarified until a precipitate is no longer produced. After allowing the turbid mixture to stand for 8 hours, the clear portion may be decanted or be siphoned off. About 2 grains of alum is ordinarily required to purify a gallon of water. Potassa alum only should be used, as ammonia alum cannot be used for this purpose. The amount of alum required varies with the water, so that an initial experiment is required whenever water from a new source is being purified. If the purification is properly done, the water will not contain any alum, but only a trace of potassium sulphate, for the aluminum of the double sulphate unites with the various impurities to form an insoluble compound which gradually settles out, mechanically carrying with it suspended matter, while the sulphuric acid radical unites with the calcium in the water to form insoluble calcium sulphate.
FILTER PAPER: See Paper.
FILM-STRIPPING: See Photography.
FINGER-TIPS, SPARKS FROM: See Pyrotechnics.
FIRES, COLORED: See Pyrotechnics.
FIREARM LUBRICANTS: See Lubricants.
«FIRE EXTINGUISHERS:»
I.—Calcium chloride 184 parts Magnesium chloride 57 parts Sodium chloride 13 parts Potassium bromide 22 parts Barium chloride 3 parts Water to make 1,000 parts
Dissolve and fill into hand grenades.
II.—Iron sulphate 4 parts Ammonium sulphate 16 parts Water 100 parts
Mix, dissolve, and fill into flasks.
III.—Sodium chloride 430 parts Alum 195 parts Glauber salts 50 parts Sodium carbonate, impure 35 parts Water glass 266 parts Water 233 parts
Mix, etc.
IV.—Sodium chloride 90 parts Ammonium chloride 45 parts Water 300 parts
Mix, dissolve, and put into quart flasks of very thin glass, which are to be kept conveniently disposed in the dwelling rooms, etc., of all public institutions.
V.—Make 6 solutions as follows:
a.—Ammonium chloride 20 parts Water 2,000 parts
b.—Alum, calcined and powdered 35 parts Water 1,000 parts
c.—Ammonium sulphate, powdered 30 parts Water 500 parts
d.—Sodium chloride 20 parts Water 4,000 parts
e.—Sodium carbonate 35 parts Water 500 parts
f.—Liquid water glass 450 parts
{341}
Mix the solutions in the order named and to the mixture, while still yellow and turbid, add 2,000 parts of water, and let stand. When the precipitate has subsided fill off the clear liquid into thin glass (preferably blue, to deter decomposition) containers each of 3 pints to a half gallon capacity.
VI.—Calcium chloride 30 parts Magnesium chloride 10 parts Water 60 parts
VII.—Sodium chloride 20 parts Ammonium chloride 9 parts Water 71 parts
VIII.—Sodium carbonate 16 parts Sodium chloride 64 parts Water 920 parts
The most effective of all extinguishers is ammonia water. It is almost instantaneous in its effect, and a small quantity only is required to extinguish any fire. Next in value is carbonic acid gas. This may be thrown from siphons or soda-water tanks. The vessel containing it should be thrown into the fire in such a way as to insure its breaking.
«Dry Powder Fire Extinguishers.»—The efficacy of these is doubted by good authorities. They should be tested before adoption.
I.—Alum 24 parts Ammonium sulphate 52 parts Ferrous sulphate 4 parts
II.—Sodium chloride 8 parts Sodium bicarbonate 6 parts Sodium sulphate 2 parts Calcium chloride 2 parts Sodium silicate 2 parts
III.—Sodium chloride 6 parts Ammonium chloride 6 parts Sodium bicarbonate 8 parts
IV.—Ammonium chloride 10 parts Sodium sulphate 6 parts Sodium bicarbonate 4 parts
«Oil Extinguisher.»—To extinguish oils which have taken fire, a fine-meshed wire net of the size of a boiling pan should be kept on hand in every varnish factory, etc. In the same moment when the netting is laid upon the burning surface, the flame is extinguished because it is a glowing mass of gas, which the iron wire quickly cools off so that it cannot glow any more. The use of water is excluded, and that of earth and sand undesirable, because both dirty the oil.
«Substitute for Fire Grenades.»—A common quart bottle filled with a saturated solution of common salt makes a cheap and efficient substitute for the ordinary hand grenade. The salt forms a coating on all that the water touches and makes it nearly incombustible.
«Fireproofing»
«For Textiles.»—I.—Up to the present this has generally been accomplished by the use of a combination of water glass or soluble glass and tungstate of soda. The following is cheaper and more suitable for the purpose:
Equal parts, by weight, of commercial white copperas, Epsom salt, and sal ammoniac are mingled together and mixed with three times their weight of ammonia alum. This mixture soon changes into a moist pulp or paste, that must be dried by a low heat. When dressing the material, add 1/2 part of this combination to every 1 part of starch.
II.—Good results are also obtained from the following formula: Supersaturate a quantity of superphosphate of lime with ammonia, filter, and decolorize it with animal charcoal. Concentrate the solution and mix with it 5 per cent of gelatinous silica, evaporate the water, dry, and pulverize. For use mix 30 parts of this powder with 35 parts of gum and 35 parts of starch in sufficient water to make of suitable consistency.
III.—As a sample of the Melunay process, introduced in France, the following has been published: Apply to a cotton fabric like flannellet, or other cotton goods, a solution of stannate of soda (or a salt chemically equivalent) of the strength of 5 to 10° Bé., then dry the fabric and saturate it again, this time with a solution of a titanium salt; any soluble titanium salt is suitable. This salt should be so concentrated that each 1,000 parts may contain about 62 parts of titanium oxide. The fabrics are again dried, and the titanium is ultimately fixed by means of a suitable alkaline bath. It is advantageous to employ for this purpose a solution of silicate of soda of about 14° Bé., but a mixed bath, composed of tungstate of soda and ammonium chloride, may be employed. The objects are afterwards washed, dried, and finished as necessary for trade. A variation consists in treating the objects in a mixed bath containing titanium, tungsten, and a suitable solvent.
IV.—Boil together, with constant {342} stirring, the following ingredients until a homogeneous mass results:
Linseed oil 77 parts Litharge 10 parts Sugar of lead 2 parts Lampblack 4 parts Oil turpentine 2 parts Umber 0.4 parts Japanese wax 0.3 parts Soap powder 1.2 parts Manila copal 0.7 parts Caoutchouc varnish 2 parts
V.—For Light Woven Fabrics.—Ammonium sulphate, 8 parts, by weight; ammonium carbonate, 2.5 parts; borax, 2; boracic acid, 3; starch, 2; or dextrin, 0.4, or gelatin, 0.4; water, 100. The fabric is to be saturated with the mixture, previously heated to 86° F., and dried; it can then be calendered in the ordinary way. The cost is only 2 or 3 cents for 16 yards or more of material.
VI.—For Rope and Straw Matting.—Ammonium chloride (sal ammoniac), 15 parts, by weight; boracic acid, 6 parts; borax, 3; water, 100. The articles are to be left in the solution, heated to 212° F. for about 3 hours, then squeezed out and dried. The mixture costs about 5 cents a quart.
VII.—For Clothing.—The following starch is recommended: Sodium tungstate, perfectly neutral, 30 parts; borax, 20; wheat or rice starch, 60. The constituents are to be finely pulverized, sharply dried, and mixed, and the starch used like any other. Articles stiffened with it, if set on fire, will not burst into flame, but only smolder.
VIII.—For Tents.—
Water 100 parts by weight Ammonium sulphate, chemically pure 14 parts by weight Boracic acid 1 parts by weight Hartshorn salt 1 parts by weight Borax 3 parts by weight Glue water 2 parts by weight
Boil the water, put ammonium sulphate into a vat, pour a part of the boiling water on and then add the remaining materials in rotation. Next follow the rest of the hot water. The vat should be kept covered until the solution is complete.
IX.—For Stage Decorations.—Much recommended and used as a fireproofing composition is a cheap mixture of borax, bitter salt, and water; likewise for canvas a mixture of ammonium sulphate, gypsum, and water. Ammonium sulphate and sodium tungstate are also named for impregnating the canvas before painting.
X.—For Mosquito Netting.—Immerse in a 20 per cent solution of ammonium sulphate. One pound of netting will require from 20 to 24 ounces of the solution to thoroughly saturate. After withdrawing from the bath, do not wring it out, but spread it over a pole or some such object, and let it get about half dry, then iron it out with a hot iron. The material (ammonium sulphate) is inoffensive.
«Fireproofing of Wood.»—Strictly speaking, it is impossible to render wood completely incombustible, but an almost absolute immunity against the attacks of fire can be imparted.
Gay-Lussac was one of the first to lay down the principal conditions indispensable for rendering organic matters in general, and wood in particular, uninflammable.
During the whole duration of the action of the heat the fibers must be kept from contact with the air, which would cause combustion. The presence of borates, silicates, etc., imparts this property to organic bodies.
Combustible gases, disengaged by the action of the heat, must be mingled in sufficient proportion with other gases difficult of combustion in such a way that the disorganization of bodies by heat will be reduced to a simple calcination without production of flame. Salts volatile or decomposable by heat and not combustible, like certain ammoniacal salts, afford excellent results.
Numerous processes have been recommended for combating the inflammability of organic tissues, some consisting in external applications, others in injection, under a certain pressure, of saline solutions.
By simple superficial applications only illusory protection is attained, for these coverings, instead of fireproofing the objects on which they are applied, preserve them only for the moment from a slight flame. Resistance to the fire being of only short duration, these coatings scale off or are rapidly reduced to ashes and the parts covered are again exposed. It often happens, too, that such coatings have disappeared before the occurrence of a fire, so that the so-called remedy becomes injurious from the false security occasioned. {343}
Some formulas recommended are as follows:
I.—For immersion or imbibition the following solution is advised: Ammonium phosphate, 100 parts; boracic acid, 10 parts per 1,000; or ammonium sulphate, 135 parts; sodium borate, 15 parts; boracic acid, 5 parts per 1,000. For each of these formulas two coats are necessary.
II.—For application with the brush the following compositions are the best:
a. Apply hot, sodium silicate, 100 parts; Spanish white, 50 parts; glue, 100 parts.
b. Apply successively and hot; for first application, water, 100 parts; aluminum sulphate, 20 parts; second application, water, 100 parts; liquid sodium silicate, 50 parts.
c. First application, 2 coats, hot; water, 100 parts; sodium silicate, 50 parts; second application, 2 coatings; boiling water, 75 parts; gelatin, white, 200 parts; work up with asbestos, 50 parts; borax, 30 parts; and boracic acid, 10 parts.
Oil paints rendered uninflammable by the addition of phosphate of ammonia and borax in the form of impalpable powders incorporated in the mass, mortar of plaster and asbestos and asbestos paint, are still employed for preserving temporarily from limited exposure to a fire.
III.—Sodium silicate, solid 350 parts Asbestos, powdered 350 parts Water, boiling 1,000 parts
Mix. Give several coatings, letting each dry before applying the next.
IV.—Asbestos, powdered 35 parts Sodium borate 20 parts Water 100 parts Gum lac 10 to 15 parts
Dissolve the borax in the water by the aid of heat, and in the hot solution dissolve the lac. When solution is complete incorporate the asbestos. These last solutions give a superficial protection, the efficiency of which depends upon the number of coatings given.
V.—Prepare a syrupy solution of sodium silicate, 1 part, and water, 3 parts, and coat the wood 2 to 3 times, thus imparting to it great hardness. After drying, it is given a coating of lime of the consistency of milk, and when this is almost dry, is fixed by a strong solution of soluble glass, 2 parts of the syrupy mass to 3 parts of water. If the lime is applied thick, repeat the treatment with the soluble glass.
VI.—Subject the wood or wooden objects for 6 to 8 hours to the boiling heat of a solution of 33 parts of manganese chloride, 20 parts of orthophosphoric acid, 12 parts of magnesium carbonate, 10 parts of boracic acid, and 25 parts of ammonium chloride in 1,000 parts of water. The wood thus treated is said to be perfectly incombustible even at great heat, and, besides, to be also protected by this method against decay, injury by insects, and putrefaction.
VII.—One of the simplest methods is to saturate the timber with a solution of tungstate of soda; if this is done in a vacuum chamber, by means of which the wood is partly deprived of the air contained in its cells, a very satisfactory result will be obtained. Payne’s process consists in treating wood under these conditions first with solution of sulphate of iron, and then with chloride of calcium; calcium sulphate is thus precipitated in the tissues of the timber, which is rendered incombustible and much more durable. There are several other methods besides these, phosphate of ammonia and tungstate being most useful. A coat of common whitewash is an excellent means of lessening the combustibility of soft wood.
«Fireproofing Wood Pulp.»—The pulp is introduced into a boiler containing a hot solution of sulphate and phosphate of ammonia and provided with a stirring and mixing apparatus, as well as with an arrangement for regulating the temperature. After treatment, the pulp is taken out and compressed in order to free it from its humidity. When dry, it may be used for the manufacture of paper or for analogous purposes. Sawdust treated in the same manner may be used for packing goods, for deadening walls, and as a jacketing for steam pipes.
«Fireproofing for Wood, Straw, Textiles, etc.»—The material to be made fireproof is treated with a solution of 10 to 20 parts of potassium carbonate and 4 to 8 parts of ammonium borate in 100 parts of water. Wherever excessive heat occurs, this compound, which covers the substance, is formed into a glassy mass, thus protecting the stuff from burning; at the same time a considerable amount of carbonic acid is given off, which smothers the flames. {344}
«MISCELLANEOUS FORMULAS FOR FIREPROOFING.»
I.—In coating steel or other furnaces, first brush over the brickwork to be covered a solution made by boiling 1 pound each of silicate of soda and alum in 4 gallons of water, and follow immediately with composition:
Silica 50 parts Plastic fire clay 10 parts Ball clay 3 parts
Mix well.
Fireproof Compositions.—II.—For furnaces, etc.:
Pure silica (in grain) 60 parts Ground flint 8 parts Plaster of Paris 3 parts Ball clay 3 parts
Mix well together by passing once or more through a fine sieve, and use in the same way as cement.
Fireproof Paper.—Paper is rendered fireproof by saturating it with a solution of
Ammonium sulphate 8 parts Boracic acid 3 parts Borax 2 parts Water 100 parts
For the same purpose sodium tungstate may also be employed.
Fireproof Coating.—A fireproof coating (so-called) consists of water, 100 parts; strong glue, 20 parts; silicate of soda, 38° Bé., 50 parts; carbonate of soda, 35 parts; cork in pieces of the size of a pea, 100 parts.
Colored Fireproofing.—I.—Ammonium sulphate, 70 parts; borax, 50 parts; glue, 1 part; and water up to 1,000 parts.
II.—Solution of glue, 5 parts, zinc chloride, 2 parts; sal ammoniac, 80 parts; borax, 57 parts; and water up to 700 parts.
If the coating is to be made visible by coloration, an addition of 10 parts of Cassel brown and 6 parts of soda per 1,000 parts is recommended, which may be dissolved separately in a portion of the water used.
FIREPROOFING CELLULOID: See Celluloid.
FIREPROOFING OF PAPER: See Paper.
FIREWORKS: See Pyrotechnics.
FILIGREE GILDING: See Plating.
«FISH BAIT.»
Oil of rhodium 3 parts Oil of cumin 2 parts Tincture of musk 1 part
Mix. Put a drop or two on the bait, or rub trigger of trap with the solution.
«FIXATIVES FOR CRAYON DRAWINGS, ETC.»
I.—Shellac 40 parts by weight Sandarac 20 parts by weight Spirit of wine 940 parts by weight
II.—During the Civil War, when both alcohol and shellac often were not purchasable, and where, in the field especially, ink was almost unknown, and sized paper, of any description, a rarity, men in the field were compelled to use the pencil for correspondence of all sorts. Where the communication was of a nature to make its permanency desirable, the paper was simply dipped in skim milk, which effected the purpose admirably. Such documents written with a pencil on unsized paper have stood the wear and rubbing of upward of 40 years.
To Fix Pounced Designs.—Take beer or milk or alcohol, in which a little bleached shellac has been dissolved, and blow one of these liquids upon the freshly pounced design by means of an atomizer. After drying, the drawing will have the desired fixedness.
FIXING BATHS FOR PAPER AND NEGATIVES: See Photography.
FLANNELS, WHITENING OF: See Laundry Preparations.
FLASH-LIGHT APPARATUS AND POWDERS: See Photography.
FLAVORINGS: See Condiments.
FLEA DESTROYERS: See Insecticides.
FLIES IN THE HOUSE: See Household Formulas.
FLIES AND PAINT: See Paint.
«Floor Dressings»
(See also Paint, Polishes, Waxes, and Wood.)
«Oil Stains for Hard Floors.»—I.—Burnt sienna, slate brown, or wine black, is ground with strong oil varnish in the paint mill. The glazing color obtained {345} is thinned with a mixture of oil of turpentine and applied with a brush on the respective object. The superfluous stain is at once wiped away with a rag, so that only the absorbed stain remains in the wood. If this is uneven, go over the light places again with dark stain. In a similar manner all otherwise tinted and colored oil stains are produced by merely grinding the respective color with the corresponding addition of oil. Thus, green, red, and even blue and violet shades on wood can be obtained, it being necessary only to make a previous experiment with the stains on a piece of suitable wood. In the case of soft wood, however, it is advisable to stain the whole previously with ordinary nut stain (not too dark), and only after drying to coat with oil stain, because the autumn rings of the wood take no color, and would appear too light, and, therefore, disturb the effect.
II.—Boil 25 parts, by weight, of fustic and 12 parts of Brazil wood with 2,400 parts of soapmakers’ lye and 12 parts of potash, until the liquid measures about 12 quarts. Dissolve in it, while warm, 30 parts of annatto and 75 of wax, and stir until cold. There will be a sufficient quantity of the brownish-red stain to keep the floor of a large room in good order for a year. The floor should be swept with a brush broom daily, and wiped up twice a week with a damp cloth, applying the stain, when necessary, to places where there is much wear, and rubbing it in with a hard brush. Every 6 weeks put the stain all over the floor, and brush it in well.
III.—Neatsfoot oil 1 part Cottonseed oil 1 part Petroleum oil 1 part
IV.—Beeswax 8 parts Water 56 parts Potassium carbonate 4 parts
Dissolve the potash in 12 parts of water; heat together the wax and the remaining water till the wax is liquefied; then mix the two and boil together until a perfect emulsion is effected. Color, if desired, with a solution of annatto.
V.—Paraffine oil 8 parts Kerosene 1 part Limewater 1 part
Mix thoroughly. A coat of the mixture is applied to the floor with a mop.
«Paraffining of Floors.»—The cracks and joints of the parquet floor are filled with a putty consisting of Spanish white, 540 parts; glue, 180 parts; sienna, 150 parts; umber, 110 parts; and calcareous earth, 20 parts. After 48 hours apply the paraffine, which is previously dissolved in petroleum, or preferably employed in a boiling condition, in which case it will enter slightly into the floor. When solidification sets in, the superfluous paraffine is scratched off and an even, smooth surface of glossy color results, which withstands acids and alkalies.
«Ball-Room Floor Powder.»—
Hard paraffine 1 pound Powdered boric acid 7 pounds Oil lavender 1 drachm Oil neroli 20 minims
Melt the paraffine and add the boric acid and the perfumes. Mix well, and sift through a 1/16 mesh sieve.
«Renovating Old Parquet Floors.»—Caustic soda lye, prepared by boiling for 45 minutes with 1 part calcined soda, and 1 part slaked lime with 15 parts water, in a cast-iron pot, is applied to the parquet to be renovated by means of a cloth attached to a stick. After a while rub off the floor with a stiff brush, fine sand, and a sufficient quantity of water, to remove the dirt and old wax. Spread a mixture of concentrated sulphuric acid and water in the proportion of 1 to 8 on the floor. The sulphuric acid will remove the particles of dirt and wax which have entered the floor and enliven the color of the wood. Finally, wax the parquet after it has been washed off with water and dried completely.
FLOOR OIL: See Oils.
FLOOR PAPER: See Paper.
FLOOR POLISH: See Polishes.
FLOOR VARNISHES: See Varnishes.
FLOOR WATERPROOFING: See Waterproofing.
FLOOR WAX: See Waxes.
FLORICIN OIL: See Oil.
«FLOWER PRESERVATIVES.»
I.—To preserve flowers they should be dipped in melted paraffine, which should be just hot enough to maintain its fluidity. The flowers should be dipped one at a time, held by the stalks and moved about for an instant to get rid of air bubbles. Fresh cut flowers, free from moisture, {346} are said to make excellent specimens when treated in this way. A solution in which cut flowers may be kept immersed is made as follows:
Salicylic acid 20 grains Formaldehyde 10 minims Alcohol 2 fluidounces Distilled water 1 quart
II.—The English method of preserving flowers so as to retain their form and color is to imbed the plants in a mixture of equal quantities of plaster of Paris and lime, and gradually heat them to a temperature of 100° F. After this the flower looks dusty, but if it is laid aside for an hour so as to absorb sufficient moisture to destroy its brittleness, it can be dusted without injury. To remove the hoary appearance which is often left, even after dusting, a varnish composed of 5 ounces of dammar and 16 ounces of oil of turpentine should be used and a second coat given if necessary. When the gum has been dissolved in the turpentine, 16 ounces of benzoline should be added, and the whole should be strained through fine muslin.
III.—Five hundred parts ether, 20 parts transparent copal, and 20 parts sand. The flowers should be immersed in the varnish for 2 minutes, then allowed to dry for 10 minutes, and this treatment should be repeated 5 or 6 times.
IV.—Place the flowers in a solution of 30 grains of salicylic acid in 1 quart of water.
V.—Moisten 1,000 parts of fine white sand that has been previously well washed and thoroughly dried and sifted, with a solution consisting of 3 parts of stearine, 3 parts of paraffine, 3 parts of salicylic acid, and 100 parts of alcohol. Work the sand up thoroughly so that every grain of it is impregnated with the mixture, and then spread it out and let it become perfectly dry. To use, place the flowers in a suitable box, the bottom of which has been covered with a portion of the prepared sand, and then dust the latter over them until all the interstices have been completely filled with it. Close the box lightly and put it in a place where it can be maintained at a temperature of from 86° to 104° F. for 2 or 3 days. At the expiration of this time remove the box and let the sand escape. The flowers can then be put into suitable receptacles or glass cases without fear of deterioration. Wilted or withered flowers should be freshened up by dipping into a suitable aniline solution, which will restore their color.
VI.—Stand the flowers upright in a box of proper size and pour over and around them fine dry sand, until the flowers are completely surrounded in every direction. Leave them in this way for 8 or 10 days, then carefully pour off the sand. The flowers retain their color and shape perfectly, but in very fleshy, juicy specimens the sand must be renewed. To be effective the sand must be as nearly dry as possible.
VII.—A method of preserving cut flowers in a condition of freshness is to dissolve small amounts of ammonium chloride, potassium nitrate, sodium carbonate or camphor in the water into which the stems are inserted. The presence of one or more of these drugs keeps the flowers from losing their turgidity by stimulating the cells to action and by opposing germ growth. Flowers that have already wilted are said to revive quickly if the stems are inserted in a weak camphor water.
«Stuccoed Gypsum Flowers.»—Take natural flowers, and coat the lower sides of their petals and stamens with paraffine or with a mixture of glue, gypsum, and lime, which is applied lightly. Very fine parts of the flowers, such as stamens, etc., may be previously supported by special attachments of textures, wire, etc. After the drying of the coating the whole is covered with shellac solution or with a mixture of glue, gypsum, lime with lead acetate, oil, mucilage, glycerine, colophony, etc. If desired, the surface may be painted with bronzes in various shades. Such flowers are much employed in the shape of festoons for decorating walls, etc.
«Artificial Coloring of Flowers.»—A method employed by florists to impart a green color to the white petals of “carnation pinks” consists in allowing long-stemmed flowers to stand in water containing a green aniline dye. When the flowers are fresh they absorb the fluid readily, and the dye is carried to the petals.
Where the original color of the flower is white, colored stripes can be produced upon the petals by putting the cut ends into water impregnated with a suitable aniline dye. Some dyes can thus be taken up by the capillary action of the stem and deposited in the tissue of the petal. If flowers are placed over a basin of water containing a very small amount of ammonia in a bell glass, the colors of the petals will generally show some marked change. Many violet-colored flowers when so treated will become {347} green, and if the petals contain several tints they will show greens where reds were, yellows where they were white, and deep carmine will become black. When such flowers are put into water they will retain their changed colors for hours.
If violet asters are moistened with very dilute nitric acid, the ray florets become red and acquire an agreeable odor.
FLUID MEASURES: See Weights and Measures.
«FLUORESCENT LIQUIDS.»
Æsculin gives pale blue by (1) reflected light, straw color by (2) transmitted light.
Amido-phthalic acid, pale violet (1), pale yellow (2). Amido-terephthalic acid, bright green (1), pale green (2).
Eosine, yellow green (1), orange (2).
Fluorescein, intense green (1), orange yellow (2).
Fraxin, blue green (1), pale green (2).
Magdala red, opaque scarlet (1), brilliant carmine (2).
Quinine, pale blue (1), no color (2).
Safranine, yellow red (1), crimson (2).
FLUXES USED IN ENAMELING: See Enameling.
FLUXES FOR SOLDERING: See Soldering.
«Fly-Papers and Fly-Poisons»
(See also Insecticides.)
«Sticky Fly-Papers.»—The sticky material applied to the paper is the following:
I.—Boiled linseed oil 5 to 7 parts Gum thus 2 to 3 parts Non-drying oil 3 to 7 parts
For the non-drying oil, cottonseed, castor, or neatsfoot will answer—in fact, any of the cheaper oils that do not readily dry or harden will answer. The proper amount of each ingredient depends upon the condition of the boiled oil. If it is boiled down very stiff, more of the other ingredients will be necessary, while if thin, less will be required.
II.—Rosin 8 parts Rapeseed oil 4 parts Honey 1 part
Melt the rosin and oil together, and incorporate the honey. Two parts of raw linseed oil and 2 parts of honey may be used along with 8 parts of rosin instead of the foregoing. Use paper already sized, as it comes from the mills, on which to spread the mixture.
III.—Castor oil 12 ounces Rosin 27 ounces
Melt together and spread on paper sized with glue, using 12 ounces glue to 4 pints water.
IV.—Rosin 8 ounces Venice turpentine 2 ounces Castor oil 2 ounces
Spread on paper sized with glue.
«Poisonous Fly-Papers.»—
I.—Quassia chips 150 parts Chloride of cobalt 10 parts Tartar emetic 2 parts Tincture of long pepper (1 to 4) 80 parts Water 400 parts
Boil the quassia in the water until the liquid is reduced one-half, strain, add the other ingredients, saturate common absorbent paper with the solution, and dry. The paper is used in the ordinary way.
II.—Potassium bichromate 10 ounces Sugar 3 drachms Oil of black pepper 2 drachms Alcohol 2 ounces Water 14 ounces
Mix and let stand for several days, then soak unsized paper with the solution.
III.—Cobalt chloride 4 drachms Hot water 16 ounces Brown sugar 1 ounce
Dissolve the cobalt in the water and add the sugar, saturate unsized paper in the solution, and hang up to dry.
IV.—Quassia chips 150 parts Cobalt chloride 10 parts Tartrate antimony 2 parts Tincture of pepper 80 parts Water 400 parts
Boil chips in the water until the volume of the latter is reduced one-half, add other ingredients and saturate paper and dry.
«Fly-Poison.»—
Pepper 4 ounces Quassia 4 ounces Sugar 8 ounces Diluted alcohol 4 ounces
Mix dry and sprinkle around where the flies can get it.
«Non-Poisonous Fly-Papers.»—I.—Mix 25 parts of quassia decoction (1:10) with 6 parts of brown sugar and 3 parts of ground pepper, and place on flat dishes.
II.—Mix 1 part of ground pepper and 1 part of brown sugar with 16 parts milk {348} or cream, and put the mixture on flat plates.
III.—Macerate 20 parts of quassia wood with 100 parts of water for 24 hours, boil one-half hour, and squeeze off 24 hours. The liquid is mixed with 3 parts of molasses, and evaporated to 10 parts. Next add 1 part of alcohol. Soak blotting paper with this mixture, and put on plates.
IV.—Dissolve 5 parts of potassium bichromate, 15 parts of sugar, and 1 part of essential pepper oil in 60 parts of water, and add 10 parts of alcohol. Saturate unsized paper with this solution and dry well.
V.—Boil together for half an hour
Ground quassia wood 18 pounds Broken colocynth 3 pounds Ground long pepper 5 pounds Water 80 pounds
Then percolate and make up to 60 pounds if necessary with more water. Then add 4 pounds of syrup. Unsized paper is soaked in this, and dried as quickly as possible to prevent it from getting sour.
VI.—Mix together
Ordinary syrup 100 ounces Honey 30 ounces Extract of quassia wood 4 ounces Oil of aniseed, a few drops.
«Removing the Gum of Sticky Fly-Paper.»—The “gum” of sticky fly-paper that has “leaked” over furniture and shelfware can be removed without causing injury to either furniture or bottles.
The “gum” of sticky fly-paper, while being quite adhesive, is easily dissolved with alcohol (grain or wood) or oil of turpentine. Alcohol will not injure the shelfware, but it should not be used on varnished furniture; in the latter case turpentine should be used.
FLY PROTECTIVES FOR ANIMALS: See Insecticides.
«FOAM PREPARATIONS.»
A harmless gum cream is the following:
I.—Digest 100 parts of Panama wood for 8 days with 400 parts of water and 100 parts of spirits of wine (90 per cent). Pour off without strong pressure and filter.
For every 5 parts of lemonade syrup take 5 parts of this extract, whereby a magnificent, always uniform foam is obtained on the lemonade.
II.—Heat 200 parts of quillaia bark with distilled water during an hour in a vapor bath, with frequent stirring, and squeeze out. Thin with water if necessary and filter.
«FOOD ADULTERANTS, SIMPLE TESTS FOR THEIR DETECTION.»
Abstract of a monograph by W. D. Bigelow and Burton J. Howard, published by the Department of Agriculture.
Generally speaking, the methods of chemical analysis employed in food laboratories can be manipulated only by one who has had at least the usual college course in chemistry, and some special training in the examination of foods is almost as necessary. Again, most of the apparatus and chemicals necessary are entirely beyond the reach of the home, and the time consumed by the ordinary examination of a food is in itself prohibitive.
Yet there are some simple tests which serve to point out certain forms of adulteration and can be employed by the careful housewife with the reagents in her medicine closet and the apparatus in her kitchen. The number may be greatly extended by the purchase of a very few articles that may be procured for a few cents at any drug store. In applying these tests, one general rule must always be kept carefully in mind. Every one, whether layman or chemist, must familiarize himself with a reaction before drawing any conclusions from it. For instance, before testing a sample of supposed coffee for starch, the method should be applied to a sample of pure coffee (which can always be procured unground) and to a mixture of pure coffee and starch prepared by the operator.
Many manufacturers and dealers in foods have the ordinary senses so highly developed that by their aid alone they can form an intelligent opinion of the nature of a product, or of the character, and sometimes even of the proportion of adulterants present. This is especially true of such articles as coffee, wine, salad oils, flavoring extracts, butter, and milk. The housewife finds herself constantly submitting her purchases to this test. Her broad experience develops her senses of taste and smell to a high degree, and her discrimination is often sharper and more accurate than she herself realizes. The manufacturer who has developed his natural senses most {349} highly appreciates best the assistance or collaboration of the chemist, who can often come to his relief when his own powers do not avail. So the housewife, by a few simple chemical tests, can broaden her field of vision and detect many impurities that are not evident to the senses.
There are here given methods adapted to this purpose, which may be applied to milk, butter, coffee, spices, olive oil, vinegar, jams and jellies, and flavoring extracts. In addition to this some general methods for the detection of coloring matter and preservatives will be given. All of the tests here described may be performed with utensils found in any well-appointed kitchen. It will be convenient, however, to secure a small glass funnel, about 3 inches in diameter, since filtration is directed in a number of the methods prescribed. Filter paper can best be prepared for the funnel by cutting a circular piece about the proper size and folding it once through the middle, and then again at right angles to the first fold. The paper may then be opened without unfolding in such a way that three thicknesses lie together on one side and only one thickness on the other. In this way the paper may be made to fit nicely into the funnel.
Some additional apparatus, such as test tubes, racks for supporting them, and glass rods, will be found more convenient for one who desires to do considerable work on this subject, but can be dispensed with. The most convenient size for test tubes is a diameter of from 1/2 to 5/8 inch, and a length of from 5 to 6 inches. A graduated cylinder will also be found very convenient. If this is graduated according to the metric system, a cylinder containing about 100 cubic centimeters will be found to be convenient; if the English liquid measure is used it may be graduated to from 3 to 8 ounces.
«Chemical Reagents.»—The word “reagent” is applied to “any substance used to effect chemical change in another substance for the purpose of identifying its component parts or determining its percentage composition.” The following reagents are required in the methods here given:
Turmeric paper.
Iron alum (crystal or powdered form).
Hydrochloric acid† (muriatic acid), concentrated.
Iodine tincture.
Potassium permanganate, 1 per cent solution.
Alcohol (grain alcohol).
Chloroform.
Boric acid or borax.
Ammonia water.
Halphen’s reagent.
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† Caution.—All tests in which hydrochloric acid is used should be conducted in glass or earthenware, for this acid attacks and will injure metal vessels. Care must also be taken not to bring it into contact with the flesh or clothes. If, by accident, a drop of it falls upon the clothes, ammonia, or in its absence a solution of saleratus or sal soda (washing soda), in water, should be applied promptly.
With the exception of the last reagent mentioned, these substances may be obtained in any pharmacy. The Halphen reagent should be prepared by a druggist, certainly not by an inexperienced person.
It is prepared as follows: An approximately 1 per cent solution of sulphur is made by dissolving about 1/3 of a teaspoonful of precipitated sulphur in 3 or 4 ounces of carbon bisulphide. This solution mixed with an equal volume of amyl alcohol forms the reagent required by the method. A smaller quantity than that indicated by these directions may, of course, be prepared.
If turmeric paper be not available it may be made as follows: Place a bit of turmeric powder (obtainable at any drug store) in alcohol, allow it to stand for a few minutes, stir, allow it to stand again until it settles, dip a strip of filter paper into the solution, and dry it.
«Determination of Preservatives.»—The following methods cover all of the more important commercial preservatives with the exception of sulphites and fluorides. These are quite frequently used for preserving foods—the former with meat products and the latter with fruit products—but, unfortunately, the methods for their detection are not suitable for household use.
«Detection of Salicylic Acid.»—The determination of salicylic acid can best be made with liquids. Solid and semi-solid foods, such as jelly, should be dissolved, when soluble, in sufficient water to make them thinly liquid. Foods containing insoluble matter, such as jam, marmalade, and sausage, may be macerated with water and strained through a piece of white cotton cloth. The maceration may be performed by rubbing in a teacup or other convenient vessel with a heavy spoon.
Salicylic acid is used for preserving {350} fruit products of all kinds, including beverages. It is frequently sold by drug stores as fruit acid. Preserving powders consisting entirely of salicylic acid are often carried from house to house by agents. It may be detected as follows:
Between 2 and 3 ounces of the liquid obtained from the fruit products, as described above, are placed in a narrow bottle holding 5 ounces, about a quarter of a teaspoonful of cream of tartar (or, better, a few drops of sulphuric acid) is added, the mixture shaken for 2 or 3 minutes, and filtered into a second small bottle. Three or 4 tablespoonfuls of chloroform are added to the clear liquid in the second bottle and the liquids mixed by a somewhat vigorous rotary motion, poured into an ordinary glass tumbler, and allowed to stand till the chloroform settles out in the bottom. Shaking is avoided, as it causes an emulsion which is difficult to break up. As much as possible of the chloroform layer (which now contains the salicylic acid) is removed (without any admixture of the aqueous liquid) by means of a medicine dropper and placed in a test tube or small bottle with about an equal amount of water and a small fragment—a little larger than a pinhead—of iron alum. The mixture is thoroughly shaken and allowed to stand till the chloroform again settles to the bottom. The presence of salicylic acid is then indicated by the purple color of the upper layer of liquid.
«Detection of Benzoic Acid.»—Benzoic acid is also used for preserving fruit products. Extract the sample with chloroform as in the case of salicylic acid; remove the chloroform layer and place it in a white saucer, or, better, in a plain glass sauce dish. Set a basin of water—as warm as the hand can bear—on the outside window ledge and place the dish containing the chloroform extract in it, closing the window until the chloroform has completely evaporated. In this manner the operation may be conducted with safety even by one who is not accustomed to handling chloroform. In warm weather the vessel of warm water may, of course, be omitted. Benzoic acid, if present in considerable amount, will now appear in the dish in characteristic flat crystals. On warming the dish the unmistakable irritating odor of benzoic acid may be obtained. This method will detect benzoic acid in tomato catsup or other articles in which it is used in large quantities. It is not sufficiently delicate, however, for the smaller amount used with some articles, such as wine. It is often convenient to extract a larger quantity of the sample and divide the chloroform layer into two portions, testing one for salicylic acid and the other for benzoic acid.
«Detection of Boric Acid and Borax.»—Boric acid (also called boracic acid) and its compound with sodium (borax) are often used to preserve animal products, such as sausage, butter, and sometimes milk. For the detection of boric acid and borax, solids should be macerated with a small amount of water and strained through a white cotton cloth. The liquid obtained by treating solids in this manner is clarified somewhat by thoroughly chilling and filtering through filter paper.
In testing butter place a heaping teaspoonful of the sample in a teacup, add a couple of teaspoonfuls of hot water, and stand the cup in a vessel containing a little hot water until the butter is thoroughly melted. Mix the contents of the cup well by stirring with a teaspoon and set the cup with the spoon in it in a cold place until the butter is solid. The spoon with the butter (which adheres to it) is now removed from the cup and the turbid liquid remaining strained through a white cotton cloth, or, better, through filter paper. The liquid will not all pass through the cloth or filter paper, but a sufficient amount for the test may be secured readily.
In testing milk for boric acid 2 or 3 tablespoonfuls of milk are placed in a bottle with twice that amount of a solution of a teaspoonful of alum in a pint of water, shaken vigorously, and filtered through filter paper. Here again a clear or only slightly turbid liquid passes through the paper.
About a teaspoonful of the liquid obtained by any one of the methods mentioned above is placed in any dish, not metal, and 5 drops of hydrochloric (muriatic) acid added. A strip of turmeric paper is dipped into the liquid and then held in a warm place—near a stove or lamp—till dry. If boric acid or borax was present in the sample the turmeric paper becomes bright cherry red when dry. A drop of household ammonia changes the red color to dark green or greenish black. If too much hydrochloric acid is used the turmeric paper may take on a brownish-red color even in the absence of boric acid. In this case, however, ammonia changes the color to brown just as it does turmeric paper which has not been dipped into the acid solution. {351}
«Detection of Formaldehyde.»—Formaldehyde is rarely used with other foods than milk. The method for its detection in milk is given later. For its detection in other foods it is usually necessary first to separate it by distillation, a process which is scarcely available for the average person without laboratory training and special apparatus. For this reason no method is suggested here for the detection of formaldehyde in other foods than milk.
«Detection of Saccharine.»—Saccharine has a certain preservative power, but it is used not so much for this effect as because of the very sweet taste which it imparts. It is extracted by means of chloroform, as described under the detection of salicylic acid. In the case of solid and semi-solid foods, the sample must, of course, be prepared by extraction with water, as described under salicylic acid. The residue left after the evaporation of the chloroform, if a considerable amount of saccharine is present, has a distinctly sweet taste.
* * * * *
The only other substance having a sweet taste which may be present in foods, i. e., sugar, is not soluble in chloroform, and therefore does not interfere with this reaction. Certain other bodies (tannins) which have an astringent taste are present, and as they are soluble in chloroform may sometimes mask the test for saccharine, but with practice this difficulty is obviated.
«Determination of Artificial Colors: Detection of Coal-Tar Dyes.»—Coloring matters used with foods are usually soluble in water. If the food under examination be a liquid, it may therefore be treated directly by the method given below. If it be a solid or a pasty substance, soluble in water either in the cold or after heating, it may be dissolved in sufficient water to form a thin liquid. If it contains some insoluble material, it may be treated with sufficient water to dissolve the soluble portion with the formation of a thin liquid and filtered, and then strained through a clean white cotton cloth to separate the insoluble portion. About a half teacupful of the liquid thus described is heated to boiling, after adding a few drops of hydrochloric acid and a small piece of white woolen cloth or a few strands of white woolen yarn. (Before using, the wool should be boiled with water containing a little soda, to remove any fat it may contain, and then washed with water.) The wool is again washed, first with hot and then with cold water, the water pressed out as completely as possible, and the color of the fabric noted. If no marked color is produced, the test may be discontinued and the product considered free from artificial colors. If the fabric is colored, it may have taken up coal-tar colors, some foreign vegetable colors, and if a fruit product is being examined, some of the natural coloring matter of the fruit. Rinse the fabric in hot water, and then boil for 2 or 3 minutes in about one-third of a teacupful of water and 2 or 3 teaspoonfuls of household ammonia. Remove and free from as much of the liquid as possible by squeezing or wringing. Usually the fabric will retain the greater part of the natural fruit color, while the coal-tar color dissolves in dilute ammonia. The liquid is then stirred with a splinter of wood and hydrochloric acid added, a drop or two at a time, until there is no longer any odor of ammonia. (The atmosphere of the vessel is sometimes charged with the ammonia for several minutes after it has all been driven out of the liquid; therefore one should blow into the dish to remove this air before deciding whether the ammonia odor has been removed or not.) When enough acid has been added the liquid has a sour taste, as may be determined by touching the splinter, used in stirring, to the tongue.
A fresh piece of white woolen cloth is boiled in this liquid and thoroughly washed. If this piece of cloth has a distinct color the food under examination is artificially colored. The color used may have been a coal-tar derivative, commonly called an aniline dye, or an artificial color chemically prepared from some vegetable color. If of the first class the dyed fabric is usually turned purple or blue by ammonia. In either case, if the second fabric has a distinct color, it is evident that the product under examination is artificially colored. Of course a dull, faint tint must be disregarded.
«Detection of Copper.»—The presence of copper, often used to deepen the green tint of imported canned peas, beans, spinach, etc., may be detected as follows:
Mash some of the sample in a dish with a stiff kitchen spoon. Place a teaspoonful of the pulp in a teacup with 3 teaspoonfuls of water and add 30 drops of strong hydrochloric acid with a medicine dropper. Set the cup on the stove in a saucepan containing boiling water. Drop a bright iron brad or nail (wire nails are the best and tin carpet tacks {352} will not answer the purpose) into the cup and keep the water in the saucepan boiling for 20 minutes, stirring the contents of the cup frequently with a splinter of wood. Pour out the contents of the cup and examine the nail. If present in an appreciable amount the nail will be heavily plated with copper.
Caution.—Be careful not to allow the hydrochloric acid to come in contact with metals or with the flesh or clothing.
«Detection of Turmeric.»—In yellow spices, especially mustard and mace, turmeric is often employed. This is especially true of prepared mustard to which a sufficient amount of starch adulterant has been added to reduce the natural color materially. If turmeric be employed to restore the normal shade an indication of that fact may sometimes be obtained by mixing a half teaspoonful of the sample in a white china dish and mixing with it an equal amount of water, and a few drops (4 to 10) of household ammonia, when a marked brown color, which does not appear in the absence of turmeric, is formed. At the present time turmeric or a solution of curcuma (the coloring matter of turmeric) is sometimes added to adulterated mustard in sufficient amount to increase its color, but not to a sufficient extent to give the brown appearance with ammonia described above. In such cases a teaspoonful of the suspected sample may be thoroughly stirred with a couple of tablespoonfuls of alcohol, the mixture allowed to settle for 15 minutes or more, and the upper liquid poured off into a clean glass or bottle. To about 1 tablespoonful of the liquid thus prepared and placed in a small, clear dish (a glass salt cellar serves excellently) add 4 or 5 drops of a concentrated solution of boric acid or borax and about 10 drops of hydrochloric acid, and mix the solution by stirring with a splinter of wood. A wedge-shaped strip of filter paper, about 2 or 3 inches long, 1 inch wide at the upper end, and 1/4 inch at the lower end, is then suspended by pinning, so that its narrow end is immersed in the solution, and is allowed to stand for a couple of hours. The best results are obtained if the paper is so suspended that air can circulate freely around it, i. e., not allowing it to touch anything except the pin and the liquid in the dish. If turmeric be present a cherry-red color forms on the filter paper a short distance below the upper limit to which the liquid is absorbed by the paper, frequently from 3/4 of an inch to an inch above the surface of the liquid itself. A drop of household ammonia changes this red color to a dark green, almost black. If too much hydrochloric acid is used a dirty brownish color is produced.
«Detection of Caramel.»—A solution of caramel is used to color many substances, such as vinegar and some distilled liquors. To detect it two test tubes or small bottles of about equal size and shape should be employed and an equal amount (2 or 3 tablespoonfuls or more) of the suspected sample placed in each. To one of these bottles is added a teaspoonful of fuller’s earth, the sample shaken vigorously for 2 or 3 minutes, and then filtered through filter paper, the first portion of the filtered liquid being returned to the filter paper and the sample finally collected into the test tube or bottle in which it was originally placed, or a similar one. The filtered liquid is now compared with the untreated sample. If it is markedly lighter in color it may be taken for granted that the color of the liquid is due to caramel, which is largely removed by fuller’s earth. In applying this test, however, it must be borne in mind that caramel occurs naturally in malt vinegar, being formed in the preparation of the malt. It is evident that the tests require practice and experience before they can be successfully performed. The housewife can use them, but must repeat them frequently in order to become proficient in their use.
«EXAMINATION OF CERTAIN CLASSES OF FOODS:»
«Canned Vegetables.»—These are relatively free from adulteration by means of foreign substances. The different grades of products may with care be readily detected by the general appearance of the sample. The purchaser is, of course, at the disadvantage of not being able to see the product until the can is opened. By a study of the different brands available in the vicinity, however, he can readily select those which are preferable. As stated in an earlier part of this article, canned tomatoes sometimes contain an artificial coloring matter, which may be detected as described.
Canned sweet corn is sometimes sweetened with saccharine, which may be detected as described.
It is believed that, as a rule, canned vegetables are free from preservatives, although some instances of chemical preservation have recently been reported in North Dakota, and some imported {353} tomatoes have been found to be artificially preserved. The presence of copper, often used for the artificial greening of imported canned peas, beans, spinach, etc., may be detected as described.
«Coffee.»—There are a number of simple tests for the presence of the adulterants of ground coffee. These are called simple because they can be performed without the facilities of the chemical laboratory, and by one who has not had the experience and training of a chemist. It must be understood that they require careful observation and study, and that one must perform them repeatedly in order to obtain reliable results. Before applying them to the examination of an unknown sample, samples of known character should be secured and studied. Unground coffee may be ground in the home and mixed with various kinds of adulterants, which can also be secured separately. Thus the articles themselves in known mixtures may be studied, and when the same results are obtained with unknown samples they can be correctly interpreted. These tests are well known in the laboratory and may be used in the home of the careful housewife who has the time and perseverance to master them.
Physical Tests.—The difference between the genuine ground coffee and the adulterated article can often be detected by simple inspection with the naked eye. This is particularly true if the product be coarsely crushed rather than finely ground. In such condition pure coffee has a quite uniform appearance, whereas the mixtures of peas, beans, cereals, chicory, etc., often disclose their heterogeneous nature to the careful observer. This is particularly true if a magnifying glass be employed. The different articles composing the mixture may then be separated by the point of a pen-knife. The dark, gummy-looking chicory particles stand out in strong contrast to the other substances used, and their nature can be determined by one who is familiar with them by their astringent taste.
The appearance of the coffee particles is also quite distinct from that of many of the coffee substitutes employed. The coffee has a dull surface, whereas some of its substitutes, especially leguminous products, often present the appearance of having a polished surface.
After a careful inspection of the sample with the naked eye, or, better, with a magnifying glass, a portion of it may be placed in a small bottle half full of water and shaken. The bottle is then placed on the table for a moment. Pure coffee contains a large amount of oil, by reason of which the greater portion of the sample will float. All coffee substitutes and some particles of coffee sink to the bottom of the liquid. A fair idea of the purity of the sample can often be determined by the proportion of the sample which floats or sinks.
Chicory contains a substance which dissolves in water, imparting a brownish-red color. When the suspected sample is dropped into a glass of water, the grains of chicory which it contains may be seen slowly sinking to the bottom, leaving a train of a dark-brown colored liquid behind them. This test appears to lead to more errors in the hands of inexperienced operators than any other test here given. Wrong conclusions may be avoided by working first with known samples of coffee and chicory as suggested above.
Many coffee substitutes are now sold as such and are advertised as more wholesome than coffee. Notwithstanding the claims that are made for them, a few of them contain a considerable percentage of coffee. This may be determined by shaking a teaspoonful in a bottle half full of water, as described above. The bottle must be thoroughly shaken so as to wet every particle of the sample. Few particles of coffee substitutes will float.
Chemical Tests.—Coffee contains no starch, while all of the substances, except chicory, used for its adulteration and in the preparation of coffee substitutes contain a considerable amount of starch. The presence of such substitutes may, therefore, be detected by applying the test for starch. In making this test less than a quarter of a teaspoonful of ground coffee should be used, or a portion of the ordinary infusion prepared for the table may be employed after dilution. The amount of water that should be added can only be determined by experience.
«Condimental Sauces.»—Tomato catsup and other condimental sauces are frequently preserved and colored artificially. The preservatives employed are usually salicylic acid and benzoic acid or their sodium salts. These products may be detected by the methods given.
Coal-tar colors are frequently employed with this class of goods, especially with those of a reddish tint, like tomato catsup. They may be detected by the methods given. {354}
«DAIRY PRODUCTS:»
«Butter.»—Methods are available which, with a little practice, may be employed to distinguish between fresh butter, renovated or process butter, and oleomargarine.
These methods are commonly used in food and dairy laboratories. They give reliable results. At the same time considerable practice is necessary before we can interpret correctly the results obtained. Some process butters are on the market which can be distinguished from fresh butter only with extreme difficulty. During the last few years considerable progress has been made in the attempt to renovate butter in such a way that it will appear like fresh butter in all respects. A study must be made of these methods if we would obtain reliable results.
The “spoon” test has been suggested as a household test, and is commonly used by analytical chemists for distinguishing fresh butter from renovated butter and oleomargarine. A lump of butter, 2 or 3 times the size of a pea, is placed in a large spoon and heated over an alcohol or Bunsen burner. If more convenient the spoon may be held above the chimney of an ordinary kerosene lamp, or it may even be held over an ordinary illuminating gas burner. If the sample in question be fresh butter it will boil quietly, with the evolution of many small bubbles throughout the mass which produce a large amount of foam. Oleomargarine and process butter, on the other hand, sputter and crackle, making a noise similar to that heard when a green stick is placed in a fire. Another point of distinction is noted if a small portion of the sample be placed in a small bottle and set in a vessel of water sufficiently warm to melt the butter. The sample is kept melted from half an hour to an hour, when it is examined. If renovated butter or oleomargarine, the fat will be turbid, while if genuine fresh butter the fat will almost certainly be entirely clear.
To manipulate what is known as the “Waterhouse” or “milk” test, about 2 ounces of sweet milk are placed in a wide-mouthed bottle, which is set in a vessel of boiling water. When the milk is thoroughly heated, a teaspoonful of butter is added, and the mixture stirred with a splinter of wood until the fat is melted. The bottle is then placed in a dish of ice water and the stirring continued until the fat solidifies. If the sample be butter, either fresh or renovated, it will be solidified in a granular condition and distributed through the milk in small particles. If, on the other hand, the sample consist of oleomargarine it solidifies practically in one piece and may be lifted by the stirrer from the milk.
By these two tests, the first of which distinguishes fresh butter from process or renovated butter and oleomargarine, and the second of which distinguishes oleomargarine from either fresh butter or renovated butter, the nature of the sample under examination may be determined.
«Milk.»—The oldest and simplest method of adulterating milk is by dilution with water. This destroys the natural yellowish-white color and produces a bluish tint, which is sometimes corrected by the addition of a small amount of coloring matter.
Another form of adulteration is the removal of the cream and the sale as whole milk of skimmed or partially skimmed milk. Again, the difficulty experienced in the preservation of milk in warm weather has led to the widespread use of chemical preservatives.
Detection of Water.—If a lactometer or hydrometer, which can be obtained of dealers in chemical apparatus, be available, the specific gravity of milk will afford some clew as to whether the sample has been adulterated by dilution with water. Whole milk has a specific gravity between 1.027 and 1.033. The specific gravity of skimmed milk is higher, and milk very rich in cream is sometimes lower than these figures. It is understood, of course, that by specific gravity is meant the weight of a substance with reference to the weight of an equal volume of water. The specific gravity of water is 1. It is obvious that if water be added to a milk with the specific gravity of 1.030, the specific gravity of the mixture will be somewhat below those figures.
An indication by means of a hydrometer or lactometer below the figure 1.027 therefore indicates either that the sample in question is a very rich milk or that it is a milk (perhaps normal, perhaps skimmed) that has been watered. The difference in appearance and nature of these two extremes is sufficiently obvious to make use of the lactometer or hydrometer of value as a preliminary test of the purity of milk.
Detection of Color.—As previously stated, when milk is diluted by means of water the natural yellowish-white color is changed to a bluish tint, which is sometimes corrected by the addition {355} of coloring matter. Coal-tar colors are usually employed for this purpose. A reaction for these colors is often obtained in the method given below for the detection of formaldehyde. When strong hydrochloric acid is added to the milk in approximately equal proportions before the mixture is heated a pink tinge sometimes is evident if a coal-tar color has been added.
Detection of Formaldehyde.—Formaldehyde is the substance most commonly used for preserving milk and is rarely, if ever, added to any other food. Its use is inexcusable and especially objectionable in milk served to infants and invalids.
To detect formaldehyde in milk 3 or 4 tablespoonfuls of the sample are placed in a teacup with at least an equal amount of strong hydrochloric acid and a piece of ferric alum about as large as a pinhead, the liquids being mixed by a gentle rotary motion. The cup is then placed in a vessel of boiling water, no further heat being applied, and left for 5 minutes. At the end of this time, if formaldehyde be present, the mixture will be distinctly purple. If too much heat is applied, a muddy appearance is imparted to the contents of the cup.
Caution.—Great care must be exercised in working with hydrochloric acid, as it is strongly corrosive.
«Edible Oils.»—With the exception of cottonseed oil, the adulterants ordinarily used with edible oils are of such a nature that the experience of a chemist and the facilities of a chemical laboratory are essential to their detection. There is, however, a simple test for the detection of cottonseed oil, known as the Halphen test, which may be readily applied.
Great care must be taken in the manipulation of this test, as one of the reagents employed—carbon bisulphide—is very inflammable. The chemicals employed in the preparation of the reagent used for this test are not household articles. They may, however, be obtained in any pharmacy. The mixture should be prepared by a druggist rather than by an inexperienced person who desires to use it.
In order to perform the test 2 or 3 tablespoonfuls of this reagent are mixed in a bottle with an equal volume of the suspected sample of oil and heated in a vessel of boiling salt solution (prepared by dissolving 1 tablespoonful of salt in a pint of water) for 10 or 15 minutes. At the end of that time, if even a small percentage of cottonseed oil be present, the mixture will be of a distinct reddish color, and if the sample consists largely or entirely of cottonseed oil, the color will be deep red.
«Eggs.»—There is no better method for the testing of the freshness of an egg than the familiar one of “candling,” which has long been practiced by dealers. The room is darkened and the egg held between the eye and a light; the presence of dark spots indicates that the egg is not perfectly fresh, one that is fresh presenting a homogeneous, translucent appearance. Moreover, there is found in the larger end of a fresh egg, between the shell and the lining membrane, a small air cell which, of course, is distinctly transparent. In an egg which is not perfectly fresh this space is filled and hence presents the same appearance as the rest of the egg.
It is now a matter of considerable importance to be able to distinguish between fresh eggs and those that have been packed for a considerable time. Until recently that was not a difficult matter. All of the solutions that were formerly extensively used for that purpose gave the shell a smooth, glistening appearance which is not found in the fresh egg. This characteristic, however, is of less value now than formerly, owing to the fact that packed eggs are usually preserved in cold storage. There is now no means by which a fresh egg can be distinguished from a packed egg without breaking it. Usually in eggs that have been packed for a considerable time the white and yolk slightly intermingle along the point of contact, and it is a difficult matter to separate them. Packed eggs also have a tendency to adhere to the shell on one side and when opened frequently have a musty odor.
«FLAVORING EXTRACTS.»
Although a large number of flavoring extracts are on the market, vanilla and lemon extracts are used so much more commonly than other flavors that a knowledge of their purity is of the greatest importance. Only methods for the examination of those two products will be considered.
«Vanilla Extract.»—Vanilla extract is made by extracting vanilla beans with alcohol. It consists of an alcoholic solution of vanillin (the characteristic flavoring matter of the vanilla bean) and several other products, chiefly rosins, which, though present in but small amount and having only a slight flavor in themselves, yet affect very materially {356} the flavor of the product. Vanilla extract is sometimes adulterated with the extract of the Tonka bean. This extract, to a certain extent, resembles vanilla extract. The extract of the Tonka bean, however, is far inferior to that of the vanilla bean. It has a relatively penetrating, almost pungent odor, standing in sharp contrast to the flavor of the vanilla extract. This odor is so different that one who has given the matter some attention may readily distinguish the two, and the quality of the vanilla extract may often be judged with a fair degree of accuracy by means of the odor alone.
Another form of adulteration, and one that is now quite prevalent, is the use of artificial vanillin in place of the extract of either vanilla or Tonka beans. Artificial vanillin has, of course, the same composition and characteristics as the natural vanillin of the vanilla bean. Extracts made from it, however, are deficient in the rosins and other products which are just as essential to the true vanilla, as is vanillin itself. Since vanillin is thus obtained from another source so readily, methods for the determination of the purity of vanilla extract must depend upon the presence of other substances than vanillin.
Detection of Caramel.—The coloring matter of vanilla extract is due to substances naturally present in the vanilla bean and extracted therefrom by alcohol. Artificial extracts made by dissolving artificial vanillin in alcohol contain no color of themselves, and to supply it caramel is commonly employed. Caramel may be detected in artificial extracts by shaking and observing the color of the resulting foam after a moment’s standing. The foam of pure extracts is colorless. If caramel is present a color persists at the points of contact between the bubbles until the last bubble has disappeared. The test with fuller’s earth given for caramel in vinegar is also very satisfactory, but of course requires the loss of the sample used for the test.
Examination of the Rosin.—If pure vanilla extract be evaporated to about one-third its volume the rosins become insoluble and settle to the bottom of the dish. Artificial extracts remain clear under the same conditions. In examining vanilla extract the character of these rosins is studied. For this purpose a dish containing about an ounce of the extract is placed on a teakettle or other vessel of boiling water until the liquid evaporates to about one-third or less of its volume. Owing to the evaporation of the alcohol the rosins will then be insoluble. Water may be added to restore the liquid to approximately its original volume. The rosin will then separate out as a brown flocculent precipitate. A few drops of hydrochloric acid may be added and the liquid stirred and the insoluble matter allowed to settle. It is then filtered and the rosin on the filter paper washed with water. The rosin is then dissolved in a little alcohol, and to 1 portion of this solution is added a small particle of ferric alum, and to another portion a few drops of hydrochloric acid, If the rosin be that of the vanilla bean, neither ferric alum nor hydrochloric acid will produce more than a slight change of color. With rosins from most other sources, however, one or both of these substances yield a distinct color change.
For filtering, a piece of filter paper should be folded once through the middle and again at right angles to the first fold. It may now be opened with one fold on one side and three on the other and fitted into a glass funnel. When the paper is folded in this manner the precipitated rosins may be readily washed with water. When the washing is completed the rosins may be dissolved by pouring alcohol through the filter. This work with the rosins will require some practice before it can be successfully performed. It is of considerable value, however, in judging of the purity of vanilla extract.
«Lemon Extract.»—By lemon extract is understood a solution of lemon oil in strong alcohol. In order to contain as much lemon oil as is supposed to be found in high-grade extracts the alcohol should constitute about 80 per cent of the sample. The alcohol is therefore the most valuable constituent of lemon extract, and manufacturers who turn out a low-grade product usually do so because of their economy of alcohol rather than of lemon oil. Owing to the fact that lemon extract is practically a saturated solution of oil of lemon in strong alcohol the sample may be examined by simple dilution with water. A teaspoonful of the oil in question may be placed in the bottom of an ordinary glass tumbler and 2 or 3 teaspoonfuls of water added. If the sample in question be real lemon extract the lemon oil should be thrown out of solution by reason of its insolubility in the alcohol after its dilution with water. The result is at first a marked turbidity and later the separation of the oil of lemon on the top {357} of the aqueous liquid. If the sample remains perfectly clear after the addition of water, or if a marked turbidity is not produced, it is a low-grade product and contains very little, if any, oil of lemon.
«Fruit Products.»—Adulteration of fruit products is practically confined to jellies and jams. Contrary to the general belief, gelatin is never used in making fruit jelly. In the manufacture of the very cheapest grade of jellies starch is sometimes employed. Jellies containing starch, however, are so crude in their appearance that the most superficial inspection is sufficient to demonstrate that they are not pure fruit jellies. From their appearance no one would think it worth while to examine them to determine their purity.
Natural fruit jellies become liquid on being warmed. A spoonful dissolves readily in warm water, although considerable time is required with those that are especially firm. The small fruits contain practically no starch, as apples do, and the presence of starch in a jelly indicates that some apple juice has probably been used in its preparation.
Detection of Starch.—Dissolve a teaspoonful of jelly in a half teacupful of hot water, heat to boiling and add, drop by drop, while stirring with a teaspoon, a solution of potassium permanganate until the solution is almost colorless. Then allow the solution to cool and test for starch with tincture of iodine, as directed later. Artificially colored jellies are sometimes not decolorized by potassium permanganate. Even without decolorizing, however, the blue color can usually be seen.
Detection of Glucose.—For the detection of glucose, a teaspoonful of the jelly may be dissolved in a glass tumbler or bottle in 2 or 3 tablespoonfuls of water. The vessel in which the jelly is dissolved may be placed in hot water if necessary to hasten the solution. In case a jam or marmalade is being examined, the mixture is filtered to separate the insoluble matter. The solution is allowed to cool, and an equal volume or a little more of strong alcohol is added. If the sample is a pure fruit product the addition of alcohol causes no precipitation, except that a very slight amount of proteid bodies is thrown down. If glucose has been employed in its manufacture, however, a dense white precipitate separates and, after a time, settles to the bottom of the liquid.
Detection of Foreign Seeds.—In addition to the forms of adulteration to which jellies are subject, jams are sometimes manufactured from the exhausted fruit pulp left after removing the juice for making jelly. When this is done residues from different fruits are sometimes mixed. Exhausted raspberry or blackberry pulp may be used in making “strawberry” jam and vice versa. Some instances are reported of various small seeds, such as timothy, clover, and alfalfa seed, having been used with jams made from seedless pulp.
With the aid of a small magnifying glass such forms of adulteration may be detected, the observer familiarizing himself with the seeds of the ordinary fruits.
Detection of Preservatives and Colors.—With jellies and jams salicylic and benzoic acids are sometimes employed. They may be detected by the methods given.
Artificial colors, usually coal-tar derivatives, are sometimes used and may be detected as described.
«Meat Products.»—As in many other classes of foods, certain questions important in the judgment of meats require practical experience and close observation rather than chemical training. This is especially true of meat products. The general appearance of the meat must largely guide the purchaser. If, however, the meat has been treated with preservatives and coloring matter its appearance is so changed as to deceive him. The preservatives employed with meat products are boric acid, borax, and sulphites. The methods for the detection of sulphites are not suitable for household use.
Detection of Boric Acid and Borax.—To detect boric acid (if borax has been used the same reaction will be obtained), about a tablespoonful of the chopped meat is thoroughly macerated with a little hot water, pressed through a bag, and 2 or 3 tablespoonfuls of the liquid placed in a sauce dish with 15 or 20 drops of strong hydrochloric acid for each tablespoonful. The liquid is then filtered through filter paper, and a piece of turmeric paper dipped into it and dried near a lamp or stove. If boric acid or borax were used for preserving the sample, the turmeric paper should be changed to a bright cherry-red color. If too much hydrochloric acid has been employed a dirty brownish-red color is obtained, which interferes with the color due to the presence of {358} boric acid. When a drop of household ammonia is added to the colored turmeric paper, it is turned a dark green, almost black color, if boric acid is present. If the reddish color, however, was caused by the use of too much hydrochloric acid this green color does not form.
Caution.—The corrosive nature of hydrochloric acid must not be forgotten. It must not be allowed to touch the flesh, clothes, or any metal.
Detection of Colors.—The detection of coloring matter in sausage is often a difficult matter without the use of a compound microscope. It may sometimes be separated, however, by macerating the meat with a mixture of equal parts of glycerine and water to which a few drops of acetic or hydrochloric acid have been added. After macerating for some time the mixture is filtered and the coloring matter detected by means of dyeing wool in the liquid thus obtained.
«Spices.»—Although ground spices are very frequently adulterated, there are few methods that may be used by one who has not had chemical training, and who is not skilled in the use of a compound microscope, for the detection of the adulterants employed. The majority of the substances used for the adulteration of spices are of a starchy character. Unfortunately for our purposes, most of the common spices also contain a considerable amount of starch. Cloves, mustard, and cayenne, however, are practically free from starch, and the presence of starch in the ground article is proof of adulteration.
Detection of Starch in Cloves, Mustard, and Cayenne.—A half teaspoonful of the spice in question is stirred into half a cupful of boiling water, and the boiling continued for 2 or 3 minutes. The mixture is then cooled. If of a dark color, it is diluted with a sufficient amount of water to reduce the color to such an extent that the reaction formed by starch and iodine may be clearly apparent if starch be present. The amount of dilution can only be determined by practice, but usually the liquid must be diluted with an equal volume of water, or only 1/4 of a teaspoonful of the sample may be employed originally. A single drop of tincture of iodine is now added. If starch is present, a deep blue color, which in the presence of a large amount of starch appears black, is formed. If no blue color appears, the addition of the iodine tincture should be continued, drop by drop, until the liquid shows by its color the presence of iodine in solution.
Detection of Colors.—Spice substitutes are sometimes colored with coal-tar colors. These products may be detected by the methods given.
«Vinegar.»—A person thoroughly familiar with vinegar can tell much regarding the source of the article from its appearance, color, odor, and taste.
If a glass be rinsed out with the sample of vinegar and allowed to stand for a number of hours or overnight, the odor of the residue remaining in the glass is quite different with different kinds of vinegar. Thus, wine vinegar has the odor characteristic of wine, and cider vinegar has a peculiar fruity odor. A small amount of practice with this test enables one to distinguish with a high degree of accuracy between wine and cider vinegars and the ordinary substitutes.
If a sample of vinegar be placed in a shallow dish on a warm stove or boiling teakettle and heated to a temperature sufficient for evaporation and not sufficient to burn the residue, the odor of the warm residue is also characteristic of the different kinds of vinegar. Thus, the residue from cider vinegar has the odor of baked apples and the flavor is acid and somewhat astringent in taste, and that from wine vinegar is equally characteristic. The residue obtained by evaporating vinegar made from sugar-house products and from spirit and wood vinegar colored by means of caramel has the peculiar bitter taste characteristic of caramel.
If the residue be heated until it begins to burn, the odor of the burning product also varies with different kinds of vinegar. Thus, the residue from cider vinegar has the odor of scorched apples, while that of vinegars made from sugar-house wastes and of distilled and wood vinegars colored with a large amount of caramel has the odor of burnt sugar. In noting these characteristics, however, it must be borne in mind that, in order to make them conform to these tests, distilled and wood vinegars often receive the addition of apple jelly.
The cheaper forms of vinegar, especially distilled and wood vinegar, are commonly colored with caramel, which can be detected by the method given.
«FOOD COLORANTS.»
(Most, if not all, of these colorants are injurious and should therefore be used with extreme caution.)
«Sausage Color.»—To dye sausage red, certain tar dyestuffs are employed, {359} especially the azo dyes, preference being given to the so-called genuine red. For this purpose about 100 parts of dyestuff are dissolved in 1,000 to 2,000 parts of hot water; when the solution is complete, add a likewise hot solution of 45 to 50 parts of boracic acid, whereupon the mixture should be stirred well for some time; then filter, allow to cool, and preserve in tightly closing bottles. It is absolutely necessary in using aniline colors to add a disinfectant to the dyestuff solution, the object of which is, in case the sausage should commence to decompose, to prevent the decomposition azo dyestuff by the disengaged hydrogen. Instead of boracic acid, formalin may be used as a disinfectant. Of this formalin, 38 per cent, add about 25 to 30 parts to the cooled and filtered dyestuff solution. This sausage color is used by adding about 1 1/2 to 2 tablespoonfuls of it to the preserving salt measured out for 100 kilos of sausage mass, stirring well. The sausage turns neither gray nor yellow on storing.
«Cheese Color.»—I.—To produce a suitable, pretty yellow color, boil 100 parts of orlean or annatto with 75 parts of potassium carbonate in 1 1/2 to 2 liters of water, allow to cool, and filter after settling, whereupon 15 to 18 parts of boracic acid are added to give keeping qualities to the solution. According to another method, digest about 200 parts of orlean, 200 parts of potassium carbonate, and 100 parts of turmeric for 10 to 12 days in 1,500 to 2,000 parts of 60 per cent alcohol, filter, and keep in bottles. To 100,000 parts of milk to be made into cheese add 1 1/2 to 2 small spoonfuls of this dye, which imparts to the cheese a permanent and natural yellow appearance.
II.—To obtain a handsome yellow color for cheese, such as is demanded for certain sorts, boil together 100 parts of annatto and 75 parts of potassium carbonate in from 1,500 to 2,000 parts of pure water; let it cool, stand it aside for a time, and filter, adding finally from 12 to 15 parts of boracic acid as a preservative. For coloring butter, there is in the trade a mixture of bicarbonate of soda with 12 per cent to 15 per cent of sodium chloride, to which is added from 1 1/2 per cent to 2 per cent of powdered turmeric.
«Butter Color.»—For the coloring of butter there is in the market under the name of butter powder a mixture of sodium bicarbonate with 12 to 15 per cent of sodium chloride and 1 1/2 to 2 per cent of powdered turmeric; also a mixture of sodium bicarbonate, 1,500 parts; saffron surrogate, 8 parts; and salicylic acid, 2 parts. For the preparation of liquid butter color use a uniform solution of olive oil, 1,500 parts; powdered turmeric, 300 parts; orlean, 200 parts. The orlean is applied on a plate of glass or tin in a thin layer and allowed to dry perfectly, whereupon it is ground very fine and intimately mixed with the powdered turmeric. This mixture is stirred into the oil with digestion for several hours in the water bath. When a uniform, liquid mass has resulted, it is filtered hot through a linen filter with wide meshes. After cooling, the filtrate is filled into bottles. Fifty to 60 drops of this liquid color to 1 1/2 kilos of butter impart to the latter a handsome golden yellow shade.
«INFANT FOODS:»
Infants’ (Malted) Food.—
I.—Powdered malt 1 ounce Oatmeal (finest ground) 2 ounces Sugar of milk 4 ounces Baked flour 1 pound
Mix thoroughly.
II.—Infantine is a German infant food which is stated to contain egg albumen, 5.5 per cent; fat, 0.08 per cent; water, 4.22 per cent; carbohydrates, 86.58 per cent (of which 54.08 per cent is soluble in water); and ash, 2.81 per cent (consisting of calcium, 10.11 per cent; potassium, 2.64 per cent; sodium, 25.27 per cent; chlorine, 36.65 per cent; sulphuric acid, 3.13 per cent; and phosphoric acid, 18.51 per cent).
«MEAT PRESERVATIVES.»
(Most of these are considered injurious by the United States Department of Agriculture and should therefore be used with extreme caution.)
«The Preservation of Meats.»—Decomposition of the meat sets in as soon as the blood ceases to pulse in the veins, and it is therefore necessary to properly preserve it until the time of its consumption.
The nature of preservation must be governed by circumstances such as the kind and quality of the article to be preserved, length of time and climatic condition, etc. While salt, vinegar, and alcohol merit recognition on the strength of a long-continued usage as preservatives, modern usage favors boric acid and borax, and solutions containing salicylic acid and sulphuric acid are common, {360} and have been the subject of severe criticism.
Many other methods of preservation have been tried with variable degrees of success; and of the more thoroughly tested ones the following probably include all of those deserving more than passing mention or consideration.
1. The exclusion of external, atmospheric electricity, which has been observed to materially reduce the decaying of meat, milk, butter, beer, etc.
2. The retention of occluded electric currents. Meats from various animals packed into the same packages, and surrounded by a conducting medium, such as salt and water, liberate electricity.
3. The removal of the nerve centers. Carcasses with the brains and spinal cord left therein will be found more prone to decomposition than those wherefrom these organs have been removed.
4. Desiccation. Dried beef is an excellent example of this method of preservation. Other methods coming under this heading are the application of spices with ethereal oils, various herbs, coriander seed extracted with vinegar, etc.
5. Reduction of temperature, i. e., cold storage.
6. Expulsion of air from the meat and the containers. Appert’s, Willaumez’s, Redwood’s, and Prof. A. Vogel’s methods are representative for this category of preservation. Phenyl paper, Dr. Busch’s, Georges’s, and Medlock and Baily’s processes are equally well known.
7. The application of gases. Here may be mentioned Dr. Gamgee’s and Bert and Reynoso’s processes, applying carbon dioxide and other compressed gases, respectively.
Air-drying, powdering of meat, smoking, pickling, sugar or vinegar curing are too well known to receive any further attention here. Whatever process may be employed, preference should be given to that which will secure the principal objects sought for, the most satisfactory being at the same time not deleterious to health, and of an easily applicable and inexpensive nature.
«To Preserve Beef, etc., in Hot Weather.»—Put the meat into a hot oven and let it remain until the surface is browned all over, thus coagulating the albumen of the surface and inclosing the body of the meat in an impermeable envelope of cooked flesh. Pour some melted lard or suet into a jar of sufficient size, and roll the latter around until the sides are evenly coated to the depth of half an inch with the material. Put in the meat, taking care that it does not touch the sides of the jar (thus scraping away the envelope of grease), and fill up with more suet or lard, being careful to completely cover and envelop the meat. Thus prepared, the meat will remain absolutely fresh for a long time, even in the hottest weather. When required for use the outer portion may be left on or removed. The same fat may be used over and over again by melting and retaining in the melted state a few moments each time, by which means not only all solid portions of the meat which have been retained fall to the bottom, but all septic microbes are destroyed.
«Meat Preservatives.»—I.—Barmenite Corning Agent: For every 100 parts, by weight, take 25.2 parts, by weight, of saltpeter; 46.8 parts, by weight, sodium chloride; 25.7 parts, by weight, cane sugar; 0.8 parts, by weight, plaster of Paris or gypsum; 0.1 part, by weight, of some moistening material, and a trace of magnesia.
II.—Carniform, A: For every 100 parts, by weight, take 3.5 parts, by weight, sodium diphosphate; 3.1 parts, by weight, water of crystallization; 68.4 parts, by weight, sodium chloride; 24.9 parts, by weight, saltpeter; together with traces of calcium phosphate, magnesia, and sulphuric acid.
III.—Carniform, B: For every 100 parts, by weight, take 22.6 parts, by weight, sodium diphosphate; 17.3 parts, by weight, water of crystallization; 59.7 parts, by weight, saltpeter; 0.6 parts, by weight, calcium phosphate; with traces of sulphuric acid and magnesia.
IV.—“Cervelatwurst” (spice powder): For 100 parts, by weight, take 0.7 parts, by weight, of moistening; 3.5 parts, by weight, spices—mostly pepper; 89 parts, by weight, sodium chloride; 5 parts, by weight, saltpeter; 0.7 parts, by weight, gypsum; and traces of magnesia.
V.—Cervelatwurst Salt (spice powder): For 100 parts, by weight, take 7.5 parts, by weight, spices—mostly pepper; 1.6 parts, by weight, moistener; 81.6 parts, by weight, sodium chloride; 2.5 parts, by weight, saltpeter; 6.2 parts, by weight, cane sugar; and traces of magnesia.
VI.—Rubrolin Sausage (spice powder): For 100 parts by weight, take 53.5 parts, by weight, sal ammoniac, and 45.2 parts, by weight, of saltpeter.
VII.—Servator Special Milk and Butter Preserving Salt: 80.3 per cent of crystallized boracic acid; 10.7 per cent {361} sodium chloride; and 9.5 per cent of benzoic acid. (Its use is, however, prohibited in Germany.)
VIII.—Wittenberg Pickling Salt: For 100 parts, by weight, take 58.6 parts, by weight, sodium chloride; 40.5 parts, by weight, saltpeter; 0.5 parts, by weight, gypsum; traces of moisture and magnesia.
IX.—Securo: For a quart take 3.8 parts, by weight, aluminum oxide, and 8 parts, by weight, acetic acid; basic acetate of alumina, 62 parts, by weight; sulphuric acid, 0.8 parts, by weight; sodium oxide, with substantially traces of lime and magnesia.
X.—Michels Cassala Salt: This is partially disintegrated. 30.74 per cent sodium chloride; 15.4 per cent sodium phosphate; 23.3 per cent potassio-sodic tartrate; 16.9 per cent water of crystallization; 1.2 per cent aluminum oxide; and 2.1 per cent acetic acid as basic acetate of alumina; 8.4 per cent sugar; 0.98 per cent benzoic acid; 0.5 per cent sulphuric acid; and traces of lime.
XI.—Corning Salt: Sodium nitrate, 50 parts; powdered boracic acid, 45 parts; salicylic acid, 5 parts.
XII.—Preservative Salt: Potassium nitrate, 70 parts; sodium bicarbonate, 15 parts; sodium chloride, 15 parts.
XIII.—Another Corning Salt: Potassium nitrate, 50 parts; sodium chloride, 20 parts; powdered boracic acid, 20 parts; sugar, 10 parts.
XIV.—Maciline (offered as condiment and binding agent for sausages): A mixture of wheat flour and potato flour dyed intensely yellow with an azo dyestuff and impregnated with oil of mace.
XV.—Borax 80 parts Boric acid 17 parts Sodium chloride 3 parts
Reduce the ingredients to a powder and mix thoroughly.
XVI.—Sodium sulphite, powdered 80 parts Sodium sulphate, powdered 20 parts
XVII.—Sodium chloride 80 parts Borax 8 parts Potassium nitrate 12 parts
Reduce to a powder and mix.
XVIII.—Sodium nitrate 50 parts Salicylic acid 5 parts Boric acid 45 parts
XIX.—Potassium nitrate 70 parts Sodium bicarbonate 15 parts Sodium chloride 15 parts
XX.—Potassium nitrate 50 parts Sodium chloride 20 parts Boric acid 20 parts Sugar 10 parts
«A German Method of Preserving Meat.»—Entire unboweled cattle or large, suitably severed pieces are sprinkled with acetic acid and then packed and transported in sawdust impregnated with cooking salt and sterilized.
«Extract of Meat Containing Albumen.»—In the ordinary production of meat extract, the albumen is more or less lost, partly through precipitation by the acids or the acid salts of the meat extract, partly through salting out by the salts of the extract, and partly by coagulation at a higher temperature. A subsequent addition of albumen is impracticable because the albumen is likewise precipitated, insolubly, by the acids and salts contained in the extract. This precipitation can be prevented, according to a French patent, by neutralizing the extract before mixing with albumen, by the aid of sodium bicarbonate. The drying of the mixture is accomplished in a carbonic acid atmosphere. The preparation dissolves in cold or hot water into a white, milky liquid and exhibits the smell and taste of meat extract, if the albumen added was tasteless. The taste which the extract loses by the neutralization returns in its original strength after the mixture with albumen. In this manner a meat preparation is obtained which contains larger quantities of albumen and is more nutritious and palatable than other preparations.
«Foot-Powders and Solutions»
The following foot-powders have been recommended as dusting powders:
I.—Boric acid 2 ounces Zinc oleate 1 ounce Talcum 3 ounces
II.—Oleate of zinc (powdered) 1/2 ounce Boric acid 1 ounce French chalk 5 ounces Starch 1 1/2 ounces
{362}
III.—Dried alum 1 drachm Salicylic acid 1/2 drachm Wheat starch 4 drachms Powdered talc 1 1/2 ounces
IV.—Formaldehyde solution 1 part Thymol 1/10 part Zinc oxide 35 parts Powdered starch 65 parts
V.—Salicylic acid 7 drachms Boric acid 2 ounces, 440 grains Talcum 38 ounces Slippery elm bark 1 ounce Orris root 1 ounce
VI.—Talc 12 ounces Boric acid 10 ounces Zinc oleate 1 ounce Salicylic acid 1 ounce Oil of eucalyptus 2 drachms
VII.—Salicylic acid 7 drachms Boric acid 3 ounces Talcum 38 ounces Slippery elm, powdered 1 ounce Orris, powdered 1 ounce
«Salicylated Talcum.»—
I.—Salicylic acid 1 drachm Talcum 6 ounces Lycopodium 6 drachms Starch 3 ounces Zinc oxide 1 ounce Perfume, quantity sufficient.
II.—Tannoform 1 drachm Talcum 2 drachms Lycopodium 30 grains
Use as a dusting powder.
«Solutions for Perspiring Feet.»—
I.—Balsam Peru 15 minims Formic acid 1 drachm Chloral hydrate 1 drachm Alcohol to make 3 ounces.
Apply by means of absorbent cotton.
II.—Boric acid 15 grains Sodium borate 6 drachms Salicylic acid 6 drachms Glycerine 1 1/2 ounces Alcohol to make 3 ounces.
For local application.
FOOTSORES ON CATTLE: See Veterinary Formulas.
«FORMALDEHYDE:»
See also Disinfectants, Foods, and Milk.
«Commercial Formaldehyde.»—This extremely poisonous preservative is obtained by passing the vapors of wood spirit, in the presence of air, over copper heated to redness. The essential parts of the apparatus employed are a metal chamber into which a feed-tube enters, and from which 4 parallel copper tubes or oxidizers discharge by a common exit tube. This chamber is fitted with inspection apertures, through which the course of the process may be watched and controlled. The wood spirit, stored in a reservoir, falls into a mixer where it is volatilized and intimately mixed with air from a chamber which is connected with a force pump. The gases after traversing the oxidizer are led into a condensing coil, and the crude formaldehyde is discharged into the receiver beneath.
The small amount of uncondensed gas is then led through a series of two washers. The “formol” thus obtained is a mixture of water, methyl alcohol, and 30 to 40 per cent of formaldehyde. It is rectified in a still, by which the free methyl alcohol is removed and pure formol obtained, containing 40 per cent of formaldehyde, chiefly in the form of the acetal. Rectification must not be pushed too far, otherwise the formaldehyde may become polymerized into trioxmethylene. When once oxidation starts, the heat generated is sufficient to keep the oxidizers red hot, so that the process works practically automatically.
«Determination of the Presence of Formaldehyde in Solutions.»—Lemme makes use, for this purpose, of the fact that formaldehyde, in neutral solutions of sodium sulphite, forms normal bisulphite salts, setting free a corresponding quantity of sodium hydrate, that may be titrated with sulphuric acid and phenolphthalein. The sodium sulphite solution has an alkaline reaction toward phenolphthalein, and must be exactly neutralized with sodium bisulphite. Then to 100 cubic centimeters of this solution of 250 grams of sodium sulphite (Na_〈2〉SO_〈3〉 + 7 H_〈2〉O) in 750 grams water, add 5 cubic centimeters of the suspected formaldehyde solution. A strong red color is instantly produced. Titrate with normal sulphuric acid until the color disappears. As the exact disappearance of the color is not easily determined, a margin of from 0.1 to 0.2 cubic centimeters may be allowed without the exactness of the reaction being injured, since 1 cubic centimeter of normal acid answers to only 0.03 grams of formaldehyde.
FORMALIN FOR GRAIN SMUT: See Grain. {363}
«FRAMES: THEIR PROTECTION FROM FLIES.»
Since there is great risk of damaging the gilt when trying to remove flyspecks with spirits of wine, it has been found serviceable to cover gilding with a copal varnish. This hardens and will stand rough treatment, and may be renewed wherever removed.
FRAME CLEANING: See Cleaning Preparations and Methods.
FRAME POLISHES: See Polishes.
FRAMING, PASSE-PARTOUT: See Passe-Partout.
FRECKLE LOTIONS: See Cosmetics.
FREEZING MIXTURES: See also Refrigeration and Refrigerants.
«Freezing Preventives»
«Liquid for Cooling Automobile Engines.»—In order to prevent freezing of the jacket water, when the engine is not in operation in cold weather, solutions are used, notably of glycerine and of calcium chloride (CaCl_〈2〉). The proportions for the former solution are equal parts of water and glycerine, by weight; for the latter, approximately 1/2 gallon of water to 8 pounds of CaCl_〈2〉, or a saturated solution at 60° F. This solution (CaCl_〈2〉 + 6 H_〈2〉O) is then mixed with equal parts of water, gallon for gallon. Many persons complain that CaCl_〈2〉 corrodes the metal parts, but this warning need do no more than urge the automobilist to use only the chemically pure salt, carefully avoiding the “chloride of lime” (CaOCl_〈2〉).
A practical manufacturing chemist of wide experience gives this:
A saturated solution of common salt is one of the best things to use. It does not affect the metal of the engine, as many other salts would, and is easily renewed. It will remain fluid down to 0° F., or a little below.
Equal parts of glycerine and water is also good, and has the advantage that it will not crystallize in the chambers, or evaporate readily. It is the most convenient solution to use on this account, and may repay the increased cost over brine, in the comfort of its use. It needs only the occasional addition of a little water to make it last all winter and leave the machinery clean when it is drawn off. With brine an incrustation of salt as the water evaporates is bound to occur which reduces the efficiency of the solution until it is removed. Water frequently must be added to keep the original volume, and to hold the salt in solution. A solution of calcium chloride is less troublesome so far as crystallizing is concerned, but is said to have a tendency to corrode the metals.
«Anti-Freezing Solution for Automobilists.»—Mix and filter 4 1/2 pounds pure calcium chloride and a gallon of warm water and put the solution in the radiator or tank. Replace evaporation with clean water, and leakage with solution. Pure calcium chloride retails at about 8 cents per pound, or can be procured from any wholesale drug store at 5 cents.
«Anti-Freezing, Non-Corrosive Solution.»—A solution for water-jackets on gas engines that will not freeze at any temperature above 20° below zero (F.) may be made by combining 100 parts of water, by weight, with 75 parts of carbonate potash and 50 parts of glycerine. This solution is non-corrosive and will remain perfectly liquid at all temperatures above its congealing point.
«Anti-Frost Solution.»—As an excellent remedy against the freezing of shop windows, apply a mixture consisting of 55 parts of glycerine dissolved in 1,000 parts of 62 per cent alcohol, containing, to improve the odor, some oil of amber. As soon as the mixture clarifies, it is rubbed over the inner surface of the glass. This treatment, it is claimed, not only prevents the formation of frost, but also stops sweating.
«Protection of Acetylene Apparatus from Frost.»—Alcohol, glycerine, and calcium chloride have been recommended for the protection of acetylene generators from frost. The employment of calcium chloride, which must not be confounded with chloride of lime, appears preferable in all points of view. A solution of 20 parts of calcium chloride in 80 parts of water congeals only at 5° F. above zero. But as this temperature does not generally penetrate the generators, it will answer to use 10 or 15 parts of the chloride for 100 parts of water, which will almost always be sufficient to avoid congelation. Care must be taken not to use sea salt or other alkaline or metallic salts, which deteriorate the metal of the apparatus.
«FROST BITE.»
When the skin is as yet unbroken, Hugo Kuhl advises the following: {364}
I.—Carbolized water 4 drachms Nitric acid 1 drop Oil of geranium 1 drop
Mix. Pencil over the skin and then hold the penciled place near the fire until the skin is quite dry.
If the skin is already broken, use the following ointment:
II.—Hebra’s ointment 500 parts Glycerine 100 parts Liquefied carbolic acid 15 parts
Mix. Apply to the broken skin occasionally.
III.—Camphor 25 parts Iodine, pure 50 parts Olive oil 500 parts Paraffine, solid 450 parts Alcohol, enough.
Dissolve the camphor in the oil and the iodine in the least possible amount of alcohol. Melt the paraffine and add the mixed solutions. When homogeneous pour into suitable molds. Wrap the pencils in paraffine paper or tin foil, and pack in wooden boxes. By using more or less olive oil the pencils may be made of any desired consistency.
IV.—Dissolve 5 parts of camphor in a mixture consisting of 5 parts of ether and 5 parts of alcohol; then add collodion sufficient to make 100 parts.
V.—Dissolve 1 part of thymol in 5 parts of a mixture of ether and alcohol, then add collodion sufficient to make 100 parts.
VI.—Carbolic acid 2 parts Lead ointment 40 parts Lanolin 40 parts Olive oil 20 parts Lavender oil 1 1/2 parts
VII.—Tannic acid 15 parts Lycopodium 15 parts Lard 30 parts
VIII.—Zinc oxide 15 parts Glycerine 45 parts Lanolin 40 parts
IX.—Ichthyol 10 parts Resorcin 10 parts Tannic acid 10 parts Distilled water 50 parts
Any of these is to be applied about twice a day.
FROSTED GLASS: See Glass.
FROST PREVENTIVE: See Freezing Preventives.
FROST REMOVERS: See Glass.
FRUIT ESSENCES AND EXTRACTS: See Essences and Extracts.
«Fruit Preserving»
(See also Essences, Extracts, and Preserves.)
«How to Keep Fruit.»—According to experiments of Max de Nansouty, fruit carefully wrapped in silk paper and then buried in dry sand will preserve a fresh appearance with a fresh odor or flavor, almost indefinitely. It may also be preserved in dry excelsior, but not nearly so well. In stubble or straw fruit rots very quickly, while in shavings it mildews quickly. In short, wheat-straw fruit often takes on a musty taste and odor, even when perfectly dry. Finally, when placed on wooden tablets and exposed to the air, most fruit decays rapidly.
I.—Crushed Strawberry.—Put up by the following process, the fruit retains its natural color and taste, and may be exposed to the air for months, without fermenting:
Take fresh, ripe berries, stem them, and rub through a No. 8 sieve, rejecting all soft and green fruit. Add to each gallon of pulp thus obtained, 8 pounds of granulated sugar. Put on the fire and bring just to a boil, stirring constantly. Just before removing from the fire, add to each gallon 1 ounce of a saturated alcoholic solution of salicylic acid, stirring well. Remove the scum, and, while still hot, put into jars, and hermetically seal. Put the jars in cold water, and raise them to the boiling point, to prevent them from bursting by sudden expansion on pouring hot fruit into them. Fill the jars entirely full, so as to leave no air space when fruit cools and contracts.
II.—Crushed Raspberry.—Prepare in the same manner as for crushed strawberry, using 1/2 red raspberries and 1/2 black, to give a nice color, and using 7 pounds of sugar to each gallon of pulp.
III.—Crushed Pineapple.—Secure a good brand of canned grated pineapple, and drain off about one-half of the liquor, by placing on a strainer. Add to each pound of pineapple 1 pound of granulated sugar. Place on the fire, and bring to boiling point, stirring constantly. Just before removing from the fire, add to each gallon of pulp 1 ounce saturated alcoholic solution of salicylic acid. {365} Put into air-tight jars until wanted for use.
IV.—Crushed Peach.—Take a good brand of canned yellow peaches, drain off liquor, and rub through a No. 8 sieve. Add sugar, bring to the boiling point, and when ready to remove from fire add to each gallon 1 ounce saturated alcoholic solution of salicylic acid. Put into jars and seal hermetically.
V.—Crushed Apricot.—Prepared in similar manner to crushed peach, using canned apricots.
VI.—Crushed Orange.—Secure oranges with a thin peel, and containing plenty of juice. Remove the outer, or yellow peel, first, taking care not to include any of the bitter peel. (The outer peel may be used in making orange phosphate, or tincture of sweet orange peel.) Next remove the inner, bitter peel, quarter, and remove the seeds. Extract part of the juice, and grind the pulp through an ordinary meat grinder. Add sugar, place on the fire, and bring to the boiling point. When ready to remove, add to each gallon 1 ounce of saturated alcoholic solution of salicylic acid and 1 ounce of glycerine. Put into air-tight jars.
VII.—Crushed Cherries.—Stone the cherries and grind them to a pulp. Add sugar, and place on the fire, stirring constantly. Before removing, add to each gallon 1 ounce of the saturated solution of salicylic acid. Put into jars and seal.
VIII.—Fresh Crushed Fruits in Season.—In their various seasons berries and fruits may be prepared in fresh lots for the soda fountain each morning, by reducing the fruit to a pulp, and mixing this pulp with an equal quantity of heavy simple syrup.
Berries should be rubbed through a sieve. In selecting berries, it is better to use the medium-sized berries for the pulp, reserving the extra large specimens for garnishing and decorative effects.
Mash the berries with a wooden masher, never using iron or copper utensils, which may discolor the fruit.
Pineapple may be prepared by removing the rough outer skin and grating the pulp upon an ordinary tin kitchen grater. The grater should be scrupulously clean, and care should be taken not to grate off any of the coarse, fibrous matter comprising the fruit’s core.
All crushed fruits are served as follows: Mix equal quantities of pulp and simple syrup in the counter bowl; use 1 1/2 to 2 ounces to each glass, adding the usual quantity of cream, or ice cream. Draw soda, using a fine stream freely.
IX.—Glacés.—Crushed fruits, served in the following manner, make a delicious and refreshing drink:
Crushed fruit 12 drachms Juice of half a lemon. Shaved ice.
Put the ice into a small glass, add the fruit and lemon juice, stir well, and serve with a spoon and straws.
FRUIT PRODUCTS, TESTS FOR: See Foods.
FRUIT SYRUPS: See Syrups.
FRUIT VINEGAR: See Vinegar.
«Fumigants»
(See also Disinfectants.)
«Fumigating Candles.»—I.—Lime wood charcoal, 6,000 parts, by weight, saturated with water (containing saltpeter, 150 parts, by weight, in solution), and dried again, is mixed with benzoin, 750 parts, by weight; styrax, 700 parts, by weight; mastic, 100 parts, by weight; cascarilla, 450 parts, by weight; Peruvian balsam, 40 parts, by weight; Mitcham oil, lavender oil, lemon oil, and bergamot oil, 15 parts, by weight, each; and neroli oil, 3 parts, by weight.
II.—Charcoal, 7,500 parts, by weight; saltpeter, 150 parts, by weight; Tolu balsam, 500 parts, by weight; musk, 2 parts, by weight; rose oil, 1 part. The mixtures are crushed with thick tragacanth to a solid mass.
III.—Sandal wood, 48 parts, by weight; clove, 6 parts, by weight; benzoin, 6 parts, by weight; licorice juice, 4 parts, by weight; potash saltpeter, 2 parts, by weight; cascarilla bark, 1.5 parts, by weight; cinnamon bark, 1.5 parts, by weight; musk, 0.05 parts, by weight. All these substances are powdered and mixed, whereupon the following are added: Styrax (liquid), 5 parts, by weight; cinnamon oil, 0.05 parts, by weight; clove oil, 0.05 parts, by weight; geranium oil, 0.5 parts, by weight; lavender oil, 0.2 parts, by weight; Peruvian balsam, 0.2 parts, by weight. The solid ingredients are each powdered separately, then placed in the respective proportion in a {366} spacious porcelain dish and intimately mixed by means of a flat spatula. The dish must be covered up with a cloth in this operation. After the mixture has been accomplished, add the essential oils and just enough solution of gum arabic so that by subsequent kneading with the pestle a moldable dough results which possesses sufficient solidity after drying. The mass is pressed into metallic molds in the shape of cones not more than 3/4 of an inch in height.
IV.—Red Fumigating Candles.—Sandal wood, 1 part; gum benzoin, 1.5 parts; Tolu balsam, 0.250 parts; sandal oil, .025 parts; cassia oil, .025 parts; clove oil, 25 parts; saltpeter, .090 parts. The powder is mixed intimately, saturated with spirit of wine, in which the oils are dissolved, and shaped into cones.
V.—Wintergreen oil 1 part Tragacanth 20 parts Saltpeter 50 parts Phenol, crystallized 100 parts Charcoal, powdered 830 parts Water.
Dissolve the saltpeter in the water, stir the solution together with the powdered charcoal and dry. Then add the tragacanth powder, also the wintergreen oil and the phenol, and prepare from the mixture, by means of a tragacanth solution containing 2 per cent of saltpeter, a mass which can be shaped into candles.
«Fumigating Perfumes.»—These are used for quickly putting down bad odors in the sick room, etc. They are decidedly antiseptic, and fulfil their purpose admirably.
I.—Select good white blotting paper, and cut each large sheet lengthwise into 3 equal pieces. Make a solution of 1 ounce of potassium nitrate in 12 ounces of boiling water; place this solution in a large plate, and draw each strip of paper over the solution so as to saturate it. Then dry by hanging up. The dried paper is to be saturated in a similar manner with either of the following solutions:
(1) Siam benzoin 1 ounce Storax 3 drachms Olibanum 2 scruples Mastic 2 scruples Cascarilla 2 drachms Vanilla 1 drachm Rectified spirit 8 ounces
Bruise the solids and macerate in the spirit 5 days, filter, and add
Oil of cinnamon 8 parts Oil of cloves 8 parts Oil of bergamot 5 parts Oil of neroli 5 parts
Mix.
(2) Benzoin 1 1/2 ounces Sandal wood 1 ounce Spirit 8 ounces
Macerate as No. 1, and add
Essence of vetiver 3 ounces Oil of lemon grass 40 drops
Mix.
After the paper is dry, cut up into suitable sized pieces to go into commercial envelopes.
II.—Benzoin 1 av. ounce Storax 1 av. ounce Fumigating essence 2 fluidounces Ether 1 fluidounce Acetic acid, glacial 20 drops Alcohol 2 fluidounces
Dissolve the benzoin and storax in a mixture of the alcohol and ether, filter and add the fumigating and the acetic acid. Spread the mixture upon filtering or bibulous paper and allow it to dry. To prevent sticking, dust the surface with talcum and preserve in wax paper. When used the paper is simply warmed, or held over a lamp.
III.—Musk 0.2 parts Oil of rose 1 part Benzoin 100 parts Myrrh 12 parts Orris root 250 parts Alcohol (90 per cent) 500 parts
IV.—Benzoin 80 parts Balsam Tolu 20 parts Storax 20 parts Sandal wood 20 parts Myrrh 10 parts Cascarilla bark 20 parts Musk 0.2 parts Alcohol 250 parts
«Fumigating Ribbon.»—I.—Take 1/2-inch cotton tape and saturate it with niter; when dry, saturate with the following tincture:
Benzoin 1 ounce Orris root 1 ounce Myrrh 2 drachms Tolu balsam 2 drachms Musk 10 grains Rectified spirit 10 ounces
Macerate for a week, filter, and add 10 minims of attar of rose.
II.—Another good formula which may also be used for fumigating paper, is: {367}
Olibanum 2 ounces Storax 1 ounce Benzoin 6 drachms Peruvian balsam 1/2 ounce Tolu balsam 3 drachms Rectified spirit 10 ounces
Macerate 10 days, and filter.
«Perfumed Fumigating Pastilles.»—
I.—Vegetable charcoal 6 ounces Benzoin 1 ounce Nitrate of potash 1/2 ounce Tolu balsam 2 drachms Sandal wood 2 drachms Mucilage of tragacanth, a sufficiency.
Reduce the solids to fine powder, mix, and make into a stiff paste with the mucilage. Divide this into cones 25 grains in weight, and dry with a gentle heat.
II.—Powdered willow charcoal 8 ounces Benzoic acid 6 ounces Nitrate of potash 6 drachms Oil of thyme 1/2 drachm Oil of sandal wood 1/2 drachm Oil of caraway 1/2 drachm Oil of cloves 1/2 drachm Oil of lavender 1/2 drachm Oil of rose 1/2 drachm Rose water 10 ounces
Proceed as in I, but this recipe is better for the addition of 20 grains of powdered tragacanth.
III.—Benzoin 10 av. ounces Charcoal 24 av. ounces Potassium nitrate 1 av. ounce Sassafras 2 av. ounces Mucilage of acacia, sufficient.
Mix the first four in fine powder, add the mucilage, form a mass, and make into conical pastilles.
IV.—Potassium nitrate 375 grains Water 25 fluidounces Charcoal wood, powder 30 av. ounces Tragacanth, powder 375 grains Storax 300 grains Benzoin 300 grains Vanillin 8 grains Coumarin 3 grains Musk 3 grains Civet 1 1/2 grains Oil of rose 20 drops Oil of bergamot 15 drops Oil of ylang-ylang 10 drops Oil of rhodium 10 drops Oil of sandal wood 5 drops Oil of cinnamon 5 drops Oil of orris 1 drop Oil of cascarilla 1 drop
Saturate the charcoal with the potassium nitrate dissolved in the water, dry the mass, powder, add the other ingredients, and mix thoroughly. Beat the mixture to a plastic mass with the addition of sufficient mucilage of tragacanth containing 2 per cent of saltpeter in solution, and form into cone-shaped pastilles. In order to evenly distribute the storax throughout the mass, it may be previously dissolved in a small amount of acetic ether.
V.—Benzoin 2 av. ounces Cascarilla 1 av. ounce Myrrh 1 av. ounce Potassium nitrate 1/2 av. ounce Potassium chlorate 60 grains Charcoal, wood 4 av. ounces Oil of cloves 1 fluidrachm Oil of cinnamon 1 fluidrachm Oil of lavender 1 fluidrachm Mucilage of tragacanth, sufficient.
Mix the first six ingredients previously reduced to fine powder, add the oils, and then incorporate enough mucilage to form a mass. Divide this into pastilles weighing about 60 grains and dry.
VI.—Charcoal, powder 30 av. ounces Potassium nitrate 1/2 av. ounce Water 33 fluidounces Tragacanth, powder 300 grains Tincture of benzoin 1 1/2 fluidounces Peru balsam 300 grains Storax, crude 300 grains Tolu balsam 300 grains Oleo-balsamic mixture 2 1/2 fluidrachms Coumarin 8 grains
Saturate the charcoal with the potassium nitrate dissolved in the water, then dry, reduce to powder, and incorporate the tragacanth and then the remaining ingredients. Form a mass by the addition of sufficient mucilage of tragacanth containing 2 per cent of potassium nitrate in solution and divide into pastilles.
VII.—Powdered nitrate of potassium 1/2 ounce Powdered gum arabic 1/2 ounce Powdered cascarilla bark (fresh) 1/2 ounce Powdered benzoin (fresh) 4 ounces {368} Powdered charcoal 7 ounces Oil of eucalyptus 25 drops Oil of cloves 25 drops Water, a sufficiency.
Make a smooth paste, press into molds and dry.
«FURS:»
«To Clean Furs.»—For dark furs, warm a quantity of new bran in a pan, taking care that it does not burn, to prevent which it must be briskly stirred. When well warmed rub it thoroughly into the fur with the hand. Repeat this 2 or 3 times, then shake the fur, and give it another sharp rubbing until free from dust. For white furs: Lay them on a table, and rub well with bran made moist with warm water; rub until quite dry, and afterwards with dry bran. The wet bran should be put on with flannel, then dry with book muslin. Light furs, in addition to the above, should be well rubbed with magnesia or a piece of book muslin, after the bran process, against the way of the fur.
«To Preserve Furs.»—I.—Furs may be preserved from moths and other insects by placing a little colocynth pulp (bitter apple), or spice (cloves, pimento, etc.), wrapped in muslin, among them; or they may be washed in a very weak solution of corrosive sublimate in warm water (10 to 15 grains to the pint), and afterwards carefully dried. As well as every other species of clothing, they should be kept in a clean, dry place, from which they should be taken out occasionally, well beaten, exposed to the air, and returned.
II.—Sprinkle the furs or woolen stuffs, as well as the drawers or boxes in which they are kept, with spirits of turpentine, the unpleasant scent of which will speedily evaporate on exposure of the stuffs to the air. Some persons place sheets of paper moistened with spirits of turpentine, over, under, or between pieces of cloth, etc., and find it a very effectual method. Many woolen drapers put bits of camphor, the size of a nutmeg, in papers, on different parts of the shelves in their shops, and as they brush their cloths every 2, 3, or 4 months, this keeps them free from moths; and this should be done in boxes where the furs, etc., are put. A tallow candle is frequently put within each muff when laid by. Snuff or pepper is also good.
«FURNACE JACKET.»
A piece of asbestos millboard—10 inches by 4 inches by 3/8 inch—is perforated in about a dozen or more places with glycerined cork borers, then nicked about an inch from each short end and immersed in water until saturated; next the board is bent from the nicks at right angles and the perforated portion shaped by bending it over a bottle with as little force as possible. The result should be a perforated arched tunnel, resting on narrow horizontal ledges at each side. Dry this cover in the furnace, after setting it in position, and pressing it well to the supports. Three such covers, weighing 1 pound, replaced 24 fire clay tiles, weighing 13 pounds, and a higher temperature was obtained than with the latter.
FURNITURE CLEANERS: See Cleaning Preparations and Methods.
FURNITURE, ITS DECORATION: See Wood.
FURNITURE ENAMEL: See Varnishes.
FURNITURE POLISHES: See Polishes.
FURNITURE WAX: See Waxes.
FUSES: See Pyrotechnics.
FUSES FOR ELECTRICAL CIRCUITS: See Alloys.
FUNNELS, TO CLEAN: See Cleaning Preparations and Methods.
GALVANIZED PAPER: See Paper, Metallic.
GAMBOGE STAIN: See Lacquers.
GAPES IN POULTRY: See Veterinary Formulas.
GARANCINE PROCESS: See Dyes.
«GARDENS, CHEMICAL:»
See also Sponges.
I.—Put some sand into a fish-globe or other suitable glass vessel to the depth of 2 or 3 inches; in this place a few pieces of sulphate of copper, aluminum, and iron; pour over the whole a solution of sodium silicate (water glass), 1 part, and water, 3 parts, care being taken not to disarrange the chemicals. Let this stand a week or so, when a dense growth of the silicates of the various bases used will be seen in various colors. Now displace {369} the solution of the sodium silicate with clear water, by conveying a stream of water through a very small rubber tube into the vessel. The water will gradually displace the sodium silicate solution. Care must be taken not to disarrange or break down the growth with the stream of water. A little experimenting, experience and expertness will enable the operator to produce a very pretty garden.
II.—This is a permanent chemical garden, which may be suspended by brass chains with a lamp behind.
Prepare a small beaker or jar full of cold saturated solution of Glauber’s salt, and into the solution suspend by means of threads a kidney bean and a non-porous body, such as a marble, stone, glass, etc. Cover the jar, and in a short time there will be seen radiating from the bean small crystals of sulphate of sodium which will increase and give the bean the aspect of a sea urchin, while the non-porous body remains untouched. The bean appears to have a special partiality for the crystals, which is due to the absorption of water by the bean, but not of the salt. In this way a supersaturated solution is formed in the immediate neighborhood of the bean, and the crystals, in forming, attach themselves to its surface.
III.—A popular form of ornamental crystallization is that obtained by immersing a zinc rod in a solution of a lead salt, thus obtaining the “lead tree.” To prepare this, dissolve lead acetate in water, add a few drops of nitric acid, and then suspend the zinc rod in the solution. The lead is precipitated in large and beautiful plates until the solution is exhausted or the zinc dissolved. In this case the action is electro-chemical, the first portions of the lead precipitated forming with the zinc a voltaic arrangement of sufficient power to decompose the salt.
It is said that by substituting chloride of tin for the lead salt a “tin tree” may be produced, while nitrate of silver under the same conditions would produce a “silver tree.” In the latter case distilled water should be used to prevent precipitation of the silver by possible impurities contained in ordinary water.
GAS FIXTURES: See Brass.
GAS FIXTURES, BRONZING OF: See Plating.
GAS SOLDERING: See Soldering.
GAS-STOVES, TO CLEAN: See Cleaning Preparations and Methods.
GAS TRICK: See Pyrotechnics.
GEAR LUBRICANT: See Lubricants.
«GELATIN:»
«French Gelatin.»—Gelatin is derived from two sources, the parings of skins, hides, etc., and from bones. The latter are submitted to the action of dilute hydrochloric acid for several days, which attacks the inorganic matters—carbonates, phosphates, etc., and leaves the ossein, which is, so to say, an isomer of the skin substance. The skin, parings of hide, etc., gathered from the shambles, butcher shops, etc., are brought into the factory, and if not ready for immediate use are thrown into quicklime, which preserves them for the time being. From the lime, after washing, they pass into dilute acid, which removes the last traces of lime, and are now ready for the treatment that is to furnish the pure gelatin. The ossein from bones goes through the same stages of treatment, into lime, washed and laid in dilute acid again. From the acid bath the material goes into baths of water maintained at a temperature not higher than from 175° to 195° F.
The gelatin manufacturer buys from the button-makers and manufacturers of knife handles and bone articles generally, those parts of the bone that they cannot use, some of which are pieces 8 inches long by a half inch thick.
Bones gathered by the ragpickers furnish the strongest glue. The parings of skin, hide, etc., are from those portions of bullock hides, calf skins, etc., that cannot be made use of by the tanner, the heads, legs, etc.
The gelatin made by Coignet for the Pharmacie Centrale de France is made from skins procured from the tawers of Paris, who get it directly from the abattoirs, which is as much as to say that the material is guaranteed fresh and healthy, since these institutions are under rigid inspection and surveillance of government inspectors and medical men.
There is a gelatin or glue, used exclusively for joiners, inside carpenters, and ceiling makers (plafonneurs), called rabbit vermicelli, and derived from rabbit skins. As the first treatment of these skins is to saturate them with mercury bichloride, it is needless to say the product is not employed in pharmacy. {370}
«To Clarify Solutions of Gelatin, Glues, etc.»—If 1 per cent of ammonium fluoride be added to turbid solutions of gelatin or common glue, or, in fact, of any gums, it quickly clarifies them. It causes a deposition of ligneous matter, and also very materially increases the adhesive power of such solutions.
«Air Bubbles in Gelatin.»—The presence of minute air bubbles in cakes of commercial gelatin often imparts to them an unpleasant cloudy appearance. These minute air bubbles are the result of the rapid, continuous process of drying the sheets of gelatin by a counter-current of hot air. Owing to the rapid drying a hard skin is formed on the outside of the cake, leaving a central layer from which the moisture escapes only with difficulty, and in which the air bubbles remain behind. Since the best qualities of gelatin dry most rapidly, the presence of these minute bubbles is, to a certain extent, an indication of superiority, and they rarely occur in the poorer qualities of gelatin. If dried slowly in the old way gelatin is liable to be damaged by fermentation; in such cases large bubbles of gas are formed in the sheets, and are a sign of bad quality.
«GEMS, ARTIFICIAL:»
See also Diamonds.
The raw materials for the production of artificial gems are the finest silica and, as a rule, finely ground rock crystals; white sand and quartz, which remain pure white even at a higher temperature, may also be used.
Artificial borax is given the preference, since the native variety frequently contains substances which color the glass. Lead carbonate or red lead must be perfectly pure and not contain any protoxide, since the latter gives the glass a dull, greenish hue. White lead and red lead have to dissolve completely in dilute nitric acid or without leaving a residue; the solution, neutralized as much as possible, must not be reddened by prussiate of potash. In the former case tin is present, in the latter copper. Arsenious acid and saltpeter must be perfectly pure; they serve for the destruction of the organic substances. The materials, without the coloring oxide, furnish the starting quantity for the production of artificial gems; such glass pastes are named “strass.”
The emerald, a precious stone of green color, is imitated by melting 1,000 parts of strass and 8 parts of chromic oxide. Artificial emeralds are also obtained with cupric acid and ferric oxides, consisting of 43.84 parts of rock crystal; 21.92 parts of dry sodium carbonate; 7.2 parts of calcined and powdered borax; 7.2 parts of red lead; 3.65 parts of saltpeter; 1.21 parts of red ferric oxide, and 0.6 parts of green copper carbonate.
Agates are imitated by allowing fragments of variously colored pastes to flow together, and stirring during the deliquation.
The amethyst is imitated by mixing 300 parts of a glass frit with 0.6 parts of gray manganese ore, or from 300 parts of frit containing 0.8 per cent of manganic oxide, 36.5 parts of saltpeter, 15 parts of borax, and 15 parts of minium (red lead). A handsome amethyst is obtained by melting together 1,000 parts of strass, 8 parts of manganese oxide, 5 parts of cobalt oxide, and 2 parts of gold purple.
Latterly, attempts have also been made to produce very hard glasses for imitation stones from alumina and borax with the requisite coloring agents.
Besides imitation stones there are also produced opaque glass pastes bearing the name of the stones they resemble, e. g., aventurine, azure-stone (lapis lazuli), chrysoprase, turquoise, obsidian, etc. For these, especially pure materials, as belonging to the most important ingredients of glassy bodies, are used, and certain quantities of red lead and borax are also added.
GEM CEMENTS: See Adhesives, under Jewelers’ Cements.
GERMAN SILVER: See Alloys.
GERMAN SILVER SOLDERS: See Solders.
GILDING: See Paints, Plating, and Varnishes.
GILDING GLASS: See Glass.
GILDING, TO CLEAN: See Cleaning Preparations and Methods.
GILDING, RENOVATION OF: See Cleaning Compounds.
GILDING SUBSTITUTE: See Plating.
GILT, TEST FOR: See Gold.
GILT WORK, TO BURNISH: See Gold. {371}
GINGERADE: See Beverages.
GINGER ALE AND GINGER BEER: See Beverages.
GINGER CORDIAL: See Wines and Liquors.
GINGER EXTRACTS: See Essences and Extracts.
«Glass»
«Bent Glass.»—This was formerly used for show cases; its use in store fronts is becoming more and more familiar, large plates being bent for this purpose. It is much used in the construction of dwellings, in windows, or rounded corners, and in towers; in coach fronts and in rounded front china closets. Either plain glass or beveled glass may be bent, and to any curve.
The number of molds required in a glass-bending establishment is large.
The bending is done in a kiln. Glass melts at 2,300° F.; the heat employed in bending is 1,800° F. No pyrometer would stand long in that heat, so the heat of the kiln is judged from the color of the flame and other indications. Smaller pieces of glass are put into the molds in the kilns with forks made for the purpose. The great molds used for bending large sheets of glass are mounted on cars, that may be rolled in and out of kilns. The glass is laid upon the top of the mold or cavity, and is bent by its own weight. As it is softened by the heat it sinks into the mold and so is bent. It may take an hour or two to bend the glass, which is then left in the kiln from 24 to 36 hours to anneal and cool. Glass of any kind or size is put into the kilns in its finished state; the great heat to which it is subjected does not disturb the polished surface. Despite every precaution more or less glass is broken in bending. Bent glass costs about 50 per cent more than the flat.
The use of bent glass is increasing, and there are 4 or 5 glass-bending establishments in the United States, of which one is in the East.
«Colored Glass.»—R. Zsigmondy has made some interesting experiments in coloring glass with metallic sulphides, such as molybdenite, and sulphides of antimony, copper, bismuth, and nickel. Tests made with batches of 20 to 40 pounds and with a heat not too great, give good results as follows:
Sand, 65 parts; potash, 15 parts; soda, 5 parts; lime, 9 parts; molybdenite, 3 parts; sulphide of sodium, 2 parts, gave a dark reddish-brown glass. In thinner layers this glass appeared light brownish yellow. Flashed with opal, it became a smutty black brown.
Sand, 50 parts; potash, 15 parts; soda, 5 parts; lime, 9 parts; molybdenite, 1 part; sulphide of sodium, 2 parts, gave a yellow glass.
Sand, 10 parts; potash, 3.3 parts; soda, 0.27 parts; lime, 1.64 parts; molybdenite, 0.03 parts, gave a reddish-yellow glass with a fine tinge of red.
Sand, 100 parts; potash, 26 parts; soda, 108 parts; lime, 12 parts; sulphide of copper, 1.7 parts; sulphide of sodium, 2.3 parts, gave a dark-brown color, varying from sepia to sienna. In thick layers it was no longer transparent, but still clear and unclouded. When heated this glass became smutty black brown and clouded.
A fine copper red was obtained from sand, 10 parts; potash, 3 parts; lime, 1.2 parts; soda, 0.25 parts; sulphide of copper, 7.5 parts; sulphide of sodium, 10.5 parts; borax, 9.5 parts.
Attempts to color with sulphides of antimony and bismuth failed. But the addition of 7 per cent of sulphide of nickel to an ordinary batch gave a glass of fine amethyst color.
«Coloring Electric-Light Bulbs and Globes.»—Two substances suggest themselves as excellent vehicles of color, and both water soluble—water glass (potassium or sodium silicate) and gelatin. For tinting, water-soluble aniline colors should be tried. The thickness of the solution must be a matter of experimentation. Prior to dipping the globes they should be made as free as possible from all grease, dirt, etc. The gelatin solution should not be so thick that any appreciable layer of it will form on the surface of the glass, and to prevent cracking, some non-drying material should be added to it, say glycerine.
«Rose-Tint Glass.»—Selenium is now used for coloring glass. Rose-tinted glass is made by adding selenium directly to the ingredients in the melting pot. By mixing first with cadmium sulphide, orange red is produced. This process is stated not to require the reheating of the glass and its immersion in the coloring mixture, as in the ordinary process of making red glass.
«CUTTING, DRILLING, GRINDING, AND SHAPING GLASS:»
«To Cut Glass.»—I.—Glass may be cut without a diamond. Dip a piece of {372} common string in alcohol and squeeze it reasonably dry. Then tie the string tightly around the glass on the line of cutting. Touch a match to the string and let it burn off. The heat of the burning string will weaken the glass in this particular place. While it is hot plunge the glass under water, letting the arm go well under to the elbow, so there will be no vibration when the glass is struck. With the free hand strike the glass outside the line of cutting, giving a quick, sharp stroke with a stick of wood, a long-bladed knife, or the like, and the cut will be as clean and straight as if made by a regular glass cutter.
The same principle may be employed to cut bottles into vases, and to form all sorts of pretty things, such as jewelry boxes, picture panes, trays, small tablets, windows for a doll house, etc.
II.—Scratch the glass around the shape you desire with the corner of a file or graver; then, having bent a piece of wire into the same shape, heat it red hot and lay it upon the scratch and sink the glass into cold water just deep enough for the water to come almost on a level with its upper surface. It will rarely fail to break perfectly true.
«To Cut Glass Under Water.»—It is possible to cut a sheet of glass roughly to any desired shape with an ordinary pair of scissors, if the operation be performed under water. Of course, a smooth edge cannot be obtained by such means, but it will be found satisfactory.
«Drilling, Shaping, and Filing Glass.»—Take any good piece of steel wire, file to the shape of a drill, and then hold it in a flame till it is at a dull red heat; then quench in metallic mercury. A piece of good steel, thus treated, will bore through glass almost as easily as through soft brass. In use, lubricate with oil of turpentine in which camphor has been dissolved. When the point of the drill has touched the other side put the glass in water, and proceed with the drilling very slowly. If not possible to do this, reverse the work—turn the glass over and drill, very carefully, from the opposite side. By proceeding with care you can easily drill three holes through glass 3/16 inch thick 1/4 of an inch apart. In making the drill be careful not to make the point and the cutting edges too acute. The drill cuts more slowly, but more safely, when the point and cutting edges are at a low angle.
«To Make Holes in Thin Glass.»—To produce holes in panes of thin or weak glass, provide the places to be perforated with a ring of moist loam, whose center leaves free a portion of glass exactly the size of the desired hole. Pour molten lead into the ring, and the glass and lead will fall through at once. This process is based upon the rapid heating of the glass.
«To Grind Glass.»—For the grinding of glass, iron, or steel laps and fine sand are first used; after that, the sand is replaced by emery. Then the polishing is started with pure lead or pure tin laps, and finished with willow wood laps. The polishing powder is tin putty, but peroxide of iron or dioxide of tin is a good polishing medium.
Pohl asserts that if glass is polished with crocus (Paris red) it appears of a dark or a yellowish-brown tint. He contends that the crocus enters the pores of the glass, and, to prevent this, he uses zinc white with the most satisfactory results.
«A Home-Made Outfit for Grinding Glass.»—Provide two pieces of cork, one concave and one convex (which may be cut to shape after fitting to the lathe). Take a copper cent or other suitable article and soft-solder a screw to fit the lathe, and then wax it to the cork; get a cheap emery wheel, such as is used on sewing machines. Polish the edge on the zinc collar of the emery wheel (or use a piece of zinc). The other cork should be waxed to a penny and centered. Spectacle lenses may be cut on the same emery wheel if the wheel is attached to the lathe so as to revolve. Another method is to take a common piece of window glass (green glass is the best) and make a grindstone of that, using the flat surface for grinding. Cement it on a large chuck, the glass being from 2 to 2 1/2 inches in diameter.
«To Drill Optical Glass.»—A graver sharpened to a long point is twisted between the fingers, and pressed against the glass, the point being moistened from time to time with turpentine. When the hole is finished half way, the drilling should be commenced from the other side. The starting should be begun with care, as otherwise the graver is likely to slide out and scratch the lens. It is advisable to mark the point of drilling with a diamond, and not to apply too great a pressure when twisting the graver.
«Lubricants for Glass Drilling.»—I.—Put garlic, chopped in small pieces, into spirit of turpentine and agitate the {373} mixture from time to time. Filter at the end of a fortnight, and when you desire to pierce the glass dip your bit or drill into this liquid, taking care to moisten it constantly to prevent the drill, etc., from becoming heated.
II.—Place a little alum in acetic acid, dip your drill into this and put a drop of it on the spot where the glass is to be pierced.
«GILDING GLASS.»
When it is desired to gild glass for decorative purposes use a solution of gelatin in hot water, to which an equal quantity of alcohol has been added. The glass to be gilded is covered with this solution and the gold leaf put on while wet. A sheet of soft cotton must be pressed and smoothed over the leaf until the gelatin below is evenly distributed. This prevents spots in gilding. Careful apportionment of the gelatin is necessary. If too much be used, the gold may become spotted; if too little, the binding may be too weak to allow the gold to be polished. The glass should be cleaned thoroughly before gilding. After the gold leaf is put on the whole is allowed to dry for 10 or 20 minutes, when the luster of the gold can be raised by a cautious rubbing with cotton. Then another layer of gelatin is spread on with one stroke of a soft brush, and, if especially good work be required, a second layer of gold is put on and covered as before. In this case, however, the gelatin is used hot. After the gilding has become perfectly dry the letters or ornamentation are drawn and the surplus gold around the edges is taken off. The gilding does not become thoroughly fixed until after several months, and until then rough handling, washing, etc., should be avoided.
The best backing for glass gilding is asphaltum, with a little lampblack, this to be mixed up with elastic varnish; outside finishing varnish is the best, as the addition of this material gives durability.
«GLASS MANUFACTURING:»
See also Ceramics.
The blue tint of the common poison bottle is got by the addition of black oxide of cobalt to the molten glass; the green tint of the actinic glass bottle is obtained in the same way by the addition of potassium bichromate, which is reduced to the basylous condition, and the amber tint is produced by the addition of impure manganese dioxide, a superior tint being produced by suphur in one form or another. The formulas for various kinds of bottle glass, which indicate the general composition of almost all glasses, are:
White Glass for Ordinary Molded Bottles.—
Sand 64 parts by weight Lime 6 parts by weight Carbonate of sodium 23 parts by weight Nitrate of sodium 5 parts by weight
White Flint Glass Containing Lead.—
Sand 63 parts by weight Lime 5 parts by weight Carbonate of sodium 21 parts by weight Nitrate of sodium 3 parts by weight Red lead 8 parts by weight
Ordinary Green Glass for Dispensing Bottles.—
Sand 63 parts by weight Carbonate of sodium 26 parts by weight Lime 11 parts by weight
Amixture for producing a good green flint glass is much the same as that for the ordinary white flint glass, except that the lime, instead of being the purest, is ordinary slaked lime, and the sodium nitrate is omitted. Sand, lime, and sodium carbonate are the ordinary bases of glass, while the sodium nitrate is the decolorizing agent.
Glass Refractory to Heat.—Fine sand, 70 parts; potash, 30 parts; kaolin, 25 parts.
Transparent Ground Glass.—Take hold of the glass by one corner with an ordinary pair of fire tongs. Hold it in front of a clear fire, and heat to about 98° F., or just hot enough to be held comfortably in the hand. Then hold the glass horizontally, ground side uppermost, and pour in the center a little photographer’s dry-plate negative varnish. Tilt the glass so that the varnish spreads over it evenly, then drain back the surplus varnish into the bottle from one corner of the glass. Hold the glass in front of the fire again for a few minutes and the varnish will crystallize on its surface, making it transparent. The glass should not be made too hot before the varnish is put on, or the varnish will not run evenly. This method answers very well for self-made magic-lantern slides. Ground glass may be made temporarily transparent by wiping with a sponge dipped in paraffine or glycerine.
«WATER-TIGHT GLASS:»
«Water-Tight Glass Roofs.»—Glass roofs, the skeletons of which are constructed {374} of iron, are extremely difficult to keep water-tight, as the iron expands and contracts with atmospheric changes. To meet this evil, it is necessary to use an elastic putty, which follows the variations of the iron. A good formula is: Two parts rosin and one part tallow, melted together and stirred together thoroughly with a little minium. This putty is applied hot upon strips of linen or cotton cloth, on top and below, and these are pasted while the putty is still warm, with one edge on the iron ribs and the other, about one-fourth inch broad, over the glass.
«Tightening Agent for Acid Receptacles.»—Cracked vessels of glass or porcelain, for use in keeping acids, can be made tight by applying a cement prepared in the following manner: Take finely sifted sand, some asbestos with short fiber, a little magnesia and add enough concentrated water glass to obtain a readily kneadable mass. The acid renders the putty firm and waterproof.
«PENCILS FOR MARKING GLASS:»
See also Etching and Frosted Glass.
Crayons for Writing on Glass.—I.—The following is a good formula:
Spermaceti 4 parts Tallow 3 parts Wax 2 parts Red lead 6 parts Potassium carbonate 1 part
Melt the spermaceti, tallow, and wax together over a slow fire, and when melted stir in, a little at a time, the potassium carbonate and red lead, previously well mixed. Continue the heat for 20 or 30 minutes, stirring constantly. Withdraw from the source of heat, and let cool down somewhat, under constant stirring, at the temperature of about 180° F.; before the mixture commences to set, pour off into molds and let cool. The latter may be made of bits of glass tubing of convenient diameter and length. After the mixture cools, drive the crayons out by means of a rod that closely fits the diameter of the tubes.
II.—Take sulphate of copper, 1 part, and whiting, 1 part. Reduce these to a fine powder and mix with water; next roll this paste into the shape of crayons and let dry. When it is desired to write on the glass use one of these crayons and wipe the traced designs. To make them reappear breathe on the glass.
III.—Melt together, spermaceti, 3 parts; talc, 3 parts, and wax, 2 parts. When melted stir in 6 parts of minium and 1 part of caustic potash. Continue heating for 30 minutes, then cast in suitable molds. When formed and ready to be put away dust them with talc powder, or roll each pencil in paraffine powder.
«PREVENTION OF FOGGING, DIMMING, AND CLOUDING.»
I.—Place a few flat glass or porcelain dishes with calcium chloride in each window. This substance eagerly absorbs all moisture from the air. The contents of the dishes have to be renewed every 2 or 3 days, and the moist calcium chloride rigorously dried, whereupon it may be used over again.
II.—Apply to the inside face of the glass a thin layer of glycerine, which does not permit the vapor to deposit in fine drops and thus obstruct the light. Double glass may also be used. In this way the heat of the inside is not in direct contact with the cold outside.
III.—By means of the finger slightly moistened, apply a film of soap of any brand or kind to the mirror; then rub this off with a clean, dry cloth; the mirror will be as bright and clear as ever; breathing on it will not affect its clearness.
IV.—Window glass becomes dull during storage by reason of the presence of much alkali. This can be avoided by taking sand, 160 parts; calcined sodium sulphate, 75; powdered marble, 50; and coke, 4 to 5 parts. About 3 parts of the sodium sulphate may be replaced by an equal quantity of potash.
«FROSTED GLASS.»
I.—A frosted appearance may be given to glass by covering it with a mixture of
Magnesium sulphate 6 ounces Dextrin 2 ounces Water 20 ounces
When this solution dries, the magnesium sulphate crystallizes in fine needles.
II.—Another formula directs a strong solution of sodium or magnesium sulphate, applied warm, and afterwards coated with a thin solution of acacia.
III.—A more permanent “frost” may be put on the glass by painting with white lead and oil, either smooth or in stipple effect. The use of lead acetate with oil gives a more pleasing effect, perhaps, than the plain white lead.
IV.—If still greater permanency is desired, the glass may be ground by rubbing with some gritty substance. {375}
V.—For a temporary frosting, dip a piece of flat marble into glass cutter’s sharp sand, moistened with water; rub over the glass, dipping frequently in sand and water. If the frosting is required very fine, finish off with emery and water. Mix together a strong, hot solution of Epsom salt and a clear solution of gum arabic; apply warm. Or use a strong solution of sodium sulphate, warm, and when cool, wash with gum water. Or daub the glass with a lump of glazier’s putty, carefully and uniformly, until the surface is equally covered. This is an excellent imitation of ground glass, and is not disturbed by rain or damp.
VI.—This imitates ground glass:
Sandarac 2 1/2 ounces Mastic 1/2 ounce Ether 24 ounces Benzine 16 to 18 ounces
VII.—Take white lead ground in a mixture of 3/4 varnish and 1/4 oil of turpentine, to which burnt white vitriol and white sugar of lead are added for drier. The paint must be prepared exceedingly thin and applied to the glass evenly, using a broad brush. If the windows require a new coat, the old one is first removed by the use of a strong lye, or else apply a mixture of hydrochloric acid, 2 parts; vitriol, 2 parts; copper sulphate, 1 part; and gum arabic 1 part, by means of a brush. The production of this imitation frosting entails little expense and is of special advantage when a temporary use of the glass is desired.
VIII.—A little Epsom salt (sulphate of magnesia) stirred in beer with a small dose of dextrin and applied on the panes by means of a sponge or a brush permits of obtaining mat panes.
«Hoarfrost Glass.»—The feathery foams traced by frost on the inside of the windows in cold weather may be imitated as follows:
The surface is first ground either by sand-blast or the ordinary method, and is then covered with a sort of varnish. On being dried either in the sun or by artificial heat, the varnish contracts strongly, taking with it the particles of glass to which it adheres; and as the contraction takes places along definite lines, the pattern given by the removal of the particles of glass resembles very closely the branching crystals of frostwork. A single coat gives a small, delicate effect, while a thick film, formed by putting on 2, 3 or more coats, contracts so strongly as to produce a large and bold design. By using colored glass, a pattern in half-tint may be made on the colored ground, and after decorating white glass, the back may be silvered or gilded.
«Engraving, Matting, and Frosting.»—Cover the glass with a layer of wax or of varnish on which the designs are traced with a graver or pen-point; next, hydrofluoric acid is poured on the tracings. This acid is very dangerous to handle, while the following process, though furnishing the same results, does not present this drawback: Take powdered fluoride of lime, 1 part, and sulphuric acid, 2 parts. Make a homogeneous paste, which is spread on the parts reserved for the engraving or frosting. At the end of 3 or 4 hours wash with water to remove the acid, next with alcohol to take off the varnish, or with essence of turpentine if wax has been employed for stopping off.
«To Render Window Panes Opaque.»—I.—Panes may be rendered mat and non-transparent by painting them on one side with a liquid prepared by grinding whiting with potash water-glass solution. After one or two applications, the panes are perfectly opaque, while admitting the light.
II.—Paint the panes with a solution of
Dextrin 200 parts by weight Zinc vitriol 800 parts by weight Bitter salt 300 parts by weight In water 2,000 parts by weight
III.—For deadening panes already set in frames the following is suitable: Dissolve 1 part of wax in 10 parts of oil of turpentine, adding 1 part of varnish and 1 part of siccative. With this mixture coat the panes on the outside and dab, while still wet, with a pad of cotton wadding. If desired small quantities of Paris blue, madder lake, etc., may be added to the wax solution.
IV.—For deadening window panes in factories and workshops: To beeswax dissolved in oil of turpentine, add some dryer and varnish to obtain a quicker drying and hardening. After the window pane has been coated with this mixture on the outside, it is dabbed uniformly with a pad of wadding. The wax may be tinted with glazing colors.
«Frosted Mirrors.»—I.—Cover with a solution of Epsom salts in stale beer; apply with a sponge to the mirror, first wiping it clean and dry. On drying, the Epsom salt crystallizes, giving very handsome frosted effects, but the solution must not be applied on humid days {376} when the glass is liable to be damp, for in that case the effect will be a blurred one. When it is desirable to remove the coating, lukewarm water will serve the purpose without damage to the luster of the mirror.
II.—The following mixture, when applied to a mirror and left to dry, will form in many shapes, all radiating from a focus, this focus forming anywhere on the glass, and when all dry tends to form a most pleasing object to the eye.
Sour ale 4 ounces Magnesium sulphate 1 ounce
Put on the mirror with a small, clean sponge and let dry. It is now ready for the artist, and he may choose his own colors and subject.
«Crystalline Coatings or Frostwork on Glass or Paper.»—Dissolve a small quantity of dextrin (gum arabic and tragacanth are not so suitable) in aqueous salt solution as concentrated as possible, for instance, in sulphate of magnesia (bitter salt), sulphate of zinc or any other readily crystallizing salt; filter the solution through white blotting paper and coat glass panes uniformly thin with the clear filtrate, using a fine, broad badger brush; leave them lying at an ordinary medium temperature about one-quarter hour in a horizontal position.
As the water slowly evaporates during this short time, handsome crystalline patterns, closely resembling frostwork, will develop gradually on the glass panes, which adhere so firmly to the glass or the paper (if well-sized glazed paper had been used) that they will not rub off easily. They can be permanently fixed by a subsequent coat of alcoholic shellac solution.
Especially handsome effects are produced with colored glass panes thus treated, and in the case of reflected light by colored paper.
For testing crystals as regards their optical behavior, among others their behavior to polarized light, it is sufficient to pour a solution of collodion wool (soluble peroxide lime for the preparation of collodion) over the surface of glass with the crystalline designs, and to pull off the dry collodion film carefully. If this is done cautiously it is not difficult to lift the whole crystalline group from the glass plate and to incorporate it with the glass-like, thin collodion film.
«REMOVING WINDOW FROST.»
Here are fourteen methods of preventing frost on windows, arranged in the order of their efficacy: 1, Flame of an alcohol lamp; 2, sulphuric acid; 3, aqua ammonia; 4, glycerine; 5, aqua regia; 6, hydrochloric acid; 7, benzine; 8, hydriodic acid; 9, boric acid; 10, alcohol; 11, nitric acid; 12, cobalt nitrate; 13, infusion of nutgalls; 14, tincture of ferrous sulphate. By the use of an alcohol lamp (which, of course, has to be handled with great care) the results are immediate, and the effect more nearly permanent than by any other methods. The sulphuric acid application is made with a cotton cloth swab, care being taken not to allow any dripping, and so with all other acids. The effect of the aqua ammonia is almost instantaneous, but the window is frosted again in a short time. With the glycerine there are very good results—but slight stains on the window which may be easily removed.
The instructions for glycerine are: Dissolve 2 ounces of glycerine in 1 quart of 62 per cent alcohol containing, to improve the odor, some oil of amber. When the mixture clarifies it is rubbed over the inner surface of the glass. This, it is claimed, not only prevents the formation of frost, but also prevents sweating.
«To Prevent Dimming of Eyeglasses, etc.»—Mix olein-potash soap with about 3 per cent of glycerine and a little oil turpentine. Similar mixtures have also been recommended for polishing physicians’ reflectors, show-windows, etc., to prevent dimming.
«WRITING ON GLASS:»
See also Etching and Inks.
«Composition for Writing on Glass.»—To obtain mat designs on glass, take sodium fluoride, 35 parts; potassium sulphate, 7 parts; zinc chloride, 15 parts; hydrochloric acid, 65 parts; distilled water, 1,000 parts. Dissolve the sodium fluoride and the potassium sulphate in half the water; dissolve the zinc chloride in the remaining water and add the hydrochloric acid. Preserve these two solutions separately. For use, mix a little of each solution and write on the glass with a pen or brush.
«Ink for Writing on Glass.»—
Shellac 20 parts Alcohol 150 parts Borax 35 parts Water 250 parts Water-soluble dye sufficient to color.
Dissolve the shellac in the alcohol, the borax in the water, and pour the shellac {377} solution slowly into that of the borax. Then add the coloring matter previously dissolved in a little water.
GLASS AND GLASSWARE CEMENT: See Adhesives and Amalgams.
GLASS CLEANERS: See Cleaning Preparations and Methods.
GLASS, COPPERING, GILDING, AND PLATING: See Plating.
GLASS ETCHING: See Etching.
GLASS, HOW TO AFFIX SIGN-LETTERS ON: See Adhesives under Sign-Letter Cements.
GLASS, FASTENING METALS ON: See Adhesives.
GLASS LETTERING: See Lettering.
GLASS LUBRICANTS: See Lubricants.
GLASS, PERCENTAGE OF LIGHT ABSORBED BY: See Light.
GLASS POLISHES: See Polishes.
GLASS, SILVERING OF: See Mirrors.
GLASS SOLDERS: See Solders.
GLASS, SOLUBLE, AS A CEMENT: See Adhesives.
GLASS, TO AFFIX PAPER ON: See Adhesives, under Water-Glass Cements.
GLASS, TO SILVER: See Silver.
«Glazes»
(See also Ceramics, Enamels, Paints, and Varnishes.)
«Glazes for Cooking Vessels.»—Melt a frit of red lead, 22.9 parts (by weight); crystallized boracic acid, 31 parts; enamel soda, 42.4 parts; cooking salt, 10 parts; gravel, 12 parts; feldspar, 8 parts. According to the character of the clay, this frit is mixed with varying quantities of sand, feldspar and kaolin, in the following manner:
Frit 84 84 84 84 Red lead 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 Gravel 8 6 3 ──── Feldspar ──── 2 5 8 Kaolin, burnt 6.5 6.5 6.5 6.5
Glazes which are produced without addition of red lead to the frit, are prepared as follows. Melt a frit of the following composition: Red lead, 22.9 parts (by weight); boracic acid in crystals, 24.8 parts; enamel soda, 37.1 parts; calcined potash, 6.9 parts; cooking salt, 10 parts; chalk, 10 parts; gravel, 12 parts; feldspar, 8 parts.
From the frit the following glazes are prepared:
Frit 86.5 86.5 86.5 86.5 Gravel 7 4.5 3 ──── Feldspar ──── 2.5 4 7 Kaolin, burnt 6.5 6.5 6.5 6.5
«Glazing on Size Colors.»—The essential condition for this work is a well-sized foundation. For the glazing paint, size is likewise used as a binder, but a little dissolved soap is added, of about the strength employed for coating ceilings. Good veining can be done with this, and a better effect can be produced in executing pieces which are to appear in relief, such as car-touches, masks, knobs, etc., than with the ordinary means. A skillful grainer may also impart to the work the pleasant luster of natural wood. The same glazing method is applicable to colored paintings. If the glazing colors are prepared with wax, dissolved in French turpentine, one may likewise glaze with them on a size-paint ground. Glazing tube-oil colors thinned with turpentine and siccative, are also useful for this purpose. For the shadows, asphalt and Van Dyke brown are recommended, while the contour may be painted with size-paint.
«Coating Metallic Surfaces with Glass.»—Metallic surfaces may be coated with glass by melting together 125 parts (by weight) of flint-glass fragments, 20 parts of sodium carbonate, and 12 parts of boracic acid. The molten mass is next poured on a hard and cold surface, stone or metal. After it has cooled, it is powdered. Make a mixture of 50° Bé. of this powder and sodium silicate (water glass). The metal to be glazed is coated with this and heated in a muffle or any other oven until the mixture melts and can be evenly distributed. This glass coating adheres firmly to iron and steel.
«Glaze for Bricks.»—A glazing color for bricks patented in Germany is a {378} composition of 12 parts (by weight) lead; 4 parts litharge; 3 parts quartzose sand; 4 parts white argillaceous earth; 2 parts kitchen salt; 2 parts finely crushed glass, and 1 part saltpeter. These ingredients are all reduced to a powder and then mixed with a suitable quantity of water. The color prepared in this manner is said to possess great durability, and to impart a fine luster to the bricks.
GLAZES FOR LAUNDRY: See Laundry Preparations.
GLOBES, HOW TO COLOR: See Glass-Coloring.
GLOBES, PERCENTAGE OF LIGHT ABSORBED BY: See Light.
GLOBES, SILVERING OF: See Mirrors.
GLOSS FOR PAPER: See Paper.
GLOVE-CLEANERS: See Cleaning Compounds.
GLOVES, SUBSTITUTE FOR RUBBER: See Antiseptics.
GLOVES, TESTING: See Rubber.
GLUCOSE IN JELLY: See Foods.
«Glue»
(Formulas for Glues and methods of manufacturing Glue will be found under Adhesives.)
«Rendering Glue Insoluble in Water.»—Stuebling finds that the usual mixture of bichromate and glue when used in the ordinary way does not possess the waterproof properties with which it is generally credited. If mixed in the daylight, it sets hard before it can be applied to the surfaces to be glued, and if mixed and applied in the dark room it remains just as soluble as ordinary glue, the light being unable to penetrate the interior of the joints. Neither is a mixture of linseed oil and glue of any use for this purpose. Happening to upset a strong solution of alum—prepared for wood staining—into an adjacent glue pot, he stirred up the two together out of curiosity and left them. Wishing to use the glue a few days later, he tried to thin it down with water, but unsuccessfully, the glue having set to a waterproof mass. Fresh glue was then mixed with alum solution and used to join two pieces of wood, these resisting the action of the water completely.
«To Bleach Glue.»—Dissolve the glue in water, by heat, and while hot, add a mixture in equal parts of oxalic acid and zinc oxide, to an amount equal to about 1 per cent of the glue. After the color has been removed, strain through muslin.
«Method of Purifying Glue.»—The glue is soaked in cold water and dissolved in a hot 25 per cent solution of magnesium sulphate. The hot solution is filtered, and to the filtrate is added a 25 per cent solution of magnesium sulphate containing 0.5 per cent of hydrochloric acid (or, if necessary, sulphuric acid). A white flocculent precipitate is obtained which is difficult to filter. The remainder of the glue in the saline solution is extracted by treatment with magnesium sulphate.
The viscous matter is washed, then dissolved in hot water, and allowed to cool, a quantity of weak alcohol acidulated by 1 per cent of hydrochloric acid being added just before the mass solidifies. From 2 to 3 parts, by volume, of strong alcohol (methyl or ethyl) are then added and the solution filtered, charcoal being used if necessary. The glue is finally precipitated from this solution by neutralizing with ammonia and washing with alcohol or water.
«To Distinguish Glue and Other Adhesive Agents.»—The product to be examined is heated with hydrofluoric acid (50 per cent). If bone glue is present in any reasonable quantity, an intense odor of butyric acid arises at once, similar to that of Limburger cheese. But if dextrin or gum arabic is present, only an odor of dextrine or fluorhydric acid will be perceptible. Conduct the reaction with small quantities; otherwise the smell will be so strong that it is hard to remove from the room.
GLUE CLARIFIER: See Gelatin.
«Glycerine»
«Recovering Glycerine from Soap Boiler’s Lye.»—I.—Glycerine is obtained as a by-product in making soap. For many years the lyes were thrown away as waste, but now considerable quantities of glycerine are recovered, which are much used in making explosive compounds.
When a metallic salt or one of the alkalies, as caustic soda, is added to tallow, a stearite of the metal (common soap is stearite of sodium) is formed, whereby the glycerine is eliminated. {379} This valuable by-product is contained in the waste lye, and has formed the subject of several patents.
Draw the lye off from the soap-pans; this contains a large quantity of water, some salt and soap and a small quantity of glycerine, and the great trouble is to concentrate the lye so that the large quantity of water is eliminated, sometimes 10 to 12 days being occupied in doing this. The soap and salt are easily removed.
To remove the soap, run the lye into a series of tanks alternating in size step-like, so that as the first, which should be the largest, becomes full, the liquor will flow into the second, from that into the third, and so on; by this arrangement the rosinous and albuminous matters will settle, and the soap still contained in the lyes will float on the surface, from which it is removed by skimming.
After thus freeing the lye of the solid impurities, convey the purified lye to the glycerine recovering department (wooden troughs or pipes may be used to do this), and after concentrating by heating it in a steam-jacketed boiler, and allowing it to cool somewhat, ladle out the solid salt that separates, and afterwards concentrate the lye by allowing it to flow into a tank, but before doing so let the fluid come in contact with a hot blast of air or superheated steam, whereby the crude discolored glycerine is obtained. This is further purified by heating with animal charcoal to decolorize it, then distilling several times in copper stills with superheated steam. The chief points to attend to are: (1) The neutralizing and concentrating the lye as much as possible and then separating the salts and solid matters; (2) concentrating the purified lye, and mixing this fluid with oleic acid, oil, tallow, or lard, and heating the mixture to 338° F., in a still, by steam, and gradually raise the heat to 372° F.; (3) stirring the liquor while being heated, and allowing the aqueous vapor to escape, and when thus concentrated, saponifying the liquid with lime to eliminate the glycerine; water is at the same time expelled, but this is removed from the glycerine by evaporating the mixture.
II.—In W. E. Garrigues’s patent for the recovering of glycerine from spent soap lyes, the liquid is neutralized with a mineral acid, and after separation of the insoluble fatty acids it is concentrated and then freed from mineral salts and volatile fatty acids, and the concentrated glycerine solution treated with an alkaline substance and distilled. Thus the soap lye may be neutralized with sulphuric acid, and aluminum sulphate added to precipitate the insoluble fatty acids. The filtrate from these is concentrated and the separated mineral salts removed, after which barium chloride is added and then sufficient sulphuric acid to liberate the volatile fatty acids combined with the alkali. These acids are partially enveloped in the barium sulphate, with which they can be separated from the liquid by filtration, while the remaining portion can be expelled by evaporating the liquid in a vacuum evaporator. Finally, the solution is treated with sodium carbonate, and the glycerine distilled.
Glycerine Lotion.—
Glycerine 4 ounces Essence bouquet 1/4 ounce Water 4 ounces Cochineal coloring, a sufficient quantity.
(See also Cosmetics for Glycerine Lotions.)
GLYCERINE APPLICATIONS: See Cosmetics.
GLYCERINE AS A DETERGENT: See Cleaning Preparations and Methods.
GLYCERINE PROCESS: See Photography.
GLYCERINE SOAP: See Soap.
GLYCERINE DEVELOPER: See Photography.
«Gold»
(See also Jewelers’ Formulas.)
«Gold Printing on Oilcloth and Imitation Leather.»—Oilcloth can very easily be gilt if the right degree of heat is observed. After the engraving has been put in the press, the latter is heated slightly, so that it is still possible to lay the palm of the hand on the heated plate without any unpleasant sensation. Go over the oilcloth with a rag in which a drop of olive oil has been rubbed up, which gives a greasy film. No priming with white of egg or any other priming agent should be done, since the gold leaf would stick. Avoid sprinkling on gilding powder. The gold leaf is applied directly on the oilcloth; then place in the lukewarm press, squeezing it down with {380} a quick jerky motion and opening it at once. If the warm plate remains too long on the oilcloth, the gold leaf will stick. When the impression is done, the gold leaf is not swept off at once, but the oilcloth is first allowed to cool completely for several minutes, since there is a possibility that it has become slightly softened under the influence of the heat, especially at the borders of the pressed figures, and the gold would stick there if swept off immediately. The printing should be sharp and neat and the gold glossy. For bronze printing on oilcloth, a preliminary treatment of printing with varnish ground should be given. The bronze is dusted on this varnish.
Imitation leather is generally treated in the same manner. The tough paper substance is made to imitate leather perfectly as regards color and pressing, especially the various sorts of calf, but the treatment in press gilding differs entirely from that of genuine leather. The stuff does not possess the porous, spongy nature of leather, but on the contrary is very hard, and in the course of manufacture in stained-paper factories is given an almost waterproof coating of color and varnish. Hence the applied ground of white of egg penetrates but slightly into this substance, and a thin layer of white of egg remains on the surface. The consequence is that in gilding the gold leaf is prone to become attached, the ground of albumen being quickly dissolved under the action of the heat and put in a soft sticky state even in places where there is no engraving. In order to avoid this the ground is either printed only lukewarm, or this imitation leather is not primed at all, but the gold is applied immediately upon going over the surface with the oily rag. Print with a rather hot press, with about the same amount of heat as is employed for printing shagreen and title paper. A quick jerky printing, avoiding a long pressure of the plate, is necessary.
«Liquid Gold.»—Take an evaporating dish, put into it 880 parts, by weight, of pure gold; then 4,400 parts, by weight, of muriatic acid, and 3,520 parts, by weight, nitric acid; place over a gas flame until the gold is dissolved, and then add to it 22 parts, by weight, of pure tin; when the tin is dissolved add 42 parts, by weight, of butter of antimony. Let all remain over the gas until the mixture begins to thicken. Now put into a glass and test with the hydrometer, which should give about 1,800 specific gravity. Pour into a large glass and fill up with water until the hydrometer shows 1090; pour all the solution into a chemical pot and add to it 1,760 parts, by weight, balsam of sulphur, stirring well all the while, and put it over the gas again; in an hour it should give, on testing, 125° F.; gradually increase the heat up to 185° F., when it should be well stirred and then left to cool about 12 hours. Pour the watery fluid into a large vessel and wash the dark-looking mass 5 or 6 times with hot water; save each lot of water as it contains some portion of gold. Remove all moisture from the dark mass by rolling on a slab and warming before the fire occasionally so as to keep it soft. When quite dry add 2 1/4 times its weight of turpentine and put it over a small flame for about 2 hours; then slightly increase the heat for another hour and a half. Allow this to stand about 24 hours, and then take a glazed bowl and spread over the bottom of it 1,760 parts, by weight, of finely powdered bismuth; pour the prepared gold over it in several places. Now take a vessel containing water and place inside the other vessel containing the gold, and heat it so as to cause the water to boil for 3 hours; allow it to remain until settled and pour off the gold from the settlings of the bismuth, and try it; if not quite right continue the last process with bismuth until good; the bismuth causes the gold to adhere.
«Preparation of Balsam of Sulphur.»—Take 16 parts oil of turpentine; 2 1/2 parts spirits of turpentine; 8 parts flour of sulphur.
Place all in a chemical pot and heat until it boils; continue the boiling until no sulphur can be seen in it; now remove from the heat and thin it with turpentine until about the thickness of treacle, then warm it again, stirring well; allow it to cool until it reaches 45° F., then test it with the hydrometer, and if specific gravity is not 995 continue the addition of turpentine and warming until correct, let it thoroughly cool, then bottle, keeping it air-tight.
«To Purify Bismuth.»—Take 6 parts bismuth metal, 3/4 part saltpeter. Melt together in a biscuit cup, pour out on to a slab, and take away all dirt, then grind into a fine powder.
«To Recover the Gold from the Remains of the Foregoing Process.»—Put all the “watery” solutions into a large vessel and mix with a filtered saturated solution of copperas; this will cause {381} a precipitate of pure metallic gold to gradually subside; wash it with cold water and dry in an evaporating dish.
All rags and settlings that are thick should be burnt in a crucible until a yellow mass is seen; then take this and dissolve it in 2 parts muriatic acid and 1 part nitric acid. Let it remain in a porcelain dish until it begins to thicken, and crystals form on the sides. Add a little nitric acid, and heat until crystals again form. Now take this and mix with cold water, add a solution of copperas to it and allow it to settle; pour off the water, and with fresh water wash till quite free from acid. The gold may then be used again, and if great care is exercised almost one-half the original quantity may be recovered.
The quantities given in the recipe should produce about 13 to 15 parts of the liquid gold. It does not in use require any burnishing, and should be fired at rose-color heat. If desired it can be fluxed with Venice turpentine, oil of lavender, or almonds.
«Treatment of Brittle Gold.»—I.—Add to every 100 parts, by weight, 5 to 8 parts, by weight, of cupric chloride and melt until the oily layer which forms has disappeared. Then pour out, and in most cases a perfectly pliable gold will have been obtained. If this should not be the case after the first fusion, repeat the operation with the same quantity of cupric chloride. The cupric chloride must be kept in a well-closed bottle, made tight with paraffine, and in a dry place.
II.—Pass chlorine gas through the molten gold, by which treatment most of the gold which has otherwise been set aside as unfit for certain kinds of work may be redeemed.
«Assaying of Gold.»—To determine the presence of gold in ores, etc., mix a small quantity of the finely powdered ore in a flask with an equal volume of tincture of iodine, shake repeatedly and well, and leave in contact about 1 hour, with repeated shaking. Next allow the mixture to deposit and dip a narrow strip of filtering paper into the solution. Allow the paper to absorb, next to dry; then dip it again into the solution, repeating this 5 to 6 times, so that the filtering paper is well saturated and impregnated. The strip is now calcined, as it were, and the ashes, if gold is present, show a purple color. The coloring disappears immediately if the ashes are moistened with bromine water. The same test may also be modified as follows: Cover the finely pulverized ore with bromine water, shake well and repeatedly during about 1 hour of the contact, and filter. Now add to the solution stannic protochloride in solution, whereby, in case gold is present, a purple color (gold purple of Cassius) will at once appear. In case the ore to be assayed contains sulphides, it is well to roast the ore previously, and should it contain lime carbonate, it is advisable to calcine the ore before in the presence of ammonium carbonate.
«Gold Welding.»—Gold may be welded together with any metal, if the right methods are employed, but best with copper. Some recipes for welding agents are here given.
I.—Two parts by weight (16 ounces equal 1 pound) of green vitriol; 1 part by weight (16 ounces equal 1 pound) of saltpeter; 6 parts by weight (16 ounces equal 1 pound) of common salt; 1 part by weight (16 ounces equal 1 pound) of black manganic oxide or pulverized, and mixed with 48 parts by weight (16 ounces equal 1 pound) of good welding sand.
II.—Filings of the metal to be used in welding are mixed with melted borax in the usual proportion. To be applied in the thickness desired.
III.—A mixture of 338 parts of sodium phosphate and 124 parts of boracic acid is used when the metal is at dark-red heat. The metal is then to be brought to a bright-red heat, and hammered at the same time. The metal easily softens at a high temperature, and a wooden mallet is best. All substances containing carbon should be removed from the surface, as success depends upon the formation of a fusible copper phosphate, which dissolves a thin layer of oxide on the surface, and keeps the latter in good condition for welding.
«To Recover Gold-Leaf Waste.»—To recover the gold from color waste, gold brushes, rags, etc., they are burned up to ashes. The ashes are leached with boiling water containing hydrochloric acid. The auriferous residuum is then boiled with aqua regia (1 part nitric acid and 3 parts hydrochloric acid), whereby the gold is dissolved and gold chloride results. After filtration and evaporation to dryness the product is dissolved in water and precipitated with sulphate of protoxide of iron. The precipitated gold powder is purified with hydrochloric acid.
«Gold from Acid Coloring Baths.»—I.—Different lots are to be poured together {382} and the gold in them recovered. The following method is recommended: Dissolve a handful of phosphate of iron in boiling water, to which liquor add the coloring baths, whereby small particles of gold are precipitated. Then draw off the water, being careful not to dissolve the auriferous sediment at the bottom. Free this from all traces of acid by washing with plenty of boiling water; it will require 3 or 4 separate washings, with sufficient time between each to allow the water to cool and the sediment to settle before pouring off the water. Then dry in an iron vessel by the fire and fuse in a covered skittlepot with a flux.
II.—The collected old coloring baths are poured into a sufficiently large pot, an optional quantity of nitro-muriatic acid is added, and the pot is placed over the fire, during which time the fluid is stirred with a wooden stick. It is taken from the fire after a while, diluted largely with rain water and filtered through coarse paper. The gold is recovered from the filtered solution with a solution of green vitriol which is stored in air-tight bottles, then freshened with hot water, and finally smelted with borax and a little saltpeter.
«Parting with Concentrated Sulphuric Acid.»—It is not necessary scrupulously to observe the exact proportion of the gold to the silver. After having prepared the auriferous silver, place it in a quantity of concentrated sulphuric acid contained in a porcelain vessel, and let it come to a violent boil. When the acid has either become saturated and will dissolve no more, or when solution is complete, remove the dissolving vessel from the fire, let it cool, and, for the purpose of clarifying, pour dilute sulphuric acid into the solution. The dissolved silver is next carefully decanted from the gold sediment upon the bottom, another portion of concentrated acid is poured in, and the gold is well boiled again, as it will still contain traces of silver; this operation may be repeated as often as is deemed necessary. The solution, poured into the glass jars, is well diluted with water, and the silver is then precipitated by placing a sheet of copper in the solution. The precipitate is then freshened with hot water, which may also be done by washing upon the filter; the granulated silver (sulphate of silver) is pressed out in linen, dried and smelted. The freshened gold, after drying, is first smelted with bisulphate of soda, in order to convert the last traces of silver into sulphate, and then smelted with borax and a little saltpeter.
«To Remove Gold from Silver.»—I.—Gold is taken from the surface of silver by spreading over it a paste, made of powdered sal ammoniac with aqua fortis and heating it till the matter smokes and is nearly dry, when the gold may be separated by rubbing it with the scratch brush.
II.—The alloy is to be melted and poured from a height into a vessel of cold water, to which a rotary motion is imparted, or else it is to be poured through a broom. By this means the metal is reduced to a fine granular condition. The metallic substance is then treated with nitric acid, and gently heated. Nitrate of silver is produced, which can be reduced by any of the ordinary methods; while metallic gold remains as a black sediment, which must be washed and melted.
«Simple Specific Gravity Test.»—A certain quantity of the metal is taken and drawn out into a wire, which is to be exactly of the same length as one from fine silver; of course, both must have been drawn through the same hole, silver being nearly 1/2 lighter than gold, it is natural that the one of fine silver must be lighter, and the increased weight of the wire under test corresponds to the percentage of gold contained in it.
«To Make Fat Oil Gold Size.»—First thin up the fat oil with turpentine to workable condition; then mix a little very finely ground pigment with the gold size, about as much as in a thin priming coat. Make the size as nearly gold color as is convenient; chrome yellow tinted with vermilion is as good as anything for this purpose. Then thin ready for the brush with turpentine, and it will next be in order to run the size through a very fine strainer. Add japan, as experience or experiment may teach, to make it dry tacky about the time the leaf is to be laid. Dry slowly, because the slower the size dries, the longer it will hold its proper tackiness when it is once in that condition.
«To Dissolve Copper from Gold Articles.»—Take 2 ounces of proto-sulphate of iron and dissolve it in 1/2 a pint of water, then add to it in powder 2 ounces of nitrate of potash; boil the mixture for some time, and afterwards pour it into a shallow vessel to cool and crystallize; then to every part of the crystallized salt add 8 ounces of muriatic acid, and preserve in a bottle for use. Equal parts of the above preparation and of boiling water is a good proportion to use in dissolving copper, or 1 part by weight {383} of nitric acid may be used to 4 parts by weight of boiling water as a substitute.
«GOLD PURPLE.»
I.—The solution of stannous chloride necessary for the preparation of gold purple is produced by dissolving pure tin in pure hydrochloric acid (free from iron), in such a manner that some of the tin remains undissolved, and evaporating the solution, into which a piece of tin is laid, to crystallization.
II.—Recipe for Pale Purple.—Dissolve 2 parts by weight of tin in boiling aqua regia, evaporate the solution at a moderate heat until it becomes solid, dissolve in distilled water and add 2 parts by weight of a solution of stannous chloride (specific gravity 1.7) dilute with 9,856 parts by weight of water, stir into the liquid a solution of gold chloride prepared from 0.5 parts by weight of gold and containing no excess of acid (the latter being brought about by evaporating the solution of gold chloride to dryness and heating for some time to about 320° F.). This liquid is dimmed by the admixture of 50 parts by weight of liquid ammonia which eliminates the purple. The latter is quickly filtered off, washed out and while still moist rubbed up with the glass paste. This consists of enamel of lead 20 parts by weight; quartzose sand, 1 part by weight; red lead, 2 parts by weight; and calcined borax, 1 part by weight, with silver carbonate, 3 parts by weight.
III.—Recipe for Dark Gold Purple.—Gold solution of 0.5 parts by weight of gold, solution of stannous chloride (specific gravity 1.7) 7.5 parts by weight; thin with 9,856 parts by weight of water, separate the purple by a few drops of sulphuric acid, wash out the purple and mix same with enamel of lead 10 parts by weight and silver carbonate, 0.5 parts by weight.
IV.—Recipe for Pink Purple.—Gold solution of 1 part by weight of gold; solution of 50 parts by weight of alum in 19,712 parts by weight of water; add 1.5 parts by weight of stannous chloride solution (specific gravity 1.7) and enough ammonia until no more precipitate is formed; mix the washed out precipitate, while still moist, with 70 parts by weight of enamel of lead and 2.5 parts by weight of silver carbonate. According to the composition of the purple various reds are obtained in fusing it on; the latter may still be brightened up by a suitable increase of the flux.
«To Render Pale Gold Darker.»—Take verdigris, 50 parts by weight and very strong vinegar, 100 parts by weight. Dissolve the verdigris in the vinegar, rub the pieces with it well, heat them and dip them in liquid ammonia diluted with water. Repeat the operation if the desired shade does not appear the first time. Rinse with clean water and dry.
«To Color Gold.»—Gilt objects are improved by boiling in the following solution: Saltpeter, 2 parts by weight; cooking salt, 1 part by weight; alum, 1 part by weight; water, 24 parts by weight; hydrochloric acid, 1 part by weight (1.12 specific gravity). In order to impart a rich appearance to gilt articles, the following paste is applied: Alum, 3 parts by weight; saltpeter, 2 parts by weight; zinc vitriol, 1 part by weight; cooking salt, 1 part by weight; made into a paste with water. Next, heat until black, on a hot iron plate, wash with water, scratch with vinegar and dry after washing.
«Gold-Leaf Striping.»—To secure a good job of gilding depends largely for its beauty upon the sizing. Take tube chrome yellow ground in oil, thin with wearing body varnish, and temper it ready for use with turpentine. Apply in the evening with an ox-tail striper, and let it stand until the next morning, when, under ordinary circumstances, it will be ready for the gold leaf, etc. After the gilding is done, let the job stand 24 hours before varnishing.
«Composition of Aqua Fortis for the Touch-Stone.»—Following are the three compositions mostly in use: I.—Nitric acid, 30 parts; hydrochloric acid, 3 parts; distilled water, 20 parts.
II.—Nitric acid, 980 parts by weight; hydrochloric acid, 20 parts by weight.
III.—Nitric acid, 123 parts by weight; hydrochloric acid, 2 parts by weight.
«To Remove Soft Solder from Gold.»—Place the work in spirits of salts (hydrochloric acid) or remove as much as possible with the scraper, using a gentle heat to remove the solder more easily.
«Tipping Gold Pens.»—Gold pens are usually tipped with iridium. This is done by soldering very small pieces to the points and filing to the proper shape.
«To Recognize Whether an Article is Gilt.»—Simply touch the object with a glass rod previously dipped into a solution of bichloride of copper. If the article has been gilt the spot touched should remain intact, while it presents a {384} brown stain if no gold has been deposited on its surface.
«To Burnish Gilt Work.»—Ale has proved a very good substitute for soap and water in burnishing gilt as it increases the ease and smoothness with which it is accomplished. Vinegar is a somewhat poorer substitute for ale.
«White-Gold Plates Without Solder.»—The gold serving as a background for white-gold is rolled in the desired dimensions and then made perfectly even under a powerful press. It is then carefully treated with a file until a perfectly smooth surface is obtained. After a white-gold plate of the required thickness has been produced in the same manner, the surfaces of the two plates to be united are coated with borax and then pressed together by machine, which causes the harder metal to be squeezed slightly into the surface of the other, furnishing a more solid and compact mass. The metals, now partially united, are firmly fastened together by means of strong iron wire and a little more borax solution is put on the edges. Then heat to the temperature necessary for a complete adhesion, but the heat must not be so great as to cause an alloyage by fusing. The whole is finally rolled out into the required thickness.
«To Fuse Gold Dust.»—Use such a crucible as is generally used for melting brass; heat very hot; then add the gold dust mixed with powdered borax; after some time a scum or slag will be on top, which may be thickened by the addition of a little lime or bone ash. If the dust contains any of the more oxidizable metals, add a little niter, and skim off the slag or scum very carefully; when melted, grasp the crucible with strong iron tongs, and pour off immediately into molds, slightly greased. The slag and crucibles may be afterwards pulverized, and the auriferous matter recovered from the mass through cupellation by means of lead.
GOLD ALLOYS: See Alloys.
GOLD, EXTRACTION OF, BY AMALGAMATION: See Amalgams.
GOLD LETTERS ON GLASS, CEMENTS FOR AFFIXING: See Adhesives, under Sign-Letter Cements.
GOLD, REDUCTION OF OLD PHOTOGRAPHIC: See Photography.
GOLD FOIL SUBSTITUTES AND GOLD LEAF: See Metal Foil.
GOLD-LEAF ALLOYS: See Alloys.
GOLD LEAF AND ITS APPLICATION: See Paints.
GOLD PLATING: See Plating.
GOLD, RECOVERY OF WASTE: See Jewelers’ Formulas.
GOLD RENOVATOR: See Cleaning Preparations and Methods.
GOLD, SEPARATION OF PLATINUM FROM: See Platinum.
GOLD SOLDERS: See Solders.
GOLD TESTING: See Jewelers’ Formulas.
GOLD VARNISH: See Varnishes.
GOLDWASSER: See Wines and Liquors.
GONG METAL: See Alloys.
«GRAIN.»
«Formalin Treatment of Seed Grain for Smut.»—Smut is a parasitic fungus, and springs from a spore (which corresponds to a seed in higher plants). This germinates when the grain is seeded and, penetrating the little grain plant when but a few days old, grows up within the grain stem. After entering the stem there is no evidence of its presence until the grain begins to head. At this time the smut plant robs the developing kernels of their nourishment and ripens a mass of smut spores.
These spores usually ripen before the grain, and are blown about the field, many spores becoming lodged on the ripening grain kernels. The wholesale agent of infection is the threshing machine. For this reason the safest plan is to treat all seed wheat and oats each year.
Secure a 40 per cent solution of formalin (the commercial name for formaldehyde gas held in a water solution). About 1 ounce is required for every 5 bushels of grain to be treated. {385}
Clean off a space on the barn floor or sweep a clean space on the hard level ground and lay a good-sized canvas down, on which to spread out the wheat. See that the place where the grain is to be treated is swept clean and thoroughly sprinkled with the formalin solution before placing the seed grain there.
Prepare the formalin solution immediately before use, as it is volatile, and if kept may disappear by evaporation.
Use 4 ounces of formalin for 10 gallons of water. This is sufficient for 600 pounds of grain. Put the solution in a barrel or tub, thoroughly mixing.
The solution can be applied with the garden sprinkler. Care must be taken to moisten the grain thoroughly. Sprinkle, stir the grain up thoroughly and sprinkle again, until every kernel is wet.
After sprinkling, place the grain in a conical pile and cover with horse-blankets, gunny sacks, etc. The smut that does the damage lies just under the glume of the oats or on the basal hairs of the wheat. Covering the treated grain holds the gas from the formalin within the pile, where it comes in contact with the kernels, killing such smut spores as may have survived the previous treatment. After the grain has remained in a covered pile 2 to 4 hours, spread it out again where the wind can blow over it, to air and dry.
As soon as the grain can be taken in the hand without the kernels sticking together, it can be sown in the field. The grain may be treated in the forenoon and seeded in the afternoon.
Since this treatment swells the kernels it hastens germination and should be done in the spring just before seeding time.
While the copper sulphate or bluestone treatment is valuable in killing smut, the formalin treatment can be given in less time, is applied so easily and is so effectual that it is recommended as a sure and ready means of killing smut in wheat and oats.
GRAINING CRAYONS: See Crayons.
GRAINING COLORS: See Pigments.
GRAINING WITH PAINT: See Paint.
GRAINING, PALISANDER: See Palisander.
GRAPE JUICE, PRESERVATION OF: See Wines and Liquors.
GRAPHITE AS A LUBRICANT: See Lubricants.
«GRAVEL WALKS.»
For cleaning gravel walks any of the following may be used: I.—Gas-tar liquor.
II.—Rock salt (cattle salt).
III.—Hydrochloric acid.
IV.—Sulphuric acid.
V.—Fresh limewater. The gas-tar liquor must be poured out a few times in succession, and must not touch the tree roots and borders of the paths. This medium is cheap. Cattle salt must likewise be thrown out repeatedly. The use of hydrochloric and sulphuric acids is somewhat expensive. Mix 60 parts of water with 10 parts of unslaked lime and 1 part of sulphuric acid in a kettle, and sprinkle the hot or cold mixture on the walks by means of a watering pot. If limewater is used alone it must be fresh—1 part of unslaked lime in 10 parts of water.
«GRAVERS:»
«To Prepare Gravers for Bright-Cutting.»—Set the gravers after the sharpening on the oilstone on high-grade emery (tripoli) paper. Next, hone them further on the rouge leather, but without tearing threads from it. In this manner the silver and aluminum engravers grind their gravers. A subsequent whetting of the graver on the touchstone is not advisable, since it is too easily injured thereby. A graver prepared as described gives excellent bright engraving and never fails.
In all bright-cutting the graver must be highly polished; but when bright-cutting aluminum a lubricant like coal-oil or vaseline is generally employed with the polished tool; a mixture of vaseline and benzine is also used for this purpose. Another formula which may be recommended for bright-cutting aluminum is composed of the following ingredients: Mix 4 parts of oil of turpentine and 1 part of rum with 1 ounce of stearine. Immerse the graver in any of the mixtures before making the bright-cut.
GREASES: See Lubricants.
GREASE ERADICATORS: See Cleaning Preparations and Methods. {386}
GREASE PAINTS: See Cosmetics.
GREEN, TO DISTINGUISH BLUE FROM, AT NIGHT: See Blue.
GREEN GILDING: See Plating.
GRENADES: See Fire Extinguishers.
GRINDING: See Tool Setting.
GRINDER DISK CEMENT, SUBSTITUTE FOR: See Adhesives.
«GRINDSTONES:»
«To Mend Grindstones.»—The mending of defective places in grindstones is best done with a mass consisting of earth-wax (so-called stone-pitch), 5 parts, by weight; tar, 1 part; and powdered sandstone or cement, 3 parts, which is heated to the boiling point and well stirred together. Before pouring in the mass the places to be mended must be heated by laying red-hot pieces of iron on them. The substance is, in a tough state, poured into the hollows of the stone, and the pouring must be continued, when it commences to solidify, until even with the surface.
«Treatment of the Grindstone.»—The stone should not be left with the lower part in the water. This will render it brittle at this spot, causing it to wear off more quickly and thus lose its circularity. It is best to moisten the stone only when in use, drop by drop from a vessel fixed above it and to keep it quite dry otherwise. If the stone is no longer round, it should be made so again by turning by means of a piece of gas pipe or careful trimming, otherwise it will commence to jump, thus becoming useless. It is important to clean all tools and articles before grinding, carefully removing all grease, fat, etc., as the pores of the stone become clogged with these impurities, which destroy its grain and diminish its strength. Should one side of the grindstone be lighter, this irregularity can be equalized by affixing pieces of lead, so as to obtain a uniform motion of the stone. It is essential that the stone should be firm on the axis and not move to and fro in the bearings.
«Grindstone Oil.»—Complaints are often heard that grindstones are occasionally harder on one side than the other, the softer parts wearing away in hollows, which render grinding difficult, and soon make the stone useless. This defect can be remedied completely by means of boiled linseed oil. When the stone is thoroughly dry, the soft side is turned uppermost, and brushed over with boiled oil, which sinks into the stone, until the latter is saturated. The operation takes about 3 to 4 hours in summer. As soon as the oil has dried, the stone may be damped, and used without any further delay. Unlike other similar remedies, this one does not prevent the stone from biting properly in the oiled parts, and the life of the stone is considerably lengthened, since it does not have to be dressed so often.
GROUNDS FOR GRAINING COLORS: See Pigments.
«GUMS:»
(See also Adhesives, under Mucilages.)
«Gums, their Solubility in Alcohol.»—The following table shows the great range of solubility of the various gums, and of various specimens of the same gum, in 60 per cent alcohol:
Acajon 6.94 to 42.92 Aden 0.60 to 26.90 Egyptian 46.34 Yellow Amrad 26.90 to 32.16 White Amrad 0.54 to 1.50 Kordofan 1.40 to 6.06 Australian 10.67 to 20.85 Bombay 22.06 to 46.14 Cape 1.67 to 1.88 Embavi 25.92 Gedda 1.24 to 1.30 Ghatti 31.60 to 70.32 Gheziereh 1.50 to 12.16 Halebi 3.70 to 22.60 La Plata 9.65 Mogadore 27.66 East Indian 3.24 to 74.84 Persian 1.74 to 17.34 Senegal 0.56 to 14.30
«Substitute for Gum Arabic.»—Dissolve 250 parts of glue in 1,000 parts of boiling water and heat this glue solution on the water bath with a mixture of about 10 parts of barium peroxide of 75 per cent BaO_〈2〉 and 5 parts of sulphuric acid (66°) mixed with 115 parts of water, for about 24 hours. After the time has elapsed, pour off from the barium sulphate, whereby a little sulphurous acid results owing to reduction of the sulphuric acid, which has a bleaching action and makes the glue somewhat paler. If this solution is mixed, with stirring, and dried upon glass plates in the drying-room, a product which can hardly be {387} distinguished from gum arabic is obtained. An envelope sealed with this mucilage cannot be opened by moistening the envelope. The traces of free acid which it contains prevent the invasion of bacteria, hence all putrefaction.
The adhesive power of the artificial gum is so enormous that the use of cork stoppers is quite excluded, since they crumble off every time the bottle is opened, so that finally a perfect wreath around the inner neck of the bottle is formed. Only metallic or porcelain stoppers should be used.
GUM ARABIC, INCREASING ADHESION OF: See Adhesives, under Mucilages.
GUM BICHROMATE PROCESS: See Photography.
GUM DROPS: See Confectionery.
GUM-LAC: See Oil.
GUMS USED IN MAKING VARNISH: See Varnishes.
GUN BARRELS, TO BLUE: See Steel.
GUN BRONZE: See Alloys, under Phosphor Bronze.
GUN COTTON: See Explosives.
GUN LUBRICANTS: See Lubricants.
GUNPOWDER: See Explosives.
«GUNPOWDER STAINS.»
A stain produced by the embedding of grains of gunpowder in the skin is practically the same thing as a tattoo mark. The charcoal of the gunpowder remains unaffected by the fluids of the tissues, and no way is known of bringing it into solution there. The only method of obliterating such marks is to take away with them the skin in which they are embedded. This has been accomplished by the application of an electric current, and by the use of caustics. When the destruction of the true skin has been accomplished, it becomes a foreign body, and if the destruction has extended to a sufficient depth, the other foreign body, the coloring matter which has been tattooed in, may be expected to be cast off with it.
Recently pepsin and papain have been proposed as applications to remove the cuticle. A glycerole of either is tattooed into the skin over the disfigured part; and it is said that the operation has proved successful.
It is scarcely necessary to say that suppuration is likely to follow such treatment, and that there is risk of scarring. In view of this it becomes apparent that any such operation should be undertaken only by a surgeon skilled in dermatological practice. An amateur might not only cause the patient suffering without success in removal, but add another disfigurement to the tattooing.
Carbolic acid has been applied to small portions of the affected area at a time, with the result that the powder and skin were removed simultaneously and, according to the physician reporting the case, with little discomfort to the patient.
Rubbing the affected part with moistened ammonium chloride once or twice a day has been reported as a slow but sure cure.
«GUTTA-PERCHA.»
«Gutta-Percha Substitute.»—I.—A decoction of birch bark is first prepared, the external bark by preference, being evaporated. The thick, black residue hardens on exposure to the air, and is said to possess the properties of gutta-percha without developing any cracks. It can be mixed with 50 per cent of India rubber or gutta-percha. The compound is said to be cheap, and a good non-conductor of electricity. Whether it possesses all the good qualities of gutta-percha is not known.
II.—A new method of making gutta-percha consists of caoutchouc and a rosin soap, the latter compounded of 100 parts of rosin, 100 parts of Carnauba wax, and 40 parts of gas-tar, melted together and passed through a sieve. They are heated to about 355° to 340° F., and slowly saponified by stirring with 75 parts of limewater of specific gravity 1.06. The product is next put into a kneading machine along with an equal quantity of caoutchouc cuttings, and worked in this machine at a temperature of 195° F. or over. When sufficiently kneaded, the mass can be rolled to render it more uniform.
GUTTER CEMENT: See Cement and Putty.
«GYPSUM:»
See also Plaster.
«Method of Hardening Gypsum and Rendering it Weather-Proof.»—Gypsum possesses only a moderate degree of strength even after complete hardening, {388} and pieces are very liable to be broken off. Various methods have been tried, with a view to removing this defect and increasing the hardness of gypsum. Of these methods, that of Wachsmuth, for hardening articles made of gypsum and rendering them weather-proof, deserves special notice. All methods of hardening articles made of gypsum have this in common: the gypsum is first deprived of its moisture, and then immersed in a solution of certain salts, such as alum, green vitriol, etc. Articles treated by the methods hitherto in vogue certainly acquire considerable hardness, but are no more capable of resistance to the effects of water than crude gypsum. The object of Wachsmuth’s process is not merely to harden the gypsum, but to transform it on the surface into insoluble combinations. The process is as follows: The article is first put into the required shape by mechanical means, and then deprived of its moisture by heating to 212° to 302° F. It is then plunged into a heated solution of barium hydrate, in which it is allowed to remain for a longer or shorter time, according to its strength. When this part of the process is complete, the article is smoothed by grinding, etc., and then placed in a solution of about 10 per cent of oxalic acid in water. In a few hours it is taken out, dried, and polished. It then possesses a hardness surpassing that of marble, and is impervious to the action of water. Nor does the polish sustain any injury from contact with water, whereas gypsum articles hardened by the usual methods lose their polish after a few minutes’ immersion in water. Articles treated by the method described have the natural color of gypsum, but it is possible to add a color to the gypsum during the hardening process. This is done by plunging the gypsum, after it has been deprived of its moisture, and before the treatment with the barium solution, into a solution of a colored metallic sulphate, such as iron, copper, or chrome sulphate, or into a solution of some coloring matter. Pigments soluble in the barium or oxalic-acid solutions may also be added to the latter.
Gypsum may be hardened and rendered insoluble by ammonium borate as follows: Dissolve boric acid in hot water and add sufficient ammonia water to the solution that the borate at first separated is redissolved. The gypsum to be cast is stirred in with this liquid, and the mass treated in the ordinary way. Articles already cast are simply washed with the liquid, which is quickly absorbed. The articles withstand the weather as well as though they were of stone.
GYPSUM FLOWERS: See Flowers.
GYPSUM, PAINT FOR: See Paint.
«HAIR FOR MOUNTING.»
The microscopist or amateur, who shaves himself, need never resort to the trouble of embedding and cutting hairs in the microtome in order to secure very thin sections of the hair of the face. If he will first shave himself closely “with the hair,” as the barbers say (i. e., in the direction of the natural growth of the hair), and afterwards lightly “against the hair” (in the opposite direction to above), he will find in the “scrapings” a multitude of exceedingly thin sections. The technique is very simple. The lather and “scrapings” are put into a saucer or large watch-glass and carefully washed with clean water. This breaks down and dissolves the lather, leaving the hair sections lying on the bottom of the glass. The after-treatment is that usually employed in mounting similar objects.
«Hair Preparations»
«DANDRUFF CURES.»
The treatment of that condition of the scalp which is productive of dandruff properly falls to the physician, but unfortunately the subject has not been much studied. One cure is said to be a sulphur lotion made by placing a little sublimed sulphur in water, shaking well, then allowing to settle, and washing the head every morning with the clear liquid.
Sulphur is said to be insoluble in water; yet a sulphur water made as above indicated has long been in use as a hair wash. A little glycerine improves the preparation, preventing the hair from becoming harsh by repeated washings.
The exfoliated particles of skin or “scales” should be removed only when entirely detached from the cuticle. They result from an irritation which is increased by forcible removal, and hence endeavors to clean the hair from them by combing or brushing it in such a way as to scrape the scalp are liable to be worse than useless. It follows that gentle handling of the hair is important when dandruff is present. {389}
I.—Chloral hydrate 2 ounces Resorcin 1 ounce Tannin 1 ounce Alcohol 8 ounces Glycerine 4 ounces Rose water to make 4 pints
II.—White wax 3 1/2 drachms Liquid petrolatum 2 1/2 ounces Rose water 1 ounce Borax 15 grains Precipitated sulphur 3 1/2 drachms
Pine-Tar Dandruff Shampoo.—
Pine tar 4 parts Linseed oil 40 parts
Heat these to 140° F.; make solution of potassa, U. S. P., 10 parts, and water, 45 parts; add alcohol, 5 parts, and gradually add to the heated oils, stirring constantly. Continue the heat until saponified thoroughly; and make up with water to 128 parts. When almost cool, add ol. lavender, ol. orange, and ol. bergamot, of each 2 parts.
«HAIR-CURLING LIQUIDS.»
It is impossible to render straight hair curly without the aid of the iron or paper and other curlers. But it is possible, on the other hand, to make artificial curls more durable and proof against outside influences, such as especially dampness of the air. Below are trustworthy recipes:
I II Water 70 80 Spirit of wine 30 20 Borax 2 — Tincture of benzoin — 3 Perfume ad. lib. ad. lib.
«HAIR DRESSINGS AND WASHES:»
Dressings for the Hair.—
I.—Oil of wintergreen. 20 drops Oil of almond, essential 35 drops Oil of rose, ethereal 1 drop Oil of violets 30 drops Tincture of cantharides 50 drops Almond oil 2,000 drops
Mix.
Hair Embrocation.—
II.—Almond oil, sweet 280 parts Spirit of sal ammoniac 280 parts Spirit of rosemary 840 parts Honey water 840 parts
Mix. Rub the scalp with it every morning by means of a sponge.
Hair Restorer.—
III.—Tincture of cantharides 7 parts Gall tincture 7 parts Musk essence 1 part Carmine 0.5 part Rectified spirit of wine 28 parts Rose water 140 parts
To be used at night.
Rosemary Water.—
IV.—Rosemary oil 1 1/2 parts Rectified spirit of wine 7 parts Magnesia 7 parts Distilled water 1,000 parts
Mix the oil with the spirit of wine and rub up with the magnesia in a mortar; gradually add the water and finally filter.
Foamy Scalp Wash.—Mix 2 parts of soap spirit, 1 part of borax-glycerine (1+2), 6 parts of barium, and 7 parts of orange-flower water.
Lanolin Hair Wash.—Extract 4 parts quillaia bark with 36 parts water for several days, mix the percolate with 4 parts alcohol, and filter after having settled. Agitate 40 parts of the filtrate at a temperature at which wool grease becomes liquid, with 12 parts anhydrous lanolin, and fill up with water to which 15 per cent spirit of wine has been added, to 300 parts. Admixture, such as cinchona extract, Peru balsam, quinine, tincture of cantharides, bay-oil, ammonium carbonate, menthol, etc., may be made. The result is a yellowish-white, milky liquid, with a cream-like fat layer floating on the top, which is finely distributed by agitating.
Birch Water.—Birch water, which has many cosmetic applications, especially as a hair wash or an ingredient in hair washes, may be prepared as follows:
Alcohol, 96 per cent 3,500 parts Water 700 parts Potash soap 200 parts Glycerine 150 parts Oil of birch buds 50 parts Essence of spring flowers 100 parts Chlorophyll, q. s. to color.
Mix the water with 700 parts of the alcohol, and in the mixture dissolve the soap. Add the essence of spring flowers and birch oil to the remainder of the alcohol, mix well, and to the mixture add, little by little, and with constant agitation, the soap mixture. Finally {390} add the glycerine, mix thoroughly, and set aside for 8 days, filter and color the filtrate with chlorophyll, to which add a little tincture of saffron. To use, add an equal volume of water to produce a lather.
Petroleum Hair Washes.—I.—Deodorized pale petroleum, 10 parts; citronella oil, 10 parts; castor oil, 5 parts; spirit of wine, 90 per cent, 50 parts; water, 75 parts.
II.—Quinine sulphate, 10 parts; acetic acid, 4 parts; tincture of cantharides, 30 parts; tincture of quinine, 3 parts; spirit of rosemary, 60 parts; balm water, 90 parts; barium, 120 parts; spirit of wine, 150 parts; water, 1,000 parts.
III.—Very pure petroleum, 1 part; almond oil, 2 parts.
Brilliantine.—I.—Olive oil, 4 parts; glycerine, 3 parts; alcohol, 3 parts; scent as desired. Shake before use.
II.—Castor oil, 1 part; alcohol, 2 parts; saffron to dye yellow. Scent as desired.
III.—Lard, 7 parts; spermaceti, 7 parts; almond oil, 7 parts; white wax, 1 part.
A Cheap Hair Oil.—I.—Sesame oil or sunflower oil, 1,000 parts; lavender oil, 15 parts; bergamot oil, 10 parts; and geranium oil, 5 parts.
II.—Sesame oil or sunflower oil, 1,000 parts; lavender oil, 12 parts; lemon oil, 20 parts; rosemary oil, 5 parts; and geranium oil, 2 parts.
«HAIR DYES.»
There is no hair dye which produces a durable coloration; the color becomes gradually weaker in the course of time. Here are some typical formulas in which a mordant is employed:
I.—Nitrate of silver 1/2 ounce Distilled water 3 ounces
Mordant:
Sulphuret of potassium 1/2 ounce Distilled water 3 ounces
II.—
(a) Nitrate of silver (crystal) 1 1/2 ounces Distilled water 12 ounces Ammonia water sufficient to make a clear solution.
Dissolve the nitrate of silver in the water and add the ammonia water until the precipitate is redissolved.