Part V

Part V

Miscellaneous:

INCLUDING

BAGATELLE. BILLIARDS. BOAT-BUILDING. CARPENTERING. CHESS. CONJURING. CRYPTOGRAPHY. DEAF AND DUMB ALPHABET. DOMINOES. DRAUGHTS. FIREWORKS. GARDENING. MIMICRY AND VENTRILOQUISM. PUZZLES. SHOWS. STAMP-COLLECTING. TINSELLING.

BAGATELLE.

Whatever diversity of opinion there may be with respect to the skill required to excel at bagatelle, there can be none with regard to its popularity. The familiar long green table, with its round end and nine numbered cups let in level with the cloth, is found nearly everywhere. The games played on a bagatelle board are various, the principal of which are, English bagatelle (which is the ordinary game), French bagatelle, Sans Egal, Mississippi, Tron Madame, the Cannon game or Bagatelle versus Billiards. Many of the strokes at billiards will be found useful at bagatelle, but much less strength will be required.

ENGLISH BAGATELLE

May be played by any number of persons. The order of precedence is settled by each person striking a ball up the board, and whoever gets the highest number takes the lead and possession of the whole nine balls. He places his ball on the white spot nearest the striking point, and the black ball (which counts double) on the spot nearest the holes. The black ball must be struck at the commencement of every round, but afterwards the player can either play for the holes direct or by striking the other balls. The mace or cue may be used, as agreed upon. Any number of rounds may be played, and the score is counted from the marked holes into which the balls are driven. The sides of the table are filled with holes and pegs to mark the progress of the game.

THE FRENCH GAME

Differs from the English in two or three essential particulars. It is generally played by two or four persons, who, instead of playing with the whole nine balls, take it in turn to strike, and score all they make until a hole is missed. The player forfeits one point if he misses the black ball, which counts double, as in the English game. A hundred up is the usual score, and occasionally different values are given to coloured balls, so that a black counts double, a red the same, or adds two to the score otherwise made.

SANS EGAL

Is a favourite game for two persons. The lead is decided as in the English game, and each player has four balls of different colours. The black ball is placed as in the English game, and the players take alternate strokes. The one that holes the black ball counts it towards his game, as well as all he may hole of his own; but should he hole any of his adversary’s, the number is scored to the owner of them. The game is played 21 or 31 up, and the winner of one round takes the lead in the next.

THE CANNON GAME.

This is also called “Billiards v. Bagatelle,” and is played by two persons,--101 up. Three balls of different colours are used--black, red, and white: the choice of the two last, and the lead, is determined as in the English game. The game is commenced by placing the black ball on the spot; but should the player miss it, his opponent scores five; and if the ball is holed at the same time, the number of the cup is also counted to his opponent, who then takes the turn. The black ball invariably counts double, and is taken out of the cup every time it is holed and placed on “the spot,” as at the commencement. If the player’s ball is holed after contact with the black ball, or after having made a cannon, it counts the number of the cup, and is returned to him, when he continues to play until he misses. A cannon scores two to the game, but the black ball must be struck first, or else five is added to the adversary’s score. There are a few other points to be observed. The player continues playing after making a cannon, or after holing his own or adversary’s ball, if he has struck the black ball first. Should any ball rebound beyond the centre of the table or be forced off the board, it must not be played that round, unless it is the black ball, which must be placed on “the spot,” as at the commencement of the game.

MISSISSIPPI.

This is a variation of the game by means of a wooden perforated bridge, each arch of which bears a particular number. The bridge is placed close up to the circle, and each player strikes up one ball; he who gets the highest number takes the lead, and plays the nine balls successively. The balls must strike one of the cushions previous to entering the bridge, otherwise the number will be scored to the adversary. The game may be played 30, 60, or 100 up, as may be agreed on.

BILLIARDS.

Of all indoor games, billiards ranks highest. It is without doubt the king, and reigns triumphant over chess, backgammon, parlour croquet; and since those delightful miniature billiard tables have been introduced, it is rapidly superseding bagatelle as a parlour game. These miniature tables possess all the advantages of the larger and more aristocratic tables. The same principles operate, the practice is similar, and the laws which govern the play are alike; need it be a matter of wonder that billiards is fast becoming as popular and universal as it is excellent?

When a boy first tries his hand at billiards, he is generally confounded by the apparently erratic conduct of the balls. They are apt to diverge into the strangest places, and somehow manage to remain precisely in those spots where a practised player can make a good break from them. This arises first from the want of a knowledge of the laws which regulate moving bodies, the general principles of billiards, and an acquaintance with the various “strokes,” and the effects they produce. Thus to become a good billiard-player requires a nicety of touch, a good eye, and sound judgment. These are to be acquired if the player attends to the following principles and points of the game.

Most boys are aware that billiards is played on an oblong table twelve feet long by six feet wide, inside the cushions: the smaller tables preserve these general proportions. In France, for instance, the table is some four feet by eight feet, and without pockets, it being used solely for the cannon game; but English tables have invariably six pockets, one at each corner and two at the sides. No good table is now made without a slate bed, perfectly level, and covered with fine green cloth. The old list cushions are now superseded by those made of vulcanized india-rubber, which not only resists the deteriorating influence of the weather, but increases the “speed” of the table. The surface of the cloth is marked with three “spots.” The first “spot” is placed about twelve inches from the upper end or top of the table, and is known as “the spot.” The second is placed two feet six inches from the top, and the third is in the centre of the table. Two feet six inches from the bottom of the table is the “baulk line,” on which is inscribed a semicircle, called the “striking point,” shown on figs. 4 to 7. The position of the semicircle is also marked by three spots, one at each end and one at the centre.

The moveable adjuncts to the table are cues, balls, butt, and a rest or jigger. With respect to these one or two words of advice. See that your cue is well balanced; beware of fancy cues; let the leathered tip be moderately broad, and keep it always well chalked. The balls are perfect spheres turned out of the centre of the tusk. It may be mentioned that the ordinary length of a cue is four feet nine inches, and the diameter of “match balls” is two inches and a sixteenth. The “butt” is a stiff, thick cue, well leathered at the butt end, and is used occasionally for pushing the ball when it is necessary to come off a cushion at an exact angle. The uses of the “rest” and long cues are obvious.

Ere touching on the game itself, there are a few essential points which claim the attention of a young player. They are these: 1. The attainment of a good position. 2. The making of a firm “bridge.” 3. The acquirement of a good, easy, but firm, stroke. The last two essentials depend in a great measure on the first. It is obvious that the billiard player requires an easy play for his right arm, and firmness in his left to give solidity to the “bridge.” To ensure this he must stand firmly on his right leg, so that it supports the weight of his body. The left leg should be placed slightly in advance, and pressed gently to balance the body only. This will throw additional weight on the left arm, which rests on the table, and leave the right arm free. If the position is a good one, the left leg may be lifted from the floor without disturbing the body. To form the “bridge,” the left hand must be first extended on the table, and the fingers drawn up straight towards the wrist, so as to elevate the knuckles. If well done, the tips of the fingers, the wrist, and ball of the thumb will touch the table. The point of the thumb must be then kept slightly apart from the fingers to form a groove, in which the cue can rest, as shown in fig. 1.

The bridge should be formed almost six inches from the ball. To strike well, surely, and firmly, the cue must be held in the grasp of the right hand. This is essential, for unless the cue is so held it will be impossible to make a good, and therefore a sure, stroke. All fancy modes of holding the cue by the tips of the fingers should be avoided. The cue may be laid on the groove of the bridge, and drawn back, and then firmly and steadily send it forward in a straight line, keeping the right hand well down behind you, so that the force of the blow comes from the shoulder, not the elbow. The eye must be educated to guide the hand, and, hit or miss, the stroke should be given at once. There should be no hesitation, no see-sawing of the cue to and fro, and no violent motions whatever. The body should be so placed as to give firmness to the bridge, ease to the right arm--which should be kept straight, with the point of the cue slightly above the surface of the cloth--and a general freedom from constraint, which is highly essential to success.

The best method of practice for a young beginner is to place a ball before his cue and strike it firmly and gently into different pockets, or at different marked points of the cushion, until he can pocket the ball and hit a given point with freedom and precision. The ball must be fairly struck with the tip of the cue, not pushed or jerked forward; and hence it will be necessary to draw back the point of the cue five or six inches ere striking the ball. The stroke, though firm, must not be violent, lest the natural angles of the table should be destroyed. If the ball is watched carefully after it has struck the cushion, it will be found to return at an exactly equal angle to the one at which it was struck. In other words, “the angle of reflexion is equal to the angle of incidence.” This is the first and most important rule of billiards, and one that should never be forgotten. The variation of the strength and direction of the stroke will be found to materially affect this law, and enables the skilled player to make those formidable and seemingly impossible strokes which secure him his victory. This peculiarity of the angles is best illustrated, and the practice of the student advanced, by placing another ball at a little distance before the player, which we will call the object ball. If we place them in a line with one of the marked places on the cushion, and strike the first ball fair in the centre, and cause it to strike the object ball full,--if this is done, it will strike the marked spot, and come off at the same angle as your first ball would have done.

For the purposes of play the object ball is divided thus:--

Fig. 2, No. 1, shows the object ball struck full, fig. 2, No. 2, the three-quarter ball, and so on. The half ball is the most important in practice, as by it the natural angle is made, an angle that is of the greatest importance at billiards, though each have their particular uses, which the young player should endeavour to understand. He will find that the balls diverge at different angles, more or less acute, according as the object ball is struck “full” or “fine;” the fine ball being precisely the reverse of the three-quarter ball.

There are many ordinary hazards and cannons which can be made by simply dividing the object ball, but the motion which the striking ball obtains after contact with the object ball will be modified by the position of the cue and the manner in which it is struck. First let us take the position of the cue. For the full centre stroke or straight hazard the ball must be struck well in the centre, and produce what is termed the retard, or stop ball, if the object ball is struck full likewise. If the striker’s ball is struck considerably above its centre, it produces the following stroke. To make the ball jump, it must be struck sharply on the top with a “downward, forward motion,” and this, if carefully done, will cause the ball to jump over a neighbouring and intervening ball. When the ball is struck low, it produces the recoil, and the striker’s ball will return from the object ball to the player. This leads the beginner to the greatest of all modern improvements in the game, the side-stroke. It is found that it is much easier to divide the striker’s ball with accuracy than the object ball, but when both balls are divided with judgment the highest scientific play is obtained. The application of side and twist to the striker’s ball is often misapplied by beginners, and is frequently the cause of mischievous results; for all students should remember that “the harder you strike the balls the more rapidly they fly apart;” and frequently a modification of the strength of the stroke will achieve the desired result better than the application of “side,” which may fail. It should always be remembered that the ball must be struck on the side on which it is intended to go after contact with the object ball, and that the effect is not produced until after it has come in contact with another ball or the cushion. It is used for the same purpose as the division of the object ball, and accomplishes the same object. In order that it may be properly understood we give in fig. 3 the player’s ball divided for the side-stroke.

The student can only acquire a knowledge of the effect of the strokes given at these varied points by practice, or from the instruction of an expert teacher; all that a writer can do is to lay down well-defined and easily-understood axioms, rules, and cautions. Thus, if the ball is struck at c c, at the top, it becomes the following ball; at the bottom c c, a recoil; at f f it will give a strong side to the ball at the lower angles, the screw or twist, which causes the balls to twist back; the upper angles will give high right-hand side or left-hand side, according to the side they are struck.

THE ANGLES OF THE TABLE

Should never be forgotten. They change infinitely, and if the student has made good use of the hints given as to the elementary practice with one ball, he will have acquired some valuable information, and soon see the truth of the axiom, that the “angle of reflexion is equal to the angle of incidence;” and the advantage of a knowledge of the angles of the table will be best seen in making cannons, for many players will make them off one, two, three, and even four cushions.

Fig. 4 shows a series of very useful angles, which may be advantageously studied. The black lines represent the course of the ball before reverberation, the dotted lines its course after the first reflexion, and the faint lines its course after the second reflexion. In these examples the ball is supposed to be struck fairly in the centre with moderate force, except in case 1, where the effects of different strengths is shown. An ordinary, moderate stroke would bring the ball into the left-hand corner pocket, while a harder stroke would produce the angles a b: if played with greater strength the angles c d will result. “Bricole” angles are made across the table, and are of course proportionately more acute. The Bricole game is being obliged to strike a cushion, and make the ball reverberate or recoil from it previous to hitting the adversary’s ball. This is a very great disadvantage, and is used principally in “cramp games,” where the advantage of one player is neutralized by this; or by playing cannons against cannons and hazards, or four pockets to two, or five to one, or cannons and winning hazards against the whole game.

All strokes at billiards are distinguished by the name of cannons or hazards. Cannon is a contraction of carambole, and is a stroke in which the player strikes both balls in succession with his own. The “losing hazard” is when the player’s own ball is forced into either of the six pockets, after contact with the other ball. The “winning hazard” is made by forcing the ball played upon into either pocket after contact.

Here are a few examples of cannons made from the cushion, without the use of the side-stroke. They only indicate the infinite variety that can be made.

Some rather difficult, but useful, winning hazards are shown in fig. 6. The stroke A is termed the “spot stroke.” This stroke is sometimes made a score or more times in succession by a good player. It is one of the best of winning hazards. It requires a nearly full ball of moderate strength, and to repeat it from one side to the other you should slightly divide your own ball by putting on a little side (see D e in fig. 3); and you will find your ball in the right position to repeat the stroke. Sometimes it may be made by a slow hoist, which causes the ball to come back to the starting-point; or the ball may be stopped a little behind the object ball, and thus make a succession of hazards from the same pocket. The champion billiard-player, Roberts, makes tremendous breaks from the “spot stroke.” Get a good player to show the variety of ways in which it can be made, and practise it. Here are a few examples of the effect of dividing the object ball. Strokes 1 to 14 are made from the baulk into the top end pockets by dividing the object ball from a nearly full ball, as in 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, to an eighth in 1 and 9. Stroke 5 represents a half ball vulgarly called a pair of breeches. Stroke 11 should be made to hug the cushion. Strokes 15 and 16 must be played gently with a half ball, and 17 with a quarter ball. Strokes 18 to 33 show a variety of cuts made by striking the ball in the direction shown by the line between the white ball and the red.

Now for a few losing hazards. They require a little different treatment. Here are a few.

The first eight strokes require a screw, and more or less side, according to their position; 9, 10, 11, and 12 require strong side, as shown; and in 13 the striker’s ball must first strike the cushion gently, rebound, hit the other ball, and fall into the corner pocket. Stroke 14 is an ugly position for a beginner, yet it frequently occurs. You must put on plenty of side to your own ball, which will remove the object ball, and your ball will then roll along the cushion into the pocket. Stroke 22 alone requires a word in explanation. It shows now the losing hazard is made from baulk off the red on the spot. Put on a strong-side twist, and practise it well. Remember that practice can alone make perfect. Be always decided, play steadily, and do not lose your temper.

Now for a few hints with respect to the games to be played. With every billiard table a set of rules is supplied, and these must be studied and obeyed, as regulating the game; but an endless variety of games may be extemporised to suit the various parties and skill of the professors.

THE AMERICAN GAME

Is played with four balls, a light red, or pink, and dark red. The balls are placed on the spots in the centre between the pockets. The baulk is not confined to the semicircle, but you can place your ball anywhere within the line which is extended level with the winning-hazard spot. The game is usually played 63 up, and consists of winning hazards and cannons. In this game “doubles” are of great advantage. Doubles are so called when a player strikes his own or an object ball at a certain angle of the cushion, so as to cause it to come off at an equal angle and go into a pocket at the opposite side of the table. It is called a “double double” if the ball returns and goes into a pocket on the side of the table it first struck; and there is a game in which no score is made unless the cushion is first struck with the ball.

PYRAMIDS, OR PYRAMID POOL,

Is played with fifteen red and one white ball. The red balls are arranged in a triangle, thus:--

o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o

The first ball is placed on the winning-hazard spot. The white ball is placed in baulk. The game is placed by holing all the red balls. A great deal will depend in this on keeping the white ball safe, so that your adversary may have to play a cramp stroke. It is a pretty game to play with friends. Pyramids can be so modified as to suit a number of players, each striking in succession, and scoring according to the number of balls pocketed. A small stake is placed on each ball to give an interest in the game. When played in this manner, the winner who scores the greatest number takes the stakes.

“WINNING AND LOSING CARAMBOLE GAME”

Is played by either two or four persons. Winning and losing hazards, cannons, and forfeits, go to make the score, which is usually 50. If four players make a match, and play side against side, they play 63 up, and the partners may instruct each other. This plan is open to objection, and a far better one is for each to play his own game, and handicap the inferior players by giving them ten or fifteen points at the commencement. In this case, if either party gives a miss, it is far better that he should lose one point than the others should take one each. The white and spot white balls are then played alternately, as if only two were playing. The game commences by stringing for the lead and the choice of balls. The player must place his ball within the striking ring, and stand within the limits of the corner of the table. He whose ball rests nearest to the cushion at the baulk end of the table wins the lead, and chooses his own ball. A few general hints respecting the rules only is necessary. The red ball is placed on the lower of the two spots at the bottom of the table, and replaced there when it is holed (i. e. pocketed) or forced over the edge of the table, or when the balls are broken or, in other words, placed as at the commencement of a game. Whoever breaks the balls leads off. With respect to scoring: if the striker holes the white ball (called a white winning hazard), or if he holes his own ball from the white ball (called a white losing hazard), he gains two points; if he does both, he gains four points. If he holes the red ball, he wins three; and if by the same stroke he holes his own from the red, he wins three more.

POOL.

There are several ways of playing pool. There is the ordinary game, with as many balls as there are players, or with two balls only, the players playing in turns, and playing with alternate balls; playing with the nearest ball; playing at the last player; or the player playing at whichever ball he chooses. The most popular game is that in which the player plays at the last player. When coloured balls are used, they are played as the colours are placed on the marking board. Each player has three lives at starting. But there is this drawback to pool: if the player happens to lose all his lives in rapid succession, he is condemned to inglorious idleness until the pool is played out, and then the same thing may happen. This may be obviated by allowing the lives to be unlimited, and paying nothing into the general pool, so that if a player’s ball be pocketed, he has only to pay his stake and remain on hand until his turn comes round again. In this manner the players may continue their game for an unlimited period, and a new-comer may join the game at any time.

There is a cannon game which affords excellent practice. All the pool or pyramid balls are ranged in a line against the top and bottom cushion, having the plain white ball in the middle. A cue is then laid flat against them, and they are pushed along the table, so as to strike the opposite cushion. The object of the player is to take the white ball and make as many consecutive cannons as possible. Should his own ball run into a pocket, he is obliged to stop and let the next player in; and if any of the coloured balls run into a pocket, it must stay there, and of course decrease the chances of a long series of cannons. This is much more difficult than it looks.

There is a cannon game with one red and the two white balls. In this pocketing either of the white balls causes two to be deducted from the score, and pocketing the red ball loses three. The regular French game consists of cannons only; misses and pockets do not count either way. It is usually played on a French table, without pockets, with two and a half inch balls, and a heavy one. The baulk is not confined to the semicircle. At the commencement the red is placed on the winning spot, and the non-striker’s ball on the centre spot in baulk.

ITALIAN SKITTLE POOL

Is an excellent game for boys. It is played thirty-one points up. Four balls are used, two being white, one red, and one blue; and five skittles are placed in the centre of the table. Each of the skittles is numbered in the following order:--The first opposite the baulk is numbered 1; the one to the right 2; the one opposite to the first 3; the opposite to the second, on the left, 4; and the one in the centre 5. The red ball is placed as in the cannon game, the blue one beneath it. The two white balls are kept by the two players who have to play first. There is a peculiarity in this game, from the fact that a number, from one to sixteen, is chosen by the player at random, and the marker secretly adds it to the score, and in order to win the pool the player must make between the points of the game and those on the hidden ball thirty-one points, neither more nor less: if he makes more he is technically dead, and out of the game. The first player has to strike the red ball, the second the blue one, while the following players may use either. The points are made by knocking down the skittles, each of which counts as many points as its number, and by whatever ball these skittles are knocked down they always count. If a ball is knocked out of the table, it destroys all the points made by the stroke. Any player reaching twenty-nine or thirty points has a right to stop on his declaring so, only the points he makes in his subsequent play count to the advantage or disadvantage, whichever it may be, of the previous player. The survivor from amongst all the players who have died by overstepping the thirty-one points wins the pool. He who knocks down the four outside skittles, leaving the centre one only standing, makes what is called the royal, and wins the pool. There are some minute rules about stopping, which must be declared immediately on reaching twenty-nine or thirty points, and only one person can stop. The advantage of stopping is the chance of being the survivor.

On a wet day, in a country house, the best round game is Penny Pot, played like pool, and for every ball pocketed the player receives a small stake, and plays until he ceases to score. After making a winning hazard, the nearest ball is played on. A life is forfeited for every miss, coup (i. e. playing a ball into a pocket without its touching another ball), or losing hazard, and paid to the owner of the ball played on.

This truly English amusement cannot be too highly extolled, as it is calculated to incite boys to emulate each other in acquiring proficiency in an art which exercises their ingenuity and taste, while it inculcates habits of patient industry. A good sailing ship is rather a troublesome thing to construct; but when a lad sees it “walk the waters like a thing of life” he experiences feelings which fully repay him for all his labour. Every boy ought to learn to swim, if only to prevent anxious parents including boat-sailing with dangerous pastimes that ought not to be encouraged. We are always pleased to see boys sailing their miniature vessels, and we cannot think that an occasional ducking ought to interfere with an occupation so befitting to the youth of a great maritime nation. As long as French boys amuse themselves with playing at soldiers, we trust English boys will continue to build and sail their model ships.

If you wish to possess a good ship, you must make it yourself, as the smartly-painted vessels of the toy-shops are usually made to sell, and not to sail. To form the hull you will require a few carpenter’s tools, such as a couple of chisels, a gouge, and a saw, in addition to that invaluable instrument, a good pocket-knife. Having procured a suitable piece of good white deal, with a straight grain, mark a line down the middle, on the upper and lower sides, and at both ends; then mark out with pencil the shape of the intended vessel, which should be broad in proportion to length, and deep in proportion to the width. Most boys shape their vessels before scooping them out, but it is far better to reverse the process, and hollow out the wood before commencing the outside. The deck is to be made of a thin piece of deal, and must be fitted very accurately, so that no water may enter the hold. A flush deck, without a raised edge or gunwale, is to be preferred, as such a deck does not hold the water.

The mast should be made of strong, light wood; should be tapering, and rather long. The less rigging there is the better; two shrouds and a few stays will be enough. The best models for miniature ships are those vessels that are rigged “fore and aft,” such as cutters and schooners; square-rigged ships are unmanageable unless made very large.

Our first illustration shows a model cutter, with her sails set. The principal sail is termed the mainsail, the one above it the gaff topsail, and the triangular sail attached to the bowsprit the foresail or jib.

The blocks used in rigging a model ship are to be made of boxwood or alder. The latter is a softer wood than the former, and can be more readily fashioned into shape with a penknife. The holes for the cords should be bored through the pieces of wood before they are shaped into blocks, as it is not easy to drill the blocks without splitting them. The rudder should be attached to the keel by bent pins. The little staples on the keel, in which the bent pins work, are to be formed of brass wire. The stem of the rudder passes through a hole in the stern of the vessel, and is provided with a tiller. Before launching the ship, the tiller must be fixed so as to keep the rudder at the required angle. Many boys fear to launch their ships in large ponds; but if a ship is properly rigged, and answers to her rudder, there need be no doubt as to her safe arrival at port.

The smack is not so graceful as the cutter, but is a capital sailer. The large sail is called a spritsail, from the spar or sprit which crosses it diagonally from the mast to the upper aftmost corner.

A schooner is a vessel with two masts, and fore-and-aft sails like those of a cutter. The schooner-rig is not suited to very small boats.

The lugger is shown in the annexed engraving. The lug-sail which distinguishes this rig is a square sail fastened to a yard that hangs obliquely to the mast at one-third of its length. A lug-sail may be fitted to a single-masted boat. The lugger is an excellent boat for sailing, but it lacks the trim appearance of the cutter.

Cutters or schooners intended for fast sailing should have but one foresail, as a large balloon-jib rigged with a boom holds more wind than an ordinary jib and staysail. The ships should be well ballasted to prevent the wind capsizing them, and their topmasts should be made moveable, as in rough weather it will be found necessary to “strike” them. Each boat may have two sets of sails--one set large, for light winds, and the other considerably smaller, to be set up when the wind is high. The sails should be made of very light stuff--thin calico is best--and should have a line run round them, with loops for hooking them on to the spars. Beware of putting too many blocks and useless ropes about your boats, as the lighter the upper part of a vessel is the better she will sail. In conclusion, spare no pains in finishing your work neatly, so that your boats may bear witness to your skill and patience.

CARPENTERING.

“All made out of my own head. And wood enough left for another.”

Nothing is more useful to a youth than to be able to do a little carpentering. To be handy with a chisel and saw, a nail and a hammer, saves many a pound in the course of the year. If you call in a carpenter for a little work he is sure to spin out a “regular job.” I remember once buying some oak saplings, which cost me eightpence a stick; and wanting to build a summer-house, I required eight of them to be sawn through, so I applied to a carpenter, and the sticks were cut, but to my astonishment, sixteen shillings was charged for this little “job,” although the wood cost me only five shillings and fourpence. I found out afterwards that the proper price for sawing would have amounted to about four shillings, so that twelve shillings profit was clapped on for the benefit of my experience. I just mention this to show my young friends, that if they wish to make summer-houses for their gardens, cages for their birds, fowl-houses, rabbit-hutches, or boxes for their books, they must learn to make them for themselves. I shall therefore offer them a little advice upon “carpentering.”

THE SHOP AND BENCH.

Endeavour to procure some small outhouse, in which you may erect what is called a carpenter’s or joiner’s bench. These may very often be bought second-hand, or if not, can easily be procured at a reasonable rate. I am very particular in recommending a bench, as without it you will find many obstacles to your work. You must also provide yourself with a set of tools,--gimlets, hammers, planes, saws, gouges, files, nails, screws, and such articles of use.

The bench is composed of a platform or top, supported by four stout legs; A is what is called the bench hook; this ought to be fitted in tight, so as to move up and down with a hammer only. The use of it is to keep any wood steady you may have to plane: B is the bench screw, used for keeping any wood firm and steady you may have to saw, which is to be put in the grip and screwed tight. Sometimes the edges of wood require to be planed, and then the wood is put in the grip or cheeks of the bench and held tight while you plane it. The holes in the side of the bench, C C, are for the insertion of a movable pin to support the end of the board you have to plane or saw, which is not in the screw. The height of your bench should be about 2 feet 8 inches. The common length is from 10 to 12 feet, and the breadth about 3 feet 6 inches.

OF PLANES.

C is what is called the jack plane, which is the first to be used. It is about 17 inches in length, and is used to take the rough parts from a piece of wood. It should be held steadily by fixing the right hand at the handle (h), and the left over the top and side at (s), and pushed forward on the wood, when the knife (k) will take off a shaving which runs through the hole (o), and falls on the side. In using the plane the endeavour should be to take off a clean shaving, which is done by using the instrument uniformly and steadily over every surface to be planed.

D is another kind of plane, called the trying plane, having a double top or handle. It is used to regulate and smooth, to a higher degree, the surface of the wood that had previously been smoothed from the rough by the jack plane. Its length is about 22 inches, and it is broader than the jack plane. There is another plane called the long plane, which is used for facing a piece of stuff, which it does with the greatest exactness; its length is about 2 feet 4 inches. There is also the joiner’s plane, which is the longest of all the planes, being 30 inches long. But the most handy of the planes to the boy carpenter is the smoothing plane, E. It is the last plane used in joining, and gives the utmost degree of smoothness to the surface of a piece of finished work; it is about 7 inches in length, the sides of the stock are curved, and resemble in figure a coffin; it is used in a similar way to the other.

SAWS.

There are many kinds of saws, but the most useful one is what is called the “hand saw.” It has a blade or plate about 28 inches long; the teeth of which are so formed as to allow you to cut the wood crossways as well as lengthways. The handle of the saw is made so as to allow a full yet free grasp of the hand, either for a pull or a thrust.

The panel saw. This saw has a plate nearly of the same size as a hand saw, and is used for cutting very thin boards, which the rough teeth of the hand saw would not cut through without breaking them.

The tenon saw is of a different shape to the others, and is made to cut across the grain of the wood so as to leave the ends nicely even, that it may fit to the piece it is joined to, which is called a shoulder, being that part which comes in contact with the fibre of the wood thus:

To do this it requires that the teeth should be much smaller, and they are therefore placed so close as eight or ten to the inch, according to the length of the blade.

The dovetail saw. There is another most useful saw it would be of advantage for the young carpenter to have, namely, the dovetail saw. It is about 9 inches long, and contains at least fifteen teeth in the inch. It is used for cutting the dovetails of boxes. Its plate is very thin, and it requires some care in using. It has a back for the purpose of strength, formed of a thin piece of brass or iron, let in so as to give the blade the requisite firmness necessary in using it.

The compass saw. The plate of this kind of saw is very narrow, and not more than one inch wide at the broadest part, gradually diminishing to about a quarter of an inch at the lower end. It is about 15 inches in length, and is used for cutting a piece of wood into a circular form, and the plate being narrow allows it to follow the foot of the compass to a very small diameter.

The keyhole saw. The keyhole saw is much smaller than the above. It is used for cutting short curves, small holes, &c., such as a keyhole. The handle is the same form as that of the chisel, a small slit being cut through from end to end. It has a screw on one side, in order that the blade may be set to any length, according to the circumference of the hole to be cut.

THE SPOKE SHAVE.

This is a very useful tool. It is employed for smoothing the edges of round pieces, or other ends requiring to be shaved down. It is a narrow plane made of boxwood, and has generally a steel blade let into it to cut; it is used by taking hold of each end with a hand, and moving it to and fro over the wood to be shaved down.

STOCK AND BITS.

There are about thirty-six bits to a set, all of different shapes and sizes; but our young friends need not get quite so many: if they provide themselves with a couple of a medium size, this will be sufficient, such as the centre bit and the auger bit. The centre bit will cut holes varying from a quarter of an inch to three quarters of an inch in diameter, and is used by pressing the knob end against the chest, and twirling the centre part round with the hand. It cuts a hole very clean, leaving it quite smooth inside. The auger bit is for the same purpose, and is used in the same manner. Another bit, called the taper shell bit, is used for making holes wider, and is a very useful implement.

HOW TO MAKE A WHEELBARROW.

One of the handiest things in a garden is a wheelbarrow, and one of the prettiest for the young carpenter to exercise his ingenuity upon. To make one, take a wide plank or board about an inch and a quarter thick. Proceed to your bench, and having fitted it to its proper position, take your jack plane and plane off the rough, next use your smoothing plane to make it smooth. Then take your pencil and draw upon its side the following figure, A. Then take your compass saw and cut round the marks you have made: to do this you will have to fix your board in the screw of your bench. When this is done take your spoke shave, and shave the edges all round till they are very smooth and even, and you have one side of your barrow. Lay this on another piece of board, and mark the shape of it with your pencil; cut and shave it exactly as you did the first side, so that when finished the two will exactly correspond; then cut a piece off another board for the back and front of the barrow, of the subjoined shape, by the same method you cut the sides, and plane and finish them up in a similar way. Cut some tenons at the end of each exactly to correspond with the mortices shown on the sides, D D; let them be a trifle larger than the mortices, so that they will drive in tight. Then cut the bottom out neatly, and nail it to the sides. Having proceeded thus far, cut out the legs of your barrow, B, and nail one on each side as shown in the figure. Give each leg a shoulder for the sides to rest upon.

To make the wheel. Take a piece of board, A, and strike a circle upon it the size you wish your wheel to be of, B, and with the compass saw cut close round to the stroke; cut out a square hole, C, in the centre for the nave to join. Then get the blacksmith to put an iron rim round the wheel to keep it from splitting, and a round pin in each side of the nave, and put a staple in each side of the barrow to keep the wheel in its place. Paint the whole of any colour you choose, and you will have

PUNCH’S COACH.

THE WAY TO MAKE A BOX.

First ascertain the size you wish your box to be of. Then cut off your stuff, but take care to cut it a quarter of an inch longer than the size of your box from outside to outside. Should you want it deeper or broader than the length of a deal, the widest of which is generally only eleven inches; suppose, for instance, you wish your box to be 18 inches deep, and you have only 9-inch deal to make it with, you will of course have to join two together, or make what is called in carpentering a glue joint. First, then, after you have cut off your stuff, take your jack plane and “scuffle the rough off;” then put your board edgeways into the bench-screw, and take your trying plane or long plane to get the edge of the deals that are to be glued together perfectly straight and even; and lastly, use the joiner plane, which will take off a nice uniform shaving of the whole length of the board. Proceed exactly in the same manner with the other board to be joined to the first. Then, after having made each thoroughly smooth, clap the two together and see if they will lie close in every part, if not, you must plane them till they do, taking care to plane the edges perfectly square, or at right angles to the surface of the board, for if you are not careful in this particular, when your boards are glued together they will be of this form. When you have joined them properly for glueing, let your glue be nicely hot and not too thick, and hold both edges of the boards together so that you can with a brush put the glue on both at one time, put the two together very quickly, let one of them be in the bench-screw, and while there rub the other backwards and forwards till the glue sets, which it will soon do if well joined. Let the whole dry, and then the glued part will be as strong as any other part of the board.

After your sides, ends, bottom, and top are thus prepared, you must then plane them up nicely, so that they are perfectly smooth and straight. Use first the jack plane, then the trying plane. When this is done you have to proceed to a nice little job, namely, to dovetail the corners together, so as to form your box. In this process much depends upon the planing and squaring of the stuff, for if you have not done this nicely the dovetailing will be very imperfectly performed. Assuming that everything has been well done, then take the two ends of the box, and see that each is perfectly square and true to the other. Then allow one-eighth of an inch more than the thickness of your sides, and set out the ends, squaring it over on both sides, which when the dovetails are cut out will form the inside of the box.

TO CUT THE DOVETAILS.

Take one “end-piece” of the box and place it endways into the bench-screw, and mark out the dovetails on the edge of the board inside, thus: then with your dovetail saw cut in into the marks down to the lines squared over on the flat side like this--

Then with a chisel cut out that part of the wood that is crossed, and leave the other part, this being the part which will form the pins or tails. Then take one side of your box and lay it flat on the bench, the inside uppermost; then place the end you have cut on it, keeping the edges flush, and mark round the shape of the pins, which will leave them after this form-- the black places being the mortices which are to be cut out. In cutting out these you must be careful to cut within side of the stroke, so that the mortices will be a little smaller than the pins, which will admit of their being driven in quite tight, and will allow the glue to adhere to them (for you have to glue these when you fix them). When you have thus put the ends and sides together let them stand till the glue gets dry, then take your planes and plane the quarter of an inch off the pins which you allowed to be a little longer than the length of the box, and you have then made the body of your box.

THE BOTTOM OF THE BOX.

Cut your bottom the exact size of the box, nail the bottom on, and “get out” a piece of wood (by cutting and planing in the usual manner) to nail round so as to form a skirting to it, and at the same time hide the joints of the bottom; “get out” a similar piece of wood to nail round the top which will form the lid. Then get a pair of box joints and a lock, and having put them on by a stroke of your own ingenuity you will have a “box.”

THE GAME OF CHESS.

It is the principal aim of this little treatise to assist the young player in his examination of the theory of the openings in the game of chess--a branch of study that to the beginner generally appears to be of a most dull and uninviting character, but which, nevertheless, is of the highest importance to all those who are ambitious of attaining to any degree of proficiency in the game.

Before proceeding further, we would presume that the young player possesses at least an elementary knowledge of the game, such as the moves and value of the various pieces, the laws of checking, &c. Should he not be thus fortunate, we would strongly advise him to have recourse to the assistance of some chess-friend for an explanation of the elementary principles; for, thanks to the almost daily increasing knowledge of the game, there are few localities so remote that cannot produce a brother of the free-masonry of chess. Though, in compliance with the time-honoured custom of all writers on chess, we subjoin a brief description of the various pieces and their moves, yet it is our firm conviction that no beginner has ever succeeded in mastering by the assistance of “the books” alone, the mere elementary principles of the game.

In the following pages we have endeavoured to give a brief synopsis of the most important of the openings, collected from the most approved authorities, and at the same time to present to the tyro as it were a passing glimpse of the chief modern discoveries.

If we have occasionally strayed from the beaten path, or insensibly diverged into any of the as yet unexplored regions of chess, we would fain crave the reader’s kind indulgence for any of those errors which almost invariably find their way into variations that have not undergone the “limæ labor,” or the test of actual play. Finally, should we have had the good fortune by the following pages to assist a single beginner in mastering any of the elementary difficulties which beset the rough road that only leads to proficiency in chess--should there, through our means, have been added but a single recruit to the ranks of Caissa, well will our labour have been repaid!

THE LAWS OF THE GAME.

I.--The chess-board must be so placed that each player has a white corner square nearest his right-hand. If the board have been improperly placed, it must be adjusted, provided four moves on each side have not been played, but not afterwards.

II.--If a Piece or Pawn be misplaced at the beginning of the game, either player may insist upon the mistake being rectified, if he discover it before playing his fourth move, but not afterwards.

III.--Should a player, at the commencement of the game, omit to place all his men on the board, he may correct the omission before playing his fourth move, but not afterwards.

IV.--If a player, undertaking to give the odds of a Piece or Pawn, neglect to remove it from the board, his adversary, after four moves have been played on each side, has the choice of proceeding with or recommencing the game.

V.--When no odds are given, the players must take the first move of each game alternately, drawing lots to determine who shall begin the first game. If a game be drawn, the player who began it has the first move of the following one.

VI.--The player who gives the odds has the right of moving first in each game, unless otherwise agreed. Whenever a Pawn is given, it is understood to be always the King’s Bishop’s Pawn.

VII.--A Piece or Pawn touched must be played, unless at the moment of touching it the player say “J’adoube” or words to that effect; but if a Piece or Pawn be displaced or overturned by accident, it may be restored to its place.

VIII.--While a player holds the Piece or Pawn he has touched, he may play it to any other than the square he took it from; but, having quitted it, he cannot recall the move.

IX.--Should a player take one of his adversary’s Pieces or Pawns, without saying “J’adoube” or words to that effect, his adversary may compel him to take it; but if it cannot be legally taken, he may oblige him to move the King; should his King, however, be so posted that he cannot be legally moved, no penalty can be inflicted.

X.--Should a player move one of his adversary’s men, his antagonist has the option of compelling him--1st, to replace the Piece or Pawn and move his King; 2d, to replace the Piece or Pawn and take it; 3d, to let the Piece or Pawn remain on the square to which it had been played, as if the move were correct.

XI.--If a player take one of his adversary’s men with one of his own that cannot take it without making a false move, his antagonist has the option of compelling him to take it with a Piece or Pawn that can legally take it, or to move his own Piece or Pawn which he touched.

XII.--Should a player take one of his own men with another, his adversary has the option of obliging him to move either.

XIII.--If a player make a false move, i. e. play a Piece or Pawn to any square to which it cannot legally be moved, his adversary has the choice of three penalties; viz., 1st, of compelling him to let the Piece or Pawn remain on the square to which he played it; 2d, to move correctly to another square; 3d, to replace the Piece or Pawn and move his King.

XIV.--Should a player move out of his turn, his adversary may choose whether both moves shall remain, or the second be retracted.

XV.--When a Pawn is first moved in a game, it may be played one or two squares; but in the latter case the opponent has the privilege of taking it en passant with any Pawn which could have taken it had it been played one square only. A Pawn cannot be taken en passant by a Piece.

XVI.--A player cannot castle in the following cases:--

1. If the King or Rook have been moved.

2. If the King be in check.

3. If there be any Piece between the King and Rook.

4. If the King pass over any square attacked by one of the adversary’s Pieces or Pawns.

Should a player castle in any of the above cases, his adversary has the choice of three penalties; viz., 1st, of insisting that the move remain; 2d, of compelling him to move the King; 3d, of compelling him to move the Rook.

XVII.--If a player touch a Piece or Pawn that cannot be moved without leaving the King in check, he must replace the Piece or Pawn and move his King; but if the King cannot be moved, no penalty can be inflicted.

XVIII.--If a player attack the adverse King without saying “Check,” his adversary is not obliged to attend to it; but if the former, in playing his next move, were to say “Check,” each player must retract his last move, and he that is under check must obviate it.

XIX.--If the King has been in check for several moves, and it cannot be ascertained how it occurred, the player whose King is in check must retract his last move and free his King from the check; but if the moves made subsequent to the check be known, they must be retracted.

XX.--Should a player say “Check,” without giving it, and his adversary, in consequence, move his King, or touch a Piece or Pawn to interpose, he may retract such move, provided his adversary have not completed his last move.

XXI.--Every Pawn which has reached the eighth or last square of the chess-board, must be immediately exchanged for a Queen or any other Piece the player may think fit, even though all the Pieces remain on the board. It follows, therefore, that he may have two or more Queens, three or more Rooks, Bishops, or Knights.

XXII.--If a play remain, at the end of the game, with a Rook and Bishop against a Rook; with both Bishops only; with Knight and Bishop only, &c., he must checkmate his adversary in fifty moves on each side at most, or the game will be considered as drawn; the fifty moves commence from the time the adversary gives notice that he will count them. The law holds good for all other checkmates of Pieces only, such as Queen, or Rook only, Queen against a Rook, &c. &c.

XXIII.--If a player agree to checkmate with a particular Piece or Pawn, or on a particular square, or engage to force his adversary to stalemate or checkmate him, he is not restricted to any number of moves.

XXIV.--A stalemate is a drawn game.

XXV.--If a player make a false move, castle improperly, &c. &c., the adversary must take notice of such irregularity before he touches a Piece or Pawn, or he will not be allowed to inflict any penalty.

XXVI.--Should any question arise, respecting which there is no law, or in case of a dispute respecting any law, the players must refer the point to the most skilful disinterested bystanders, and their decision must be considered as conclusive.

THE KING’S KNIGHT’S OPENING.

WHITE. BLACK. 1. P. to K’s 4th. 1. P. to K’s 4th. 2. K’s Kt. to B’s 3d.

Black has now only three satisfactory methods of defence; viz., 2. P. to Q’s 3d; 2. K’s Kt. to B’s 3d; 2. Q’s Kt. to B’s 3d. He may, however, adopt five other modes of play; viz., P. to K. B’s 3d; Q. to K. B’s 3d; B. to Q’s 3d; P. to Q’s 4th; and P. to K. B’s 4th. Of these the first three are utterly untenable, and the last two are highly dangerous. Should he play 2. P. to K. B’s 3d, you reply with 3. Kt. takes K’s P., checking with Q. at K. R’s 5th, if the Kt. be taken. Should he play 2. Q. to K. B’s 3d, or B. to Q’s 3d, you equally reply with B. to Q. B’s 4th, with the advantage. If he adopt 2. P. to Q’s 4th, you play 3. P. takes P., following it up with Q’s Kt. to B’s 3d, if he retake with Queen. If he play 2. P. to K. B’s 4th, you reply 3. Kt. takes K’s P., or B. to Q. B’s 4th, and obtain the better game shortly. Having disposed of these unsafe defences, we will now return to the examination of the three satisfactory replies:--P. to Q’s 3d; K’s Kt. to B’s 3d; Q’s Kt. to B’s 3d. For the last two, see Games II. and III.

GAME I.--PHILIDOR’S DEFENCE.

WHITE. BLACK. 1. P. to K’s 4th. 1. P. to K’s 4th. 2. K’s Kt. to B’s 3d. 2. P. to Q’s 3d. 3. P. to Q’s 4th.

This is your best reply; if instead you play,--

3. B. to Q’s B’s 4th, he plays-- 3. B. to K’s 2d. (best.)

3. P. takes P. (best.) 4. Q. takes P. 4. Q’s Kt. to B’s 3d.

If you play 4. Kt. takes P., probably his best reply is P. to Q’s 4th.

5. B. to Q. Kt.’s 5th. 5. B. to Q’s 2d. 6. Q. to Q’s sq. 6. B. to K’s 2d, or K’s Kt. to K’s 2d. 7. Q’s Kt. to B’s 3d, with the better position.

You may also, instead of 4. Q. takes P., try K’s B. to Q. B’s 4th. Black’s best reply seems to be Q’s Kt. to B’s 3d.

GAME II.--PETROFF’S DEFENCE.

WHITE. BLACK. 1. P. to K’s 4th. 1. P. to K’s 4th. 2. K’s Kt. to B’s 3d. 2. K’s Kt. to B’s 3d.

This defence was brought into notice by Petroff some years ago, and has been approved of by many of the leading players. It is an excellent defence when receiving the odds of a piece.

3. Kt. takes K’s P. 3. P. to Q’s 3d. 4. Kt. to K. B’s 3d. 4. Kt. takes K’s P. 5. P. to Q’s 4th, (or Var. A.) 5. P. to Q’s 4th. 6. B. to Q’s 3d. 6. B. to K’s 2d, (not to Q’s 3d.) 7. Castles. 7. Q’s Kt. to B’s 3d. 8. P. to Q. B’s 4th. 8. Q’s B. to K’s 3d. 9. P. to Q. R’s. 3d. 9. Castles. 10. Q. to Q. B’s 2d, with a slightly better game.

Variation A. on White’s 5th Move.

White has another move at this point, which seems at least as good as 5. P. to Q’s 4th; viz., Q’s Kt. to B’s 3d.

WHITE. BLACK. 5. Q’s Kt. to B’s 3d. 5. Kt. takes Kt. 6. Q’s P. takes Kt. 6. B. to K’s 2d. 7. B. to Q’s 3d. White has the better opened game.

GAME III.--THE GIUOCO PIANO.

WHITE. BLACK. 1. P. to K’s 4th. 1. P. to K’s 4th. 2. K’s Kt. to B’s 3d. 2. Q’s Kt. to B’s 3d.

This is recommended by nearly all authors, as Black’s best reply. Of late, however, there has been an opinion prevalent among many of our best players, that it is inferior to K’s Kt. to B’s 3d, or even P. to Q’s 3d. For our own part, we incline to the old move of Q’s Kt. to B’s 3d, but doubt whether there is any defence by which Black can acquire a perfectly even game.

3. B. to Q. B’s 4th. 3. B. to Q. B’s 4th. (best.) 4. P. to Q. B’s 3d. 4. K’s Kt. to B’s 3d. (best.) 5. P. to Q’s 4th. 5. P. takes P. 6. P. to K’s 5th, (or Var. A.) 6. P. to Q’s 4th. (best.) 7. K’s B. to Q. Kt.’s 5th. 7. K’s Kt. to K’s 5th. 8. P. takes P. 8. B. to Q. Kt.’s 3d. (best.) 9. Castles. 9. Q’s B. to K. Kt.’s 5th. 10. B. takes Kt. (ch.) 10. P. takes B. 11. Q’s B. to K’s 3d, or Q’s Kt. 11. Castles. to B’s 3d.

These are the moves given in the Handbook, and the game is dismissed as equal. In actual play, however, we should take Black’s game for choice.

Variation A. on White’s 6th Move.

WHITE. BLACK. 6. P. takes P. 6. B. to Q. Kt.’s 5th (ch.)

White’s 6th move is recommended by the German masters, and in our opinion is preferable to P. to K’s 5th; Black’s best reply is to check,--

7. B. to Q’s 2d. 7. B. takes B. (ch.) 8. Q’s Kt. takes B. 8. P. to Q’s 4th. 9. P. takes P. 9. Kt. takes P. 10. Q. to Q. Kt.’s 3d. 10. Q’s Kt. to K’s 2d. 11. K’s R. to K’s sq.

We much prefer White’s game.

GAME IV.--THE EVANS’ GAMBIT.

It would be impossible, in the narrow limits assigned to our treatise, to enter into the merits of this opening; we shall therefore give one or two of the leading variations, and refer learners, who may be desirous of a more comprehensive analysis, to Mr. Walker’s excellent articles on this popular opening, in Vol. ix. of the “Chess Player’s Chronicle,” the “Handbook,” and Mr. Boden’s useful little work, entitled “A Popular Introduction to Chess.”

WHITE. BLACK. 1. P. to K’s 4th. 1. P. to K’s 4th. 2. K’s Kt. to B’s 3d. 2. Q’s Kt. to B’s 3d. 3. B. to Q. B’s 4th. 3. B. to Q. B’s 4th. 4. P. to Q. Kt.’s 4th. 4. B. takes Q. Kt.’s P. 5. P. to Q. B’s 3d. 5. B. to Q. B’s 4th. 6. Castles. 6. P. to Q’s 3d. (best.) 7. P. to Q’s 4th. 7. P. takes P. 8. P. takes P. 8. B. to Q. Kt.’s 3d. 9. B. to Q. Kt.’s 2d. 9. K’s Kt. to B’s 3d.

Instead of 9. B. to Q. Kt.’s 2d, you may adopt several other modes of play; viz., 9. B. to Q. R’s 3d; 9. R. to K’s sq.; 9. P. to K. R’s 3d; 9. Q’s Kt. to B’s 3d. To the two first of these, Black equally replies with Q’s B. to K. Kt.’s 5th, with the better game. (For 9. P. to K. R’s 3d, and 9. Q’s Kt. to B’s 3d, see Variations A. and B.)

10. P. to Q’s 5th. 10. Q’s Kt. to K’s 2d. (best.) 11. B. takes K’s Kt. 11. P. takes B. 12. K’s Kt. to Q’s 4th.

White has rather the better game.

Variation A. on White’s 9th Move.

WHITE. BLACK. 9. P. to K. R’s 3d. 9. Kt. to Q. R’s 4th.

This is the move usually recommended for the defence. Black may however adopt, 9. P. to K. R’s 3d, apparently with little disadvantage.

10. B. to Q’s 3d. 10. K’s Kt. to K’s 2d. 11. P. to Q. R’s 4th. 11. Castles. 12. R. to Q. R’s 2d. 12. K. to R’s sq. 13. R. to K’s 2d. 13. P. to K. B’s 4th.

The game is about equal.

Variation B. on White’s 9th Move.

WHITE. BLACK. 9. Q’s Kt. to B’s 3d.

We have long suspected that the force of this form of the attack has been vastly underrated. The following variations are taken from an able analysis by Mr. G. B. Fraser, of Dundee, who has kindly presented the result of his labours in the investigation of this attack at our disposal:--

9. B. to K. Kt.’s 5th.

This move is considered by all the modern writers on Chess to be Black’s best reply.

10. Q. to Q. R’s 4th. 10. B. takes Kt.

In reply to White’s last move, Black may play either 10. Q. to Q’s 2d, or 10. B. to Q’s 2d, instead of the move in the text. If he adopt 10. Q. to Q’s 2d, White replies with B. to Q. Kt.’s 5th, apparently winning a piece. It has been suggested to us that perhaps Black’s best move is 10. K. to B’s sq., to which White might reply with K. Kt. to his 5th; and on Black’s moving K. Kt. to R’s 3d, advance the P. to Q’s 5th. (For B. to Q’s 2d, see Variation A.)

11. P. to Q’s 5th. 11. B. to K. Kt.’s 5th. (best.) 12. P. takes Q’s Kt. 12. P. takes P.

Black might play also Q’s R. to Q. Kt.’s sq., whereupon follows,--

13. P. takes P. (dis. ch.) 13. B. to Q’s 2d. 14. Q. to Q. Kt.’s 3d, and wins.

13. P. to K’s 5th.

White might also with advantage take the Q. B’s P. checking, although the move in the text seems stronger.

13. B. to K’s 3d.

If he play,--

13. Q. to Q’s 2d. 14. P. takes P. 14. P. takes P. 15. Kt. to Q’s 5th, and wins.

14. B. takes B. 14. P. takes B. 15. Q. takes P. (ch.) 15. K. to B’s sq. 16. B. to Q. R’s 3d, with a winning game.

Variation A. on Black’s 10th Move.

WHITE. BLACK. 10. B. to Q’s 2d. 11. Q. to Q. Kt.’s 3d. 11. Kt. to Q. R’s 4th. (best.) 12. B. takes K. B’s P. 12. K. to B’s sq. 13. Q. to Q’s 5th. 13. Kt. to K. B’s 3d. 14. Q. to K. Kt.’s 5th. 14. K. takes B. 15. P. to K’s 5th. 15. P. to K. R’s 3d.

This is Black’s best reply. If he retire the Kt. to his square, or to K’s square, or K. Kt.’s 5th, White will obtain a winning game, by 16. Q. to K. B’s 4th. (ch.)

16. Q. to K. B’s 4th. 16. P. to K. Kt.’s 4th. (best.) 17. Q. to Q’s 2d.

This seems White’s most promising move. He may also play 17. Q. takes Kt., upon which Black exchanges Queens with the better game.

17. Kt. to K. R’s 2d. 18. P. to Q’s 5th. 18. B. to K. B’s 4th.

Black might also take Pawn with Pawn, and the game would probably be continued thus:--

18. P takes P. 19. Kt. takes P. (ch.) 19. K. to Kt.’s 2d. 20. B. to Q. Kt.’s 2d. 20. Kt. to K. B’s 3d. 21. K. to R’s sq. 21. R. to K’s sq. 22. P. to K. B’s 4th, and will win.

19. P. to K’s 6th. (ch.) 19. K. to K’s 2d. 20. Kt. to Q’s 4th. 20. B. to K. Kt.’s 3d. 21. P. to K. B’s 4th, with a fine attack.

Instead of retiring his Bishop to Q. B’s 4th, as in Game IV., Black may, though apparently less advantageously, play him to Q. R’s 4th.

WHITE. BLACK. 1. P. to K’s 4th. 1. P. to K’s 4th. 2. K’s Kt. to B’s 3d. 2. Q’s Kt. to B’s 3d. 3. B. to Q. B’s 4th. 3. B. to Q. B’s 4th. 4. P. to Q. Kt.’s 4th. 4. B. takes P. 5. P. to Q. B’s 3d. 5. B. to Q. R’s 4th. 6. P. to Q’s 4th. (best.) 6. P. takes P. 7. Castles. 7. P. to Q’s 3d. 8. Q. to Q. Kt.’s 3d. 8. Q. to K. B’s 3d. (best.) 9. P. takes P., with a very fine game.

N.B.--Should Black at his 7th move, instead of 7. P. to Q’s 3d, play P. to Q. B’s P., or K’s Kt. to B’s 3d, you, in reply, advance P. to K’s 5th, with a powerful attack.

THE GAMBIT DECLINED.

We now come to consider the consequences of Black’s not accepting the gambit pawn at move 4.

WHITE. BLACK. 1. P. to K’s 4th. 1. P. to K’s 4th. 2. K’s Kt. to B’s 3d. 2. Q’s Kt. to B’s 3d. 3. B. to Q. B’s 4th. 3. B. to Q. B’s 4th. 4. P. to Q. Kt.’s 4th. 4. B. to Q. Kt.’s 3d 5. B. to Q. Kt.’s 2d. 5. P. to Q’s 3d. 6. P. to Q’S 4th.

We prefer White’s game.

There is also another method of declining the Gambit, which, although hitherto unanalysed, seems to present some interesting features.

WHITE. BLACK. 1. P. to K’s 4th. 1. P. to K’s 4th. 2. K’s Kt. to B’s 3d. 2. Q’s Kt. to B’s 3d. 3. B. to Q. B’s 4th. 3. B. to Q. B’s 4th. 4. P. to Q. Kt.’s 4th. 4. P. to Q’s 4th. 5. P. takes Q’s P. 5. Kt. takes Q. Kt.’s P. 6. P. to Q. B’s 3d. 6. Kt. takes Q’s P. 7. Q. to Q. Kt.’s 3d. 7. P. to Q. B’s 3d. 8. B. takes Kt. 8. Q. takes B. (best.) 9. Q. takes Q. 9. Q. takes Q. 10. Kt. takes K’s P. Even Game.

It is very possible some of White’s moves may be improved upon, but the foregoing variation seems satisfactorily to demonstrate that Black can gain no advantage.

Before taking our leave of this beautiful opening, we would again remind the young player, that it is perfectly immaterial, whether Black at move 5 captures the gambit pawn with B. or Kt., if with the latter White equally replies with P. to Q. B’s 3d; and on Black’s retiring the Kt. to Q. B’s 3d (best), the position becomes the same as given in a previous variation.

GAME V.--RUY LOPEZ KNIGHT’S GAME.

We will now proceed to examine this, perhaps, the strongest and most embarrassing attack the board affords. It is through fear of this variation, that many of our best players have abandoned the usual defence of 2. Q’s Kt. to B’s 3d, and turned to the King’s Knight’s defence, or the old move of P. to Q’s 3d.

WHITE. BLACK. 1. P. to K’s 4th. 1. P. to K’s 4th. 2. K’s Kt. to B’s 3d. 2. Q’s Kt. to B’s 3d. 3. B. to Q. Kt.’s 5th. 3. K’s Kt. to B’s 3d.

By playing your Bishop thus, you again threaten to win his K’s P. The move in the text, commonly known as the Berlin defence, is perhaps as good a reply as the position admits. He has, however, three other plausible moves; viz., B. to Q. B’s 4th; B. to K’s 2d; P. to Q’s 3d, which will be touched upon hereafter.

4. P. to Q’s 4th. 4. P. takes P.

This move (or perhaps still better, 4. Castles) appears to yield a far stronger attack than the old move of Q. K’s 2d. Black, instead of P. takes P., might either reply with 4. K’s Kt. takes K’s P., or 4. Q’s Kt. takes Q’s P. If the former, perhaps castling at once is your best reply; if the latter, you take Kt. with K’s Kt., and then play P. to K’s 5th, as in the present variation.

5. P. to K’s 5th. 5. Kt. to K’s 5th. 6. Castles. 6. B. to K’s 2d. (best.) 7. Kt. takes P. 7. Kt. takes Kt. (or Var. A.) 8. Q. takes Kt. 8. P. to K. B’s 4th. 9. P. takes P. en passant. 9. Kt. takes P. 10. Q’s Kt. to B’s 3d.

White has a very fine game.

We will now turn our attention to the other modes of play Black may adopt at his 3d move, instead of K’s Kt. to B’s 3d; viz., B. to Q. B’s 4th; P. to Q’s 3d; B. to K’s 2d. (see Variations B. C.)

Variation B. on Black’s 3d Move.

WHITE. BLACK. 1. P. to K’s 4th. 1. P. to K’s 4th. 2. K’s Kt. to B’s 3d. 2. Q’s Kt. to B’s 3d. 3. B. to Q. Kt.’s 5th. 3. B. to Q. B’s 4th. 4. P. to Q. B’s 3d. 4. K’s Kt. to K’s 2d. (best.) 5. Castles. 5. Castles. 6. P. to Q’s 4th. 6. P. takes P. 7. P. takes P. 7. B. to Q. Kt.’s 3d. 8. P. to Q’s 5th. 8. Q’s Kt. to his sq.

White may also play 8. Q’s Kt. to B’s 3d with advantage.

9. P. to Q’s 6th. 9. P. takes P. 10. Q. takes P. 10. B. to Q. B’s 2d. 11. Q. to Q. R’s 3d. 11. P. to Q’s 4th. 12. K’s R. to Q’s sq. 12. B. to Q’s 3d.

The move 12. K. R. to Q’s sq. is recommended in the Handbook as giving White an advantage of position. The reply, however, in the text, which occurred to the writer in actual play, seems calculated to free Black from his embarrassment.

Variation C. on Black’s 3d Move.

WHITE. BLACK. 3. P. to Q’s 3d. 4. P. to Q’s 4th. 4. B. to Q’s 2d. 5. Castles.

Black has a tolerably safe though constrained position.

N.B.--For 3. B. to K’s 2d, see the games illustrative of this opening.

GAME VI.--THE SCOTCH GAMBIT.

This opening derives its name from having been adopted in the great match by correspondence between the London and Edinburgh Chess Clubs. The attack consequent on this opening at one time considerably embarrassed Mr. Cochrane, who considered there was no satisfactory defence to it. Major Jaenisch, however, with characteristic patience and analysis, has proved the contrary.

WHITE. BLACK. 1. P. to K’s 4th. 1. P. to K’s 4th. 2. K’s Kt. to B’s 3d. 2. Q’s Kt. to B’s 3d. 3. P. to Q’s 4th. 3. P. takes P.

If he play 4. Kt. takes P., you reply with either Kt. takes Kt., or Kt. takes K’s P., and obtain the better position.

4. B. to Q. B’s 4th. 4. B. to Q. B’s 4th.

This is now acknowledged to be Black’s best move; for 4. B. to Q. Kt.’s 5th. (ch.) see Variation A.

5. P. to Q. B’s 3d. 5. K’s Kt. to B’s 3d. (best.)

And the position is the same as given in the leading variation of the Giuoco Piano, see page 622. Should Black instead play: P. takes Q. B’s P., you take his K. B’s P. with your B. (ch.); and if he takes the Bishop with King, play Q. to Q’s 5th (ch.), and then take his Bishop.

Variation A. on Black’s 4th Move.

WHITE. BLACK. 1. P. to K’s 4th. 1. P. to K’s 4th. 2. K’s Kt. to B’s 3d. 2. Q’s Kt. to B’s 3d. 3. P. to Q’s 4th. 3. P. takes P. 4. B. to Q. B’s 4th. 4. B. to Q. Kt.’s 5th. (ch.) 5. P. to Q. B’s 3d. 5. P. takes P. 6. Castles. 6. P. to Q. B’s 7th.

Instead of 6. Castles, you might adopt Mr. Cochrane’s method of continuing the attack, by 6. P. takes P.

N.B.--It would be very bad play of Black to take the Q. Kt.’s P., instead of the move in the text.

7. Q. takes P. 7. P. to Q’s 3d. 8. P. to Q. R’s 4th. 8. B. to Q. R’s 4th. 9. P. to Q. Kt.’s 4th. 9. B. to Kt.’s 3d. 10. Q. to Q. Kt.’s 3d, with a fine game.

There is another not uninteresting method of attack, which White might adopt at his fifth move, instead of 5. P. to Q. B’s 3d; viz., K’s Kt. to his 5th.

5. K’s Kt. to his 5th. 5. K’s Kt. to R’s 3d. (best.) 6. Kt. takes K. B’s P. 6. Kt. takes Kt. 7. B. takes Kt. (ch.) 7. K. takes B. 8. Q. to R’s 5th. 8. P. to K. Kt.’s 3d. 9. Q. takes B. 9. P. to Q’s 4th.

Black’s 9th move was first suggested in an able analysis on this variation by Messrs. Jaenisch and Schummoff, in the “Chess Player’s Chronicle” for July, 1850. It is far superior to the old move of P. to Q’s 3d, and without great care on your part will give him an irresistible attack.

10. Castles. 10. P. takes P.

This is your strongest move, and appears to have been overlooked by the talented authors of the article in question:--

10. P. to Q. B’s 3d. (best.) 10. R. to K’s sq.

If Black play 10. P. to Q’s 6th, you reply with Q. to Q. B’s 4th (ch.), winning the King’s Pawn.

11. B. to K. Kt.’s 5th. 11. Q. to Q’s 3d. 12. Q. takes Q. 12. P. takes Q. 13. P. takes P. 13. Kt. takes P. 14. Q’s Kt. to B’s 3d.

And Black will have great difficulty in avoiding the loss of a Pawn.

There is another variation of this opening hitherto, we believe, unanalysed, which, although it presents many points of interest, seems altogether unknown to the majority of amateurs.

WHITE. BLACK. 1. P. to K’s 4th. 1. P. to K’s 4th. 2. K’s Kt. to B’s 3d. 2. Q’s Kt. to B’s 3d. 3. P. to Q’s 4th. 3. P. takes P. 4. B. to Q. B’s 4th. 4. B. to Q. B’s 4th. 5. Castles. 5. P. to Q’s 3d. 6. K’s Kt. to his 5th. 6. K’s Kt. to R’s 3d. 7. P. to K. B’s 4th. 7. P. to Q’s 6th. (dis. ch.)

If he play 7. B. to K. Kt.’s 5th, your best reply seems to be Q. to K’s sq., although you might obtain a strong but hazardous attack by playing Q. to her 3d, and afterwards, on his attacking her, with Q’s Kt. to Q. Kt.’s 3d.

8. K. to R’s sq. 8. P. takes P. 9. Q. takes P. 9. Q’s Kt. to Q’s 5th. 10. Q. to Q. B’s 3d.

And although minus a Pawn, you have a fine game. If he now play P. to K. B’s 3d, you reply with B. to K’s 3d.

THE KING’S BISHOP’S OPENING.

WHITE. BLACK. 1. P. to K’s 4th. 1. P. to K’s 4th. 2. K. B. to Q. B’s 4th. 2. K. B. to Q. B’s 4th.

By this move you attack his weakest point, viz. the K. B’s P. Most of the classical writers on Chess concur in recommending the same move as Black’s best reply. Major Jaenisch and the German authors unanimously recommend 2. K’s Kt. to B’s 3d in preference, the move generally adopted in actual play. (See Game III.)

White has now several methods of continuing the attack. He may play the move recommended by Philidor, viz. P. to Q. B’s 3d, to which Black may reply with either K’s Kt. to B’s 3d, or Q. to K. Kt.’s 4th, or P. to Q’s 4th, in every case with at least an equal game.

You may also play K’s Kt. to B’s 3d, and upon Black’s bringing out his Q’s Kt., the position is resolved into the Giuoco Piano.

If you play Q. to K. R’s 5th, (a move frequently adopted by young players,) Black will reply with Q. to K B’s 3d, or to K’s 2d, with no inferiority of position. Besides these moves you have two others at command, viz. Q. to K’s 2d, and P. to Q. Kt.’s 4th, which we will proceed to examine.

GAME I.--THE LOPEZ GAMBIT.

WHITE. BLACK. 1. P. to K’s 4th. 1. P. to K’s 4th. 2. K. B. to Q. B’s 4th. 2. K. B to Q. B’s 4th. 3. Q. to K’s 2d. 3. Q’s Kt. to B’s 3d.

By playing thus you threaten at once to take his K. B’s P. (ch.), and if K. takes B, to win his Bishop in return by the check of the Q. The move in the text is Black’s best reply, any other move would leave you with at least an even position.

4. P. to Q. B’s 3d. 4. K’s Kt. to B’s 3d.

Instead of P. to Q. B’s 3d, you may take the adverse K. B’s P (ch.); see Variation A.

5. P. to K. B’s 4th. 5. B. takes K’s Kt. 6. R. takes B. 6. Castles. 7. P. to Q’s 3d. 7. P. to Q’s 4th.

With a superior game.

Variation A. on White’s 4th Move.

WHITE. BLACK. 4. B. takes K. B’s P. (ch.) 4. K. takes B. 5. Q. to Q. B’s 4th. (ch.) 5. P. to Q’s 4th. 6. Q. takes B. 6. P. takes K’s P. 7. Q. to Q. B’s 4th (ch.) 7. B. to K’s 3d. 8. Q. takes P. 8. K’s Kt. to B’s 3d.

Black has by far the better game.

GAME II.--THE DOUBLE GAMBIT.

WHITE. BLACK. 1. P. to K’s 4th. 1. P. to K’s 4th. 2. K’s B. to Q. B’s 4th. 2. K’s B. to Q. B’s 4th. 3. P. to Q. Kt.’s 4th. 3. B. takes P. 4. P. to K. B’s 4th. 4. P. to Q’s 4th.

His best move. If, in lieu of P. to Q’s 4th, he adopt P. takes K. B’s P., you reply with K’s Kt. to B’s 3d, and obtain a fine attack.

5. P. takes Q’s P. 5. P. to K’s 5th.

If you play B. takes P., Black replies with P. to Q. B’s 3d, with the better game.

6. K’s Kt. to K’s 2d. 6. K’s Kt. to B’s 3d. 7. Castles. 7. Castles. 8. Q’s Kt. to B’s 3d. 8. P. to Q. B’s 3d. 9. P. takes P. 9. Q’s Kt. takes P.

Black has the better game, thereby proving that the Double Gambit, if correctly met, is disadvantageous to the first player.

GAME III.

WHITE. BLACK. 1. P. to K’s 4th. 1. P. to K’s 4th. 2. K’s B. to Q. B’s 4th. 2. K’s Kt. to B’s 3d. 3. K’s Kt. to B’s 3d. 3. Kt. takes K’s P. (best.)

Your third move is probably the best on the board; 3. P. to Q’s 4th, and 3. P. to Q’s 3d, seem much inferior, as Black immediately gains the attack.

4. Q’s Kt. to B’s 3d. 4. K’s Kt. to B’s 3d.

Your fourth move was introduced two or three years ago, and was first analysed by Mr. Boden, in his “Popular Introduction,” where Black’s reply, of 4. K’s Kt. to B’s 3d, is recommended as his best; we believe, however, he can at least as advantageously play 4. Kt. takes Q’s Kt., or, as has been suggested to us, 4. P. to Q’s 4th.; see Variation A.

5. Kt. takes K’s P. 5. P. to Q’s 4th. 6. B. to Q. Kt.’s 3d. 6. B. to Q’s 3d.

Equal game.

Variation A. on Black’s 4th Move.

WHITE. BLACK. 4. Kt. takes Q’s Kt. 5. Q’s P. takes Kt. 5. P. to Q. B’s 3d.

He may also play 5. P. to K. B’s 3d, by which he preserves his Pawn, though with a somewhat inferior position.

6. Kt. takes K’s P. 6. P. to Q’s 4th. 7. B. to Q’s 3d. 7. B. to Q’s 3d. 8. K’s Kt. to B’s 3d. 8. Castles. 9. Castles. Black has no inferiority of position.

THE KING’S GAMBIT.

GAME I.

This beautiful and brilliant début, which, as Mr. Staunton observes, gives birth to the most intricate and beautiful combinations the chess-men are susceptible of, has been a universal favourite with every class of players from the earliest stages of European Chess up to the present day. In order to facilitate the analysis of this opening, as far as our narrow limits will permit, we shall divide it into its three principal heads; viz., The King’s Knight’s Gambit, The Allgaier Gambit, and the King’s Bishop’s Gambit, and afterwards devote a few words to the Gambit Declined.

WHITE. BLACK. 1. P. to K’s 4th. 1. P. to K’s 4th. 2. P. to K. B’s 4th. 2. P. takes P. 3. K’s Kt. to B’s 3d. 3. P. to K. Kt.’s 4th.

This is Black’s best move, indeed the only one to retain the gambit pawn. He, however, may obtain a nearly equal game by 3. P. to Q,’s 4th. If he play 3. B. to K’s 2d, commonly known as the Cunningham Gambit, White replies with B. to Q. B’s 4th, and on Black’s checking with B. at R’s 5th, plays K. to B’s sq., with a much better game.

4. B. to Q. B’s 4th. 4. B. to K. Kt.’s 2d (best), or Var. A. 5. P. to Q B’s 3d. 5. P. to K. R’s 3d. (best.)

Should Black play the obvious-looking move of 4. P. to Q’s 3d, White gains a striking advantage by the following mode of play:--

6. Q. to Q. Kt.’s 3d. 6. Q. to K’s 2d. 7. Q. to Q. Kt.’s 5th. (ch.) 7. B. on P. interposes. 8. Q. takes K. Kt.’s P., &c.

6. P. to Q’s 4th. 6. P. to Q’s 3d. 7. Castles. 7. Q’s Kt. to Q’s 2d.

This is usually considered his best move, though Q’s Kt. to B’s 3d, or K’s Kt. to K’s 2d, are perhaps equally good.

8. P. to K. Kt.’s 3d. 8. P. to K. Kt.’s 5th.

If he takes P. with P., you get a fine attack by B. takes K. B’s P. (ch.)

9. Kt. to K. R’s 4th, (or to K’s 9. Kt. to Q. Kt.’s 3d. sq.) 10. B. to Q. Kt.’s 3d. 10. P. to K. B’s 6th.

He has a Pawn more, and a strong position.

N.B.--Instead of 5. P. to Q. B’s 3d, you may also play 5. P. to K. R’s 4th, with a good attack.

THE SALVIO GAMBIT.

Variation A. on Black’s 4th Move.

WHITE. BLACK. 1. P. to K’s 4th. 1. P. to K’s 4th. 2. P. to K. B’s 4th. 2. P. takes P. 3. K’s Kt. to B’s 3d. 3. P. to K. Kt.’s 4th. 4. B. to Q. B’s 4th. 4. P. to K. Kt.’s 5th. 5. Kt. to K’s 5th. 5. Q. to K. R’s 5th. (ch.)

Instead of 5. Kt. to K’s 5th, you may castle, for which see Game II. (The Muzio Gambit.)

6. K. to B’s sq. 6. K’s Kt. to R’s 3d. 7. P. to Q’s 4th. 7. P. to K. B’s 6th. 8. P. takes P. 8. P. to Q’s 3d. 9. B. takes K’s Kt. 9. Q’s P. takes Kt.

And Black has a fine Game.

You seem to have no better move than 9. B. takes K’s Kt.; if you play Kt. to Q’s 3d, he replies with K. Kt.’s P. takes P., and your game is gone.

GAME II.--THE MUZIO GAMBIT.

WHITE. BLACK. 1. P. to K’s 4th. 1. P. to K’s 4th. 2. P. to B’s 4th. 2. P. takes P. 3. K’s Kt. to B’s 3d. 3. P. to K. Kt.’s 4th. 4. B. to Q. B’s 4th. 4. P. to K. Kt.’s 5th. 5. Castles. 5. P. takes Kt.

This sacrifice of the Kt., daring as it may appear at first sight, is, nevertheless, considered by modern analysis to be quite sound.

6. Q. takes P. 6. Q. to K. B’s 3d. (best.) 7. P. to K’s 5th. 7. Q. takes K’s P.

Your 7th move is given by most of “the books” as the best. We have found Q’s Kt. to B’s 3d at this point a strong move in actual play.

8. P. to Q’s 3d. 8. K’s B. to R’s 3d. 9. Q’s B. to Q’s 2d. 9. K’s Kt. to K’s 2d. 10. Q’s Kt. to B’s 3d. 10. P. to Q. B’s 3d.

Some authors recommend Q’s Kt. to B’s 3d as more attacking than the move in the text. It has however been proved untenable in the “Handbook” (page 281.)

11. Q’s R. to K’s sq. 11. Q. to Q. B’s 4th. (ch.) 12. K. to R’s sq. 12. P. to Q’s 4th.

Mr. Staunton recommends 12. R. to K. B’s 2d, instead of retiring the King to R’s sq. We have tried this move in actual play, following it up with Q’s R. to K. B’s sq., which seems to give White an overwhelming attack.

13. Q. to K. R’s 5th. 13. Q. to Q’s 3d. 14. B. takes Q. P. 14. P. takes B. 15. Kt. takes Q’s P. 15. Q’s Kt. to B’s 3d. 16. Q’s B. to his 3d. 16. Q. to K. Kt.’s 3d. 17. R. takes Kt. (ch.) 17. K. to B’s sq.

The moves up to this point, both for attack and defence, are given by Jaenisch and the “Handbook” as the best the board affords; with the best play, probably the game ought to be drawn.

We much regret that our space will not allow of a more elaborate analysis of this beautiful gambit; we trust, however, that the above variations will show the young player the difficulty and resource of this opening.

We cannot quit the subject without alluding to a defence lately introduced by Messrs. Kling and Horwitz, which consists in Black’s playing Q. to K’s 2d at his 5th move, instead of taking the Kt. With all deference and respect for the wonderful and almost inexhaustible power of analysis displayed by these two eminent players, we must confess that we have our doubts as to the soundness of the move in question. The young players, however, will find it full analysed in Kling and Horwitz’s “Chess Studies,” one of the most valuable and interesting works on Chess of modern days, which needs not our recommendation to find its way to the book-shelf of every lover of Chess.

GAME I.--THE ALLGAIER GAMBIT.

This opening, the invention of which is erroneously ascribed to Allgaier, has of late years become a favourite with all classes of players, though we agree with Mr. Boden in considering that its resources have been considerably overrated, although not perhaps from the same reason as adduced in his “Popular Introduction.”

WHITE. BLACK. 1. P. to K’s 4th. 1. P. to K’s 4th. 2. P. to K. B’s 4th. 2. P. takes P. 3. K’s Kt. to B’s 3d. 3. P. to K. Kt.’s 4th. 4. P. to K. R’s 4th. 4. P. to K. Kt.’s 5th.

You may here play your Kt. to K’s 5th, or to K. Kt.’s 5th. Modern authorities agree in recommending the former, as giving a more lasting attack. As, however, some very embarrassing positions may arise from playing the Kt. to his 5th, we will examine the consequences resulting from it at present, leaving the move of 5. Kt. to K’s 5th for after examination, (Game II.).

5. Kt. to Kt.’s 5th. 5. P. to K. R’s 3d. (best.) 6. Kt. takes K. B’s P. 6. K. takes Kt. 7. B. to Q. B’s 4th. (ch.) 7. P. to Q’s 4th.

Your 7th move gives a far more embarrassing attack than the old move of Q. takes K. Kt.’s P., to which Black replies, K’s Kt. to B’s 3d. with a winning position.

In the present game Black’s reply of P. to Q’s 4th is his only move. If he retire K. to Kt.’s sq., you must gain some advantage by Q. takes K. Kt.’s P., &c.

8. B. takes P. (ch.) 8. K. to K’s sq.

In our opinion the move of K. to K’s sq. is preferable to K. to Kt.’s 2d. At all events the defence seems much simpler, and at least as satisfactory.

9. P. to Q’s 4th. 9. P. to K. B’s 6th. (best.) 10. P. takes P. 10. B. to K’s 2d.

With a winning game.

GAME II.

WHITE. BLACK. 1. P. to K’s 4th. 1. P. to K’s 4th. 2. P. to K. B’s 4th. 2. P. takes P. 3. K. Kt.’s to B’s 3d. 3. P. to K. Kt.’s 4th. 4. P. to K. R’s 4th. 4. P. to K. Kt.’s 5th. 6. Kt. to K’s 5th. 5. P. to K. R’s 4th.

Black’s 5th move has been recommended by almost all the authorities as the correct reply; although the moves 5. P. to Q’s 3d; 5. B. to K’s 2d; or 5. K’s Kt. to B’s 3d, seem, to say the least, equally advantageous for the second player.

6. B. to Q. B’s 4th. 6. Kt. to K. R’s 3d. 7. P. to Q’s 4th. 7. P. to K. B’s 6th. 8. P. takes P. (best.) 8. P. to Q’s 3d. 9. Kt. to Q’s 3d. 9. B. to K’s 2d. 10. B. to K’s 3d.

This is the move given by the “books;” B. to K. B’s 4th, however, appears at least as good.

10. B. takes K. R’s P. (ch.) 11. K. to Q’s 2d. 11. P. takes P. 12. Q. takes P. 12. B. to K. Kt.’s 5th. 13. Q. to K. B’s 4th. 13. Q’s Kt. to B’s 3d.

One of the advantages of the move 10. B. to K. B’s 4th, as suggested above, seems to be that the White Q. could not be played to K’s 3d, instead of the more assailable part of K. B’s 4th.

14. Q’s Kt. to B’s 3d.

And the game, in spite of the formidable appearance of the adverse Bishops, seems in White’s favour, from the disposition of his forces, so well calculated for a vigorous assault.

N.B.--It would be very unadvisable for Black to reply to White’s move of Kt. to Q. B’s 3d. with Kt. takes Q’s P.

14. Kt. takes Q’s P. 15. B. takes Kt. 15. B. to K. Kt.’s 4th. 16. B. takes K’s R. 16. B. takes Q. (ch.) 17. Kt. takes B.

And White has a more than ample equivalent for his lost Queen, and a considerable superiority of position.

GAME I.--THE BISHOP’S GAMBIT.

WHITE. BLACK. 1. P. to K’s 4th. 1. P. to K’s 4th. 2. P. to K. B’s 4th. 2. P. takes P. 3. B. to Q. B’s 4th. 3. Q. to K. R’s 5th. (ch.)

Black’s 3d move is the one generally recommended at this point. He has, however, the option of several other moves, the most important of which seems to be P. to Q’s 4th. (See Game II.)

4. K. to B’s sq. 4. P. to K. Kt.’s 4th. (best.)

If Black, instead of the move in the text, play B. to Q. B’s 4th, a move frequently adopted by young players, you reply with P. to Q.’s 4th and K’s Kt. to B’s 3d, with a fine position.

5. Q’s Kt. to B’s 3d. 5. B. to K. Kt.’s 2d. (best.) 6. P. to Q’s 4th. 6. P. to Q’s 3d. 7. K’s Kt. to B’s 3d. 7. Q. to K. R’s 4th. 8. P. to K. R’s 4th. 8. P. to K. R’s 3d. 9. P. to K’s 5th. 9. P. takes P.

Major Jaenisch, to whom we owe almost all our knowledge of this fine opening, at one time we believe recommended 9. B. to K. Kt.’s 5th for Black, instead of P. takes P., but has we believe qualified his opinion in favour of the move in the text.

10. Q’s Kt. to Q’s 5th. 10. K. to Q’s sq. 11. P. takes P. 11. B. to Q’s 2d. 12. K. to Kt.’s sq. 12. Q. to K. Kt.’s 3d. 13. P. takes P. 13. P. takes P. 14. R. takes R. 14. B. takes R. 15. K’s Kt. takes P. 15. Q. takes K’s Kt.

This sacrifice is the invention of Petroff, the great Russian master; and without the greatest care in the defence, will give you an overpowering attack.

16. Q’s B. takes P. 16. Q. to K. Kt.’s 3d. (best.) 17. P. to K’s 6th. 17. P. takes P. 18. Kt. takes Q. B’s P. 18. P. to K’s 4th. 19. Kt. to K’s 6th. (ch.)

GAME II.

WHITE. BLACK. 1. P. to K’s 4th. 1. P. to K’s 4th. 2. P. to K. B’s 4th. 2. P. takes P. 3. B. to Q. B’s 4th. 3. P. to Q’s 4th.

We would recommend this defence to the young player, (especially when receiving the odds of a piece,) as it leads at once to at least an even game, and avoids an intricate and difficult series of moves, the least error in which would be fatal.

4. B. takes P. 4. K’s Kt. to B’s 3d. 5. Q. to K’s 2d. 5. Kt. takes B.

This is probably your best move, though Kt. to Q. B’s 3d, may be played without danger.

6. P. takes Kt. (dis. ch.) 6. B. to K’s 2d. 7. Q. to K. B’s 3d. (best.) 7. B. to K. R’s 5th. (ch.) 8. P. to K. Kt.’s 3d. 8. P. takes P. 9. P. takes P. 9. B. to K. Kt.’s 4th. 10. Q’s Kt. to B’s 3d.

The game is about even.

Instead of Black’s 8th move of P. takes P., Mr. Staunton suggests the highly ingenious move of castling; and the game would probably be continued thus:--

8. Castles. 9. Kt. to K’s 2d. (best.) 9. R. to K’s sq.

This is your best reply, if you capture either B. or P. you lose in a few moves. (See the “Handbook,” p. 335.)

10. Q’s Kt. to B’s 3d. 10. B. to K. B’s 3d.

We do not see that Black has anything better.

11. Q’s Kt. to K’s 4th.

And White has some little advantage. It is worth while remarking, that if Black now adopt the tempting move of B. to K. Kt.’s 5th, White will win at least a pawn. We leave the “modus operandi” for the investigation of the young player.

We cannot take our leave of this inexhaustible opening, without once more recommending the amateur who is ambitious of becoming initiated into the mysteries of the Bishop’s Gambit, to study the admirable articles on this début, published by Major Jaenisch, in the late volumes of the “Chess-Player’s Chronicle,” which exhibit, perhaps, the most patient and profound analysis the annals of Chess have ever produced.

THE GAMBIT REFUSED.

The refusal of the gambit, though it may be done with perfect safety, generally leads to a dull and uninteresting game; we would therefore advise the young player to accept the proffered pawn, more especially when receiving the odds of a piece, as he will gain more knowledge of the game by observing the manner in which a fine player pursues his attack, than can be obtained from all the works that have ever been written on the subject.

GAME I.

WHITE. BLACK. 1. P. to K’s 4th. 1. P. to K’s 4th. 2. P. to K. B’s 4th. 2. B. to Q. B’s 4th.

This has usually been received as the best method of declining the gambit, though a preference has sprung up lately in favour of P. to Q’s 4th (See Game II.). Major Jaenisch recommends K’s Kt. to B’s 3d, to which you reply with P. takes P.; and upon his taking K’s P. with Kt., you play K’s Kt. to B’s 3d.

3. K’s Kt. to B’s 3d. 3. P. to Q’s 3d. 4. P. to Q. B’s 3d. 4. B. to K. Kt.’s 5th. 5. P. to K. R’s 3d. 5. B. takes Kt.

We believe your 5th move is now more generally preferred to B. to K’s 2d. You may also play 5. P. to Q’s 4th., though it is somewhat hazardous.

6. Q. takes B. 6. Q’s Kt. to B’s 3d. 7. B. to Q. B’s 4th, or Kt.’s 5th.

And the game is about even.

GAME II.

WHITE. BLACK. 1. P. to K’s 4th. 1. P. to K’s 4th. 2. P. to K. B’s 4th 2. P. to Q’s 4th. 3. P. takes Q’s P. 3. P. to K’s 5th. (best.)

You may also play 3. K’s Kt. to B’s 3d., apparently without danger.

4. P. to Q’s 4th. 4. Q. takes Q’s P.

Your 4th move seems far stronger than the usually received play of B. to Q. Kt.’s 5th. (ch.)

5. P. to Q. B’s 4th. 5. Q. to Q’s sq. 6. B. to Q. B’s 4th.

You have the better game.

THE CENTRE GAMBIT.

This opening, though passed over by many of the books, frequently gives birth to many beautiful and critical positions, and unless properly opposed, is very embarrassing.

GAME I.

WHITE. BLACK. 1. P. to K’s 4th. 1. P. to K’s 4th. 2. P. to Q’s 4th. 2. P. takes P. 3. B. to Q. B’s 4th. 3. K’s Kt. to B’s 3d.

You may also play here P. to K. B’s 4th, a move as yet, we believe, unanalysed. (See Game II.) Black’s reply is the correct one, whereby he reduces the game to a position similar to one in the K. Kt.’s defence to the King’s Bishop’s game. (For B. to Q. Kt.’s 5th. (ch.) see Variation A.)

4. P. to K’s 5th. 4. P. to Q’s 4th. 5. B. to Q. Kt.’s 3d. 5. Kt. to K’s 5th.

Retiring the Bishop thus is far better than taking the Kt. with K’s P. (See the Giuoco Piano for a similar position.)

6. K’s Kt. to K’s 2d. 6. P. to Q. B’s 4th.

If you play 6. K’s Kt. to B’s 3d., Black will gain some advantage by B. to Q. Kt.’s 5th. (ch.)

7. P. to K. B’s 3d. 7. Kt. to K. Kt.’s 4th. 8. Kt. to K. B’s 4th. 8. P. to Q. B’s 5th. 9. B. to Q. R’s 4th. (ch.) 9. Kt. to Q. B’s 3d. 10. B. takes Kt. (ch.) 10. P. takes B. 11. Q. takes P.

Even game.

These are the moves given by Jaenisch, who seems to consider the position in Black’s favour.

Variation A. on Black’s 3d Move.

WHITE. BLACK. 1. P. to K’s 4th. 1. P. to K’s 4th. 2. P. to Q’s 4th. 2. P. takes P. 3. B. to Q. B’s 4th. 3. B. to Q. Kt.’s 5th. (ch.) 4. P. to Q. B’s 3d. 4. P. takes P. 5. P. takes P. 5. Q. to K. B’s 3d. 6. P. takes B. 6. Q. takes Q’s R.

Perhaps your soundest move at this point is 6. Q. to Q. Kt.’s 3d, as recommended in the German Handbook, although, by the mode of play in the text, you get an attack that amply compensates for the loss of the “exchange.”

7. Q. to Q. Kt.’s 3d. 7. Q. to K. B’s 3d. 8. Q’s Kt. to B’s 3d.

Afterwards playing Kt. to K’s 2d, with a fine position.

GAME II.

WHITE. BLACK. 1. P. to K’s 4th. 1. P. to K’s 4th. 2. P. to Q’s 4th. 2. P. takes P. 3. P. to K. B’s 4th. 3. B. to Q. B’s 4th.

This appears to be his best reply.

4. B. to Q. B’s 4th. 4. P. to Q’s 3d.

By your last move you threatened to take his K. B’s P. (checking) and if he took your Bishop with King, to play Q. to K. R’s 5th. (ch.) &c. If Black, instead of P. to Q’s 3d, play K’s Kt. to B’s 3d, you reply with P. to K’s 5th; and upon his playing P. to Q’s 4th, you must gain some advantage by capturing his Kt. with K’s P.--a mode of play not feasible in a similar position in the Giuoco Piano.

5. K’s Kt. to B’s 3d. 5. Q’s Kt. to B’s 3d.

If he play B. to K. Kt.’s 5th, you reply with P. to K’s 5th, and should he take P. with P. you get a winning position by B. takes K. B’s P. (ch.)

6. Castles. 6. P. to Q’s 6th. 7. K. to R’s sq. 7. P. takes P. (dis. ch.) 8. Q. takes P.

And though minus a pawn, you have an ample equivalent in the attack. It is highly probable that many moves, both of attack and defence, in this somewhat novel variation may be improved upon. I only regret that I am precluded, both by want of time and space, from going further into the variations.

THE QUEEN’S GAMBIT.

GAME I.

WHITE. BLACK. 1. P. to Q’s 4th. 1. P. to Q’s 4th. 2. P. to Q. B’s 4th. 2. P. takes P.

It is considered more advisable to decline the gambit. (See Game II.) By taking the Pawn, Black generally subjects himself to some slight inferiority of position.

3. P. to K’s 3d. 3. P. to K’s 4th.

Your move of P. to K’s 3d, appears somewhat preferable to P. to K’s 4th, as recommended by the “classical” writers on Chess, to which Black would equally reply with P. to K’s 4th, with an even game. It is worth while remarking, that if he attempt to sustain the gambit pawn by P. to Q. Kt.’s 4th, you gain the advantage. (See Variation A.)

4. K’s B. takes P. 4. P. takes Q’s P. 5. P. takes P. 5. K’s Kt. to B’s 3d. 6. Q’s Kt. to B’s 3d. 6. B. to Q’s 3d. 7. K’s Kt. to B’s 3d. 7. Q’s Kt. to B’s 3d. 8. Castles. 8. Castles. 9. P. to K. R’s 3d. 9. P. to K. R’s 3d.

White has perhaps a slightly better position.

Variation A. on Black’s 3d Move.

WHITE. BLACK. 1. P. to Q’s 4th. 1. P. to Q’s 4th. 2. P. to Q. B’s 4th. 2. P. takes P. 3. P. to K’s 3d. 3. P. to Q. Kt.’s 4th. 4. P. to Q. R’s 4th. 4. B. to Q’s 2d.

If he play P. to Q. B’s 3d, you take Pawn with Pawn, and on his retaking, win a piece by Q. to K. B’s 3d.

5. P. takes P. 5. B. takes P. 6. P. to Q. Kt.’s 3d. 6. Q. to Q’s 4th. 7. P. takes P. 7. B. takes P. 8. Q. to Q. R’s 4th. (ch.) winning a piece.

These moves are from Mr. Staunton’s Handbook.

GAME II.

WHITE. BLACK. 1. P. to Q’s 4th. 1. P. to Q’s 4th. 2. P. to Q. B’s 4th. 2. P. to K’s 3d.

This is now acknowledged to be his best method of declining the gambit.

3. Q’s Kt. to B’s 3d. 3. K’s Kt. to B’s 3d. 4. P. to K’s 3d. 4. P. to Q. B’s 4th.

Your 4th move is the one given by all “the books.” In the late match between Messrs. Löwenthal and Harrwitz, the latter several times adopted the move of 4. Q’s B. to K. B’s 4th, at this juncture, with advantage, a sortie hitherto denounced by most of the modern writers on Chess.

5. K’s Kt. to B’s 3d. 5. Q’s Kt. to B’s 3d. 6. P. to Q. R’s 3d. 6. P. to Q. R’s 3d.

There is no advantage on either side.

We will now briefly examine those other methods of opening a game, which either player may adopt in lieu of 1. P. to K’s 4th, or 1. P. to Q’s 4th.

The most important of these the second player has at his command to reply to 1. P. to K’s 4th, are, 1. P. to Q. B’s 4th, and 1. P. to K’s 3d. It is true there are other moves, such as 1. P. to Q’s 4th; 1. P. to K. Kt.’s 3d.; 1. P. to Q. Kt.’s 3d.; 1. P. to Q’s 3d.; but they are of so rare occurrence in actual play, we shall hardly be justified in our narrow limits for entering into an analysis of them.

THE YOUNG CONJUROR

INCLUDING SLEIGHT OF HAND WITH OBJECTS OR CARDS, WITH AND WITHOUT APPARATUS.

From the very early ages of the world the art of legerdemain, commonly called conjuring, has been known and practised. In some of the old heathen ceremonies the priests made use of skilful deceptions, in order to impose upon the people; and in ancient Egypt, in Greece, and in Rome, the worship of the gods was frequently associated with mere tricks, which were used for the purpose of obtaining an influence by a pretence of extraordinary and supernatural powers. Among the Eastern nations juggling was a profession, and to this day the jugglers of Hindustan and other Oriental nations are so skilful that they are able to deceive even the most acute observers. In our own country, after the Norman Conquest, the juggler (who was called jongleur, or joculator) was a minstrel as well as a conjurer, a reader of the stars or astrologer, and at the same time a jester, a merry-andrew, and a teller of droll stories. These jongleurs travelled from place to place, and exhibited at fairs, feasts, and merrymakings, as well as in the houses of noblemen, where they diverted the company in the great halls. In the fourteenth century they gave more attention to tricks and feats of skill, and became known as tregetours. The performances of some of these gentry were so marvellous, that the common people believed them to be the result of witchcraft, and classed the tregetour with the warlock and the sorcerer. Chaucer, who no doubt had frequently an opportunity of seeing the tricks exhibited by the tregetours of his time, says, “There I sawe playenge jogelours, magyciens, tragetours, phetonysses, charmeresses, old witches, and sorceresses;” and the old poet goes on to say of them, “Sometimes they will bring on the similitude of a grim lion, or make flowers spring up as in a meadow; sometimes they cause a vine to flourish, bearing white and red grapes, or show a castle built with stone, and when they please they cause the whole to disappear:” and in another part of his works he says:--

“There saw I Coll Tregetour Upon a table of sycamour Play an uncouthe thynge to tell; I sawe hym cary a wyndemell Under a walnot shale.”--House of Fame, book iii.

Our learned monarch James I. was perfectly convinced that these and other inferior feats exhibited by the tregetours of his day could only be performed by diabolical agency. The profession had already fallen very low, and at the close of the reign of Queen Elizabeth the performers were ranked by the moral writers of that time not only with ruffians, blasphemers, thieves, and vagabonds, but also with Jews, Turks, heretics, pagans, and sorcerers; and in more modern times, by way of derision, the juggler was called a mocus-pocus, or hokus-pokus, a term applicable to a pickpocket or a common cheat.

The following pages are not intended to make the young reader either a cheat or a trickster; there is nothing perhaps so utterly contemptible in every-day life as trickery and deceit, and we would caution our young friends not to cultivate a love of deception, which is only allowable in such feats of amusement, because it is in fact not deception at all, when everybody expects to be puzzled, and is only left to find out the mystery the best way he can.

With this sage advice we shall present a collection of amusing conjuring tricks, premising that a considerable number of tricks usually embodied in this division will be found in that part of our work relating to Scientific Experiments and Amusements, as they more properly belong to “Natural Magic,” and are to be referred to the various operations of nature in the several departments of art, science, and philosophy.

SLEIGHT OF HAND.

It is intended in the following pages to lay more stress upon those tricks which require no apparatus than upon those for which special apparatus or the assistance of a confederate is required. No one is nearly so well pleased by a trick whose essence evidently lies in the machinery, while every one feels pleasure at seeing a sleight of hand trick neatly executed. The audience often despise all the numerous boxes, bottles, variegated covers, and other gimcracks which are generally seen on a conjuror’s table; and are seldom so pleased with any performer as with one who does not even require a table, but presses into his service articles borrowed from his audience. The spectators should never be able to say, “Ah! the trick lies in the box: he dares not show it to us!”

The following tricks have almost all been successfully performed, and have caused some reputation in the magic art. Some of them are the invention of one of the most eminent “conjurors” of modern times.

1. THE FLYING SHILLING.

This trick must be frequently practised before it is produced in public.

Borrow two coloured silk handkerchiefs from the company, and have three shillings in your hand, but only show two, keeping the other one firmly fixed against the first joint of the second and third fingers. You must also have a fine needle and thread stuck inside the cuff of your coat. Then take one of the handkerchiefs, and put in both shillings, but pretend that only one is in the handkerchief; then put the handkerchief into a hat, leaving one corner hanging out. Now hold up the third shilling (which the spectators imagine is the second), and ask one of the company to lay the second handkerchief over it. You then ask him to hold the shilling tight between his finger and thumb, while you twist up the handkerchief. While doing so, with both hands concealed under the handkerchief, you pass a few stitches under the shilling, and replace the needle. This being done, spread one corner of the handkerchief over the hand of the person who is still holding the shilling, and, taking hold of another corner, tell him to drop the shilling when you have counted three. At the word “three” he lets go the shilling, and you whisk the handkerchief into the air, when the shilling appears to have vanished, but is really held in the handkerchief. You then tell the astonished individual to draw the other handkerchief out of the hat by the corner that is hanging out. The two shillings are heard to fall into the hat, and every one is persuaded that you have conjured one of the shillings out of the person’s hand, and sent it into the hat.

2. ANOTHER METHOD.

Perhaps the spectators may ask to see it again, or demand to mark the shilling. In this case, vary it as follows. Ask some one (always choose the most incredulous of the party) to mark a shilling of his own and give it you. Take the same handkerchief and give him the shilling to hold that is already enclosed in it, as in the last trick, dropping the marked shilling into the palm of your hand. Twist it up as before, and then leave it entirely in his hands. Direct him to place it on a table, and cover it with a basin or saucer. Ask him to give you a cup or tumbler, and hold it under the table, beneath the place where the saucer is. Then tell him to knock three times on the saucer, and at the third knock let the marked shilling fall into the tumbler. Hand him the tumbler, and while he is examining the shilling to see if it is the same one that he marked, take up the saucer, and shake out the handkerchief that is lying under it, as in the last trick. You must then return the handkerchief, and while you pretend to be searching for the marks, draw out the thread that held the shilling and drop the coin into the palm of your hand, taking care to rub between your finger and thumb the spot where the threads had been, in order to eradicate the marks. This variation seldom fails to confuse the company.

You must remember to keep talking the whole time, and always try to make a joke, or otherwise to distract the attention of the audience, while you are executing the necessary changes.

3. THE BEADS AND STRINGS.

Ask some lady to lend you the beads off her bracelet, or have by you five or six beads, which you may hand round for examination. Then get some one to cut two pieces of thin string of equal length, and twist them about your fingers, appearing to lay them side by side, but in reality placing them as in the figure, and then, by twisting them together with apparent carelessness, the manner in which they are arranged will not be seen, particularly if you keep the point of junction hidden either by a finger, or by throwing the shade of your hand upon it.

When the beads are returned, thread them all, taking care to pass the centre bead over the point of juncture. You then bring the ends of the string 1 and 2 together and tie them so, doing the same with 3 and 4. Now give the tied ends to two persons, directing them to hold them tight. You need not fear that the beads will come off, even if they pull hard. Then grasp the beads with both hands, directing the holders to slacken the strings. You then, under cover of the left hand, which is placed above the beads, slip the centre bead to one side, and draw out the two loops which have been hidden in it. The beads will then easily come off into your right hand. Tell the holders to pull hard, which they will do, and the same moment remove your hands, showing the empty strings and all the beads in your right hand. Then hand round the beads and strings as before. Remember to rub out the marks in the strings caused by the loops before you remove your hands.

4. TO GET A RING OUT OF A HANDKERCHIEF.

Bend a piece of gold wire into the form of a ring, having previously sharpened both ends. You have a real ring made of the same piece of wire, and concealing the false ring in the palm of your hand, offer the real one to be inspected. When it is returned, borrow a handkerchief, and, while taking it from the lender, slip the real ring into your left hand, and take the false one at its point of junction. Throw the handkerchief over the ring, and give it to some one to hold between his finger and thumb. Let the handkerchief fall over it, and give a piece of string to a second spectator, directing him to tie it round the handkerchief, about two inches below the ring, so as to enclose it in a bag, and tell him to do so as tightly as he can. While he is doing this, take up your conjuring wand, a rod of some hard wood, about eighteen inches long, and when the knot is tied, step forward, passing the rod into your left hand, taking care to slip over it the real ring, which has lain concealed there. Slip your left hand to the centre of the rod, and direct each of the two persons to hold one end of it in his right hand. Then tell the one who has the ring and handkerchief, to lay them on your left hand, which you immediately cover with your right. Then tell them to spread another handkerchief over your hands, and to say after you any nonsense that you like to invent.

While they are so doing, unbend the false ring, and draw it through the handkerchief by one of its points, carefully rubbing between the thumb and finger the place where it came through. Hang the empty handkerchief over the ring which is on the rod, and take away your hands, which you exhibit empty, as you have stuck the false ring inside your cuff. Take away the upper handkerchief, and let a third person come to examine, when he will find the ring gone out of the handkerchief, and hung upon the rod.

5. TO TIE A KNOT IN A HANDKERCHIEF WHICH CANNOT BE DRAWN TIGHT.

Cast an ordinary knot on a handkerchief, and give the end out of your right hand to some spectator, and tell him to pull hard and sharp when you count three. Just as he pulls, slip your left thumb under the handkerchief, as drawn in the cut, and it will be pulled out quite straight without any knot at all. You must let go the end that hangs over the left hand, and grasp the handkerchief between the thumb and forefinger.

6. THE THREE CUPS.

This is an admirable delusion, but requires very careful management, and should be practised repeatedly before it is exhibited publicly. You get three tin cups, of the shape shown in the cut. They should have two or three ridges running round them at the mouth, in order to give a better hold. Four balls should now be made of cork, and carefully blackened. One of the balls is held concealed between the roots of the third and fourth fingers, while the other three are handed round for examination, together with the cups. When they are returned, the young conjuror begins by placing each ball under a cup, or, if he chooses, asks one of the spectators to do so for him. While this is being done, he slips the fourth ball to the tips of the second and third fingers. He then lifts up cup No. 1, replacing it on the table a few inches from its first position, and at the same time slips the fourth ball under it. He takes up ball No. 1, and pretends to throw it away, but in reality he slips it into the place which the fourth ball had occupied. He does the same with the three cups, and then commences a sham search after the lost balls, in which he accidentally (!) knocks over one of the cups, and, to his pretended astonishment, finds a ball under it. He then knocks over both the other cups, and finds in them the two missing balls.

He again places the balls under the cups, taking care to slip the fourth ball under cup No. 3. He then takes up cup No. 1 and pretends to throw the ball into No. 3, but hides it as before. As there are already two balls in No. 3, the spectators imagine that he really has thrown the ball into it. He replaces cup No. 3 over both balls, and slips among them ball No. 1. He then takes up cup No. 2, and goes through the same process, and on knocking over cup No. 3, all three balls are found together under it, and while the spectators are being astonished, ball No. 2 can be quickly got rid of.

A rather startling termination to this trick can be managed by taking up one of the cups with its mouth upwards, holding the finger and thumb close to its mouth. Then by throwing another cup into it, letting go the first and catching the second, you appear to have thrown the second cup through the first.

7. TO TIE A HANDKERCHIEF ROUND YOUR LEG, AND GET IT OFF WITHOUT UNTYING THE KNOT.

Hold the handkerchief by both ends, lay the centre of the handkerchief on your knee, and pass the two ends below, appearing to cross them, but in reality hitching them within each other, as represented in the engraving, which shows the manner in which this is managed. Draw this loop tight, and bring back the ends to the same side on which they were originally, and tie them above. If the loop is properly made, it will stand a good pull. Then, after showing the spectators how firmly it is tied, put your hand under the knot, and by giving it a sharp pull, it will come off.

The engraving represents the manner in which the loop is made, but it must be made considerably smaller than it is shown, or it will be seen. In fact, it ought not to be a loop at all, as it should be almost concealed under the fold of the handkerchief. Do not show this in public until you can tie it with rapidity and precision.

8. THE MAGIC BOND.

Take a piece of string, and tie the two ends together with a weaver’s knot, as that holds the best, and arrange it over the fingers as represented in the engraving. Having done so, let the long loop hang loose, lift both loops off the thumb, draw them forward until the string is quite tight, and then put them behind the hand, by passing them between the second and third fingers. Then pull the part of the string that is across the roots of the fingers, and the whole affair will come off.

9. THE OLD MAN AND HIS CHAIR.

Take the same piece of string as in the last trick, hold your left hand with the palm uppermost, and hang the string over the palm. Spread all the fingers, and with the right hand bring forward the loop that hangs behind, by passing it over the second and third fingers. Loose the loop, take hold of the part of the string that crosses the hand, and pull it forwards. When tight, pass it to the back of the hand, the reversal of the movement that brought it forwards. Loose the loop, insert the fore-finger and little finger of the right hand under the string that encircles the left fore-finger and little-finger, and pass the two loops to the back of the hand, as shown in the cut, Fig. 1. Tuck both loops under the cross-string at the back, and your preliminaries are completed. Then begin your story: “There was once upon a time an old man, who stole a pound of candles. Here they are.” You then hold your left hand as at the commencement, hook the right fore-finger under the cross-piece at the back, and draw it downward until it is long enough to be passed over the second and third fingers to the front. Pass it over, and draw it slowly upwards, when the similitude of a pound of candles hanging by their string will be seen. (See Fig. 2.) “The old man, being tired, hung up his candles,” you then hang the long loop over your thumb, “and sat down in his high-backed chair, which you see here.” You then hitch the right fore-finger and middle finger under the two loops that will be found hanging behind the left hand, bring them to the front, raise them perpendicularly, and the chair will be seen as in Fig. 3. The thumb must be raised perpendicularly, and brought as much as possible into the centre of the hand, or the chair will be all aside.

“When the old man was rested, it began to become dark, and he took a pair of scissors to cut down a candle for himself. Here are the scissors.” While you are saying this, you slip the loop off the thumb, and you get Fig. 4. Move the blades and handles of the scissors, as if cutting something with them. “Just as he had lighted it, in came a policeman, and produced his staff, with the Queen’s crown at the top.” Now let go the little finger of the left hand, and the loop will run up the string towards the right hand, producing Fig. 5. “The old man in vain tried to resist, for the policeman called a comrade to his assistance, and they tied a cord round the old man’s arms in a tight knot, like this,”--slip the right middle-finger out of its loop, and you will obtain Fig. 6,--“and carried him off to prison.”

10. TO TIE A KNOT ON THE LEFT WRIST, WITHOUT LETTING THE RIGHT HAND APPROACH IT.

Take a piece of thick pliant string by each end, and with a quick jerk of the right hand cast a loop on it as in Fig. 1. The jerk must be given upwards and towards the left hand, and its impetus will cause the loop to run up the string until it falls over the left wrist, as in Fig. 2. The moment that the forward jerk is given the right hand should be drawn back, so that the loop is drawn tight directly it has settled on the wrist. Both ends should be let fall when the knot is firm. This is a very nice little sleight of hand to practice in the intervals between more showy tricks, and, although rather difficult to learn, is soon acquired.

11. THE HANDCUFFS.

Let two persons, A and B, have their hands tied together with string, so that the strings cross, as represented in the engraving. The object is, to free themselves from each other without untying the knot. It is executed in the following manner.

Let B gather up the string that joins his hands, pass the loop under the string that binds either of A’s wrists, slip it over A’s hand, and both will be free. By a reversal of the same process, the string may be replaced.

12. TO PULL A STRING THROUGH YOUR BUTTON-HOLE.

Take a piece of string about two feet in length, and tie the ends together. Pass it through a button-hole of your coat; hitch one thumb at each end, hook the little fingers into the upper strings of the opposite hand. Then draw the hands well outward, and the string will look very complicated, as in the engraving.

To get out the string, loose the hold of the right thumb and left little finger, and separate the hands smartly, when the string will appear to have been pulled out through the substance of your coat.

It is an improvement of the trick, if, immediately on loosing the hold of the right thumb, you change the string from the right little finger on to the thumb.

13. THE CUT STRING RESTORED.

Tie together the ends of a piece of string, pass one hand through each end, twist it once round, and put both ends into the left hand. Draw the right hand rapidly along the double strings until you come to the place where the strings have crossed each other, as seen in the engraving. Conceal the junction with the thumb and finger of the right hand; hold the strings in a similar manner with the left hand, and tell some one to cut the string between them. You show that the string has been divided into two pieces, and say that you will join them with your teeth. Put all four ends into your mouth, and remove with your tongue the little loop that has been cut off. When you take the string out of your mouth, the spectators will not notice the absence of so small a portion of its length, and will fancy that you really have joined them.

14. THE GORDIAN KNOT.

Take a silk handkerchief, and lay it on a table. Take each of the corners, and lay them across each other in the middle of the handkerchief, which will then be square, as in the cut, Fig. 1. Do the same with the new corners, and go on until the handkerchief is reduced to the size of your hand. Then with your left finger and thumb take hold of the centre, taking care to grasp all the four corners that lie there, and with the right finger and thumb take hold of the outer layer of silk, and pull it towards you as far as it will come. Then turn it a little on your left hand, and repeat the operation until it is all screwed up into a tight ball, as is represented in the engraving, Fig. 2. No ends will be then perceptible, and a person who is unacquainted with the mode will never be able to untie it. Of course you must prepare it previously. When the person to whom you give it has failed to untie it, you take the ball in your hand, and holding it behind your back, you reverse the method by which it was tied, and when it is loose a good shake will release it.

15. THE KNOT LOOSENED.

This is a very amusing deception. You ask any one for a handkerchief, and tie the ends firmly together in a double knot, allowing him to feel it, or pull the ends as tight as he pleases. You then throw the centre of the handkerchief over the knot, and ask the person to hold it tight between his finger and thumb. You ask him if the knot is still there, to which he will answer in the affirmative. You then take hold of any part of the handkerchief, and direct the holder to drop the handkerchief at the word “three.” You count, “one, two, three,” at which word he looses his hold of the handkerchief, and there is no vestige left of the knot.

The method of managing this trick is as follows:--Take the handkerchief and tie the ends in a simple knot, keeping one end tight, and the other end loose. We will call the tight end A, and the loose one B. Keep A always in the right hand, and on the stretch horizontally, and the handkerchief will look as in the cut. Do this when you tie it the second time, and draw B tight, which will then form a double tie round A, but will not hold it firm. When you throw the handkerchief over the knot, you draw out A with the finger and thumb of the left hand, and the knot will apparently remain firm, although in reality it is nothing but a double twist of silk, which of course falls loose when the handkerchief is dropped.

16. TO PUT NUTS INTO YOUR EAR.

Take three nuts in the left hand, show them, and take out one of them between your right finger and thumb, and another between the first and third finger. This latter is not seen by the company. You then put one of them in your mouth and retain it there, unknown to the spectators, while you exhibit the second as the one that you put into your mouth. This second one you carry to your ear, as if you meant to insert it there, and on replacing it in your left hand, only two nuts will be left instead of three, the third of which appears to have gone into your ear.

17. TO CRACK WALNUTS IN YOUR ELBOW.

Conceal a very strong walnut in your right hand, and take two other walnuts out of the dish. Place one of them on the joint of your arm, and say that you are going to break it by the power of your muscles. You will now have one walnut in your arm and two in your right hand. Close your left arm, and strike it an apparently violent blow with the right hand, at the same time clenching the right hand violently, which will smash the second walnut in it, and the spectators hearing the crash will be sure to fancy that it is caused by the demolition of the walnut in your arm. Then open you arm very gently (for fear of dropping any of the fragments, you must say), and, when pretending to take out the walnut which you had placed there, you substitute for it the broken one from your right hand.

18. TO TAKE FEATHERS OUT OF AN EMPTY HANDKERCHIEF.

Procure at the military clothier’s four or five large plumes, such as are worn by officers. Take off your coat, and lay the plumes along your arms, the stem being toward your hand. Now put on your coat again, and the feathers will lie quite smoothly and unsuspected. Borrow a handkerchief from one of the spectators, and wave it about to show that it is empty. Throw it over your left hand, and with the right draw out one of the plumes from up the coat-sleeve, at the same time giving it a flourish in the air, which will loosen all the fibres of the feather, and make it appear much too large to have been concealed about the person. Wave the handkerchief again, and repeat the operation until all the plumes are gone. You can carry enough plumes under the sleeve to cover a table with, and if you prepare a board or an ornamental vase full of holes, you can place the plumes upright as you take them out.

TRICKS REQUIRING SPECIAL APPARATUS.

None of the following tricks are wholly managed by the apparatus, as such performances are unworthy of notice. Therefore, every trick mentioned in the following pages must be carefully practised in private before it is produced in public. The apparatus, of course, cannot be inspected by the audience, and for that reason it is better to mix them with those tricks which have been already mentioned, in order that suspicious persons may be quieted by an occasional permission to inspect the objects used in the performances.

The young conjuror should always vary the mode of performance in the non-essentials, and should study combinations of one trick with another, by which means he will produce more astonishing results than if he restricted himself to the methods mentioned in this work. He should also invariably make a little speech, acknowledging that he is only deceiving the eye and not the mind, and should therefore request the company not to ask any questions, or to demand inspection of any of his apparatus.

19. THE DIE TRICK.

Get a wooden die about two inches and a half square (1), and a hollow tin die exactly the size of the wooden one, but without one of the sides (2). Then paint them both exactly alike, as in the engraving. It will be better to let an accidental flaw appear on the same side of each. Then get a tin cover (4) that exactly fits the dies. Now for the trick itself.

Borrow two hats, and while you turn your back upon the audience as you go to your table, slip into one of them the false die. Place both hats on the table, and send round the real die and cover for inspection. When they are returned, say, “Now, ladies and gentlemen, it is my intention to place these hats one above another, thus.” You then place the two hats as in No. 3, the hollow die being in the bottom hat. “I shall then cover the die thus,” which you do, “and after I have knocked on the cover, I shall take it off, and you will find that the die is not under the cover, as it is now,” taking it off, “but inside the hat, like this.” You then put the real die into the hat. “You do not believe me, ladies and gentlemen, but I will soon convince you.” You then take out the false die, and replacing the upper hat, put the die on the upper hat (of course, with the open side downward) and place the cover over it. Pick up your conjuring wand, give it a few flourishes, and bring it down on the cover. Grasp the cover tightly near the bottom, when both cover and false die will come up together; put the end of your wand into them, and give them a good rattle. Then knock off the upper hat with a blow of the wand, and push the lower one off the table, so that the die tumbles out of it. Always use plenty of gesture about your tricks.

20. THE PENETRATIVE PENCE.

Get a brazier to cut out all the interior of five pence, only leaving the rims. He must then bore out nearly all the interior of a sixth penny, merely leaving a shell of copper at the top. A long rivet must then be let into the rim as shown in Fig. 1, No. 2, and a hole must be drilled in each of the five rings, as in No. 3. The rivet is to be passed through the holes in the rings, and fastened below, so that all the rings can play easily upon it. Fig. 1, No. 1, is a section of the entire apparatus, the dotted lines representing the rivet. They can then be placed as shown in Fig. 2, No. 1, and no one will imagine that they are only shams, as you can rattle them or move them about upon each other. A leathern cover, Fig. 2, No. 2, is then made, which passes easily over the heap of pence, but being pliable, is capable of picking up the hollow pence with it, when it is held firmly. To the under surface of the table you fasten a little shelf, Fig. 2, No. 3, which moves on a hinge, and is let fall by placing the foot on the pedal, Fig. 2, No. 4, which draws the catch.

To perform the trick, place six real pence on the little shelf, and have the sham pence on the table. Take them up and rattle them, and put them down as in Fig. 2, No. 1. Keep a sixpence in the palm of your hand, pick up the sham pence, and as you put them down, slip the sixpence under them, as you do the ball in trick 6. Take the cover, and put it over the sham pence, make a short speech, and knock the cover with your wand, at the same time pressing the pedal with your foot, which will cause all the six real pence to tumble down with a great crash. Take up the cover and false pence together, put the end of your wand into them and hold them up triumphantly, showing the spectators that the six pence have been replaced by a silver sixpence. While you are picking up the pence, slip the sham ones out of the cover into your left hand, and take some opportunity of letting the empty cover roll towards the audience, one of whom you ask to pick it up and bring it you. This manœuvre generally disarms all suspicion, for the picker-up is sure to examine it very closely.

I have only given mere outlines of this really excellent trick, which may be varied in a hundred ways, and is capable of combination with other tricks to a large extent. It will add to its complicity, if a set of six half-pence is also made like the pence. For the pedal may be substituted a lever running immediately under the surface of the table, if the performer prefers to have a short cloth on it. There should be always two cloths on the table,--the lower one thick and soft, to prevent jingling of objects, and the upper one white, as it displays everything better than a coloured one. The ingenuity of the young conjuror will easily find methods of varying this trick.

21. THE DOLL TRICK.

Get a comical looking doll, and cut off his head diagonally, taking care to do it very neatly. Drive a peg into the neck, and bore a hole in the body, into which the peg fits, as in the cut. Paint his body and head carefully, and if you put a gold chain or two round his neck, it will conceal the line of junction. Make also a coat of silk, and sew a pocket inside the edge of the skirt.

Take up the doll, and say, “Now, ladies and gentlemen, here is a very learned man. Observe the development of his forehead, the sagacity of his nose, the eloquence of his lips, the dignity of his spectacles, and the philosophy of his pigtail. He is professor of astronomy at Timbuctoo, and here is his gown of office. See how handsome he looks in it. He is going to Amsterdam to see the eclipse of the last new comet. He has the honour to wish you all farewell before starting on his journey. Now, professor, we are waiting to see you go. Oh! you want funds, do you? I beg your pardon; here is a shilling for you.” So saying, you take your right hand from under the gown, taking with it the body, and put the body into your pocket, while you jingle some silver. The head is now supported by your left hand. Pretend to give him some money, and then say, “What! you won’t go unless you have more! Get along!” Hit the head a hard rap with your right hand, which drives it into the pocket, which you hold open for it with your left thumb and little finger. “Oh dear! the doctor is dead, and cannot be found.” Saying this, you grasp the gown by the place where the head is, and shake it about to show that it is empty. If you like, you can make another oration and hold a dialogue, making the doctor resuscitate himself, which is of course done by taking the head out of the pocket with the left hand, and working it about by the peg.

22. THE FLYING COINS.

Take two sovereigns, or rather brass imitations, and grind them down until they are reduced to half their thickness. Do the same with two shillings, and fasten them accurately together, so that you will have two coins, each having one silver face, and one brass face. Take one of them in each hand, showing the silver side of one and the brass side of another, and offer to change them without moving your arms. Shut your hands, and the coins will turn over. Then, on opening them again, they will appear to have changed from one hand into the other.

23. THE VANISHED GROAT.

Put a little wax on the nail of the middle finger of the right hand, and take a fourpenny piece into the palm of the same hand. Close the hand, pressing the wax on the coin. Then rapidly open it, and the silver piece will adhere to the wax, and be quite concealed behind the finger when you hold your hand up.

24. THE RESTORED DOCUMENT.

Make a memorandum book, and line the cover with paper which has been previously rubbed with a mixture of lamp-black and oil. The paper must be loosely affixed, so that it can be raised up, and a leaf from the memorandum book placed under it. You must also make a flat box, having a double opening.

You now take a leaf out of the memorandum book, and ask some one to write a sentence, at the same time offering him the book to write upon. The pencil with which you furnish him is very hard, and he is forced to press upon the paper in order to mark. In so doing, the black is transferred by the pressure of the pencil from the blackened paper to the white leaf that has been placed under it, and of course makes an exact copy of the writing. You then give the man his document, put the memorandum book in your pocket, and go out of the room to fetch your box, which you have forgotten. While you are out of the room, you take out the leaf from under the black paper, and put it into one side of the flat box, and shut down the cover that hides it. You bring in the box, apologising for your absence, and give the box, open at the other side, into the writer’s hands. Tell him to burn his writing in a candle, and to place the ashes in the box. He does so, and closing the box, returns it to you. You then flourish about a little with the box, wave it in the air, bring it down with a bang on the table, strike it with your wand, and then, opening it as at first, you produce the duplicate leaf, which the writer acknowledges to be his own hand-writing. If the lamp-black should have come off and smeared the paper, you can account for it by observing that it is very difficult to get rid of all traces of the burning.

25. THE MAGIC RINGS.

Get a blacksmith to make a number of rings, about six or seven inches in diameter, as in the cut. A is made with a spring opening on one side, B is a set of two rings forged permanently within each other, C is a set of three rings formed in the same manner, and D D are two simple rings. The rings should be about the thickness of a rather large blacklead pencil.

Lay the rings on one another, and they will all appear to be separate and distinct; D D should be the uppermost rings, then B, then A, and then C. Hand round D for inspection, and if any more are desired, hand round the other D. When returned, you hang them over your left arm, or grasp them in your hand, and tell the company that you are going to weave all the rings together. You clash them together, and after going through some complicated movements, bring out B, which the spectators will think you have just fastened together. Hand them round. When they are returned, mix them all up, and bring out C. Then take A in your hand, and passing one of the outer rings of C through the opening, you have four rings together. Then add D and you have five. Take off D and substitute B, which will give you six. So you go on, weaving them into all kinds of fantastic shapes. You must always conceal the joint in A with your thumb, and contrive as often as you can to have one at least of the rings D at liberty. This is a capital trick, and may be diversified to any extent, especially if the number of rings is increased.

26. THE FISH AND INK TRICK.

This is really a first-rate delusion. You bring before the spectators a glass vase, full of ink. You dip a ladle into it, and pour out some of the ink upon a plate, in order to convince the audience that the substance in the vase is really ink. You then throw a handkerchief over the vase and instantly withdraw it, when the vase is found to be filled with pure water, in which a couple of gold fish are swimming.

This apparent impossibility is performed as follows. To the interior of the vessel is fitted a black silk lining, which adheres closely to the sides when pressed by the water, and which is withdrawn inside the handkerchief during the performance of the trick. The ladle has a hollow handle with an opening into the bowl. In the handle is a spoonful or so of ink, which runs into the bowl when it is held downwards during the act of dipping it into the vase.

27. THE CANNON BALLS.

The performer of this trick borrows a number of hats, and places them on the table. He then returns each person his hat, and on turning it over, a thirty-two pounder cannon ball rolls out.

The method of performing this delusion is as follows. Get a turner to make a number of wooden balls, each the size of a thirty-two pounder cannon ball, and let a hole be bored in each which will admit the middle finger. The balls are arranged hole upwards on a shelf on your table on the side opposite to the audience, so that the balls are nearly level with the top of the table. When you take a hat off the table, you slip your fore or middle finger into the ball just as you would into a thimble, and by bending the finger, bring the ball into the hat.

Any object may be brought into a hat in this manner, a great cabbage, for instance, having a hole cut in the stalk.

28. THE SHILLING IN THE BALL OF COTTON.

Get a tinman to make a flat tin tube, which will just allow a shilling to pass through it. Wind a quantity of worsted round it, so as to make it into a ball.

These preliminaries having been accomplished, perform any trick that will get a shilling out of sight, such as No. 1 or 2. Then tell the spectators that you will bring the marked shilling into the middle of a ball of worsted. Take down the ball from the place where it is lying, drop the shilling into the tube, and withdraw the tube, leaving the shilling in the ball. A good squeeze or two will hold it tight, and obliterate every mark of the tube. Place the ball in a tumbler, take the end of the worsted, and give it to some one to unwind. This being done, the shilling will be found in the very centre of the ball, with the end of the worsted wrapped tightly round it.

29. THE EGG AND BAG TRICK.

Get a chintz or cloth bag made double, and between the two bags make six or seven pockets, each of which will hold an egg, and having an opening into the bag. Fill the pockets with eggs, and you are ready for the performance.

Hold the bag by the place where the eggs are, shake it, turn it inside out and show that there is nothing in it. Then tell the spectators that you are sure that there is a hen in the bag. Put your head near the mouth of the bag, and make a clucking like a hen. You then say, “I knew I was right, and she has laid an egg.” So saying, you put your hand into the bag and take out one of the eggs, taking care to pretend to grope in one of the corners for it.

This is repeated until all the eggs but one are gone. You then, after taking out the last egg, say that some people think that the eggs are not real, but you will convince them by ocular inspection. Saying this, you break the egg in a saucer with your right hand, and while the people are occupied with it, you drop the bag behind your table, or hang it on a hook out of sight, and take up another exactly like it, into which you have put a hen. “These are real eggs,” you then say, “and if any one doubts their reality, they cannot doubt that this is a real hen.” You then turn the bag upside down, and shake out the hen. If any one wishes to inspect that bag, he can do so without being much wiser for it.

30. THE DANCING EGG.

Send for some eggs, and take care to place among them one which has been emptied of its contents, and to which is fastened a long hair, at the other end of which is tied a crooked pin. Borrow a small stick from one of the spectators, and as you go behind your table contrive to hook the bent pin into your coat, passing it over the stick. Then place the egg on an inverted hat, and ask for some music, and directly it begins to sound, a slight and imperceptible depression or elevation of the stick will cause the egg to twist and roll about upon it as if it had life. You must be careful to turn gently round now and then, so as apparently to vary the distance of the egg from the body.

31. BELL AND SHOT.

Get a wooden bell made, so thick that there is a considerable space between the outer and inner surfaces, especially on the upper part of the bell. A hollow must be cut in this, and the handle so made, that when it is at rest, it is forced upwards by a spring, and draws up the round piece of wood to which the clapper chain is attached, and closes the aperture, as shown in the engraving.

You have a cardboard measure, which is of precisely the same capacity as the cavity in the bell, and just wide enough to hold a farthing. Into this you privately put a farthing, and then fill up the measure with shot, heaping it a little, to compensate for the farthing. You make up a tale about a man going out shooting, and ringing the bell of the gunmaker’s shop. (You then ring your wooden bell.) How the man bought a measure full of shot for a farthing, (you pour the shot into the bell and back again two or three times,) but was so long haggling over three shots, that the gunmaker took away the shot, (here you again pour the shot into the bell, and by pressing on the handle, allow them all to run into the hollow,) and kept the farthing for his trouble. The man went out of the shop, but soon came in again, and rang furiously. (Here you again ring the bell, which is now apparently empty, and invert the measure on the table. The farthing not being held by the finger and thumb will now fall on the tablecloth.) Then finish the story with an account of the manner in which the man got back his farthing. When you have finished, invert the bell over the empty measure, and on pressing the handle, the shots will refill it. Do not touch, it until you have done another trick or two, and then, when you put the bell aside, ring it again, and remark that the purchaser was a silly fellow after all, for here are his shots in his measure.

32. THE BURNED HANDKERCHIEF RESTORED.

Get a tinman to make a double canister, such as is shown in the cut, with an opening at each end. This must so slide within a tin tube, that either end can be concealed within it alternately, as seen in the engraving, where the end A is shown, and B is concealed. In this position it looks like an ordinary canister. The interior is divided into two parts. Into B put a piece of cambric made to look like a handkerchief.

Borrow a cambric handkerchief, and say, “Now, ladies and gentlemen, I shall burn this handkerchief to ashes, place them in this canister” (so saying, you put it into A), “and when I have uttered a spell, it will be restored perfectly whole. Will the owner say what mark it has?” While the audience are looking towards the owner, you turn the canister over, and push up the canister until the shoulder of B is on a level with the top of the tube. When the mark has been declared, you open B, take out the cambric, and pretend to verify the mark. You then put it into a candle flame, and when it has burnt entirely to ashes, put the ashes into B, shut it up, and rapidly reverse it as you turn round to your audience, so that A is uppermost again. Then, utter any nonsense you like, open A and take out the handkerchief uninjured. It rather adds to the trick if you drop a little eau de cologne into A before commencing.

33. THE FIRE-EATER.

If the young conjuror is desirous of appearing in the character of a fire-eater, it is very easily managed. He must prepare a piece of thick string, by soaking it in a solution of nitre, and then drying it. He cuts off a piece about an inch in length, lights one end, and wraps it up in a piece of tow which he holds in his left hand. The trifling smoke will be concealed by a huge bundle of loose tow also carried in the left hand.

He takes a handful of tow in his right hand, puts it into his mouth, chews it up, and appears to swallow it. He then takes another handful, and with it the piece in which is the string. As he puts this into his mouth, he takes out the piece which he has already chewed. By taking breath through the nostrils, and breathing it out through the mouth, smoke begins to issue forth, and the whole interior of the mouth is soon lighted up with a glow. When the mouth is shut, and the tow pressed together, the fire goes out, except the piece of prepared string. More tow is then taken into the mouth, and treated in the same manner.

In this short account of conjuring, I have purposely avoided such tricks as require expensive apparatus. Such apparatus is either entirely beyond a boy’s reach, or at all events he ought not to be encouraged in the notion of spending much money on objects of no real use. A boy of any ingenuity will make the greater part of the apparatus himself, or at least he can do the painting and polishing of his machinery. I have mentioned no machinery that need cost more than two or three shillings at the outside, and not that, if a boy is acquainted with the use of tools.

TRICKS WITH CARDS.

In accordance with the previous rule, the principal stress is laid on card tricks that require no apparatus, and may be performed with ordinary cards.

1. TO MAKE THE PASS.

This is a necessary beginning for card tricks. “Making the pass” is the technical term for shifting either the top or the bottom card to any place in the pack that you like. It is almost impossible to describe it, and I can only say that it will be learnt better in five minutes from a friend, than in as many hours from a book. As, however, a friend is not always to be found who can perform the pass, I will endeavour to describe it.

The cards are held in both hands, right hand underneath and left above, as in the engraving, where, as the bottom card is to be raised to the top, the little finger is seen between that card and those above it. By a quick movement of the right hand, the bottom card is slipped away towards the left, and is placed upon the top card, under shadow of the left hand, which is raised for the moment to allow of its passage.

This movement must be assiduously practised before it is exhibited in public, as nothing looks more awkward than to see it clumsily performed, in which case two or three cards generally tumble on the floor.

2. TO TELL A CARD BY ITS BACK.

While shuffling the pack, cast a glance at the bottom card, make the pass, and bring it to the top. Continue to shuffle, and lay upon it by degrees as many cards as you like, say six. Then lay the pack on the table, face downwards, and divide it into seven heaps, beginning at the bottom, and leave the seventh heap larger than any of the others.

When you have done this, take one card from the top of the seventh heap, appear to calculate, and lay it, face upwards, on one of the other heaps. Do so with five more cards, thus leaving your slipped card at the top of the seventh heap. You then announce that by the aid of the six cards you will name the seventh. You name it accordingly, after carefully studying the other cards, and on asking a spectator to take it up, it will be seen that you are right.

If you place five cards above the slipped card, you will lay out six heaps, and if eight cards, there will of course be nine heaps.

3. THE CARD NAMED WITHOUT BEING SEEN.

As in the last trick, cast a glance at the bottom card, say the ace of spades. Lay out the pack in as many heaps as you like, noting where that one is laid which contains that bottom card. Ask any one to take up the top card of any heap, look at it, and replace it. You then gather up the heaps apparently by chance, but you take care to put the heap containing the bottom card upon the card which has been chosen. You then give any one the cards to cut, and on counting them over, the card that immediately follows the ace of spades is the card chosen.

If by any accident the two cards should be separated when cut, the upper card of the pack is the chosen one, and can be picked out with seeming care.

4. THE CARD TOLD BY THE OPERA GLASS.

Make out a table, such as is given on the next page, Fig. 1, and place it in an opera-glass, so that the figures will be visible when you look through it. For convenience, I have made mine as seen in Fig. 2, the numbers 1, 2, 3 in each series being understood. The best plan is to write the numbers, or cut them out of a book, and paste them on a circular piece of cardboard, which must then be soaked in oil, so as to make it semi-transparent. The light will then easily pierce through it, and the figures will be better visible than if it were opaque.

It will be seen that Fig. 2 contains as much matter as Fig. 1, and that two-thirds of the figures are saved by it.

+------------+--------------+-------------+ | 1. 131 | 10. 132 | 19. 133 | | | | | | 2. 231 | 11. 232 | 20. 233 | | | | | | 3. 331 | 18. 332 | 21. 333 | +------------+--------------+-------------+ | 4. 121 | 13. 122 | 22. 123 | | | | | | 5. 221 | 14. 222 | 23. 223 | | | | | | 6. 321 | 15. 322 | 24. 323 | +------------+--------------+-------------+ | 7. 111 | 16. 112 | 25. 113 | | | | | | 8. 211 | 17. 212 | 26. 213 | | | | | | 9. 311 | 18. 312 | 27. 313 | +------------+--------------+-------------+

FIG. 1.

-------+------- / | \ / | \ / | \ / 1. 31. | 10. 32. \ / | \ / 4. 21. | 13. 22. \ / | \ / 7. 11. | 16. 12. \ | | | +---------------+--------------+ | | \ 19. 33. / \ / \ 22. 23. / \ / \ 25. 13. / \ / \ / \ / ---------------

FIG. 2.

These preliminaries being arranged, tell any one to take any twenty-seven cards out of a pack, and to think of any one of them. Deal them into three heaps, and ask him in which heap it is, and what number from the top he would like it to come after the third deal. Suppose he chooses it to be the twenty-sixth card, you take up your opera-glass, and look for the number 26. This you will find last but one, arranged thus,--26. 213. The meaning is, that if the chosen card is to be the twenty-sixth, the heap in which it was found must be for the first time placed second, the second time first, and the last time third. So you pick up the cards, taking care to keep that heap number two. You again deal them in three heaps, and this time you place the heap in which is the chosen card at the top, being number one. Deal them a third time, and on gathering up the heaps, place it at the bottom.

Then, on counting from the top, the chosen card will be found to be the twenty-sixth.

5. THE FOUR KINGS.

Take the four kings out of a pack of cards, and also two other court cards, which are not to be shown. Spread out the kings before the spectators, but conceal the two court cards between the third and fourth kings. Lay the cards face downwards on the table. Take off the bottom card, which is of course one of the kings; show it as if by accident, and place it on the top. Take the next card, (which is one of the court cards,) and place that in the middle of the pack. Take the third card, (i. e. the second court card,) and place that also near the middle of the pack. There will then be one king at the top and three at the bottom. Ask any one to cut the cards, and to examine them when he will find all four kings together in the middle of the pack.

It is better to use court cards to place between the third and fourth kings, because if the cards should slip aside, they would not be so readily distinguished as common cards.

AUDACITY.

Several tricks may be successfully played by sheer audacity. A whole party has been astonished by the performer holding a pack of cards over his head, and naming each. The fact was, that he was standing exactly opposite a large mirror, in which the cards were reflected, while the spectators, having their backs to the mirror, suspected nothing.

Here are one or two tricks that depend on audacity for success.

6. THE CARD FOUND AT THE SECOND GUESS.

Offer the cards to any one, and let him draw one. You then hold the cards behind your back, and tell him to place his card on the top. Pretend to make a great shuffling, but only turn that card with its back to the others, still keeping it at the top. Then hold up the cards with their faces towards the spectator, and ask him if the bottom card is his. While doing so, you inspect his card at your leisure. He of course denies it, and you begin shuffling again furiously. “Let me do that,” he will probably say; so, as you are perfectly acquainted with his card, you let him shuffle as much as he likes, and then, when you get the cards back again, shuffle until his card is at the bottom. Then pass them behind your back, make a ruffling noise with them, and show him his own card at the bottom.

7. THE CARD FOUND UNDER THE HAT.

Have a needle stuck just inside your sleeve. Hand the cards, &c. just as in the preceding trick, and tell the taker to put the card on the top. Take out the needle, and prick a hole nearly through the top left-hand corner. Replace the needle, shuffle the cards, or let any one shuffle them. Place the pack on the table, cover them with a hat, and the marked card will be known by a little raised knob on the right-hand top corner. Draw out card by card, saying whether it is that card or not, until you come to the marked one, which you throw on the table carelessly, and when you are about taking out another card, stop suddenly, and pretend to find, by some magic process, that it is the chosen card.

8. TO CALL THE CARDS OUT OF THE PACK.

Tell the spectators that you will call six cards out of the pack. Secure a card,--say the ace of spades,--in the palm of your hand. Throw the pack on the table, face downwards, spread out the cards, give one of the spectators your conjuring wand, and tell him, when you name a card, to touch one, which you will take up.

First name the ace of spades. He touches a card, which you take up without showing the face of it. This card may be, say the eight of diamonds. Put it into your left hand, and place it upon the ace of spades which is already there, so that the two look like one card. Then call for the eight of diamonds. Another card is touched, say the queen of clubs. This you put with the others, and, after pretending to calculate, call for the queen of clubs.

Proceed in this manner until six cards have been drawn. Then substitute the last card drawn (which is of course a wrong one) for the ace of spades, and conceal it in the palm of your hand. Then strew the others on the table, and while the eyes of the spectators are fixed upon them, get rid of the card in your left hand.

It is a good plan to ask some one to write down the names of the cards as they are called, and then to have the list called over, in order that every one may see that there has been no mistake.

9. HEADS AND TAILS.

While you are shuffling the cards, contrive to arrange quietly all their heads one way, or as many as possible, rejecting all the diamonds except the king, queen, knave, and seven, and passing them to the bottom. Put the pack upon the table, take off a number of the upper cards, and offer them for some one to choose a card from. While he is looking at it, turn the cards round, and offer them to him, in order that he may replace it. Shuffle the cards, and on looking them over, the chosen card will be standing with its head one way, while the others are reversed.

10. THE SURPRISE.

When you have discovered a card, the following plan will make a striking termination to the trick. Get the card to the bottom of the pack, and tell one of the spectators to hold the cards by one corner as tightly as he can. Give them a sharp rap with your finger,--not with your hand,--and all the cards will be struck out of his hold, and fall on the floor, except the bottom card, which will remain between his finger and thumb. It has a rather more dashing effect, if you put the chosen card at the top, and strike them upwards, when the whole pack will fly about the room, like a flock of butterflies, only leaving the top card in the person’s grasp.

11. THE REVOLUTION.

Another neat way of finishing a trick is as follows. Get the card to the top of the pack; and taking care that all the cards are even, drop the pack on the floor, taking care just as you let go, to slip the top card a little off the rest of the pack. In falling, the resistance of the air will turn the card over, and it will rest with its face upwards on the top of the pack.

12. THE SLIPPED CARD.

Ascertain the bottom card of the pack; hold the cards in your left hand, with their faces downwards. Place your right hand upon them, and with your right fore-finger slide them slowly over each other, asking some one to stop any card he chooses, by putting his finger upon it. When he has done so, open the pack at that card, but while opening it, make the pass, and bring the bottom card under the one touched. Hold up the cards, and ask the chooser to be sure of his card; hand all the cards to him, and let him shuffle as much as he chooses. Afterwards discover the card in any manner that you prefer. The following is a good plan.

13. THE NAILED CARD.

Take a flat-headed nail, and file it down until its point is as sharp as a needle, and the head quite flat. The nail should be about half an inch long, or even shorter if anything. Pass the nail through the centre of any card,--say the ace of spades,--and conceal it in your left hand.

Take another pack of cards, get the ace of spades to the bottom, and perform the preceding trick. When the cards are returned, shuffle them about, and exchange the pierced card for the other. Put the pierced card at the bottom of the pack, and throw the cards violently against a door, when the nail will be driven in by the pressure of the other cards against its head, and the chosen card will be seen nailed to the door. The nail should be put through the face of card, so that when the others fall on the floor, it remains facing the spectators.

14. TO ASCERTAIN THE NUMBER OF POINTS ON THREE UNSEEN CARDS.

In this amusement the ace counts eleven, the court cards ten each, and the others according to the number of their spots.

Ask any one to choose any three cards, and lay them on the table, with their faces downwards. On each of these he must place as many as with the number of the card will make fifteen. He gives you the remaining cards, and when you have them in your hand, you count them over on the pretence of shuffling them, and by adding sixteen, you will have the number of points on the three cards.

For example, the spectator chooses a four, an eight, and a king. On the four he places eleven cards, on the eight seven, and on the king five. There will be then six cards left. Add to these six sixteen, and the result will be twenty-two, which is the number of points on the three cards, the king counting ten, added to the eight and the four.

15. TO TELL THE NUMBERS ON TWO UNSEEN CARDS.

As in the preceding trick, the ace counts eleven, and the court cards ten each. Let the person who chooses the two cards lay them on the table with their faces downward, and place on each as many as will make their number twenty-five.

Take the remaining cards and count them, when they will be found to be just as many as the points in the two cards. For example, take an ace and a queen, i. e. eleven and ten, and lay them on the table. On the ace you must put fourteen cards, and on the queen fifteen. There will be then fifteen cards in one heap and sixteen in the other: these added together make thirty-one cards: these subtracted from the number of cards in the pack, i. e. fifty-two, leave twenty-one, the joint number of the ace and the queen.

16. THE PAIRS RE-PAIRED.

Tell out twenty cards in pairs, and ask ten people to take a pair each, and remember them. Take up the pairs in their order, and lay them on the table in order, according to the accompanying table, which forms a memoria technica, and may be construed. Mutus gave a name to the Coci, (a people who have yet to be discovered.)

M U T U S [14] 1 2 3 2 4 D E D I T 5 6 5 7 3 N O M E N 8 9 1 6 8 C O C I S 10 9 10 7 4

[14] The figures represent the pairs, i. e. the 1 under M signifies that M belongs to the first pair.

Arranging these words in your mind on the table, take the first card of the first pair, lay it on M in Mutus, and the second on the M in Nomen. The next pair goes entirely in Mutus, being two U’s. The first card of the second pair goes on T in Mutus, and the second on T in Dedit; and so on until all the cards are laid in their places.

Ask each person in succession in which rows his cards are, and you can immediately point them out. For example, if he says the second and third row, you point out the second and fourth cards in those rows, because they both represent the letter E. If another says the first and last rows, you point out the last card in each, because the cards represent S in Mutus and S in Cocis. It will be seen that the whole table consists of ten letters, each repeated.

17. THE QUEEN DIGGING FOR DIAMONDS.

Select from a pack the aces, kings, queens, and knaves, together with four common cards of each suit. Lay down the four queens in a row, and say, “Here are four queens going to dig for diamonds. (Lay a common diamond over each queen.) They each took a spade with them (place a common spade on each diamond) and dug until they were nearly tired. Their four kings, thinking that they might be attacked by robbers, sent four soldiers to keep guard. (Lay an ace on each spade.) Evening came, and the queens had not returned, so the kings, fearing that they might have come to harm, became uneasy and set off themselves. (Place a king on each ace.) They were only just in time, for as they came along, they met their queens being carried off by four villains (lay a knave on each king), who, although only armed with clubs (place a common club on each knave), had overpowered the guards and driven them off. But the four kings, being possessed of bold hearts (lay a common heart over each king), soon vanquished the villains, and bound them.” Gather up the cards, place the heaps upon each other and direct some one to cut them. Have them cut four or five times, and continue to do so until a common heart appears at the bottom. Then continue the tale, and say, “The party then returned home in the following order. First the queen (lay down the top card) with the diamonds which she had found (lay down the second card, which will be a diamond) in one hand, and her spade (the third card will be a spade) in the other, &c. &c.” You continue dealing out the cards in that manner, and it will be found that they will be in precisely the same order as when they were taken up.

18. THE TRIPLE DEAL.

Take any twenty-one cards, and ask some to choose one from them. Lay them out in three heaps, and ask the person who took the card in which heap it is. You may turn your back while he searches. Gather them up and put that heap between the other two. Do this twice more, and the chosen card will always be the eleventh from the top.

19. THE QUADRUPLE DEAL.

This is a variation of the preceding. Take twenty-four cards, and lay them in four heaps. Act as in No. 18, putting the heap in which is the chosen card second. The tenth card will be the one thought of.

TRICKS WITH CARDS, THAT REQUIRE APPARATUS.

One or two of these tricks must suffice, because, in general, the apparatus required for cards is exceedingly expensive. Those that are here given require but little apparatus, and any boy with the use of his hands can make it.

20. THE CARDS IN THE VASE.

Make a vase with five divisions, two of which hold an entire pack of cards, and the remaining three are only large enough just to admit one card each, as in the figure. A strong silk thread is fastened at A, passes over the three little compartments, through the bottom of the vase, and running over two pulleys, terminates in the weight at B.

Take three cards, say the ace of spades, the ten of diamonds, and the king of hearts, out of a pack of cards, and put one into each of the little divisions, pressing the thread down into the bottom of each division. If the cards are left, the weight will descend, and the string being tightened, will push the cards upwards. So a kind of trigger shelf is made, on which the weight rests. The remainder of the pack you put into division 2.

When you show the trick, you take another pack of cards exactly like that which is already in the vase, and handing it to three persons successively, compel them to choose the ace of spades, the ten of diamonds, and the king of hearts.[15] Let some one shuffle the cards, and when this is done, put the pack into division 1. Tell the spectators that when you have struck three times on the table, the cards will come out of the vase. At the third stroke, loosen the catch on which the weight stands, by means of a string that communicates with your table, and the three cards will rise slowly up. In order to show that the cards have really vanished from the pack, take the pack out of division 2 and let any one examine it.

[15] This may be done by making the pass.

If you prefer, you can draw the thread yourself, by having a kind of pedal under your table, to which the other end of the string is attached, instead of being fastened to the weight B. If you prefer the weight, you must have a small shelf for the weight to rest upon, when it has descended sufficiently low, or the cards will be forced entirely out by the thread. C is a representation of one of the divisions, showing the semi-circular cut that is made in them for the convenience of taking out the cards.

21. THE METAMORPHOSIS.

In this most excellent trick you choose from the pack the four eights and the two of diamonds; you put the four eights in the left hand and the two on the table; you take in the two, placing an eight on the table, and they are all two’s. You exchange the two for the eight, and they all become black cards; you again exchange the eight for the two, and they all turn red; and after again exchanging, you have, as before, the four eights and the two of diamonds.

The method of accomplishing this trick is as follows: Get three plain white cards, exactly like playing cards, and paint them as in the engraving. Mix them with an ordinary pack, and when you are searching for the four eights, with which you say you are going to perform a trick, take them from the pack, and with them an ordinary eight of clubs and a two of diamonds.

Show the cards as in Fig. 2, making the spectators observe that there are the four eights. Put the two of diamonds behind the eight of clubs, and lay the eight on the table. The two must be inserted before the eight is removed, or the mystery of the marking will be apparent. Close the cards, turn them over, and spread them out, when they will appear as in Fig. 3. Take in the eight and lay the two on the table; close the cards, and while shuffling them, turn card No. 2 the other way upwards. The cards will then all appear black, as in Fig. 4. Take in the two and remove the eight, turn them over, and spread them out, when they will appear all red, as in Fig 5. Finally, take in the eight, replacing the two on the table, reverse No. 2, and you will have the four eights and the two of diamonds just as they were at first. You must invent plenty of talk during your changes. If the spectators say that the cards are double, spread them out, and hold them up to the light, (for the light cannot penetrate through the places where the cards are placed over each other,) and if they are still sceptical, hand them the two of diamonds to look at, and in a moment or two hand them the eight of clubs, asking them whether they would like to examine a black card also. This will effectually disarm suspicion.

22. TO CHANGE A CARD IN A PERSON’S HAND.

Cut very neatly the spots from a three of spades. Lay the pierced card on an ace of diamonds, and rub pomatum on the ace of diamonds through the places which the spades occupied. Remove the pierced card, and sprinkle the ace of diamonds with jet powder, which adhering to the pomatum, will transform the card into a three of spades.

Place the transformed card at the bottom of the pack, and show a person what card it is. Make him declare it that every one may hear, then place it on the table, face downwards, and push it over the cloth to the spectator, which action will rub off all the jet powder. Tell him to place his hand on the card. Let a three of spades be at the top of the pack, and an ace of diamonds the second from the bottom. Show another person the ace of diamonds, and ask him to tell the name of the card openly. Put the pack down, face downwards, And in so doing, make the pass, and bring the three of spades to the bottom.

Tap the hand of the person who is guarding the card, and then tell him to take up the card and show it to the spectators, when it will be seen to be the ace of diamonds. Simultaneously, you take up the pack, and show the three of spades at the bottom.

CRYPTOGRAPHY.

The meaning of the word “Cryptography” is, as is well known, “hidden or secret writings,” and was used in ancient times, when conspiracies were common, and murders an every-day occurrence, as the means of communicating from one person to another in such a manner that it could not be read by any one save those who were admitted into the secret of its construction.

A widespread conspiracy, or, as it would be more properly termed, rebellion, could not be carried on between persons at a distance from each other unless they resorted to cryptography; in fact, the means of correspondence was in those times of so slow and dangerous a nature, that without the utmost care and secrecy in the arrangement of the cipher it would certainly have been discovered, and then death would be the consequence.

In order to mature their designs in safety, and to throw off all suspicion, men were obliged to put their wits to work and invent some way of informing each other of everything that did transpire, so that no one else should be the wiser for it: thus was cryptography discovered; and wonderful cunning and ingenuity were displayed in its construction, as will be seen by the examples that are given.

It was also used in former times in transacting affairs of state, in communicating messages from one general to another in time of war, and in many other ways of a more innocent nature, too numerous to mention.

Now, at the present time, when all is peace and prosperity, and news is brought to our very doors by post and telegraph, cryptography is only interesting as a curious study, or to amuse ourselves in an idle hour by finding out its hidden mysteries.

The first and most common form of cryptograph we read of was by the transposition of letters, and is, as we may see, capable of great improvement; indeed, it is the basis on which most of the letter ciphers are formed at the present day.

We give the following as an example:--

For--a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z. Use--d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z a b c.

The sentence, “We meet to-night,” in this cipher would become, “Zh phhw wr-qljkw.”

The next is formed on the principle of the above, but is rather more intricate: for instance, if we wanted to inform some one that, “All going on well, send supplies as soon as possible,” we should put it down in the following order:--

a g s p s o l o e l o s l n n i o s g w d e n i o e s s a b i l u a s l n l p s p e

You must read it down the first perpendicular column, then down the second, and so on. You must then form the letters in the horizontal columns into imaginary words, and place them down on paper as you would a common sentence, thus:--“Ag spso loelos lnn iosgwden ioes sab iluas lnlp spe.”

You must arrange with your correspondent beforehand that the width of the horizontal column should consist of six letters (or more, if you like); so by placing the letters six in a line, one under the other, without regard to words, the puzzle is easy to solve.

Another good cipher is by using the figures 1 and 2 differently arranged for every letter in the alphabet, as will be seen by the following key:--

a b c d e f g h i 11111 11112 11121 11122 11211 11212 11221 11222 12111

j k l m n o p q r 12112 12122 12211 12212 12221 12222 21111 21112 21121

s t u v w x y z 21122 21211 21212 21221 22222 22212 22221 22122

Now if we wanted to write the words “Come now,” we should do it in this way, knowing that there are five figures to every letter, and when a word is formed there is a comma:--

11121122221221211211, 122211222222222.

The next was a favourite of that unfortunate king, Charles I.:--

The next is rather good and somewhat difficult:--

Divide a piece of cardboard into twenty-six departments, and in each place a letter; then take another piece (small enough that the letters on the first piece can be seen), and fit it into the centre of the first, dividing this into the same number of departments; then put a piece of thread through the centre of both, so that you can turn the smallest card round, filling the spaces up with letters in any way you like. Thus:

In using the dial, turn it round until, say, the letter m in the middle card comes under the letter A in the outer circle; next take what you want to write, and find it letter by letter in the outer circle, putting down on paper what appears directly under it in the inner circle.

Now if you want to write “I shall come soon,” first write the letters A m, so as to enable your correspondent to fix his dial like your own, as the A is in the outer circle and the m under it in the inner--“Am d ufmyy rjxi ujjk.”

You may arrange your dial in any way you like, but must be sure to place what letter is under the A at the beginning of your cipher.

The next is something like the last:--

Now if you want to tell some one that “They are all coming over,” you must write it down and place the figures 5, 4, 3 over every letter in succession. Thus:--

5 4 3 5 4 3 5 4 3 5 4 3 5 4 3 5 4 3 5 4. T h e y a r e a l l c o m i n g o v e r.

Then look for the letter T in the dial; the figure 5 being over it, you must look for the fifth letter from it, which is O: put it down, and go on to the next letter in the message, H; find H in the circle, and as 4 is over it, put down the fourth letter from it, D: for E, with the 3 over it, we must write down the third letter from E; and for the next letter, Y, 5 being over it, the fifth letter; and so on, always counting in the direction of the arrows. The cipher will run eventually: “Odbt woz wig ylhekb kszn.”

The way to read this cipher is to put 543 down the same as before, and to count them on the circle in the opposite way to which the arrows are pointing.

The most famous and complex cipher perhaps ever written was by Lord Bacon. It was arranged in the following manner:--

aaaaa stands for a aaaab „ b aaaba „ c aaabb „ d aabaa „ e aabab „ f aabba „ g aabbb „ h abaaa „ i & j abaab „ k ababa „ l ababb „ m abbaa „ n abbab „ o abbba „ p abbbb „ q baaaa „ r baaab „ s baaba „ t baabb „ u & v babaa „ w babab „ x babba „ y babbb „ z

Now, suppose you want to inform some one that “All is well;” first place down the letters separately according to the above alphabet--

aaaaa ababa ababa abaaa baaab babaa aabaa ababa ababa.

Then take a sentence five times the length in letters of “All is well,”--say it is, “We were sorry to have heard that you have been so unwell.”

Then fit this sentence to the cipher shown above, like this--

a a a a a a b a b a a b a b a a b a a a b a W e w e r e s o r r y t o h a v e h e a r d --- --- --- --- --- ---

a a b b a b a a a a b a a a b a b a a b a b a. t h _a__t_ y o u h a v e b e e n s o u n w e l l. ------ --- --- --- --- --- ---

Marking with a dash every letter that comes under a B. Then put the sentence down on your paper, printing all marked letters in italics, and the others in the ordinary way, thus--

“We were _s_o_r_ry _t_o _h_av_e_ hea_r_d th_at_ y_o_u hav_e_ bee_n_ s_o_ un_w_e_l_l.”

The person who receives the cipher puts it down and writes an A under every letter except those in italics; these he puts a B under; he then divides the cipher obtained into periods of five letters, looks at his alphabet, and finds the meaning to be, “All is well.”

Here is a specimen of a music cryptograph:--

The next is good, but rather lengthy:--

a b c d e f g h .:... :...: .::.. ...:. ....: .:.:: ..:.. :....

i j k l m n o p ::... ..::. .:.:. :.:.. ...:: ..:.: :::.. .:::.

q r s t u v w x ::::: ::.:: :.:.: ::..: :.::. ::::. .:::: :::.:

y z :.::: .::.:

Here is the key of another:--

1 2 3 4 5 a b e d e--1 f g h i k--2 l m n o p--3 q r s t u--4 v w x y z--5

In picking out the letter you want, you must see under what number it stands, then see what number is at the end of the line, then put those two figures together, and they will represent the letter: thus, 15 represents V; 23, M; 43, O; and 55, Z.

The sentence, “We meet to-night,” would be--2551, 23515144, 4443, 3342223244.

The next is a very difficult and complex cryptograph to decipher.

Draw a table of four columns, like the figure below. In the first column place the six different arrangements of the figures 1, 2, 3, and number the other columns 1st, 2d, and 3d respectively:--

+-----+---------+---------+---------+ | | 1st. | 2d. | 3d. | +-----+---------+---------+---------+ | 123 | t y c n | h r e m | e a o i | | 132 | b e f s | y h i s | g t r t | | 213 | e r e e | t m x w | a e n t | | 231 | e r m c | k m a r | a h h y | | 321 | l m r t | i c i h | l o e g | +-----+---------+---------+---------+

You must agree with your correspondent how many letters wide each of the three columns shall be--we will say four. Then take your sentence--say it is, “They are coming by the first steamer next week from America; we hope they will come right.” You must then place every letter down separately, writing the figures in the first column in succession over them, thus--

1 2 3 1 3 2 2 1 3 2 3 1 3 1 2 3 2 1 1 2 3 1 3 2 2 1 3 2 T h e y a r e c o m i n g b y t h e f i r s t s t e a m

3 1 3 1 2 3 2 1 1 2 3 1 3 2 2 1 3 2 3 1 3 1 2 3 2 1 1 2 3 1 e r n e x t w e e k f r o m A m e r i c a w e h o p e t h e

3 2 2 1 3 2 3 1 3 1 2 3 2 1. y w i l l c o m e r i g h t.

Over the first letter, “t,” stands “1,” therefore write “t” in the column marked first; over “h” is “2,” therefore write “h” in the second column; over “e” is “3,” then put “e” in the third column, and so on; but when four letters are written abreast you must begin a new line.

After doing the above, you must take the letters in each column separately (beginning with the first), and form them into imaginary words, putting a dot under the last letter of each column to show your correspondent that the column ends there; thus--

Tycnb efse ree ermc w pee lmr[t.] hrem yhistmx wk mar eot wi ci[h.]eaoi gtrtae ntfoei ah hyl oe[g.].

The person receiving the message knows the width of the column (four letters), the arrangement of the figures 1, 2, 3, and the use of the dots, and reconstructs his table directly; he then puts the letters in order by a backward process to the one we have gone through, and reads the message.

The next is a cipher of a different kind:--

O P | A B | C D .| . |. -----+-----+----- | | M N .| Q R |. E F | . | -----+-----+----- .| . |. K L | I J | G H

\ S T / \ / \ . / W X . >-< . U V / . \ / \ / Y Z \

The dots stand for the last letter in each square: thus O would be ___|, and P the same with a dot put in the middle, thus .|. A |___| and B |.|

The sentence, “ROUTLEDGE’S MAGAZINE FOR BOYS,” would be

+---+ | / \ / ---+ +--- | +--- +--- \ / | . | | < \. / .| | |. | | \ / +---+ ---+ \ \/ | +--- +--- | +--- \/ ,

---+ | | +--- | | /\ +---+ ---+ +--- | | | | | | /. \ | | .| | ---+ +---+ | +---+ / \ | | ---+ +--- ,

+--- | +---+ |. | | . | +--- ---+ +---|,

| | | /\ \ / | . | | / \ \ / +---+ ---+ / \ \/ .

In finding out the meaning of a cryptograph, you must first settle in your mind to what class of cipher it belongs, whether it is written by means of letters, figures, or signs; having done so, you must go to work with patience, and try to find out, by means of perseverance and study, what each figure, sign, or letter represents; as even the above specimens of cryptography can be so altered and improved upon, yet continuing in their original form to some extent, that it would be impossible to give positive rules to enable any one to decipher any kind of cryptograph; in fact, it can only be done by those who have made it their study for years, and consequently have had great experience in the matter.

Most of the examples given will only enable one to decipher the most simple kinds, such as are generally found in magazines, &c.; for if that intricate cipher of Lord Bacon’s were put in a book for boys, it would be a waste of paper, as we will venture to say that not one in a thousand would be able to find it out.

* * * * *

There is another class of cryptographs which we have not yet noticed, and which are done by means of sympathetic inks, a list of which will consequently be interesting.

Inks which appear when heated, and become invisible when cooled:--

Solution of nitro-muriate of cobalt; when heated turns green.

Solution of acetate of cobalt, with a little nitre; rose-colour when warm.

Inks which remain visible when heated, but do not disappear when cooled:--

Onion-juice, yellow; equal parts of copper and sal-ammoniac in water, yellow; aquafortis, spirits of salt, oil of vitriol, and salt and water, yellow or brown.

Inks which appear when exposed to light:--

Diluted solution of nitrate of silver.

Diluted solution of terchloride of gold.

THE DEAF AND DUMB ALPHABET.

Amongst the many useful inventions which have been planned for the solace of individuals deprived of some portion of their senses, the art by which deaf and dumb persons are taught to express their own thoughts, and to comprehend those of others, is one of the most noble. The earliest attempt at a method of teaching the deaf and dumb was made in Spain, towards the end of the sixteenth century, by a Benedictine monk named Peter Pounce; and without doubt he must have formed his idea from observing the natural propensity of the dumb to supply the want of the organs of speech by making signs. After the essay of Peter Pounce many successful trials were made, and in 1692 John Conrad Amman, a Swiss physician, reduced the plans to a fixed method, or art, and published the scheme of it at Amstelod. The first asylum for the deaf and dumb in London was founded in the year 1792.

THE ALPHABET.

A is expressed by touching the top of the thumb of the left hand with the forefinger of the right.

B. Join the forefinger and thumb of each hand, and place the backs of the forefinger nails together.

C. Bend the fingers and thumb of the left hand, so as to form three parts of a circle.

D. Bend the fingers and thumb of the right hand into a semicircle, and then join them to the forefinger of the left, which keep in a straight line.

E. Touch the top of the forefinger of the left hand with the forefinger of the right.

F. Place the forefinger of the right hand across the backs of the first and second fingers of the left.

G. Clench both hands, and put one fist upon the other.

H. Pass the palm of the right hand across that of the left, sweeping it along to the tips of the fingers, as if brushing something off.

I. Touch the top of the second finger of the left hand with the forefinger of the right.

J. Clench the hands together, as directed for the letter G.

K. Form a semicircle with the thumb and forefinger of the right hand, and join it to the forefinger of the left, which must be kept straight out; both forefingers must meet at the second joints.

L. Place the forefinger of the right hand across the centre of the palm of the left, so that the top of the finger may be exactly in the middle of the palm.

M. Place three fingers of the right hand flat upon the palm of the left.

N. Place two fingers of the right hand flat upon the palm of the left.

O. Touch the top of the third finger of the left hand with the forefinger of the right.

P. Place the tips of the forefinger and thumb of the left hand in a semicircular form against the first and second joints of the forefinger of the right, which should be kept straight.

Q. Form a circle with the forefinger and thumb of the left hand, and then curve the forefinger of the right into the shape of a hook, and place it exactly where the other fingers join.

R. Bend the forefinger of the right hand and rest it on the palm of the left.

S. Bend the little finger of each hand and lock them together.

T. Fix the tip of the forefinger of the right hand against the middle of the lower edge of the left.

U. Touch the top of the little finger of the left hand with the forefinger of the right.

V. Place the first and second fingers of the right hand, apart, upon the palm of the left.

W. Lock the fingers of one hand between those of the other.

X. Cross the forefingers at the second joints.

Y. Extend the thumb and forefinger of the left hand, and at the lower part of the fork so made place the forefinger of the right hand.

Z. Elevate one hand towards the face, and rest the elbow upon the palm of the other.

The end of every sentence is indicated by snapping the second finger and thumb of the right hand. This result is requisite to avoid the confusion which might result from running the sentences into each other.

THE NUMBERS

Are denoted by holding up one finger to signify 1, two fingers for 2, the open hand for 5, both hands for 10, and so on.

DOMINOES.

There was a time when dominoes was a much more favourite game than at present. In many old houses beautifully finished sets of dominoes are yet kept, a memento of the favour in which the game was once, and still deserves to be, held. For boys it is second to none, as it improves their power of calculation, exercises their judgment, and leads them to acquire a habit of estimating chances in connexion with numbers, which is exceedingly useful in after-life.

The ordinary game of dominoes is played with twenty-eight pieces, which include every combination of numbers, from double-blank to double-6; but boxes of dominoes are not uncommon which have fifty-two pieces, or even eighty-five pieces, one including double-9’s, and the latter double-12’s. These are more used in the north than the south. The dominoes are usually made of oblong pieces of ivory, frequently cemented to an ebony back; whilst on the front they are divided into two parts by a fine line across the middle, and marked with round black spots. These are 1 and 1, 1 and 2, and so on to 6; then 2 and blank, 2 and 1, and so on. Where a set of dominoes is not handy, a pack of what printers call third-large cards may be made available, if they are marked with a pen, and the backs kept perfectly clean. These may be shuffled and dealt in a similar manner to playing cards; but the dominoes must be placed face downwards on the table and “shuffled” by being well mixed together.

The turn to commence is called “the pose,” and is the same in all games of dominoes. After the players have drawn from the bulk the number of dominoes each requires, double-6 is called for, and he who has it plays first. If it is not in hand, then the highest double plays; if no doubles are out, then the call is from the highest domino to the lowest, as 6--5, 6--4, and so on.

THE ORDINARY BOY’S GAME

Is played in two modes. The first is called the French game. After the dominoes are well shuffled, each player (usually two) draws from the bulk the number of dominoes agreed upon. Seven is the common number, and this leaves fourteen dominoes on the table. The dominoes are either held in the hand, or set on their sides on the table, so that the pips are visible to the player only. In the north of England a small tin, angular frame is used to hold the dominoes. The player holding the highest double then plays first, and then each plays in turn by placing a domino of the same number of pips to the domino played at either end when you both have played. If your opponent cannot do this it is called “a go,” and you can then play for him, until he can play. If you can play to both ends, do not do so until you have exhausted your hand at one end, and be sure to get out your doubles at the earliest opportunity, unless by so doing you close both ends against yourself. By pursuing this plan you can, when pressed, play at the ends closed against your adversary the domino you have reserved for that purpose. When you have played all your dominoes out, you win the game; or when neither can play, he that has the lowest number of pips, not pieces, wins the game. It is best, however, to play a definite number up, such as 30, 50, or 100. In these cases the game is better played by the

Second mode, which is commenced in the same manner; but when you play a double, and it is your turn, you can play it out and still keep your turn. When your adversary cannot play, you play for him, and for yourself too, before he can play again. The game is counted thus:--When one has played all his dominoes out, he counts the number of pips in his adversary’s hand, and scores them in his favour; if neither can play, the one who has the fewest left counts the other’s numbers, and subtracts the number of his own, and scores the balance in his own favour. Formerly the whole number was scored, but this is dispiriting to the loser. In this game it is better to try to play so that neither can go on again than to play out all the dominoes. By a little practice it will be seen that heavy dominoes do not always lose, or light ones win. In playing these and any game at dominoes it should be understood that a domino once played should not be recalled, as it frequently destroys all interest in the game. Sometimes it is understood that if the domino is not placed on the table you may recall it; but it is better to play it at once, as a skilful player can easily calculate the chances in his favour.

There are two or three variations on the first method. In one the winner of the game scores all the points left in his own hand (if any), as well as those in his opponent’s. Another method is, when one player cannot go, the other is not bound to proceed, even if able, but can at once shut the game and count, if he likes to do so. Another variation is to permit the second player, if he chooses, to take all the dominoes but two left on the board. If he does not choose, the next player may draw as many as he chooses (always excepting two); and if one cannot play, he must draw until he can do so. The pose in this game is alternate, or is taken by the winner.

ALL FIVES

Is a game played by four persons, two against two, each player taking five dominoes. It may, however, be played by two persons only, when seven dominoes are given to each, and none are afterwards added. The score seldom exceeds 31, or any smaller number, and is marked on a cribbage-board. The object of this game is to play so that the two ends of the dominoes, after you have played, are a multiple of five. Thus the first player endeavours to make a point by putting down a 5 and blank, 4 and 1, 3 and 2, each of which counts 5: if he has the double-5 it counts 2. The other players follow on in the same way, endeavouring to make 5, 10, 15, or 20, for which they score 1, 2, 3, or 4 respectively. This game requires great caution, so as to prevent your opponent from scoring, if you cannot do so yourself. 20 is the largest number that can be made: thus, if there is a 4 at one end and a 6 at the other end, the next player, having the double-6, plays it to the 6, and the following player, having the double-4, plays it to the 4; doubles in this, as in all other games of dominoes, being laid across, there are 12 at one end and 8 at the other, making 20, or four fives. When one hand is played out, or neither can go, the lowest number counts one towards game. This is peculiarly a game of stratagems, and when one holds the double-5, he generally tries to keep it until there is a 5 at each end, when he plays it and scores 3, and generally, in that case, 1 for game as well.

THE MATADORE GAME

Is on an entirely different principle. You do not fit the same numbers together, as in other games at dominoes, but you must add a number which, when joined to one already there, makes seven. The double-blank, the 4--3, 6--1, and 5--2, are termed matadores, and can be played at any stage, and either end turned outward at will, for your opponent to play to. Three dominoes only are taken at the outset, and if one of the players cannot “go,” he must draw until he can do so, unless the number of dominoes left on the board is reduced to two. The game is played 30, 50, or 100 up, and the winner counts to his score his opponent’s pips.

ALL THREES

Is a capital game for boys, and exercises the players in the four rules of arithmetic. It is played similarly to the All Fives, only 3 is the multiple instead of 5: thus, 3, 6, 9, 12, 15, and 18 points count 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6, respectively.

TIDLEY-WINK

Is a good round game. Any number can play, so long as there are two or more dominoes left on the board, after three dominoes each have been taken. The pose is settled as before; but the leader has the privilege of playing to his double, if he can do so, and any person having a double in his turn can play to it, if he can. The game runs round, and the first person who plays out pronounces himself “Tidley-Wink,” and is the winner.

THE FORTRESS.

When four persons are playing, this will be found one of the most amusing of games. It is sometimes called “Sebastopol.” All the dominoes are divided equally amongst the players. The double-6 is played first, and then every person must play a 6 to the double, and thus form a cross. The person who has not a 6 loses his turn. The play then proceeds in the usual way, only that the player can choose which corner he likes to play at. The result is a curious irregular figure resembling the ground-plan of a fortress, with bastions, &c.; hence its name.

WHIST DOMINOES

Is also played by four persons, seven dominoes being given to each. The persons in this case are partners, and sit opposite to each other. This game is led off as all others, but requires considerable powers of memory to play it properly, for it is necessary to remember not only the numbers played, but who played it, and under what circumstances, so as to help your partner’s hand and checkmate your opponent’s. Several other games of dominoes may be played; but the foregoing, with their numberless variations, will enable any one to master the principles of any other introduced.

DRAUGHTS.

“White to black and black to white. Now give the challenge--wage the fight.”--CLARKSON.

Draughts is a modern invention, and is a good preliminary to chess. It is not so intricate a game, for the pieces are of equal value till they become kings, and can only move one way; but like chess, success depends entirely upon skill, and one false move frequently occasions the loss of the game. Draughts seems to have come into vogue in Europe about the middle of the fourteenth century, and for a long time there were two methods of playing it; the one commonly used in England being the French game, which is played upon a chess-board, and the other the Polish game, which requires a board with ten squares or chequers in each row, and twenty men. The men in the Polish game can only move forwards as they do in the French game, but they have the privilege of taking backwards and forwards, and the king, when made, if not opposed by two men close together, can move from one corner of the board to the other The Polish game admits of most variety, and is in our opinion infinitely the best, but it is little played in this country, except by foreigners, many of whom during the Great Exhibition year proved themselves adepts at the game.

HOW TO PLAY THE GAME.

The draughtboard consists of sixty-four squares, black and white, and there are twelve men, or pieces, of a white colour, and twelve of a black colour to be used. The board should be placed with an upper white corner towards the right hand. The players select each twelve men of the colour they prefer. The pieces, or men, are to be thus placed on the board: the black pieces on the first twelve white squares, and the white on the last twelve white squares. When they are thus placed the game begins.

THE MOVES.

The pieces move forward diagonally, and it is the object of the players to take all each other’s men; the player who has the black pieces taking the white, and the player who has the white men taking the black. The first player--say Black--moves his piece angularly to the first white square, and then, if nothing intervenes between his piece and that of his opponent, and there is a vacant square in his line left behind him, the white can pass his piece over him to the space so unoccupied, and take his man, which is withdrawn from the board. The same may be repeated by the adversary; and thus the players go on taking each other’s pieces till one or the other cannot move, or all the pieces are taken. When a piece, however, arrives at the last row of the enemy’s ground, it becomes what is called a king, and is crowned by another piece being placed on it. It may then be moved backwards and forwards at pleasure, and can take both ways. When a player neglects to take a piece, he is what is called huffed, that is, he loses the piece that ought to have been moved.

LAWS OF THE GAME.

1. The moves are alternate, the first move being determined by lot.

2. The choice of men to be also decided by lot, but they should be changed every three games.

3. Whichever piece is touched must be played.

4. No player can remain more than five minutes without playing. He may be warned at the end of five minutes.

5. Neither player must leave the room without permission of his adversary.

6. In case of huff, the opponent, in lieu of taking a piece for the omission, can insist on his being taken.

7. Each party must sit free so as not to obstruct a view of the board, and no pointing at pieces is allowed.

8. When a false move is made, the piece must be moved to whatever square the opponent dictates.

9. All disputes between players to be referred to a third party.

10. Bystanders must make no remarks during the game.

GAMES FOR PRACTICE.

Playing draughts is a game which is best learned by experience and repeated defeats. It requires circumspection and caution, and especially demands calculation of the effects of the different moves upon the fortune of the game. The moves should be calculated mentally. The men should be kept as much in the centre of the board as possible; and the gentlemanly player will consider all drawn games as won by his opponent, and never triumph over the vanquished. The following games will give the young player a good general idea of draughts, but his success as a player will depend entirely upon his own application and habit of thought:--

GAME I.

No. Colour. from to

1. B. 11 15 2. W. 22 18 3. B. 15 22 4. W. 25 18 5. B. 8 11 6. W. 29 25 7. B. 4 8 8. W. 25 22 9. B. 12 16 10. W. 24 20 11. B. 10 15 12. W. 27 24 13. B. 16 19 14. W. 23 16 15. B. 15 19 16. W. 24 15 17. B. 9 14 18. W. 18 9 19. B. 11 25 20. W. 32 27 21. B. 5 14 22. W. 27 23 23. B. 6 10 24. W. 16 12 25. B. 8 11 26. W. 28 24 27. B. 25 29 28. W. 30 25 29. B. 29 22 30. W. 26 17 31. B. 11 15 32. W. 20 16 33. B. 15 18 34. W. 24 20 35. B. 18 27 36. W. 31 24 37. B. 14 18 38. W. 16 11 39. B. 7 16 40. W. 20 11 41. B. 18 23 42. W. 11 8 43. B. 23 27 44. W. 8 4 45. B. 27 31 46. W. 4 8 47. B. 31 27 48. W. 24 20 49. B. 27 23 50. W. 8 11 51. B. 23 18 52. W. 11 8 53. B. 18 15 &c.

White loses.

GAME II.

No. Colour. from to 1. B. 11 15 2. W. 22 18 3. B. 15 22 4. W. 25 18 5. B. 8 11 6. W. 29 25 7. B. 4 8 8. W. 25 22 9. B. 12 16 10. W. 24 20 11. B. 10 15 12. W. 21 17 13. B. 7 10 14. W. 27 24 15. B. 8 12 16. W. 17 13 17. B. 9 14 18. W. 18 9 19. B. 5 14 20. W. 24 19 21. B. 15 24 22. W. 28 19 23. B. 14 17 24. W. 32 27 25. B. 10 14 26. W. 27 24 27. B. 3 7 28. W. 30 25 29. B. 6 9 30. W. 13 6 31. B. 1 10 32. W. 22 13 33. B. 14 18 34. W. 23 14 35. B. 16 30 36. W. 25 21 37. B. 10 17 38. W. 21 14 39. B. 30 25 40. W. 14 9 41. B. 11 15 42. W. 9 6 43. B. 2 9 44. W. 13 6 45. B. 15 18 46. W. 6 2 47. B. 7 10 48. W. 2 6 49. B. 10 14 50. W. 6 9 51. B. 25 21 52. W. 31 26 53. B. 14 17 &c.

Drawn.

FIREWORKS.

Our book is intended for the gratification of boys. We know full well the intense delight taken by boys in risking their limbs or their lives, especially when such risk is accompanied with noise. Boys always have done so, and always will do so in spite of the very best of advice or precautions. As, therefore, it is impossible to keep them from making noises and endangering themselves, we have in the following pages endeavoured to show them how to make as much noise as possible with as little danger as possible.

What is there that makes the most noise and is most dangerous? Gunpowder, of course. Therefore, we have given descriptions of the best methods of employing this material, feeling quite sure that of accidents with gunpowder nine out of every ten are caused by ignorance. We knew a boy who lost the use of a thumb, and took all the skin off the palm of his right hand, by ignorant management of powder. He had read of blasting rocks, and nothing would satisfy him but blasting a bank. So he bored a deep hole in it with a stick, filled the hole with gunpowder, and then poked a lighted lucifer into the powder. The consequence was, that his face was so scorched as not to be recognised, all his eyebrows and eyelashes and most of his hair were burned off, while his right hand was injured as has been already mentioned. Now that boy had been studiously kept out of the way of powder by female relatives, and was naturally profoundly ignorant of its effects. Had he been taught to handle it, he would not now be forced to keep his right hand closed, or to write by holding the pen between the fingers of his clenched hand.

GUNPOWDER.

It will not be very advisable for the firework boy to make his own powder, but still it will not be amiss that he should know how it is prepared. Pulverise separately 5 drams of nitrate of potass, 1 dram of sulphur, and 1 dram of newly burnt charcoal, mix them together in a mortar with a little water, so as to make the compound into a dough, which roll out into round pieces of the thickness of a pin upon a slab. This must be done by moving a board backwards and forwards until the dough is of a proper size. When three or four of these pieces are ready put them together thus,-- and cut them off into small grains. Place these grains on a sheet of paper in a warm place where they will soon dry, but away from a fire. During granulation the dough must be prevented from sticking by using a little of the dry compound powder. This mode of granulation, though tedious, is the only one to be used for so small a quantity for the sake of experiment. In making powder in a large way it is granulated by passing the composition through sieves.

HOW TO MAKE TOUCH-PAPER.

Dissolve in a little spirits of wine or vinegar a little saltpetre, then take some purple or blue paper, and wet it with the above liquor and it will be fit for use. When pasting paper on any of the following works take care that the paste does not touch that part which is to burn. The method of using this paper is to cut it into slips long enough to go once round the mouth of a serpent, cracker, &c.

CASES FOR SQUIBS, FLOWER-POTS, ROCKETS, ROMAN CANDLES, ETC.

Procure a hard wooden cylinder, or, if possible, one made of metal, whose diameter corresponds with that of the interior of the proposed case. Roll round it several folds of cartridge paper, and paste the edges well, so that it may be held securely. Tie it round until dry.

TO CHOKE THE CASES.

When the cases are thus made they will require to be tied at the lower end. This is called choking them, and as much force is required it is necessary. Fix a wire into a small solid cylinder (d). Take another short piece (b) an inch or two long, with a hole up it to admit the other end of the wire, fit it on and pass it up the case. Then having fastened a piece of whipcord to a post, wind it round the part left hollow by the wire, which should be about half an inch from the end; pull it tight with the right hand and work the case round with the left. Cut out a piece of touch paper two inches long and an inch and a half broad, wind it round the choke, and tie it on with a piece of fine string--twist it to a point. The cases are best choked while damp.

COMPOSITION FOR SQUIBS, ETC.

Gunpowder half a pound, charcoal 1 ounce, brimstone 1 ounce, or in like proportion; grind them in a muller or pound them in a mortar. Or you may take 1 part steel filings, 1 charcoal, 1 sulphur, and 4 powder, which is a very good mixture, and can be rubbed together in a mortar.

HOW TO FILL THE CASES.

Your cases must be very dry when ready, and should be put into an iron or wooden mould; first put in a thimble full of your powder, and ram it down very hard with your ruler, then put in a little more till the case is full, ramming it down hard every time. If you have no mould, hold the case in your left hand with the twisted touch-paper downwards, and fill it after the same manner. When you have filled within an inch of the top, fill up this with loose powder not rammed, for a bang, and fold in the ends; after filling a dozen or two melt some pitch in a small ladle, and smear the ends of the case with it by means of a small brush.

TO MAKE CRACKERS.

Cut some stout cartridge-paper into pieces three inches and a half broad and one foot long, fold down one edge of these pieces lengthwise about three quarters of an inch broad, then fold the double edge down a quarter of an inch, and turn the single edge back half over the double fold. Open it, and lay all along the channel which is formed by the folding of the paper some meal powder, then fold it over and over till the paper is doubled up, rubbing it down at every turn; this being done bend it backwards and forwards two inches and a half, or thereabouts, at a time, as often as the paper will allow. Hold all these folds flat and close, and with a small pinching cord give one turn round the middle of the cracker and pinch it close; bind it with packthread as tight as you can, then in the place where it was pinched prime one end and cap it with touch-paper.

When these crackers are fired they will give a loud report at every turn of the paper; if you want a great number of these, you have only to cut the paper longer, or join it on to a greater length; but if they are made very long you must have a piece of wood with a groove in it deep enough to let in half the cracker, which will hold it straight while you are pinching it.

ROMAN CANDLES AND STARS.

These are best made with the following ingredients: 1 ounce of powder, 1 ounce of sulphur, and 2 ounces of nitre. Some persons, however, prefer 1 part sulphur, 1 charcoal, 1 iron filings, 4 of powder, and 8 of nitre. The composition being made, in filling the cases fill the contrary way to a squib--stop up the choke by driving down a piece of paper. Put in 1 quill of gunpowder loose and 1 star made in the following manner: 1 ounce of camphor, 1 of sulphur, 2 of meal powder, 1 ounce of the coloured fires, moisten them with oil of turpentine, and work them into little round balls. Having placed a star within the case, put in above it 3 quills of the composition, ram down, then powder, star, and composition alternately, till the case is full. Paste touch-paper round the top and twist to a point.

ROCKETS.

There are several recipes for making rockets, the best of which is 3 ounces of charcoal, 6 of sulphur, 8 of nitre, 32 of meal powder. Another very good one is, 3 ounces of iron filings, 4 of powdered charcoal, 8 of sulphur, 16 of nitre, and 64 of meal powder. If a smaller quantity is wanted divide each proportion by 2, if a still smaller divide by 4. In this cut s is the loose gunpowder with eight or ten stars upon it; c is that part of the rocket in which the composition is to be rammed hard, p the priming or quick match, t the touch paper. The cases are to be put into a mould and the composition must be well rammed. The cases should be four times the thickness of those for squibs.

RAINS.

Sometimes gold or silver rains are added to rockets, which give them a very beautiful appearance. A gold rain is made of 2 parts sawdust, 4 sulphur, 4 meal powder, 6 glass dust, 16 nitre, in all 32 parts. A silver rain may be made of 2 parts salt prunella, 8 sulphuret of antimony, 8 sulphur, 8 meal powder, and 14 nitre, in all 32 parts.

CATHERINE WHEELS.

These are very pretty fireworks, and are made to turn on a pivot. There are many recipes for the composition of which they are formed; 1 part camphor, 1 sulphur, 1 nitre, 2 meal powder. Another is, 3 parts iron filings, 4 sulphur, 12 nitre, 16 meal powder. This composition is to be rammed into small cases, and bound round a small wheel, having a hole for a pivot in the centre.

VARIOUS COLOURED FIRES.

The following recipes will give the young firework maker a great variety of the most beautiful fires. They should never be fired in a room, however, and always away from a dwelling.

CRIMSON FIRE.

The principal ingredient in this is nitrate of strontium, of which 40 parts are taken, with 13 of sulphur, 15 of chlorate of potass, 4 of sulphuret of antimony, and 2 of lamp-black. These, as all the ingredients for the other fires, should be rubbed in a ladle, and they may be used in a ladle or iron dish set on the ground.

BLUE FIRE.

The ingredients of blue fire are 20 parts; 12 of nitre, 4 of sulphur, 2 of sulphuret of antimony, and 2 of lamp-black.

GREEN FIRE.

The ingredients for green fire are in 54 parts; 42 of nitrate of barytes, 8 of sulphur, 3 of chlorate of potass, and 1 of lamp-black.

PURPLE FIRE.

The best recipe for purple fire is of 60 parts; 25 of nitre, 25 of nitrate of strontium, 7 of sulphur, 2 of realgor, and 1 of lamp-black.

WHITE FIRE.

The best and purest white fire is made of 24 parts of nitre, 7 of sulphur, 2 of red arsenic, and 1 of lamp-black.

SPUR FIRE.

9 parts of nitre, 4 of sulphur, and 3 of lamp-black, well rubbed together.

BLUE LIGHTS.

These are made of 4 parts of sulphur, 2 of nitre, and 1 of powder, and are rammed into squib-cases the contrary way.

PORT OR WILDFIRES.

Saltpetre 4 parts, meal powder 6 parts, and sulphur 3 parts. The composition to be moistened with linseed oil.

SLOW FIRE FOR WHEELS.

Saltpetre 4 parts, sulphur 2 parts, and meal powder 2 parts.

DEAD FIRE FOR WHEELS.

Saltpetre 5 parts, sulphur 1 part, lapis calaminaris 1 part, and antimony 1 part.

CAUTIONS.

Such are the principles and methods by which fireworks may be made; but we would advise our young friends to be very cautious, and never to attempt making any fireworks by candle-light; always to select some outhouse for their operations; to see that no iron or steel implements are about the place in which their fireworks are being manufactured, or they may go off before they wish it; to use wooden or brass implements in the bruising, grinding, and sifting of their mixtures; and never to bring the fireworks, or any of their ingredients, into the dwelling-house, or they may suddenly receive a

“Heavy blow and great discouragement.”

TO MAKE AN ILLUMINATED SPIRAL WHEEL.

Procure a circular horizontal wheel two feet in diameter with a hole quite through the nave, then take four thin pieces of deal three feet long each, and three-quarters of an inch broad each. One end of each of these pieces is to be nailed to the felloe of the wheel at an equal distance from one another; and the other end nailed to a block with a hole in its bottom, which must be perpendicular with that in the block of the wheel, but not so large. The wheel being thus made, a hoop planed down very thin must be nailed to the felloe of the wheel, and wound round the four sticks in a spiral line from the wheel to the block at the top; on the top of this block a case of Chinese fire must be fixed, and on the wheel any number of cases, which must incline downwards and burn two at a time. The axis of the wheel must be a little longer than the cone, and made very smooth at the top, on which the upper block is to turn and the whole weight of the wheel to rest. The entire framing of the wheel, with its connecting tubes, is shown in the above cut.

THE GRAND VOLUTE.

Should my young friends wish to prepare a grand volute illuminated with a revolving wheel; the first step is to procure a large circular wheel, and on its rim lay as many four-ounce cases as will complete the circle, only allowing a sufficient distance between the cases that the fire may pass free, which may be done by cutting the upper part of the end of each a little shelving. On each spoke fix a four-ounce case about three inches from the rim of the wheel. These cases are to burn one at a time. On the front of the wheel form a spiral line with strong wire, on which tie port-fires, placing them on a slant with their mouths to face the same way as the cases on the wheel; all these port fires must be fired with the second cases of the wheel. Let there be a series of wooden spokes all made to screw into a block into the centre. When the large wheel begins to discharge the fireworks, the spiral wheel will of course revolve and produce a very beautiful illuminated cone.

A BRILLIANT YEW-TREE.

To prepare a brilliant yew-tree, a frame like the one represented in the drawing must be firmly attached to the ground. When the branches are fixed, place illuminating port-fires on the top of each, as many as is convenient; behind the top of the stem fasten a gerb or white fountain, which must be fired at the beginning of the illumination on the tree. A series of these, varying in the angular directions taken by the boughs, produce a very fine effect.

Such are a few general directions respecting the making of fireworks; but we have again to advise our young friends to be cautious of the gunpowder, and to keep away from the fire, or from a light, or from flames, steel, iron, or any other matter likely to cause a spark.

GARDENING.

“’Tis a delightful task To rear the tender flower, to see the bud Put forth its bloom, the little seedling sprout From its dark grove, to meet the sunbeams, and To drink the gracious rain. Here Innocence May well amuse herself, and blithe Industry Make mate with ants, and bees, and busy things, From morn to evening daily.”--MARTIN.

Gardening is one of the most delightful occupations for young persons. It combines innocent amusement, exercise of the healthiest kind, skill, forethought, method, taste, and is full of instruction,--leading the mind, not only to the wonderful operations of nature, but to the great Originator and Preserver of all things.

Gardening was the first of the arts. Before man had fallen from his “high estate,” and lost his heirship of heaven, he was placed by his Creator in a garden, and ordered to dress it and to keep it. The sustenance of man in all countries is derived, directly or indirectly, from the vegetable kingdom: it is supposed that he first made his appearance in that fertile and fruitful land from whence we get our best grasses. It was natural, then, that some rude kind of gardening should first occupy the attention of primitive man. In a savage state, now, in many countries, plants supply all the wants of man to an extent greater even than we are apt to suppose, from the necessity and possibility of a greater variety of animal food in our own climate.

From the earliest times of profane history, gardens are alluded to. The gardens of the Hesperides abounded with fruit of the most delicious kind, and the hanging gardens of Babylon were among the wonders of the world. The gardens of the Persians are called by Xenophon, “delightful places, fertile and beautiful;” and the gardens of Alcinous abounded with fruits, grapes, and various horticultural wonders. The philosophers of Athens walked in ornamental gardens, among shady groves, statues, and fountains.

There are many so-called styles of gardening, but these are readily divisable into two varieties--the geometrical and natural style. In the first may be comprised all gardens laid out with straight or geometrical lines. In the second, which is often called the English style, we include gardens and parks where the irregularity that we observe in pretty wild places, or in Nature’s own gardens, are preserved more or less judiciously and tastefully. On the one hand, we take Nature for a model; on the other, we merely apply geometrical lines to the garden and its contents. As the geometrical garden is merely a thing of straight lines, it is very much easier to dispose than the natural, with which a great many people make sad mistakes, and then blame the style instead of their own taste. It is very much easier to make straight walks, and circles, and figures of all kinds in a garden, than to imitate on a small scale the variety, and indefinite, ever-pleasing character exhibited by Nature where she most attracts us with floral beauty.

However, to see some specimens of the various styles of gardens will give a better idea of their worth, and main features, than any reading. We will indicate a few of the places where good examples are to be seen. The Crystal Palace is perhaps the best place to observe their differences, particularly as most boys visit that attractive place. The great terraces and fountains are, of course, in the geometrical style; while the more remote, or outer parts of the grounds, are a good example of the natural or English style of laying out grounds. The irregular “lakes,” surrounded by vegetation, the rock cropping out here and there, the natural-looking grouping of fine trees, and the freely rolling beautiful green grass mounds, &c. are, though perhaps not the most frequented, certainly among the best features of the Crystal Palace. The Royal Botanic Gardens in the Regent’s Park is also a good, a very good example of the best method of laying out gardens in the English style. It is disfigured, however, by a small, mean kind of geometrical garden, which we must not be supposed to praise. On the other hand, the garden of the Royal Horticultural Society at South Kensington is a capital example of a completely opposite style--the Italian and geometrical; and once having seen these, any boy can at once distinguish between the two, and probably say which he most admires.

In France, during the reign of Louis XV., the bad and artificial method was carried to excess;--clipped hedges, always laid out in straight lines--flower-beds tortured into fantastic shapes--trees cut into the form of pyramid haystacks, animals, &c. The gardens were like the manners and dress of that period, in which scarcely anything natural was left. The Dutch imitated the French: and this kind of gardening continued to prevail till attacked by Addison, in the “Spectator,” and Pope, in his Fourth Moral Epistle.

However, the boy’s garden is so small as a rule, that to attempt any kind of ambitious “laying out” would be nonsense; and having thus explained what is meant by different “styles” in gardening, we proceed to show how the boy’s garden should be laid out.

ON LAYING OUT A SMALL GARDEN.

The size of a piece of ground which we should recommend to the young gardener ought to be about 33 yards long, and about 25 broad. It should be divided into four portions, as in the diagram. A B C D are four paths, 5 feet wide, which might be gravelled, and the edges should be planted with box, or some neat and tiny flowering plant. The borders should be about 2 feet in width; and this, with the breadth of the path, will take 9 feet, or 3 yards, from the 25 yards of width; which will leave 11 yards, or 11 yards broad, for each of the four compartments. The length of the four compartments--reduced by 9 feet, or 3 yards, as before, for the cross-path and two borders--will allow each of the four compartments to be 15 yards in length; so that each quarter of the garden would contain 15 yards multiplied by 11 yards, and would equal 165 square yards, which again multiplied by 4, would give 660 square yards of surface, which would be amply sufficient for a young person to obtain something like an idea of gardening, and at the same time be a profitable advantage. This will be found too large, however, except for those who wish to work at gardening in earnest, and have, moreover, plenty of time and thought to give to the matter. One half the size will be found to suit a greater number. In such, the same plan and proportioning may be carried out.

PLANTING THE GROUND WITH TREES, FLOWERS, ETC.

In the foregoing diagram, the borders are for flowers, and the other parts of the compartments for the raising of vegetables; but here and there a space should be left for the planting of fruit-trees, rose-trees, currants, gooseberries, raspberries, &c. The places marked by dots (*) are where fruit-trees may be planted, which should consist of some of the best sorts of apple, cherry, pear, and plum-trees, which ought to be planted from four to five yards apart. In the borders, rose-trees, both of the standard and common kind, might be planted, as indicated by the dots (*); and at the four corners, where the paths intersect, climbing-roses should be placed, having strong poles upon which their tendrils and branches may run. The spaces in the border may be appropriated to the various kinds of flowers, at the choice of the young gardener.

THE NOBLEST KIND OF GARDENING FOR BOYS.

There is one kind of gardening the results of which will afford a higher satisfaction to boys, when they become men, than any other pastime or exercise they can possibly engage in, and that is the planting of fine hardy trees. These will not require much attention, or any beyond the planting. They will grow freely and vigorously when you are at school or asleep, soon find their own supply of moisture by striking their roots deeply into the ground, and are able to withstand our cold and cloudy climate at all seasons. Nearly all intelligent and educated men are admirers of fine trees. Many who care nothing about our ordinary low-lying plants, take the highest interest in fine hardy trees--the late Prince Consort and the present Emperor of the French, for instance. Generally we display this interest in trees by planting them extensively when we come to be men; but how much would many lovers of trees not give to have commenced their tree-planting at an early age, so that they might walk under giant groves of their own planting! The Indian says, “He has not lived in vain who has planted a tree;” and certainly it is a noble thing to embellish the earth with its finest ornaments, and plant tiny shoots that will in time become great trees, and shed leaves over the graves of our children for ages. And it is well to observe in the beginning, that a tree of thoroughly hardy and vigorous disposition is one of the most lasting things on earth. Though a living thing, susceptible, like ourselves, of almost every change of atmosphere, cold or heat, it often survives great monuments of stone, and may live and see extinguished not only many generations of men but even the lives of nations.

The age of many trees has been computed upon fair proof to be greater than that of the Pyramids of Egypt. There are trees in America which were of colossal development ere that country was discovered, so that the growth of a mighty nation may require but little time compared to that witnessed by the giant Wellingtonia, whose bark you may have seen at the Crystal Palace. In our own country the age of many oaks and yews is proverbial. But apart altogether from the mighty age which our finest trees attain, let us venerate them for their beauty, dignity, and utility. What so full of life and change, so inexhaustive in their well-built and subtle ramifications, as the branches and branchlets of a fine tree! “The pillars of the valleys, the fringes of the hills,” as an eloquent writer calls them, “so stately, so eternal” are, while the most useful of all things to man, at the same time the most beautiful natural objects which he can contemplate. Nothing adds so much to the beauty of park, pleasure ground, or garden, as the planting of handsome and suitable trees: in fact, they are the only true and pleasing ornaments of such. What constitutes the difference between the aspect of naked, blast-swept, and desolate-looking heaths, or lowland--monotonous ground of any kind, in fact--and one of those grand parks of old England, say Goodwood, or Richmond, or indeed any pleasure ground such as you may see in almost every parish, with every shady ferny corner, or lane opening, or tree-fringed sloping grass mound, a picture of fresh and changeful loveliness? Why, simply the presence of trees. With them you may impart every charm to the wildest heath or flattest prairie--with them the highest and grandest beauty may be imparted to the charmingly undulated surface of a great part of the British Isles.

So much for the trees and their attractions. What is next to be done? It is to be hoped that every boy fond of gardening has already made up his mind to plant a tree, or several. We have seen a great many little boys’ gardens, but it was the fate of most of them to become disused and neglected, dug up or forgotten, when the little gardeners had arrived at the “big boy,” or manhood stage. The inmates being small and fleeting, of course every trace soon departed. But by adopting the kind of gardening here recommended, a pleasing and stately souvenir of pleasant early days will be the result. It must not, however, be attempted in the ordinary little boy’s garden, which is usually a small patch under a wall, or in some obscure spot totally unfit for trees. If you once make up your mind to plant a tree, the first thing to do is to choose a good position for it. It should be one in which it will grow well, and in which the tree will not be in the way of anything else. This will save it from being disturbed after it gets to some size, and your hopes from being disappointed in a way you least expected. And lastly, it will be very desirable to so place the tree that its effect when grown up may be a good and beautiful one. It is, for instance, very bad management to plant the noble Wellingtonia, or Cedar of Lebanon, near a house. This is very often done in suburban and villa gardens, but if the trees attain their natural size they spoil the house, or must be cut down. The finest cedar of Lebanon we know of is planted within twenty feet of a house, and completely overshadows it; yet so noble is the tree that the owner would not touch it on any account: he would give a great deal, however, to have it in a proper position. The planting of a large kind of tree where it may, when grown up, stop a pleasant view, is also a great mistake.

From these instances it will be seen that the position is a subject of the highest importance in tree-planting. Now, as of course every boy cannot be a judge of tree-planting, it will be found the best plan to consult papa or the gardener about it. They will be so well pleased at the idea of your planting a tree instead of a geranium or a wallflower, that you are sure to be encouraged with advice and assistance. To plant it in the ordinary boys’ garden would be a great mistake. It should be at once put in a position in which it might flourish undisturbed for ages. Generally, hardy trees are not fastidious as to soil. Mere planting is all the noble hardy ash, the graceful birch--the lady of the woods--the spreading beech, and others of our native trees require. But when we come to plant the grandest of all trees--the Wellingtonia and the Cedar of Lebanon, with many of the nobler pines of North America--if the soil be not naturally very good, we must make a preparation for the young plant. This is to be done by digging out a hole and taking the bad soil out at the bottom, leaving the top spit at one side, and then filling in the opening, say six feet wide or so, with good soil taken from a pasture and chopped up with a spade. This should be raised above the surface to allow for subsequent sinking, and also to keep the neck of the young tree a little above the level ground. The part meant by the neck, is the base of the stem, or, in other words, the part where root begins and stem terminates.

As most gardens or pleasure grounds are well drained, the little planter is not likely to have much to contend with on that score, but where the bottom or lower soil is of a disagreeable nature, gardeners very often place a quantity of broken bricks or rough stones in the bottom of the hole, and over them place turf to prevent the top soil from falling down.

The best time for planting is in the autumn--say September, October, or November; but any time through the autumn, winter, or early spring will do, provided the ground be not saturated with rain, and all other circumstances be favourable. The choosing of a good young tree is an important point. Do not have anything to do with those grown in pots; the roots of such are usually contorted round the ball, and in a very bad condition to make good trees. Nice symmetrical plants growing in a nursery, say at about from two to four feet high, are the best. The price of even the best of such will not amount to more than that of an ordinary toy, while in the case of the common native trees, and such things as the willows, that grow freely from a sucker, it is a mere trifle. Indeed, in the case of boys who live where there is anything like an extensive garden or grounds, most probably good young trees will be at hand ready to plant. It will be well to have the assistance of the gardener in planting a rare thing like the Wellingtonia, though after a little practice an intelligent boy can do it easily. The main points are, to place the roots of the tree on soil made pretty firm, to spread the roots out carefully before covering them, and finally, if the weather or soil should happen to be very dry, to give the ground a thorough soaking of water. This will refresh the little root fibres, make them “take kindly to the earth,” and, in short, put the little tree in a fair way for its long life. And as boys may frequently have occasion to water their gardens, as well as other people, we may assure them that one thorough good watering is better than a dozen bad ones. A bad watering is one in which the surface of the soil is merely wetted, and if you poke down a little way you find the soil quite dry: a good watering is one in which the water descends deep and far into the soil, as deep or deeper than the roots go, in fact. The dragging about of water in pots is a very laborious and awkward affair. If the little gardener can secure the loan of the water-barrel on wheels, and have it filled quite full, and the contents gently supplied to the root of his tree, he will save himself much trouble, and probably have no further attention to pay to it in that way during the course of his life. By the way, have you ever heard the little story about the famous Jean Jacques Rousseau and his little tree? If not, here it is.

When he was a little pupil about ten years of age, his master planted a walnut-tree to give a grateful shade to a place immediately outside the house. The planting of this walnut-tree was attended with some ceremony, little Rousseau and his friend, a fellow-boarder, acting as godfathers, singing songs of triumph around it. The master and his assistants formed a kind of basin around the tree, or, in other words, made a little embankment of earth around it, so that the water could not escape. Jean Jacques and his companion saw and were much interested in all this, made up their minds that it was a nobler thing to plant trees than to plant colours on a breach, and at once became very anxious to plant. This they soon did by cutting a slip of willow, and planting it with due ceremony on the terrace near the august walnut-tree that had been planted by the master. They made a basin of earth round it in imitation of the bigger one, and then came their grand difficulty--how to water it. They were not permitted to fetch any, or they would have gladly done so, though it was at a distance. The tree was safe for a short time from some cause or other, and began to put forth a few leaves, which they hoped would in due time afford them shelter and shade; but hot days came, and it was apparent that unless the little tree had water it would surely die. What was to be done? Well, it is pretty evident that either of them could think a little, even at that age, for the little rogues made up their minds to make a tiny grass-covered canal between the large basin and their little one, so that when the master came to water his big tree, the water might run from his basin to theirs! Their first essay failed; the earth fell in, and they were miserable for a moment, but soon set to work again. This time they cut an old box into narrow planks, and lined the furrow with them, made the slope so that the water would be sure to run as desired, and covered the trench over so that nobody could see it, putting a grating of twigs over the upper end, so as to hide appearances and keep out rubbish, and waited in hope and fear for the result. The master and his men came and poured in the water, which soon ran through the furrow to the little tree. This was too much for our otherwise sagacious little gardeners. They roared with delight at the success of their plan, and betrayed it to the master, who immediately sent for a pick-axe, and cut up their little trench, shouting at the same time, “An aqueduct! an aqueduct!” They were of course sorry, but soon took heart, and planted another tree, which lived to be a big one. To have set this slip in competition with a large one, Rousseau tells, gave him a degree of glory he had not known before, and says that he had a juster idea of it at that age than Cæsar had at thirty.

We will next turn to the selection of trees, and to the various wants of those who are likely to plant. The most popular trees in England at present are those noble evergreen pines. They are not all suited for town gardening, but very much so for most parts of the country. Around the beautiful mausoleum raised to contain the remains of the late Prince Consort at Frogmore, there is a row of these trees, mostly tapering and slender in habit, and very dark green. They have been planted by the various members of the Royal family in memoriam. The late Prince was very fond of these pine-trees, and many country gentlemen take the greatest interest in their planting. We merely tell you this to point out that the planting of trees is an object of ambition with many of the best and the highest in the land. When Her Majesty, and many other distinguished persons, visit a nobleman’s place or a public park, one of the most graceful acts they can do is to plant a tree; and the custom is very general. Let us hope, then, that many boys will imitate the example of Rousseau, and say, why should not we too plant trees? But to return to our pines, or conifers, as they are called. The race is a wonderfully beautiful one--so much so, that you must take care, or you may plant things that will do very well for a few years, perhaps, but get quite killed by the first very severe frost. It is a sad sight to see a tree which has perhaps grown to considerable size and beauty killed to the very ground by a frost such as we had in January, 1866--some of our noblest pines perished then; and therefore a list of the most thoroughly hardy kinds must prove useful. The giant Wellingtonia of California is fortunately hardy in all parts of these islands. So is the great arbor-vitæ of Nootka Sound (Thuja gigantea), a specimen of which obtained the first prize for trees of this kind at the great Paris Exhibition. One of the most beautiful of all pines, one which has its “leaves,” or little branchlets rather, as graceful as those of a fern, is Thujiopsis borealis, and it too is perfectly hardy. We regret that hard names must be used, but then, as thousands of our plants are not natives of England, they have of course no recognised English name, and to translate the scientific one would simply produce an awkward barbarism. In addition to the above, the following trees of this fine family may be planted with the confidence that we shall not see them perish in the vigour and beauty of youth:--Lawson’s cypress (we give you the English name where possible). Nearly all kinds of juniper. Picea Pinsapo, nobilis, and Nordmanniana, all noble trees--also amabilis and cephalonica. Abies Albertii, Morinda, Menziesii, the Cedar of Lebanon, and the Deodar cedar--these are hurt now and then, but on the whole are hardy enough generally. The common spruce fir; the Scotch fir, always a picturesque tree. The deciduous cypress, a fine tree for the margins of water, where after a time its roots send up most curious knobs, in many cases nearly as big as a beehive, above the ground. It is quite extraordinary to see the specimens of this noble tree in the pleasure grounds at Syon, the Duke of Northumberland’s fine place near Brentford. The new Japanese larch (L. Kæmpferi), the Austrian pine, the Swiss nut pine (P. Cembra), the Corsican pine. The youthful gardener, who lives near a large nursery, park, or place like Kew, Glasnevin Botanic Gardens, near Dublin, the Botanic Gardens at Edinburgh, the gardens of the Crystal Palace, at Sydenham, or many places of this kind, would do well to examine specimens of the kinds named, or indeed any others, so that he may take his choice; making sure to inquire, however, that the particular kind he selects is perfectly hardy: a tree may be quite hardy in one part of the country, and quite tender in another. The curious and fine monkey puzzle (Araucaria imbricata), for instance, has been killed in some parts by severe frosts, in others it has always escaped with impunity. It is always easy to ascertain facts of this kind in a neighbourhood, and of course we should make a point of cultivating the things that are best suited to our climate and soil.

So much for coniferous trees. We will next turn to a far nobler group, so far as regards our wants--deciduous trees, or those that lose their leaves in winter. These are generally quite hardy, and make large and long-lived trees. They may be grown in many places where the pines would not live, and are therefore admirably suited for places in and near towns. They should be preferred by all boys who live in suburban gardens, as in such the leaves of pines and evergreens are sure to be soiled and disfigured, if not half-killed, by smut. Many of these deciduous trees flower beautifully, and in not a few the leaves, even in our dull clime, assume rich and varied tints in autumn. The following list includes the noblest, best, and hardiest known:--The great Columbian maple, the silvery maple (A. eriocarpum), the red maple (A. colchicum rubrum), the Norway maple, the purple-leaved sycamore, and the variegated negundo; the double horse chesnut (the flower of this lasts very much longer than the single kind), the red chesnut, the Hungarian lime-tree, and the Mississippi lime, the tree of heaven (Ailanthus glandulosa), the tulip-tree, the Japanese sophora (a noble tree, fine for dry soils), the Kentucky coffee-tree (not a large tree, but with very graceful leaves), the hawthorns in variety, both red and white. Some of the hawthorns bear handsome fruit, and of such the most distinct is Aronia, Layi, Celsiana and Douglasii. The flowering ash, the showy Chinese Pyrus spectabilis, the American ash, the Canadian ash or lancewood; the Cornish, Chichester, and Irish elms (the last being a tree of large growth) and also most particularly the weeping variety of the wych elm; the black walnut, and the yellow-twigged willow; the silver-leaved poplar, the Carolina poplar, and of course the Lombardy poplar; the splendid western plane, which does so well in towns, the Eastern plane, and the Spanish plane. Lastly, we will name the noble oaks, both the American and our own. The American oaks are among the finest trees of the world. The best of them are Q. ambigua, Prinus, the champion oak, the scarlet oak, the black oak, and the willow oak. Any of these will form long-lived and noble trees.

The preceding remarks and instructions generally apply to the wants of boys whose parents have gardens of some size. But a very large class are not so fortunate--have not sufficient space to develop a good tree, and perhaps live in or near towns, where it may be difficult to grow a good one. For convenience sake, we will divide these into two classes--those who have small gardens in the country, and those who have small gardens in or near towns or cities. In the former, it will be better to pay full attention to subjects of a comparatively dwarf though hardy and long-lived habit, and to fine hardy shrubs like the hollies, &c. Except on the very margins of a small country place, it is a mistake to plant great trees, as at some time they are pretty sure to become an overshadowing nuisance, too near the house to be seen to advantage, and also too near to be agreeable or healthful. Of beautiful dwarf evergreen trees suited for such, there is nothing better than the comparatively new Retinosporas, which are at once graceful, hardy, and beautiful. They are natives of Japan, and in any large nursery various handsome and comparatively dwarf pines may be selected suitable for the same purpose. For the town or suburban garden the best things are decidedly beautiful dwarf and free-flowering deciduous trees, like the almond, the various finely coloured double peaches, the beautiful double cherries, the Chinese crab, the silvery eleagnus, the better kinds of hawthorn, and if there be room for a large tree, the plane is the best. Of course there is great difference in the climate and atmosphere of what are called suburbs. Thus, in many of the suburbs of London it is nearly impossible to get a pine-tree to live, while in the suburbs of many other towns and cities the choicest trees flourish freely. But ten or twelve years’ increase of smoke and increase of houses may make a sad difference to the pleasantest of suburbs, and things that flourished healthfully at one time may gradually perish from increasing smut and vileness of atmosphere. The best trees of the pine tribe for town planting are the dwarf and beautiful Thuja aurea, well suited, from its dwarf size, for the pleasure ground or flower garden; the Austrian pine, the common arbor-vitæ, and perhaps a few others; but as a rule, it is better not to plant pines where they will be exposed to the evil effects of a city atmosphere. On the other hand, all trees that lose their leaves in winter are likely to do well in such places, because they are leafless and quite at rest in the winter, when every chimney is vomiting forth poison, and the air is thick with filth. Then, when the atmosphere begins to clear, and the spring returns, they put forth their leaves and expose them during the best of the year, while the poor pine or evergreen has to stand exposed at all seasons.

THE BOY’S FLOWER GARDEN.

Of course every boy who cares about gardening will have a little flower garden. That is the first thing he is likely to attempt, and, perhaps, on the whole, that which he may attempt with the greatest certainty of success. A nice little varied flower garden is a source of interest and pleasant exercise for a boy nine months out of twelve. But it is not by imitating the common style of flower garden that a boy can make his little piece pretty and interesting for the length of time we have named. Nothing can be more bald and awkward-looking, more miserable in aspect, than most flower gardens he is likely to see at the present day; and therefore he must not attempt to imitate them, but follow the instructions to be presently given. The reason why the greater number of flower gardens of the present time are bad and miserably vulgar-looking, is that those who arrange them simply use a few sorts of plants, and many of them in great excess, so that an oppressive kind of monotony is produced, which is anything but agreeable in the flower garden; and, besides, nearly every flower garden you enter is very like every other--no life or interest to be seen in them as a rule; but, on the other hand, a great deal of mere gaudiness.

In addition to these demerits, the ordinary type of flower garden is usually filled with tender plants--plants which must be put out in the ground when the frosts are quite gone, in the beginning of June, and taken up again as soon as they reappear in autumn--leaving the ground bare for the winter and long spring. Now, even if this were the most beautiful way of managing a flower garden, it would not suit the boy gardener. He has, as a rule, no time to attend to tender plants, and if he once plants his garden, keeps it clean, and adds a new member to it now and then, it is perhaps as much as can be expected, considering how many other things he has to do. Besides, he goes away to school now and then, and what is to become of his tender plants then? Most boys will be proud to take care of their own things, and will be much better satisfied with a hardy little plant, which cannot suffer when they go away for six weeks at a time, than with one that may go off with the first frost. Clearly the best thing for the young gardener to do is to cultivate the most interesting and pretty of the hardy flowers of all seasons. Usually these are infinitely more interesting than the tender exotics of the grand flower garden. Many of them are English plants, notably the beautiful lily of the valley, the pink, the carnation, the graceful Solomon’s seal, the various lovely primroses and polyanthuses, and a host of others. Yes, you will do most wisely by adopting all those charming old inmates of our gardens, which, independently of their associations, are not to be surpassed for their beauty by any tenderlings. It will be our pleasant duty to point out to you the kind that you may grow with the greatest ease, and pick out for you the most beautiful kinds known. It is most essential to be very careful about the plants you put in your little flower garden, for your space is generally small, and there is in consequence the greater necessity to take care that every spot of it is occupied with a “good thing,” as gardeners are wont to say. There are hundreds of plants mentioned in garden books, and sold in nurseries, that are little better than weeds, and which would, therefore, sadly disfigure your garden. Presently we shall write you a list, which may be implicitly depended upon--every plant being beautiful, hardy, and in all respects suited to your wants.

As boys are usually allotted but a small portion of border for their flower garden, it is better to adopt the mixed border system, that is, a mixture of different kinds, tastefully arranged, and have nothing to do with what is called “bedding-out,” or planting great masses of one thing. By the mixed system, you will be enabled to enjoy a little of everything, and at all seasons, from the time that the crocus opens its brightly-burnished golden blossoms in early spring, till the Christmas rose ventures to show its large white flowers in the depth of winter. Do you like exquisitely coloured little flowers in the dawn of spring--little brightly blue things that “come before the swallow dares?” You can grow such without expense or trouble in your little parterre. The charming bushes of dwarf shrubs, and large border flowers, which bloom in May, must have charms for you as for all of us, and these too you may have in perfection; while the roses of June and July, the lilies of August, and the grand gladiolus of the autumn, will all be perfectly at home in your borders, as will every good and beautiful flower garden plant. In laying out your small patch of flower garden, it is best to confine yourself to a central bed (which may be square, round, or oval), and borders around that, and not to attempt anything elaborate in the way of laying. Attempts to lay out small bits of ground in a geometrically elaborate or Lilliputian imitation of the natural style, is almost sure to end in the production of something ridiculous or cockneyfied. Confine your attention chiefly to the plants, laying out the ground in a convenient manner. Let the design be subordinate altogether to the plants. All trivial artificial ornaments, in the way of shells, coloured gravel, statuettes, sundials, &c. should be left out of the plan altogether. The most beautiful gardens are those in which plant-beauty, and that alone, is conspicuous. If you can make the visitor forget all about design--forget everything but the fact that he is in a beautiful and varied garden, with nature’s own gems, free and healthy, on every side, you will attain the highest success of which the ancient art of gardening is capable.

We will suppose, then, that you have selected your little bit of ground. The next thing to do is to prepare it thoroughly. Now, in ordinary cases this is not half done. We are going to recommend you to plant permanent things, plants which will not require removal for many years, and you will not have a thorough opportunity of preparing the ground after you once plant. Therefore, the preparation of the ground is of tenfold greater importance in your case than in that of the ordinary gardener, whose beds of geraniums, or suchlike, are empty in winter, so that he has an opportunity of dressing and digging them every year.

Before marking the walks or anything of the kind, when, in fact, your little piece of ground comes into your hands at first, remove all matters from its surface, add manure to it in abundance, and have the whole dug as deep as you can go, without bringing up the bad subsoil at the bottom. If the ground be sandy, so much the better; then all you have do is to give it plenty of cow, or any other rich manure that comes to hand. If, on the other hand, it be of a clayey, stiff, tenacious nature, like much of the ground to the north side of London, you must act quite differently. Most pretty border plants like a light, warm, free or sandy soil, and abhor a heavy, wet one. The way to cure, if we may so speak, or, in other words, improve the very stiff soil, is to add plenty of sand, leaf-mould, horse manure, or gritty scrapings from roads, or any other loosening material of this kind that you can obtain. Dig it in deep, and dig the ground over again, so that it may be thoroughly incorporated with the soil. All this should be done in autumn, if you have the time--in early autumn, if possible. When well done, and the ground levelled, then you may mark your little walks--with a line--and your central bed; and if in this operation you can get the gardener to assist you, do so by all means. In many cases the gardener gets ready the boys’ garden, and presents it to him ready for planting, and that is the best way; for the planting and attention required afterwards will be as much as you can do, if you do it well. A word or two as to edgings for the borders and the bed. Don’t have anything to do with those nasty stone edgings, so much advertised of late, as they look very ugly and out of place in a garden. The neat little edging of box is, perhaps, the prettiest as well as the oldest in existence. But we are inclined to think that little edgings of plants that flower are the best for your case. Try to be original with your edging as with everything else, if possible, and whatever may be used as an edging near your garden, avoid, and have something distinct. We know of about one hundred pretty plants for making edgings, but can only mention such here as you are likely to be able to obtain without difficulty. The best are the rosy thrift (Armeria vulgaris rubra), a lovely spring plant; the pretty little white and blue campanula pumila, and its white variety; the large blue gentian of the Alps (G. aculis), this is plentiful in Scotland, but not about London; the pretty little blue aubrietia, to be obtained everywhere; the variegated cocksfoot grass (Dactylis glomerata variegata;--what a pity it is that we are obliged to use such names); and the double daisy in various colours. Should you make a box edging, use the dwarfest and best kind; and if you happen to notice any other dwarf hardy plants that make tasteful edgings, use any you fancy, by all means. The more variety we have the better, and the only thing that it is particularly desirable you should avoid is any forms of those crockery wares, or artificial stone edgings, as they are all as bad and ugly as need be.

We will now follow with a list of the most suitable plants for your garden. To each plant a figure will be attached, to indicate the position it should occupy in your beds or borders. We will, for convenience sake, throw the various heights of the plants used into three classes--1, for the smallest plants, or those fitted for the front of the border; 2, for the medium-sized, or those suitable for the middle parts; and finally, 3, for the taller kinds, which require to be placed at the back, or near the back of the border. Doubtless you will make a point of growing the rose; that is deservedly everybody’s favourite. You may plant the rose either in the back part of your border, as a standard in the middle, as a dwarf bush, or on the front edge, pegged down close to the earth--not a bad way of growing it, by the way. But avoid the standard rose, if you can; it is ugly, awkward, and by no means so satisfactory as a rose “growing upon its own roots:” that means, a kind not grafted upon another, but quite on its own resources. Roses generally are grafted upon free growing common kinds, known as stocks. The most pleasing in the end, and by far the most satisfactory, are the roses upon their own roots. They make dwarf but long-lived and vigorous bushes--the very best things you can employ in the middle parts of your borders. If there be sufficient room, have a dozen kinds of roses, each different. Every spring, from deaths during the winter, and changes of one kind or another, you will have to look over your borders to fill up vacancies. It is best done about the end of May, when you may exactly see the state of the plants in the border, by filling up the majority of these vacancies with the better kinds of bedding plants, &c. By doing so you may enjoy both phases of gardening--the beautiful and interesting hardy flowers, to be presently named, and the brilliant and common flowers of the summer parterre, the pretty kinds of verbenas, the dwarf and neat lobelias, the variegated and other geraniums, and in fact, any kind of bedding plant that comes to hand.

Next, for the selection of the more valuable and more uncommon hardy flowers, leaving out all such as are difficult to obtain. Among all the flowers of spring, few are better known than some of the anemones--apennina (1), fulgens (1), coronata (1), sylvestris (1), and Honorine Iobert (2), are the very best. Among them we have the sweetest blue, the brightest scarlet, and the purest white. Of the columbines (Aquilegias), the best for your purposes are the common border varieties. They are mostly fitted for the central line of the border. Of the magnificent delphiniums, so richly blue, tall, and stately, there are many beautiful new kinds--so many that I need not enumerate them, but most nurserymen are pretty sure to have varieties of them. Being tall, they are mostly suited for the back, or nearly the back portions of the borders: if you have a central bed, they will also look very well towards the middle of it. By the way, the middle of such bed might well be devoted to a choice shrub or two, say a good rhododendron or kalmia--that is, if the soil would suit such. The peony is almost too big for such little gardens; but a plant or two may be ventured in some unimportant spot. The yellow bachelor’s button (Ranunculus acris, fl. pl. 2), is very pretty, and so exceedingly is Dielytra spectabilis (2). Baptisia australis (3). Coronilla varia (2). Galega officinalis alba (3). Lathyrus grandiflorus (3), a climbing plant, very fine for going up a low trellis. The white and red everlasting peas (3), also climbers. Orobus vernus (2). The perennial Lupin (3). Achillea ægyptiacum (2), A. aurea (1), A. Eupatorium (3), and A. millefolium roseum (2)--all fine and free. Of Michaelmas daisies (Asters), A. versicolor (1), elegans (3), turbinellus (2), Amellus (2), will be found highly beautiful. The Pyrethum in fine variety of beautiful colour and size: they have been raised of late years in great quantity by Mr. Salter of the Hammersmith nurseries, and are admirably suited to the middle line of borders, therefore the figure 2 will indicate their position to a T; their colour is rich and distinct in the extreme. The fine autumnal flowering Phlox (3) is also sold in great and beautiful variety, and should have a place in every good collection. Six or eight of the best kinds should be in the boy’s garden. Nearly every nurseryman supplies them cheap. In the harebell family (Campanulas) we will find some very fine, particularly pumila (1), carpatica (1), persicifolia (3), and P. alba (3), grandis (2), macrantha (3), rotundifolia (2). The fleur-de-lis, or Iris, has some beautiful varieties, of which the best are germanica (2), florentina (2), pallida (2), De Bergii (2), pumila (1). Tritoma grandis (3), and glaucescens (3), are noble things for the back of a border. The double wallflowers (2), the alpine wallflower (1) (Cheiranthus alpinus). The Potentillas (2). Veronica amethystina (2), and corymbosa (2). The Virginian tradescantia (2); the crimson loose-strife (3); Lythrum roseum superbum. I give you the hard names so that you may have the less difficulty in procuring the plants, for many may know them by their Latin name, who would not know them by their common one, and vice versâ. The American cowslip (1): this being a very chaste and pretty plant, have as much as you can of it. Salvia argentea (2). This plant has grand silvery leaves, and should be in every collection. Perennial candy tuft, 1 (Iberis). There are three kinds of this--corræafolia, saxatilis, and Garrexiana, all good, hardy, and beautiful. Arabis alpina (1); Aubrietia purpurea (1); Alyssum saxatile (1): all three very easy to grow, and very common. The beautiful little Hepaticas in various colours, blue, white, and red. You must secure a stock of these, above all things; they are among the prettiest of spring flowers, and will “set off” charmingly the front parts of your borders. There is a fine new kind of hepatica (H. angulosa), a noble kind, which you will also do well to obtain: give it a rather shady position in light soil. One or two tufts of the Christmas rose will be quite enough. When this begins to show its flowers, a few weeks before Christmas, you will do well to cover the plant with a hand-glass, leaving a little air at the top. This will prevent the flowers from being injured or hurt by rain; they will grow very much larger and whiter than if left exposed. Of Pentstemons (2), a good variety should be grown, especially if the soil be light and good, such as they delight in. Sedum fabaria (2), is a fine autumnal flowering plant, which must not be forgotten. Rudbeckia Newmannii (3), a very fine autumnal bloomer. Lithospermum fruticosum (1), a wonderfully pretty plant for the fronts of borders. Any kind of pink (1) that you can conveniently obtain, should be grown; they are sweet, hardy, neat, and, in a word, perfect for your purposes. They are considerably varied of late years, and highly useful for cutting for bouquets, &c. The front of the border is the best place for them. Immediately behind them, and scarcely so far back as the line of the second row, is the place for the carnations and picotees, which of course you will be sure to cultivate. There is nothing more beautiful in our gardens than many of these, so beautifully and richly coloured, and so delicately and exquisitely margined and striped. Linum narbonense (2), and Perenne album (2), noble kinds of hardy flax, are also good. The Œnothera tribe will furnish some beauty: notably the sweetly coloured Œ. acaulis (1), which opens its very large flowers in the evening, and keeps them open till nearly breakfast-time in the morning; the noble yellow macrocarpa; and the large evening primrose (Œ. Lamarkiana). Some dwarf tiny shrubs, that flower freely, will look beautiful in your border, and of such you cannot find one more beautiful than the early spring flowering heath, 1 (Erica carnea); it is a mass of handsome bloom, and very hardy and neat in habit. Other capital little shrubs are Daphne Cneorum, sweet and pretty--various dwarf kinds of native heaths, and Genista tinctoria (1), and sagittalis (1).

In addition to the above, it need hardly be added, that such universally esteemed plants as the lily of the valley (1), the primrose (1), and the polyanthus, should be well represented. Latterly there have been raised considerably varied kinds of primrose and polyanthus, and nothing can be more charming than mixed masses of such. From a packet of seed of each (ask for that of the ordinary mixed kinds), you may raise a considerable variety of beautiful kinds. Double daisies (1), too, in various colours, will be found very pretty in the spring, as will the numerous kinds of pansy (1), the gentian, and the forget-me-not. By the way, you must not forget some tufts of the common forget-me-not; it does very well as a border plant in all but the driest soils. At Trentham it is tastefully employed to form a margin round some pretty little gardens, dedicated to the various younger members of the family; and we have known people to be so full of gratitude to a departed dog, as to plant a ring of it round the little monumental slab which indicated his place of burial in the garden border. The various pretty and very dwarf kinds of saxifrage (1), and Sedum (1), too, you will find neat and distinct for the very front of your border, in which you will of course arrange the dwarfest plants.

One word more. It would be a pity to confine you to this or any other selection. The more varied your garden is, and the more distinct from that of your friends or neighbours, the better. The selection above given is as good as can be made, and may save you from getting a lot of ugly weeds in your garden, under the name of flowers; but in addition to these, you would do well to add any other pretty plant met with in your rambles, and which seems to you worthy of a place; while with friends who cultivate plants, you may exchange any that you have plenty of, for new varieties, or anything that you may fancy.

THE BOY’S FRUIT GARDEN.

There are few boys who cannot appreciate the virtues of a delicious melting pear or good apple; and our object in writing this paper is to tell them how to grow such in a comparatively short space of time. In old times, and, indeed, generally at present, people plant for those who come after them--“plant for their heirs,” in fact,--plant trees that will come into bearing in twelve years or so; and therefore some may say, why offer the boys such a far-off treat? But times change, and the system which produces the finest fruits now in our markets, happens to be exactly suited to the boy’s garden. Large and beautiful apples have been sold in Paris during the past spring for as much as three francs a-piece! These were in many, or in nearly all cases, grown upon little trees not more than a foot from the ground, and several of them not more than two or three years old! The French are the best growers of apples and pears in existence; and in France originated this dwarf method of growing them. The way they do it is as follows:--The best kinds of apples are grafted on a variety known as the Paradise, which induces a very dwarf growth and early fertility in the kinds grown upon it. We have seen these fruiting, this year, at two years of age, bearing fine fruit, much better than you see on trees developed to full size. They are grown in two ways, generally as cordons, and occasionally as little standards. The “cordon” is simply a single plant of apple, trained along a wire, supported about a foot from the ground. The little standard, or bush, is simply a diminutive Lilliputian kind of tree--just such as a boy would wish for in his garden. Not taller, if as tall as himself, he can shorten the shoots and gather the fruit with the greatest ease. The culture of these little trees is so simple that no boy need fail with them. A sunny spot should in the first instance be chosen, that is, if the young gardener can get it; and it is not often that he is allowed any but a bye nook of some kind or other; and no wonder, because hitherto boys’ gardens have simply been short-lived little exhibitions of untidiness, never yielding any result and very little beauty. But the young gardener who manages well his fairy part of fruit garden, will soon produce a little feature that any place might be proud of. Next, as to how to do it.

Very little ground is required. A small patch will afford space for a great number of little trees. A sunny open spot should be selected, where the trees will have all the advantages of sun and air to perfect their fruit, and render their shoots short, firm, and fertile, instead of sappy, gross, and useless. The soil should be of a slightly sandy or loamy nature, and not wet. If the ground be badly drained, and water lies in it much, it is almost hopeless to attempt fruit-growing, and the little gardener had in that case better turn his attention to something with which his soil and circumstances are likely to agree. One of the chief points in gardening is to choose the course most suited for your own soil, climate, and position. Thus the boy who lives in a great city, or the suburb of one, and who has to contend with the smoke and other evils incident to such, must pursue a very different plan of gardening to the boy who lives in the country, and has all the advantages of pure, sweet air for his plants. The best of all soils for our little fruit-trees, is one moderately sandy, yet not too loose and free, with what we may term a free bottom, that is, a sandy or other subsoil beneath, which will permit the water to pass off freely from the fertile or upper earth. But although this is the best soil, there are few others that we need reject--the worst, perhaps, being deep, stiff, soap-like clay. The best time to plant is in the autumn. Be sure you ask for the young apple-trees grafted on the “Paradise,” and the pears on the Quince stock. Both apples and pears may be grown as little standard trees or as cordons. In planting, do not put the roots deep, and spread them out even, forming first a rather firm and slightly convex surface, on which to place the little plant. This will be found to suit very much better than making a loose sort of hole into which to put the roots.

It should be borne in mind that when fruit-trees send their roots deep into rich or cold ground, they produce a lot of coarse, useless wood, barren of fruit, or nearly so. To counteract this tendency, what is called root-pruning has been resorted to. It simply consists in taking up the trees once in two years or so, and replanting them--at least, this is the way with our little trees. It may not be necessary on many soils; but where it is, it may be readily done during pleasant dry weather in autumn. The check given to the tree by the disturbance, causes it to form fertile buds and a stubby habit. It is well that the young amateur gardener should know this, so that he may apply a remedy if his fruit-trees grow too strong and prove barren. But generally they are fertile enough, and even sometimes produce a successful crop the first year after planting; the second year they should bear well. The accident of a severe frost while the trees are in flower, will of course always do mischief, and may ruin a crop; but all are liable to this, as well as our Lilliputians. It is best to plant the erect little trees in a small square--pears and apples separate, for uniformity sake--and to place the cordons around this, just as the French make a sort of edging of them in their gardens. Indeed, if the boy cannot obtain a neat little sunny square for his tiny trees, he will hardly fail to succeed in getting permission to arrange a few in cordon fashion along the edge of some border. It is simply done by either driving down a strong wooden post, or an iron one, so as to support a wire at about ten inches or a foot from the ground. Beneath that, the trees are to be planted, say at a distance of six or eight feet, and tied along the wire. When once this is done there is no further trouble, except to pinch back the shoots in summer so as to keep them close and compact. This operation requires a little attention. The main stem, which is of course tied carefully but not too tightly to the wire sends out side shoots in the summer. When these are about four, or say from three to five inches long, they are to be pinched back, or in other words, nipped off, within about an inch of the base of the young shoot, in the case of apple-trees--in the case of pear-trees it should be left somewhat longer. This is for the summer pruning; in winter it may be necessary to go over the trees with a knife, and remove or shorten awkward spurs, or cut out dead bits here and there; but the summer pinching is the chief thing to be done in the matter. When the trees produce too plentiful a crop of fruit, these should be thinned when very young, so that those left may assume the splendid flavour and size which makes fruit grown in this way superior to that grown in the old and large tree system. I will now give you a list of the best kinds to use in this way, and which can be bought in any respectable nursery. Of apples the very best are Colville Blanche and Reinette de Canada, Cox’s orange pippin, Hawthornden, Herefordshire Pearmain, Greaves’ pippin, or any other first-class kind of apple. Of pears, Marie Louise, Winter Nelis, Beurré Diel, Jargonelle, Beurré d’Amanlis, and Joséphine de Malines, will be found very suitable for the dwarf bush or cordon style, as will most first-class pears.

Cropping the Ground.

DIGGING.

When land is first brought under the spade it should be well dug, and it ought to be trenched up; that is, a full spit or spadeful should be taken and thrown somewhat higher than the general level of the ground, and turned, so that the under part of the soil is brought to the surface; in doing this effectually a sort of trench will be left at the part where the spade goes in, and at the end of digging a piece of ground in this manner this trench will be required to be filled up. It is usual for gardeners to provide for this at the onset by bringing a barrow full of the mould from the part at which the spade is first put in, and filling up the trench so left at the end of the process. Common digging, when the ground is not to be trenched, consists in turning it over regularly and evenly with the spade. When manure is necessary, it is either hoed over the ground and dug in as the digger proceeds, or in trenching it may be laid in each successive trench as it is made, which will of course be covered by the next line of digging. Flower-beds are best turned up with a small three-pronged spade-fork; and it is often necessary to use the same instrument when digging between strawberry and other roots, which is technically called forking. The earth in this process is not turned over, but only broken up and loosened, and the handle of the fork not turned in the process, but drawn gently backwards with a kind of knock, which can be easily acquired by practice.

HOEING.

The hoe is of very great use in a garden. There are generally three kinds of hoes: 1st, the narrow; 2d, the broad; and 3d, the Dutch hoe. The small hoe is used for hoeing in flower-beds; the broad one for earthing up peas, potatoes, &c., and the Dutch hoe is of service in dry weather in clearing the ground quickly of weeds. The two former hoes are used by drawing the handle to you, and hence called draw hoes; but the Dutch hoe is used by thrusting forward, when the weeds cut up by it fall through the hollow portion at (a) clear of the operation. In hoeing the hoer should be particularly careful to go quite to the roots of the weeds, and clear of the roots of the plants. In hoeing up peas he should be careful to draw the earth nicely among the haulms; and in hoeing up cabbages not to sprinkle the dirt among the tender leaves forming the heart of the plant.

RAKING.

There are two kinds of rakes,--the broad and narrow. The broad rake is for raking over seed beds, and the narrow one for raking borders among flowers, &c. In the use of the rake the gardener should first lightly drag off all the weeds and stones from the soil. In holding the handle of the rake high, all the loose stones, weeds, &c., will be easily drawn from the ground without the mould; when the handle is held low, the teeth of the rake enter the ground and scratch it up, which is sometimes necessary to be done; but the little gardener should be careful not to rake away his soil; and the little hard balls of earth that come over with the stones, &c. should be pulverised by the back of the rake.

WEEDING.

The garden should always be kept perfectly clear of weeds; a weed in a garden is a disgrace to the gardener, and unless a young person makes up his mind to be very particular in this he had better never think of gardening. Chickweed, dandelion, plantain, bindweed, and every other description of extraneous growth should be quickly removed, and that worst of all weeds, called the gardener’s plague, “couchgrass,” should be extirpated entirely, as should all suckers from the roots of trees. Weeds, if not in seed, should be thrown into the manure pit, but sticks or stones should never be mixed with them.

SOWING SEEDS.

The ground having been dug and raked, and otherwise prepared, is fit for the reception of the seed. Radishes, carrots, parsnips, are sown by the hand broadcast; the way of sowing carrot seed is to mix it with the earth in a large flower-pot, and then to scatter it very thinly over the bed: at least, that way is suited to the boy’s garden; in the open garden and the field they sow carrots and parsnips in drills. Peas are sown in drills about three inches deep and four feet apart. Broad beans are put in with a dibber in straight lines about five inches apart, the rows being four feet from each other. French beans are sown thinly in drills about four feet apart. Scarlet runners are put in by the dibber singly about three inches apart, and should have bean sticks placed near them as soon as they appear, upon which to climb. Cabbage-plants should be put in by the dibber about nine inches apart, in rows about four feet distant from each other. Cauliflowers should be planted eighteen inches apart either way, as should Scotch kale and sprouting brocoli. Spinach may be sown thinly in drills three feet apart, or broadcast in beds. Lettuce-seed, cabbage-seed, cauliflower-seed, and all kinds of flower-seeds should be first sown in warm situations in good mould very thinly, and then the plants should be transplanted as they grow of sufficient size. Potatoes should be planted with the dibber nine inches apart, in rows three feet apart, as should Jerusalem artichokes. Onions should be sown broadcast, in beds about six feet wide and fifteen or twenty long. The beds for parsnips and carrots may be six feet wide and thirty long.

TRANSPLANTING.

This is a most important operation, and is indispensable in the art of gardening. A vast number of seeds must be sown in beds, and afterwards transplanted into their final situations; this is particularly the case with regard to flowers. The instrument with which transplanting is performed is called a trowel, of which there are both small and large. In using it the principal thing to be attended to, is to take the best and most vigorous of the plants raised in the seedbed, without injuring their roots, and with the earth around them, and placing them, with as little disturbance of their roots as possible, in their new situations. In transplanting shrubs, &c. from pots, the planter should very slightly break the earth round the roots of the plant, so that its fibres may have free play in the new earth. In transplanting shrubs, &c. particular care should be taken in digging them up, so that the young fibres of the roots are not injured. When shrubs, &c. are first transplanted, they should be moderately watered, and of course it is bad management to plant shrubs at a time when they are likely to suffer from sun. The right time to transplant is in the autumn and spring, when the ground is nice and dry, and “in good working order,” as gardeners term it.

WATERING.

Nature is the best waterer of plants, and it is good policy to leave the matter as much as possible in her hands; but we must assist her now and then by applying it ourselves. In watering, pond water is much better than pump water; and in warm weather, if no pond water can be procured, it is well to pump the water into some large tank or tub, and let it stand for some hours exposed to the sun and air before using it. Morning and evening are the proper times for watering; the middle of the day, or during a hot sunshine, is a very improper time for using the watering-pot in summer-time, although it is the best time for using it in the winter. In watering plants in flower-pots the finger should be first passed round the pot where the mould joins the sides of the pot, so as to close up the little crack or crevice between them, otherwise the water will pass down this crack, and go out at the hole at the bottom of the pot without affording it any benefit. In watering, never let the water pass from the watering-pot close to the stem, but rather turn up the earth in a little circular space for a few inches round the plant, so that the water may soak down to the extremities of the roots, where the spongelets are which draw up the nutriment from the earth to support the plant. When you water, water well and thoroughly, and then there will be little need to do it often. To water frequently, and give a little at a time, is very bad gardening.

VARIOUS MODES OF PROPAGATION.

Plants are reproduced or propagated in various ways; some by seeds, some by offsets, as tulips and hyacinths; some by dividing the root, some by layers, some by cuttings. Currant and gooseberry-trees, as well as rose-trees, and also the vine, are propagated by cuttings; i. e. pieces of the young last-year branches are cut off about six inches in length, and, the top being taken off, are placed with the thickest end in the ground. Strawberries are reproduced by dividing the root, or by taking the runner which the plant has itself fixed in the ground as the nucleus of a new plant, and putting it in a proper situation. Raspberries give out suckers from the parent root, which may be taken off and replanted, like the lilac, the rose, and many other plants; but in taking them off, which is generally done by a spade, they should be taken pretty near to the parent stem, and should have fibrous roots attached. In taking offsets, such as those of bulbous roots, it is only necessary to take those which nature herself separates from the parent bulb; in tubers, such as the artichoke and potato, the tubers of middle size are to be taken and planted; or in regard to the latter root, the eyes or shoots only are sometimes planted, the root being cut into various portions.

LAYERS.

If we observe the strawberry plant, we find that at a certain season of the year it throws out offsets, and at certain distances a knob or knot arises, from which roots shoot into the earth, while from its upper centre a bud appears, and then a new plant is formed. The process of layering is to artificially produce this, and similar operations of nature. Some plants throw out roots whenever their stump or branches come in contact with the soil, but others require the assistance of art. The art of layering, therefore, consists in taking the shoot of a growing plant as near the root as possible; this is first to be cut half through, and then a slit is made in an upward direction, and, a piece of twig being placed in the divided part, the shoot is pegged down with the joint buried in the ground. After a time this joint begins to throw out roots, and when these are firmly established and begin to draw nutriment from the earth, the shoot may be detached from its parent stem, and it then becomes a new plant. Layers may be made in the spring months, and also in the month of July.

PIPINGS

Are cuttings of carnations, pinks, &c. They are tubular stems, having joints at certain distances, and they are pulled asunder by the fingers at these joints; the lower leaves are then pulled off, and the pipe is placed in some nicely prepared soil, leaving its upper portion, consisting of the sprouting leaf bud, to grow, while the lower pipe shoots into a root.

GRAFTING.

Grafting, inarching, and budding, are generally performed in the month of March. The operation of inarching is sometimes performed by nature. When two branches of a tree lie in contact, the rough winds of winter often cause them to rub against each other, so that a wound is produced in one or both, and the juices that flow from the wounded parts gradually cause an incorporation of the substances, so that the two branches become united into one. This is not to be wondered at in branches of the same tree, or in those of the same kind, but it is a matter of some surprise to find that a tree bearing small and unpalatable fruit may be cut down, and the remaining part grafted with a scion from a species bearing large and delicious fruit, instead of the small sour fruit of the stalk. Thus it is then that by grafting, we preserve and multiply a favoured variety of trees which could not be propagated from seeds with any certainty of success.

In order to the full success of this operation, grafting must be performed according to the rules that experience has laid down. The first is to graft or unite only such species as have a relationship subsisting between them. The operation never succeeds unless this union of nature is attended to, and the plants belong to the same genus. The next rule requires that the inner bark of the scion, and the inner bark of the stalk, be exactly united together, in order to facilitate the free course of the sap.

The most common method of grafting is whip-grafting, or tongue-grafting. The name of whip-grafting is given from the method of cutting the stock and the scion sloping on one side so as to fit each other, and then tying them together in the manner of a whip-thong to the shaft or handle. The scion and stock are cut obliquely, and as nearly as possible at corresponding angles. The top of the stock is then cut off nearly horizontally, and a slit is made near the centre of it downwards, and a similar one in the scion upwards. The tongue, or wedge-like process forming the upper part of the sloping face of the scion, is then inserted downwards in the cleft of the stock, the inner barks being brought closely to unite on one side so as not to be displaced by tying, which ought to be done immediately with a riband, or matting, or bass, brought in a neat manner several times round the stock. The next operation is to clay the whole over an inch thick all round, for about half an inch or more below the bottom of the graft to an inch over the top of the stock, finishing the coat of clay in a kind of oval form, closing it effectually, so that no light, wet, nor wind, may penetrate.

TONGUE-GRAFTING.

Tongue-grafting is not very different to whip-grafting, and is performed as follows. The stock being ready, cut it off at three or four inches from the ground, and, with a very sharp, straight, and narrow-bladed knife, cut a thin slip of wood and bark upwards from about two inches below the top of the shortened stock. Make this cut at one pull of the knife, inserting the edge rather horizontally, and when it has gone through the bark and into the wood a little short of the middle, pull straight upwards. Then at less than half-way down this cut a thin tongue, not more than three-eighths of an inch long. Proceed in the same way with the thick part of the scion, making a sloping cut of about the same length as the cut of the stock, and make a tongue to correspond with that in the stock. Bring the four edges of the bark, that is, the two edges of the cut in the top of the stock and the two corresponding edges of the cut in the bottom of the scion, to meet precisely, which can never be the case unless the first cut in the stock and that in the scion is even as a die, and performed with a knife as sharp as a razor. The two parts thus formed, the tongues and the stock clasping one another must be bound up as before.

BUDDING.

Budding is the art of taking a bud from one tree and making it grow on another. A bud can only be planted upon a tree of the same kind as itself, and the operation is generally performed in the month of August. The bud should be taken from a shoot of the same year’s growth, and, in taking it, should be neatly cut out by incisions made above it, below it, and longitudinally on either side, and the piece taken should include the bud, without injury to the bark, and a small piece of wood of an oblong form pointed at its extremity. A place is now cut to receive the bud in the shoot of a stock, and the best place is near the fork of a branch; the method of cutting is similar to that adopted for taking out the bud, and the bark is open on both sides of the slit, and the piece of bark to which the bud is attached is then filled in, and the bark of the stock closed over it; the two parts are then bound together with strips of fresh matting tied in bows and ends, for the purpose of being easily loosened as the bud increases in growth. The operation of budding requires the aid of a budding-knife, which may be readily purchased, and the success of the operation depends upon the care and nicety with which it is performed.

INARCHING.

We have already mentioned how nature performs what is called inarching. The gardener’s art consists simply in bending a branch partly cut through, and inserting the belt thus formed into a slit made downwards in the stock to receive it. The parts being nicely fitted are bound with matting. In five or six months the head of the stock may be cut off, and the plant removed.

GRAFTING-CLAY.

Most of the operations of grafting require clay to be put round the parts. This is made of three parts of stiff yellow clay to one of horse-dung fresh as it falls, with a little cut hay, well mixed together; another kind of clay is made of a pound of pitch and a pound of yellow wax, mixed with two pounds of cow-dung. The use of them in covering the grafting posts is to keep them moist and cool till a proper union has taken place.

PRUNING.

The proper time for pruning trees is in December or January, for then the sap is down, and no injury can be done; and the art in pruning consists in cutting away the “water shoots,” or non-bearing wood, “dead wood,” and “superfluous wood.” The water shoots, as they are called, appear to be strong growing branches, but generally produce neither flowers nor fruit; the superfluous wood are those shoots which grow in the way of each other, or cross each other, which should always be removed. The great principle in pruning a fruit tree is to leave all the tree free and open, so that the air and sunshine may pass through it, and to preserve the buds of the bearing wood. The shoots should be cut off as near to the stem or branch as possible, and all growths or suckers which appear below the crown of the tree should be taken off. The present practice of thumb-pruning is very excellent; by this means the superfluous shoots, &c., are removed by the thumb nail as soon as they appear, and thus the tree does not exhaust itself by the growth of useless wood. The young pruner should be very careful in cutting away, and recollect that what he cuts off he cannot put on again.

TRAINING.

The training of trees applies principally to those that are fastened to wooden trellises, to poles, or to walls. The principle of the art is to extend the bearing branches of a tree or plant, so as to improve its growth, its beauty, and its produce. Peaches, nectarines, apricots, vines, &c., are trained against walls by shreds of cloth being placed round the branches, and the two ends nailed to the wall. In doing this, care should be taken to give the branch room to play, and yet to confine it, not to hurt the tender fruit-shoots in the operation, and to let all the branches be free of each other. Roses and jasmines are often trained round verandahs by their different parts being tied with ropes’ end or tarred twine to different parts of the trelliswork. Sometimes flowers are trained by being tied to stakes or long poles, and others are brought to pass through the round of an ornamental ladder, or through the meshes of wirework of different forms. But in every kind of training the principle is the same, namely that of keeping the branches clear of each other, and of preserving the flowering and bearing shoots. Neatness and taste are also indispensable requisites to the training and management of trees and flowers, whether for use or ornament.

INSECTS AND DEPREDATORS.

There are various kinds of depredators which find their way into gardens;--worms, slugs, caterpillars, moles, ants, birds, butterflies, snails, &c. These must be got rid of, or kept down, otherwise the gardening labours are soon at an end. In wild nature all the above “vermin,” as some people designate them, are of the greatest service in some way or other; even worms and moles, which are very destructive in gardens, are of great service on commons, and therefore in destroying them we should always do so with as little pain as possible to the individuals; and, as prevention is better than cure, the young gardener should look out in winter for the eggs of various moths and butterflies, which may be often seen encircling the twigs of trees, or under the eaves of paling, &c., and destroy them. Caterpillars are best got rid of by picking them from the plants; and slugs, and snails, and worms, are often eradicated by turning a brood of young ducks into the ground for a short time, where they can do no injury to the beds. They may also be entrapped by laying cabbage leaves in different parts of the garden, under which they will creep in the night time. Moles must be caught with a mole-trap set in the line of their march. It consists simply of a bent stick, and a wire formed into a noose, slightly attached to the neck of a peg, into which the animal runs his head and gets strangled, by the elasticity of the rod drawing up the noose when the peg is disturbed. Ants are best got rid of by destroying their nest and eggs, the latter of which are excellent food for young chickens, pheasants, &c. The most destructive insect is the aphis, which attacks the rose, and this is best destroyed by the fumigation of tobacco-smoke, either through a pair of common bellows, or by means of the whirl-fumigator, which may be purchased for a few shillings; but the most certain mode of destruction is to obtain a few “golden beetles,” and put near the plants infected by aphides; these are their natural enemies, and where they are placed the aphides will soon become extinct.

PROTECTION FROM FROST.

The common trees and fruits of the garden require but little care as regards frost in our comparatively mild winters, but many plants, trees, and shrubs, coming originally from warmer climates, require much attention during winter to keep them alive. It is useless to attempt preserving geraniums, myrtles, and a great many of our common summer plants, without keeping them through the winter in a greenhouse of some kind or other. A small greenhouse may now be cheaply erected, but for the preservation of a small number of plants the greenhouse pit is the cheapest and most convenient substitute. It consists only of a hole twelve feet by four dug in the ground to the depth of six feet, having at the top a skylight. It should if possible be dug in a sheltered situation, open to the south and well backed behind, and the glass-top, which should merely consist of one frame laid in a slanting position to the south over the top of the hole, the back of which is raised to support it, the front being slightly lowered. The entrance to the pit is at the side, to which a stout wooden door nailed over with straw bands should be attached, and two or three steps should lead to the interior of the pit, where a few shelves may be arranged upon which to place the flowers, &c. In this pit flowers, cuttings, bulbs, and a variety of other things, may be preserved through the winter, with very little cost or trouble, and it will be of a great deal of use in many other respects.

THE YOUNG GARDENER’S CALENDAR FOR THE WORK TO BE DONE IN ALL THE MONTHS OF THE YEAR.

JANUARY.

In January, if the weather will permit, manure the ground, and dig the manure in. Plant out some strong early cabbage in warm situations: plant early kinds of Windsor beans. Sow peas, early Warwick, in drills two feet and a-half asunder; sow a first early crop of spinach; sow early radishes, and cover them with straw two inches thick, then uncover every mild day, and cover again in the evening. Plant in the flower border the various bulbs, such as snowdrops, crocuses, daffodils, jonquils, &c., and also their offsets. Plant also the hardy herbaceous plants, such as asters, golden rods, campanulas, Canterbury bells, &c. Keep gravel walks clean.

FEBRUARY.

Peas, beans, spinach, lettuce, carrots, parsnips, beet, &c., may now be sown; and in hotbeds cucumbers, small salading, melons, lettuce, &c. Give air to plants under frames in the natural ground. Dig and prepare the compartments of beds and borders; sow many sorts of hardy annual flower seeds; the tender sorts in hotbeds, such as larkspurs, candy-tuft, yellow lupines, pansies, virgin stock, sweet scabious mignonette, ten-weeks stock, &c. And for edgings of border, plant box, thrift, daisies, parsley, strawberries, &c.

MARCH.

Still continue to prepare an appropriate ground by digging and manuring, sow again peas, beans, &c., if necessary, and especially a bed of turnips. Now is the time also to sow small herbs, as thyme, savory; you may also now plant various slips or cuttings of rosemary, rue, wormwood, and lavender. These should be the outward shoots produced last year, five or six inches long, and should be planted in a shady border, six inches apart. Now also may be sown nasturtiums, which may be sown in patches, dibbed in six inches apart, or in drills, near a rail or running fence. Potatoes may also be now planted in open weather. In planting them, take care to get the best sorts, and pick out some of the finest of a moderately large size, and then divide the tubers into two or three parts, leaving an eye or two to each; plant the pieces in rows about eighteen inches from each other, and about four inches deep. Now also is the time for pruning the various fruit trees, planting fresh sets of raspberries, strawberries, &c. In the flower garden the tender annuals are to be sown in hotbeds, such as cockscomb, balsam, china-aster, tobacco, convolvulus, &c. Ranunculuses, anemones, and the hardy annuals, may be sown in the open ground, and transplanting of all kinds of plants, shrubs, &c., may now be performed.

APRIL.

This is a transplanting month, particularly for cabbages and cauliflowers, all which should be now taken and put out for summer use. Celery should also now be pricked out. Continue to plant, if necessary, pot herbs and sweet herbs, such as rooted slips of balm, penny royal, and camomile. It is a good time also to plant out slips of mint from the roots; other crops of peas may also now be sown, as also a late crop of beans. Now also you may sow gourds and pumpkins in a frame. All pruning must be finished. Insects must be looked after on fruit trees. Vines may be laid down in layers; wall-fruit thinned; strawberry beds weeded, and kept very clean; new-budded and new-grafted trees well examined to see if the clay keeps close to the grafts. In the flower garden or borders some of the tender annuals may now be pricked out, and some of the others sown in the frame, such as Prince’s feather, capsicum, love-apples, Indian corn, gourds, sweet balsam, marvel of Peru; stocks, and the hardy annuals, may now be sown in the open ground, as Adonis poppy, sweet peas, catch-fly, annual sunflower, larkspur, lupines, Venus’s looking-glass. The best way to sow sweet peas is in pots, and protect them well from the birds, who will otherwise not leave one. Inarching may now be performed on evergreens and other plants, which you may wish to propagate this way.

MAY.

Lettuces will now want tying up. Peas will require sticking. Do not tie your lettuces up too tightly, and when you stick your peas put in the stick in a slanting direction. Clear and thin carrots and parsnips, leaving the largest plants at least four inches from each other; thin also onions; plant out cauliflowers. Sow brocoli seeds for the crop to come in on the following winter and early spring. Sow and plant savoys; top the broad beans that are now in blossom, which will make the pods set sooner and swell faster. Plant the various kinds of French beans, such as the white speckled, in drills about three feet apart, and sow them thin. Prick out and plant celery; continue to sow radishes and small salading for daily use. Water new planted crops, and now let more than common care be taken to destroy weeds amongst crops of every kind; and now is the time for using your Dutch hoe freely among the rows of peas, beans, and spinach; but do not leave your weeds about in the drills or borders; clear all carefully away, and keep the garden clean and neat.

JUNE.

Look after your melons, pumpkins, gourds, and cucumbers, in frames; let them be well supplied with fresh air and water. To save cauliflower seed, mark some of the best and earliest plants, with the largest and whitest and closest flower heads, which should not be cut, but left to run to seed. Peas may still be sown, and French beans also, as may cabbage and colewort seed. Gather mint, balm, and other aromatic herbs, towards the end of this month, for drying. Examine any new planted trees, see that they are not too dry, and that they are well secured. Water should be given to those that show any symptoms of flagging; water them well, but not frequently. Take care that your strawberry beds are also well watered. Hang up nets before early cherry-trees against walls, and over small trees, to protect them from the birds. Most of the tender annuals may be now finally planted out, and now is the time to take up the roots of tulips, crown imperials, jonquils, &c., and to take away the offsets. Continue to support with sticks all the tall growing flowering plants. Cut box-edgings, and regulate your flower borders, keeping your plants well watered if the weather should be very dry.

JULY.

You may now sow a batch of turnips for winter or autumn use, and also some carrot seed to raise young carrots for use later in the autumn. Celery may be transplanted, winter spinach may be sown, lettuces may be planted out, coleworts may be sown. Gather your cucumbers as they appear, and gather all sorts of seeds as they ripen in dry weather, pulling up the stems with the seed where it can be done. Bring out the cockscombs, double balsams, and all other curious annuals kept till this time in frames. Transplant annuals into the borders. Lay carnations and sweetwilliams; propagate pinks by pipings; transplant perennial plants. Take up bulbous roots, cut box-edgings, regulate your flower borders. Plant cuttings and slips of succulent plants; shift geraniums and other plants into larger pots, if necessary.

AUGUST.

Cauliflower seed must be sown between the 18th and the 24th. Celery should now be transplanted into trenches, and lettuce planted out. In the end of the month the dry flower stems of aromatic plants, such as hyssop, sage, lavender, should be cut down. Now look well out for various seeds as they ripen, which gather by cutting or pulling off the seed-stalks, then place them in the full sun against a hedge or wall to get them thoroughly dry. All flowers should now be carefully attended, and watered when necessary. The pink pipings should now be planted out in beds, and the seeds of many bulbous flowers, such as tulips, hyacinths, lilies, may be sown to obtain new varieties. Flower borders should occasionally be gone over with a sharp hoe, after which they should be raked over neatly, and all weeds and litter cleared away.

SEPTEMBER.

Lettuces may now be planted in frames, or in very warm borders, for winter use. Brocoli, cabbage and savoy plants may also be planted out, and young plants pricked out into nursery beds. Celery should be earthed up, and you should tie up the leaves of endive to blanch the plants white. The spinach sown in August should be thinned and cleared out, and small salading should be sown once a-week or fortnight. Gather ripe seeds as before, and see that the birds do not devour them. Now is a good time to plant the strong runner plants into separate beds, and at about fifteen inches asunder either way. Towards the end of the month hyacinth and tulip roots may be planted, as well as any other bulbous root. Anemone and ranunculus seed may be sown, and perennial plants transplanted. Continue to keep the flower borders always very clean, and begin digging vacant beds and borders for future planting.

OCTOBER.

Now the apples and pears begin to ripen. Seeds are still to be looked for and preserved, vacant spaces of ground are to be dug up and manured. Fruit trees may now be transplanted, and currant and gooseberry-trees may be planted. Recollect that the currant-trees may be cut close down to the fruit buds, but the gooseberry only half way down the last year’s wood. Cut out irregular growths and suckers, and keep them trained to a single stem below. Strawberry beds should this month have their winter dressing of manure, and all the runners cleared away close to the head of the main plants. Raspberry plants may be pruned, the old stems cut away, and the last year’s suckers’ stems selected for the next year’s bearings, and each of them shortened one-third in height. In the flower-garden the borders should be nicely dressed, and all kinds of plants may be transplanted, or their roots divided, and bulbs not yet planted may be put into the earth. Plant all kinds of shrubs and evergreen trees.

NOVEMBER.

Now is the time for digging up potatoes, and taking up carrots, parsnips, onions, &c., and storing them for winter use. Winter spinach should be weeded, and the red beet-root dug up. Onions may be pricked out to come in early in the spring. Trees may be pruned; all sorts of fruit trees and bulbous roots planted. Now tender plants should be removed to the pit or greenhouse.

DECEMBER.

Peas may be sown in a warm sheltered spot to come in early in the spring, as may Windsor and broad beans. Celery should be well earthed up, and all vacant ground manured, dug, or trenched. Secure the roots of newly planted trees from the frost by laying dungy litter round them, and the same may be done to the spots in which hyacinths, tulips, anemones, and ranunculuses are planted. Small young tender seedling flower plants also require care at this season. The borders may now be finally cleared and laid nice and smooth, the remainder of pot plants removed to the greenhouse or pit, which should be closed during the night, and only opened in fine mild weather; as the frost comes on place mats above the glass during the night, which should be removed in the morning. All leaves from trees, &c., should be collected in a pit for manure, free from sticks or stones, and the whole garden put into order for the frost.

MIMICRY AND VENTRILOQUISM.

“How can I become a ventriloquist?” is the frequent thought of a boy; and he is told, probably, that it is an exceptional faculty, and cannot possibly be acquired. This is not so; perseverance and practice are alone necessary to produce those wonderful results which never fail to captivate the public, if the student has a fair musical ear, and a talent for imitation which few boys are without. The deceptive nature of the sounds are the result of certain natural principles, which are called in to aid the experimenter. Those who have seen any professors of the ventriloquial art now living must have been struck by the apparent ease with which the effects are produced. This is not only the result of practice, but the careful attention to certain acoustic principles which regulate the direction of sounds. A sudden change in the direction of sound is oftentimes very perplexing to the ear, even when the eye can assist the other organs. The change of direction of the sound of a peal of bells, which is often interrupted by intervening buildings, is a familiar instance of this, their sound appearing to come from different places as the hearer changes his position. We can easily imagine that when the hearer is still, and the source of the sound moves, the deception becomes much greater, if skilfully applied to the purpose.

The first great secret is to take a full and deep inspiration, so that the lungs may be well filled, to be used as a Highlander uses the windbag of his bagpipes, as required. If we remember that the larynx, which is the cavity in the throat behind the tongue, is capable of considerable flexibility, as well as the trachea or windpipe, we have good materials for ventriloquial effect; thus the mouth and tongue have really, but not apparently, a great deal to do with the modifications of the assumed voice. A clever ventriloquist recommends the mouth to be kept closed, and the tongue rolled back, so as to regulate, as it were, the sound which is formed in the larynx. This may be done by strengthening the abdominal muscles; and it is probably from this being so frequently done, that the name of “belly-speaking” arose. The highest perfection of ventriloquism is speaking with the lips closed, and apparently without an effort of any kind. Some old and some modern professors had this marvellous power in perfection.

It has been recently observed that by constant practice the veil of the palate can be so exercised that it can be raised or depressed at will, so as to dilate or contract the inner nostrils. The effect of this contraction is the same as Mr. Hardy’s rolled tongue; it muffles, as it were, the sound, renders it weak and dull, as if coming from a distance. On the other hand, if the nostrils are dilated to any extent, the sound gradually becomes apparently closer and closer, because it is more distinct.

The uncertainty of the direction of sound greatly aids the ventriloquist. If a man and a woman are placed at either end of a tolerably large room, and each imitates with tolerable success the voice of the other, the confusion between the eye and the ear is so great that it becomes next to impossible to know which it was that spoke. It is thus necessary that the ventriloquist should either by word or gesture direct the attention of his hearers to the spot from whence they expect the sound to proceed. Really, in practice, there is little difference between the sound of a muffled voice, whether it is outside the door, above the ceiling, or down in the cellar. It is possible to acquire such a knowledge of the modifications of sound by distance, obstructions, or other causes, as to imitate them with wonderful accuracy. The late Mr. Love used to carry on a dialogue with a person in a box, and by a masterly modulation of his voice he gave it a muffled tone when he sat upon the box, and different degrees of sharpness as he gradually opened the lid.

The best practice is to begin with imitations only of different voices, until some progress is made. Then commence to practise the muffled voice until the audience are satisfied that it is done tolerably well, for the operator cannot judge of the effect it is producing save by experience. The voice may now be changed until the second voice is marked by some distinguishing characteristic, such as bass, alto, gruff, or speaking. Then the distant voice may be tried, to be modulated as before as success is attained.

A well-known ventriloquist used to make some excellent effects by speaking with a closed mouth when drawing an inspiration, instead of the usual method of speaking during the expiration of the breath.

We will suppose a ventriloquist about to give an illustration of his art. He first takes care that none of his audience are between the line of his mouth and the spot from which the sound appears to proceed. Thus the simplest cause of ventriloquial effect is produced by standing with your back to the audience and your face to the door. With closed jaws you direct a muffled voice against the door. The sound which reaches the ears of the audience is a voice apparently outside the door, but in reality it is an echo of the artificial voice only. Take a simple example. You knock at the door, and in your natural voice you inquire if anyone is there. Assuming the muffled tone, you say that “it’s a friend,” and then inquire his name and business. The answers being given, you slightly open the door and the corner of your lips at the same time, and then the voice loses its muffled tone, and appears more distinct as it comes closer. The deception is more difficult to maintain, and the ventriloquist suddenly turns round and shows that the voice is in reality a mere shade.

If we try the ceiling voice, or the familiar “man on the roof,” we should use the upper notes, and reserve the lower notes for the “man in the cellar.” In either of these illusions the lips should not be opened at all. The modulation of tones should be managed in the larynx, by the action of the tongue only, unless the voice is supposed to come down the chimney into the room. In either case the mouth should be turned to the place from whence the sound is supposed to proceed; and when speaking in his natural tones, the performer should address himself directly to the audience; always using appropriate gestures to signify the ascent or descent of the owner of the fictitious voice.

These two voices are in reality the only true ventriloquial voices. The variation of tone and accent depends more on the organs of imitation than on true ventriloquism, though when both arts are combined the effect is so much enhanced as to become perfectly marvellous. One of the simplest sounds to produce is that of the humming-bee, wasp, or bluebottle fly. The first sound is produced in the chest, the latter by the lips. It is always well to attempt to catch the insect after it has indicated its presence. This enables the sound to be raised in tone, and occasionally muffled when the offending suppositious insect is inclosed in the handkerchief.

The imitation of a knife-grinder is easily done, the grinding being produced by a sharp hissing sound through the teeth, and the “buffing” or polishing, by gently closing the lips and drawing the breath through them until they vibrate--a not uncommon schoolboy accomplishment. The sawing of wood, the frying of a pancake, the uncorking of a bottle, and the gurgling noise of pouring out the liquid, may all be successfully imitated; but these are much less striking and ingenious than true ventriloquism.

PUZZLES.

1. THE DIVIDED GARDEN.

A person let his house to several inmates, who occupied different floors, and having a garden attached to the house, he was desirous of dividing it among them. There were ten trees in the garden, and he was desirous of dividing it so that each of the five inmates should have an equal share of garden and two trees. How did he do it?

2. THE VERTICAL LINE PUZZLE.

Draw six vertical lines, as below, and, by adding five other lines to them, let the whole form nine.

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3. THE CARDBOARD PUZZLE.

Take a piece of cardboard or leather, of the shape and measurement indicated by the diagram, cut it in such a manner that you yourself may pass through it, still keeping it in one piece.

4. THE BUTTON PUZZLE.

In the centre of a piece of leather make two parallel cuts with a penknife, and just below a small hole of the same width; then pass a piece of string under the slit and through the hole, as in the figure, and tie two buttons much larger than the hole to the ends of the string. The puzzle is, to get the string out again without taking off the buttons.

5. THE CIRCLE PUZZLE.

Get a piece of cardboard, the size and shape of the diagram, and punch in it twelve circles or holes in the position shown. The puzzle is, to cut the cardboard into four pieces of equal size, each piece to be of the same shape, and to contain three circles, without cutting into any of them.

6. THE CROSS PUZZLE.

Cut three pieces of paper to the shape of No. 1, one to the shape of No. 2, and one to that of No. 3. Let them be of proportional sizes. Then place the pieces together so as to form a cross.

7. THREE-SQUARE PUZZLE.

Cut seventeen slips of cardboard of equal lengths, and place them on a table to form six squares, as in the diagram. It is now required to take away five of the pieces, yet to leave but three perfect squares.

8. CYLINDER PUZZLE.

Cut a piece of cardboard about four inches long, of the shape of the diagram, and make three holes in it as represented. The puzzle is, to make one piece of wood pass through, and also exactly to fill, each of the three holes.

9. THE NUNS.

Twenty-four nuns were arranged in a convent by night by a sister, to count nine each way, as in the diagram. Four of them went out for a walk by moonlight. How were the remainder placed in the square so as still to count nine each way? The four who went out returned, bringing with them four friends; how were they all placed still to count nine each way, and thus to deceive the sister, as to whether there were 20, 24, 28, or 32, in the square?

10. THE DOG PUZZLE.

The dogs are, by placing two lines upon them, to be suddenly aroused to life and made to run. Query, How and where should these lines be placed, and what should be the forms of them?

11. CUTTING OUT A CROSS.

How can be cut out of a single piece of paper, and with one cut of the scissors, a perfect cross, and all the other forms as shown in the cuts?

12. ANOTHER CROSS PUZZLE.

With three pieces of cardboard of the shape and size of No. 1, and one each of No. 2 and 3, to form a cross.

13. THE FOUNTAIN PUZZLE.

A is a wall, B C D three houses, and E F G three fountains or canals It is required to bring the water from E to D, from G to B, and from F to C, without one crossing the other, or passing outside of the wall A.

14. THE CABINET-MAKER’S PUZZLE.

A cabinet-maker had a circular piece of veneering, with which he has to veneer the tops of two oval stools; but it so happens that the area of the stools, exclusive of the hand-holes in the centre, and the circular piece, are the same, (as that of the circle.) How must he cut his stuff so as to be exactly sufficient for his purpose?

15. THE STRING AND BALLS PUZZLE.

Get an oblong strip of wood or ivory, and bore three holes in it, as shown in the cut. Then take a piece of twine, passing the two ends through the holes at the extremities, fastening them with a knot, and thread upon it two beads or rings, as depicted above. The puzzle is to get both beads on the same side, without removing the string from the holes, or untying the knots.

16. THE DOUBLE-HEADED PUZZLE.

Cut a circular piece of wood as in the cut No. 1, and four others, like No. 2. The puzzle consists in getting them all into the cross-shaped slit, until they look like Fig. 3.

17. THE ROW OF HALFPENCE.

Place ten halfpence in a row on the table. Then take up one of them and place it on another, never in any case passing over more than a penny (that is to say, two halfpence). Repeat the operation until no halfpenny remains by itself in the row.

18. TYPOGRAPHICAL ADVICE.

You are to read the following directions:--

If your B m t put :

When your IS . putting :

19. THE LANDLORD MADE TO PAY.

A well-known miser once invited his tenants to dinner at an inn, and to the surprise of the landlord, asked him to join the party. When the bill was brought in, the miser proposed that they should cast lots who should pay the whole score for the twenty-one persons who had dined. It was agreed that they should be counted by the days of the week, and that every time the counter called “Saturday,” the person so named should leave the room until there was only one man left, and he should be paymaster. How did the miser contrive to throw the expense on the landlord?

20. FATHER AND SON.

An old country squire planted a number of oaks when his son was born, and on the twenty-seventh birthday of the young man there was a tree for every year, and yet though there were only 27 trees, there were ten rows and six trees in each row, which made sixty, the age of the squire himself. How did he manage it?

ANSWERS TO PUZZLES.

1. THE DIVIDED GARDEN ANSWER.

2. ANSWER TO VERTICAL LINE PUZZLE.

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3. ANSWER TO CUT CARD PUZZLE.

Double the cardboard or leather lengthways down the middle, and then cut first to the right, nearly to the end (the narrow way), and then to the left, and so on to the end of the card; then open it and cut down the middle, except the two ends. The diagram shows the proper cuttings. By opening the card or leather, a person may pass through it. A laurel leaf may be treated in the same manner.

4. ANSWER TO THE BUTTON PUZZLE.

Draw the narrow slip of the leather through the hole, and the string and buttons may be easily released.

5. ANSWER TO THE CIRCLE PUZZLE.

6. ANSWER TO THE CROSS PUZZLE.

7. ANSWER TO THE THREE-SQUARE PUZZLE.

Take away the pieces numbered 8, 10, 1, 3, 13, and three squares only will remain.

ANSWER TO NO. 8.

Take a round cylinder of the diameter of the circular hole, and of the height of the square hole. Having drawn a straight line across the end, dividing it into two equal parts, cut an equal section from either side to the edge of the circular base, a figure like that represented by the woodcut in the margin would then be produced, which would fulfil the required conditions.

9. ANSWER TO THE NUNS’ PUZZLE.

10. THE DOGS’ PUZZLE ANSWERED, SEE DOTTED LINES

11. ANSWER TO CUTTING OUT A CROSS PUZZLE.

Take a piece of writing paper about three times as long as it is broad, say six inches long and two wide. Fold the upper corner down, as shown in Fig. 1; then fold the other upper corner over the first, and it will appear as in Fig. 2; you next fold the paper in half lengthwise, and it will appear as in Fig. 3. Then the last fold is made lengthwise also, in the middle of the paper, and it will exhibit the form of Fig. 4, which, when cut through with the scissors in the direction of the dotted line, will give all the forms mentioned.

12. ANSWER TO ANOTHER CROSS PUZZLE.

13. ANSWER TO THE FOUNTAIN PUZZLE.

14. ANSWER TO THE CABINET-MAKER’S PUZZLE.

The cabinet-maker must find the centre of the circle, and strike another circle, half the diameter of the first, and having the same centre. Then cut the whole into four parts, by means of two lines drawn at right angles to each other, then cut along the inner circle, and put the pieces together as in the above diagram.

15. ANSWER TO THE STRING AND BALLS PUZZLE.

Draw the loop well down, slipping either ball through it. Push it through the hole at the extremities, pass it over the knot, and draw it through again. The same process must be repeated with the other ball; the loop can then be drawn through the hole in the centre, and the ball will slide along the cord until it reaches the other side. The string is then replaced, having both balls on the same side.

This plan of passing the loop over the knot is a key to all the puzzles of this nature.

There is another and perhaps a neater way of performing this trick. Draw the loop through the central hole, and bring it through far enough to pass one of the balls through. Having done this, draw the string back, and both balls will be found on the same side.

16. ANSWER TO THE DOUBLE-HEADED PUZZLE.

Arrange them side by side in the short arms of the cross, draw out the centre piece, and the rest will follow easily. The reversal of the same process will put them back again.

17. THE ROW OF HALFPENCE.

To perform this trick successfully, you must place the fourth on the first, seventh on the third, fifth upon the ninth, the second upon the sixth, and the eighth upon the tenth.

18. TYPOGRAPHICAL PUZZLE.

This puzzle should be read thus:--

If your grate be (great B) empty, put coal on.

When your grate is (great IS) full, stop putting coal on.

19. THE LANDLORD MADE TO PAY.

The counting, which stopped at every seventh man, was made to begin at the sixth from the landlord, who sat at the end of the table.

20. FATHER AND SON.

The trees were planted in this form:--

Under this head we describe those shows which may be exhibited by any ingenious youth for the amusement of a large circle of friends. Parents frequently employ the itinerant Punch-and-Judy man to astonish and delight a juvenile party with his comical puppets; and we are convinced that they act wisely, as children of all ages enjoy nothing so much as a good show. The reader, by following our directions, may exhibit the freaks of Punch and Judy, the dancing figures of the Fantoccini, the grotesque shadows of the Gallanty Show; in fine, he may become quite an expert showman.

By following our directions, the reader may, with comparatively little trouble, construct some comical puppets, and acquire sufficient skill in working them, to give private representations of the celebrated drama of “Punch and Judy,” which never fails to excite the laughter of old and young.

In carving the heads of the puppets, the ingenuity of the reader will be most severely taxed. Each head must be fashioned out of a piece of soft wood, with a sharp penknife, and then painted with oil colours. An old wooden doll will be a capital model for the reader to work from, only he must cut much deeper, in order to make the features of his puppets sufficiently prominent. Punch’s nose and chin may be formed of separate pieces of wood, and then fastened on to the face with a little glue. Our artist has drawn a full-length figure of Punch (see next page), and the faces of the other characters in the drama--namely, 1. Judy; 2. Beadle; 3. Foreigner; 4. Ghost; 5. Doctor; 6. Clown; 7. Jones; 8. Hangman. The carver should study these illustrations attentively, and endeavour to imitate them. The eyes of the Ghost are two black beads, which may be fixed by pins, or loosely attached by short pieces of thread, so that they may roll about in their saucer-like sockets. The eyes of the other puppets may be formed of white beads, fixed by black-headed pins in small cavities made to receive them. The hair and beard of the Foreigner, and the Clown’s three tufts, may be made of any kind of fur; the Hangman’s wig, and the Doctor’s scanty locks, of worsted. Each head should be about the size of an ordinary hen’s egg, and should have a hole made at the bottom, large enough to receive the tip of the showman’s finger.

Punch is the only puppet that exhibits his legs to the audience, and therefore the only one requiring lower limbs; these legs, as well as the hands of all the characters, are to be cut out of wood and painted.

The cloth figures of the puppets must be so constructed, that the exhibitor can easily slip them over his hand and wrist; to these hollow bodies the heads and hands are to be securely fastened with a little glue, or some small tacks. Punch’s figure may be formed of red merino, or any other gay-coloured stuff; the “goodly hunch” and prominent stomach must not be forgotten; these important appendages may be stuffed with cotton or tow. Judy’s dress may be made of cotton print; the Beadle’s, of blue cloth, edged with gold lace; the Foreigner’s, of almost any kind of stuff; the Doctor’s, of black cloth; and the dresses of Jones and the Hangman, of any sober-coloured stuffs. The Ghost must be enveloped in a long white linen gown; and the popular favourite, the Clown, must be arrayed in the true pantomimic style. In constructing the dresses, the reader will have his patience sorely tried, unless he can persuade a few young ladies to aid him with their nimble fingers.

Motion is given to each of the puppets by the showman’s hand, the forefinger of which moves the head, while the thumb and second finger work the two arms; the annexed engraving will elucidate this operation.

We have not yet alluded to two important characters in the drama--namely, the Baby and the eccentric dog Toby. Any little doll may be dressed in long-clothes to represent the Baby, so the reader may be spared the trouble of carving another head. The part of Toby is generally filled by a living performer, but as we do not suppose the reader to be the owner of a properly-trained cur, we recommend him to procure one of those barking or squeaking dogs which are sold at the toy-shops; with such a Toby, the fun of the piece will be increased rather than diminished.

Punch’s stick must be about a foot long, and quite half an inch thick; it must be formed of tough wood, as some rough work is performed with it during the progress of the drama. The gallows must be of the letter [F] form, and must have two holes bored through the end of the projecting beam; the cord having been knotted at one end, is to be passed through each hole.

Having described the puppets, we will now say a few words about the show in which they are to be exhibited. The dingy curtains which conceal the street performer of Punch, are supported by a tall rectangular frame of wood, which the reader could not imitate without considerable labour and some knowledge of carpentry. The show we recommend is simply a box about three feet square, open in front and at bottom; this is hung upon nails against the wall, above the head of the amateur showman, who is hidden from view by curtains which reach from the box to the floor. The box may be a large tea-chest inverted, with the lid and one of its sides removed. The inside of the box should be hung with green-baize, or any other dark-coloured stuff. A proscenium cut out of pasteboard, and tastefully painted, should be fastened in front of the box, so as to conceal the unsightly edges of the wood. A shelf of wood about four inches wide should project beyond the proscenium, so as to form a little stage upon which Punch may drum his legs, lay down his stick, and place the dead bodies of his victims; this shelf may be fixed by screws passing through the two sides of the box.

During the performance the puppets must be kept in an open box hanging against the wall within reach of the showman.

The reader having prepared everything, should learn the drama, and practise the different voices which he intends to give to the different characters. He will probably be some time before he can acquire the peculiar squeak of Punch, which is generally supposed to be produced by an instrument called a “squeaker.” With none of squeakers we have seen could any distinct words be uttered, and we therefore recommend the reader to trust to his own powers of mimicry. With regard to the musical accompaniments, the amateur showman should get some kind sister or cousin to sit at the piano, the notes of which are much more pleasing than those of the Pandean pipes and drum.

About sixty years ago, a puppet-show was exhibited at the west-end of London, with the Italian title of Fantoccini, which greatly attracted the notice of the public, and was spoken of as an extraordinary performance; it was, however, nothing more than a revival of the old puppet-show, which drew crowded and fashionable audiences during the reign of Queen Anne, and rivalled the more pompous exhibitions of the larger theatres. In the present day Fantoccini are exhibited in the open streets by the itinerant showman, whose ragged coat and battered hat show how puppets have fallen in the estimation of the fashionable public.

Any ingenious youth may amuse and astonish a large circle of friends with an exhibition of dancing puppets, as the different figures are not difficult to construct, and their motions are very easily managed. The puppets may be common wooden dolls dressed up in appropriate costumes. The arms and legs are to be loosely attached to the bodies, so that they may be moved about in any direction by threads fastened to their extremities. These threads may be formed of black sewing-silk, or strong black cotton. All the threads proceeding from the different limbs and joints of a puppet are to be attached to a stick in such a manner as to allow the figure to stand in a natural attitude; the annexed engraving shows two puppets thus supported.

The puppet-show may be formed in the following simple manner:--Take a tall, three-sided clothes-horse, and place its outer edges against the wall so that it may inclose a square space; then hang curtains or shawls over the horse, leaving no part uncovered except a rectangular space close to the floor in front; to this opening you may, if you think proper, fix a painted proscenium. Now place a small towel-horse, hung with black stuff, at the distance of a foot behind the proscenium, to serve as a background to the stage, and to conceal your legs while you are engaged in working the puppets: having done this, lay down a little green-baize carpet on that part of the floor which represents the stage, and your puppet-show will be complete. The puppets may be illuminated by candles placed on the floor in front of the proscenium. The spectators are to be stationed as far from the show as possible, so that they may not perceive the threads.

The performer takes his seat behind the small horse, and holding the stick to which the threads are fastened in his left hand, he manages the motions of the puppet with the fingers of his right hand. When the motions are very complicated, the showman may attach the stick to a string hanging from a rod placed across the top of the show, and employ the fingers of both hands in working the figure. With very little practice the amateur puppet-man may acquire great proficiency in the art of giving lifelike movements to the dolls.

The reader may dress up his puppets in any fancy costumes, but he must endeavour to give to each its appropriate action. The following characters may perhaps be allowed to figure in his Fantoccini:--

THE SAILOR.

This puppet, which is represented in our illustration, is a popular favourite. The doll should have whiskers of Berlin wool glued on its cheeks, and a trim black silk pigtail attached to the back of the head. It is to be dressed in the conventional naval costume, namely, a blue jacket, loose white trousers, and a straw hat. On its entrance it should be made to bow to the audience in a characteristic manner, by inclining its body and kicking one leg behind it. The Sailor’s Hornpipe is then to be struck up by the pianist, and the puppet made to dance to the music. If the showman can manage six strings at once, two threads, not shown in our illustration, may be attached to the knees.

THE JUGGLER

May be dressed in a fanciful Eastern costume; a string is to be attached to the head, and another to each of the hands. A gilded ball, having a hole pierced through it, is strung on each hand-thread, and to each ball a fine silken thread is attached. Our illustration shows how the five threads are to be attached to the supporting-stick. A little practice will enable the showman to work this puppet so dexterously that the spectators will be fairly puzzled to tell how the rapid tossing and catching of the balls is managed.

THE HEADLESS MAN.

This puppet may be dressed according to the reader’s fancy; its head is not fastened to the body, but is strung on a thread attached to the neck. When the showman has made the doll dance for a short time, he pulls the head from the body by means of a thread fastened to it, and makes the headless puppet dance on as if nothing had happened.

THE MILKWOMAN.

A puppet, dressed like a woman with a yoke of milkcans, makes its appearance and performs a country jig. Before the dance is concluded a little white doll jumps out of each can. The milkwoman tries to catch the dolls, but they fly out of sight. The trick is easily managed; to the head of each little doll is fastened a thread, which the showman pulls at the proper time. The yoke may be cut out of a piece of soft deal, and the cans may be made of pasteboard covered with tinfoil.

POSTAGE STAMP COLLECTING, OR PHILATELY.

Our young readers may vainly turn over the pages of any existing dictionary to find the scientific alias of the heading of this article. We trust the omission will be soon supplied, Philately, or Postage Stamp Collecting, having reached the dignity of a recognised science.

The word is the English rendering of the French term Philatélie, bestowed by a distinguished Parisian amateur in substitution for what was called timbromania, the latter portion of which word caused an unpleasant association of ideas, and gave rise to many a sneer from the wiseacres who had not sense enough to understand the real utility of the pastime. It is derived from the Greek φιλος and ὰτέλεια, the nearest equivalent traceable in classical lore to a modern postage stamp.

To schoolboys in general be ascribed the honour of introducing the elegant and instructive fancy forming the subject of our dissertation. The young students of the college of Louvain in particular claim to have been the earliest collectors: thence the fancy spread over France and Germany, inoculating many an English pupil in continental seminaries, by whom it was transmitted home. Some Louvain scholars informed us last year that it had been long prohibited by the professors, as tending to induce inattention to their regular tasks! We think this a mistaken notion; convinced that a knowledge of geography, history, and the values of foreign coins is materially facilitated by the study of postage stamps; which, moreover, induces neatness, regularity, and a sure refuge from ennui on a rainy day. Before the reign of postage stamps, who ever heard of the obscure city whence emanates that unit of a strange set of five, engraved at page 759, or the equally mysterious Thurn and Taxis?

What can give a better idea of the chances and changes fewer than ten years have produced in the vast tract of land known as the Danubian Principalities, whose stamps are representatives of Moldavia alone, of Moldo-Wallachia united, and of the same countries resuming their ancient denomination of Roumania, first under Prince Couza, now under Prince Charles of Hohenzollern?

At the head of this paper is a reprint of an engraving taken from an old work on ancient and modern posts, printed at Paris in 1708. It portrays the various methods of transmitting news in use before the present almost universal system. The left-hand tower bears a lighted beacon; on the top of the right and central towers are men supposed to be shouting messages to be passed onwards from place to place, in the way some of our young classical scholars will remember is mentioned by Cæsar, book vii. chapter 3. The carrier pigeon above, and the dog in the foreground, represent other well-known modes. The former was, and still is, common in the East, and by no means disused here in the case of races, prize-fights, &c.; the latter was employed by the Portuguese during their East Indian conquests, and has been used until a late period by the Peruvians and other Americans.

An early anticipation of the modern post-paid envelope is still in existence, appropriately addressed to the celebrated authoress of “Cyrus the Great,” the originator of ἄγγαρα (angara), or posting-stations; but, strange to say, Persia, the earliest postal pioneer, has not yet adopted the stamp system, though essays have been submitted to the State.

The Californian Pony Expresses, and the earliest emission of Buenos Aires, are exemplars of this primitive way of communication. The last-named stamp has been supposed merely an essay; but we have seen it post-marked. A modification of the same is the Humboldt Express of Langton and Co. and a sort of travestie, the United States local of D. O. Blood.

Other methods of transmitting correspondence, &c. are typified by the sailing vessels of British Guiana, the steamers on the extinct stamps of Buenos Aires, and the Pacific Steam Navigation Company; those of La Guaira and the Russian for the Levant sea-ports. An American idea, even too go-ahead for the reckless Yankees, for we cannot hear that it was ever put in practice, is also here embodied.

Nearly two centuries after the plan was broached in Paris appeared the well-known absurd Mulready envelope, an extraordinary evidence of official vagaries, that such an abortion should have received preference over hundreds of essays, of which the cut pictures by no means the best!

The current envelopes for Great Britain, simple and compound, comprising every value from one penny to one shilling and sixpence, excepting only elevenpence and one shilling and fivepence, are certainly perfection; but are so little known or used that few are aware of other than the penny ones. We think our undeservedly vaunted penny label far surpassed in its own style by that of the islands of Antigua or St. Vincent, and the St. Kitt’s essay here given.

In the third year after the introduction of postal labels in Great Britain, the canton of Zurich would appear to have entertained the idea of imitating our example, the wonderfully rare if not unique pair of essays bearing the date of 1843 testifying visibly to that intention. Brazil, however, in the same year actually produced its first set, and is entitled to all the merit of seconding this marvellously successful move of ours. This was the large figure series, continued in the same style till those lately superseded, of which the red 280 and the yellow 430 reis alone remain in use.

Although the Zurich above alluded to was never in circulation, a pair something like it was so, either in the same or following year. The canton of Geneva next followed the lead. One of its stamps is unique on account of the custom of dividing it when but half value was needed.

The canton of Basle next joined the philatelic ranks, followed after three years’ interval by Vaud and Neufchatel. A twelvemonth previously our transatlantic brethren in the United States started the 5 cents bronze bearing the head of Franklin, and the large 10 cents with that of Washington.

In the same year (1847) a decree for the adoption of postage stamps in Belgium was made, which was carried into effect a year and a half afterwards. Six months in advance appeared the beautifully engraved effigies of the French Republic; during the course of twenty years followed the counterfeit presentments of the Presidency, the uncircled, and the laurelled heads of the Emperor Napoleon.

The ensuing year witnessed emanations from Austria, Bavaria, Lombardo-Venetia, Prussia, Saxony, Sardinia, and the first of the interminable issues of Spain: also the long solitary pair recording the abortive insurrection of Schleswig Holstein in 1848-50. The postal representatives of Schleswig, of Holstein, and of the two States in combination, now number two dozen!

This succession of stamps will ever possess a strong historical interest in consequence of their country’s connexion with the startling events attendant on the continental convulsions of 1866. A similar value in relation to European annals, entitling them to the style and title of Paper Medals, must be laid on the now extinct hosts of Hanoverian labels and envelopes, with those of the defunct office of Thurn and Taxis, overwhelmed by the needle-guns of Prussia, after an existence of more than three hundred years.

An approximate idea of the number of postage stamps, current and extinct, may be obtained from the latest edition of any good catalogue. That of Oppen’s Album (10th edition) contains about 2,800 distinct individual stamps, but includes no varieties of colour other than those recognised by the most fastidiously disposed collectors, such as the light and dark blues of Thurn and Taxis, first issue; neither does it take much note of proofs or essays, or any of railway or local British labels, or of differences in watermark or mode of perforation; which latter variations are now considered important by the higher order of philatelists.

The stamp-issuing localities amount at present to 122, 51 being in Europe; of these no fewer than seven have enlisted within the past twelvemonths, viz. Servia, the Virgin Islands, Guatemala, Salvador (see p. 758), Heligoland, Breslau, and Turk’s Island. The latter is exquisitely engraved, but with the exception of the pink, the colours are execrable. The first two, and the Breslau local are appended.

Excluding the United States locals, whose name is legion, as well as those of Hamburg, most of which are spurious, the emissions of Spain count the highest. They amount to nearly ninety impressions for general postal purposes, besides several telegraphic and exclusively official issues. The later portraitures of Her Catholic Majesty, if correct, prove how very well she carries her age, with the assistance, perhaps, of some Spanish Madame Rachel. Compare one of the current set with those depicted at pages 759 and 767 and note the dates.

The United States of North America, and those of Colombia, or the Granadine Confederation, afford us each the liberal allowance of between fifty and sixty varieties in colour, device, or value: the stamps of the former country, which are usually models of choice engraving, bear almost invariably the heads of their worthies, such as the late President Lincoln, and General Thomas (Stonewall) Jackson.

The memory of the great Confederate struggle will be ever preserved by the postage stamps issued from various cities in the revolting States; such as Memphis, Baton Rouge, Mobile, Charleston, New Orleans, &c. These had fancy devices, but the features of Jefferson Davis and J. C. Calhoun will reach posterity on two of the Confederate issues. On one of them also figures “Hickory” Jackson, a hero of the war in 1812.

It is a singular fact that the illustrated postage stamp magazines, &c. are purchased by non-philatelic collectors for the purpose of cutting out the miniature portraits of celebrities, whose effigies are otherwise less conveniently attainable.

The palm of beauty will be assigned nem. con. to the current pair of Nova Scotia types. There are three of each, one representing the full front bust of our gracious Queen in state attire; the other Her Majesty’s profile: the former in scarlet, green, and black; the latter in lilac, blue, and black. Of these the pair of black are by far the most effective. One of them is more or less perfectly rendered by the Newfoundland 12 cents, and the South Australian two shilling, and fourpenny stamps; the other by the 24 cents of the former colony.

There are numerous other exquisite specimens of the engraver’s art to be found in a collection of postage stamps. The French republics, the Greek Mercuries, the Russian and Polish adhesives, and the Hong Kongs are admirable.

The current Saxons, Bavarians, all the Portuguese, and the lately emitted Heligolands are the best examples of the relief or cameo style: engravings of these give but a poor idea of the original. The same method of type is much less effective in the Prussians, Oldenburgs, Schleswigs and Holsteins; but radiates in full effulgence in the faultless envelopes of our own country, in those of Baden, Hanover, and the extinct Saxons and Prussians; with our colonials of Ceylon and the Mauritius.

The American Bank Note Company, we must perforce, most unpatriotically, admit to be unrivalled in plain engraving; of which the Nova Scotias, and some others noted above are instances: the trio of large newspaper and periodical labels issued last year in the United States, which bear the profiles of Washington, Franklin, and Lincoln respectively, and the Central-Fair locals too, are wellnigh perfection. The symbolical Newfoundlands are equally noteworthy.

To the same, or a branch firm, we believe ourselves indebted for the lovely landscapes of Guatemala, Nicaragua, Costa Rica, and Salvador.

The swans of Western Australia, repeated in such variety of colour, ever attract attention; as do the keys of Bremen, the castles of Hamburg, the compounds of mysterious Bergedorf, the eagles of Lubeck, the quaint emissions of the Argentine Confederation, and the crossed keys and tiara of the Papal States, after the eye is wearied by the incessant array of heads and armorial bearings exhibited by the majority of stamp-emitting countries.

The adhesives of the kingdoms once composing the Two Sicilies are both equally remarkable; that of Naples for its singularity, that of Sicily from its peculiar boldness of design and rich colouring.

The first stamps of Luxembourg, those of the Dutch East Indies, and Holland, exhibit marvellous variations in the portraiture of one and the same individual sovereign.

The marketable value of a postage stamp for collections does not, however, by any means, depend upon its beauty or deformity. The greater portion of the more attractive in appearance are purchasable at a very low figure: the most beautiful of all, the Nova Scotian black profile, can be had at its natal place for one cent, or an English halfpenny. The circular specimen of meagre ugliness below may be worth a couple of sovereigns, even when cancelled; a moderately well-stored juvenile album could be purchased for the price of an unused specimen, were such existing, which we strongly doubt. That of Romagna and the early Van Diemen’s Land are little better.

Some of the frightful libels on the august countenances of the Emperor Napoleon, the Queen of Spain, and our own Sovereign, fetch also exorbitant fancy prices. The French affair goes by the name of the Cayenne essay; possibly because its concoctor was, or at least, deserved to be, transported thither for his impudence. The Queens’ profiles on their colonial stamps for the Philippines and the Mauritius are mere caricatures.

Slight improvement on the British Guiana stamp is made by some of the Honolulu emissions; also the local Bavarian; the Bollo Straordinario of Tuscany; the 10 and 15 centimes à percevoir of France; and the Land Post trio of Baden. The latter have the advantage of being printed on yellow paper.

Some of the Sandwich Islands stamps, nevertheless, far outstrip the productions of some countries that were highly civilized long ere the full dress of one of their natives consisted of aught save a few beads. Portraits of the great, the late, and the regnant kings bearing the joint name of Kamehameha exist on stamps: the one given does but scant justice to its chastely designed original.

The French labels just alluded to are placed by the postal authorities on insufficiently paid letters. They are only surreptitiously purchasable at the post-offices, not being for public use; but this bit of red-tapeism is easily evaded for a con-sid-er-ation. Of similar character are the Bavarian before-mentioned, and the Italian segnatassa, figured above. A collector in Leghorn, unable to procure one of these latter, wrote a letter to himself without stamping it, expecting one of the then new labels to be affixed before delivery. Such was the case; but the letter lying on the hall-table, a friend of ours innocently abstracted the stamp and inclosed it to ourselves as the last new postal curiosity.

Besides such slightly abnormal deviations from the general run of postage stamps, may be enumerated the “too late” label formerly used by the colony of Victoria, now particularly recherché by philatelists, especially in an uncancelled state. This individual is unique in its application; but there are several impressions exclusively devoted to the registration of letters. Those of Victoria, New South Wales, and Queensland (like the cut, but the word “registered” substituted for the value) are well known; and the recently emitted Prussians, one of which is given on the next page, are of somewhat kindred nature.

The quaint centre device is an offshoot from that fertile field for philatelists, New Granada, alias the United States of Columbia; the R standing for registrados (registered).

Besides strictly governmental issues, many private firms and individuals have been tacitly allowed to issue postage stamps, more or less partaking of the character of regular official emanations. Such are those of the United States, amounting to upwards of five hundred; some of which, though catalogued, never did duty, and were only concocted for sale. They are now, we believe, all extinct. Some of them are represented on previous pages. The City of Hamburg has produced upwards of a hundred, of which the greater part are impostors. An unimpeached one will be found depicted farther on.

The pages devoted to the U. S. locals by those who collect them, present a most varied and extraordinary appearance, from the endless varieties of device and colour employed. Profiles, busts, figures of men and animals, numerals, plain inscriptions, symbolical and allegorical representations meet the eye, varied with all the colours in and out of the rainbow.

Dresden, Breslau, Montreal, Shanghai, Constantinople, Edinburgh, Glasgow, and London, also contribute their quota towards the ranks of locals. These are all emissions of private firms: those of the third place mentioned are more than doubtful; the latter are now prohibited by law.

To these may be added those of Throndhjems (Drontheim), Tammerfors, Helsingfors, with the Levant, Danubian, and Pacific Steam Companies. The legally authorised issues of Malta, the Danish West Indies, &c. and the very low values of continental stamps, may be likewise termed locals; not being available out of their own birthplace. The La Guairas, one of which is figured at page 754, must not be omitted from the list.

Still farther than the unaccredited locals from a strictly legitimate postal collection are the numerous labels issued by the several railroads. They amount to a considerable number altogether, ranging in value from one farthing to five shillings.

Many of the foreign telegraph stamps are extremely tasty, especially the Belgian and Spanish: these, however, are not usually admitted into collections. Still less are our own now disused “Customs” labels, which far exceed the postals in beauty; as do our receipt, bill, and legal adhesives, some of which are as high as 5_l._ or more in value.

The “needle-gun” war of 1866 introduced quite a novel genus of postage envelopes. They were employed in Prussia, Saxony, &c.; some for the use of civilians writing to their friends or relatives at camp; others for the exclusive service of the military. Some Brazilian youths, of more ingenuity than probity, concocted an imitation of these, and passed them off at a price among dealers and amateurs, as being employed for a similar purpose in the conflict between the Brazilians and Paraguayans.

The highest priced postage stamps were the once rare Pony Expresses (see page 753), one of which cost 4 dollars (16_s._ 8_d._) The 2 dollar one ranks next; then the five shilling of New South Wales, the Mauritius, and our own; the 96 cents of Hong Kong, the 8 reales of Mexico, the 90 cents of the United States, the 1 scudo of Rome, and the 25 piastres of Turkey. The Ceylons are the most numerous in varieties of value, having no fewer than thirteen, from one halfpenny to two shillings. From four to six is the average number of monetary denominations for the same country. Some have more, as Hong Kong, which counts ten. The United States have the same number, besides four additional values in envelopes. New South Wales has eight, and Victoria nine values. France has nine at present, but a higher priced stamp is announced. Liberia, Turk’s Island, and British Honduras have only three; Grenada, Nicaragua, British Columbia, and Antigua, issue but two; and Vancouver’s Island, Malta, Sierra Leone, and Corrientes, only one. The last-named locality, being a small province of the Argentine Republic, has issued the same die for two several values. It was originally marked un real, but this was subsequently erased, no designation of value appearing. Three centavos was then its price. It is impressed in black, on blue, as well as green paper. Like the New Caledonian, it was printed in sheets from a single block, each impression slightly differing.

This is one of the few exceptions to the rule of postage stamps bearing a facial value. The earlier issues of the Mauritius, Trinidad, and Barbadoes partake of the same defect, being distinguishable by colour only. The Ionian Islanders were in a like category: but the sole existing specimens of this inconvenience are the halfpenny and penny Barbadians, and the whole set of St. Lucias.

The result of this is, that the values of more than one of the early stamps of the Mauritius are still a subject of debate among some erudite philatelists. One of these stamps is sometimes found endorsed with “eightpence” in black letters, another with “fourpence.” This clumsy method is even yet being adopted in a few instances, we suppose to save the expense of a new plate. The original sixpenny of St. Helena is printed in three different colours besides its own blue, and does duty in green, carmine, and red, cruelly tattooed with printed characters according to the stated value. The ninepenny of South Australia, doffing its modest hue for a bright orange, hand-stamped with black, is worth a penny more than heretofore. In like manner, the Italian government, wishing to put the screw on its faithful subjects, raised the tariff on home letters from 15 to 20 centesimi, and barred out the original value. The provisional East Indian may be joined to this uncomely group of disfigured identities, as also the newly emitted set for Singapore.

The impressions of Nevis; those now current of the Cape of Good Hope; and what are termed the Sydney stamps of New South Wales, are elegantly symbolical of their respective localities.

The adhesives of British Columbia, Sierra Leone, and British Honduras, claim a very high rank for elegance of design and correctness of execution among our colonials. The extinct shilling stamp of Victoria may worthily dispute with its lately superseded sixpenny the unenviable distinction of ugliness.

Excluding the railway stamps, and the United States newspaper labels, Liberia produces the largest stamps; Mecklenberg Schwerin and Brunswick the smallest. The latter two countries present the singularity of allowing the four small stamps to be used singly or in combination.

The inscriptions on stamps being of course in the language of their native country, many impressions necessarily bear a particularly quaint appearance; as those of Egypt, Turkey, Cashmeer, Shanghai, Poland, Moldavia (see page 765), and Servia (see p. 756). The early emission of the Argentine Confederation is also an oddity.

The shapes of postage stamps present but little variation; a very large majority being more or less unequally sided rectangles. Few are perfectly square. The set of Bergedorf, and the disused Danish and Thurn and Taxis adhesives are instances, the former showing the further peculiarity of different sizes in regular gradation according to value. The impressions run sometimes on upright, sometimes on oblong rectangles. The narrowest of the latter is one of those of Wells, Fargo, and Co.; of the former, a very rare English essay, too elaborate for description.

Some few are octagonal, more or less irregular; some oval; some perfectly round; some indescribable, as the one-and-ninepenny Ceylon; and the ninepenny envelope of the Mauritius. The earlier emissions of Nova Scotia and New Brunswick were printed in such a way as to render the stamp lozenge-shaped.

A small minority are triangular; the superseded stamps of the Cape of Good Hope, a solitary type of Newfoundland, and one of New Granada, are the only ones we can recollect ever seeing, except a black Austrian newspaper adhesive. The Langton local is unique in form.

Many stamps have been issued exclusively for newspapers, feuilletons, and printed matter in general, such as some Austrian and Venetian impressions. The B. G. and tassa gazzette of Modena, the 6 c. and 9 centesimi of Parma, and others, were of like nature; as are the lower priced French, Italians, and Belgians. That of Frankfort is not adhesive, but hand-stamped, like those on our own newspapers, and is by some considered inadmissible in strictly postal collections.

The returned letter stamps must not pass unmentioned. That of Wurtemberg was long “alone in its glory;” but Munich, Augsburg, Nuremberg, and other Bavarian cities, have lately adopted them. Those forming the seal on returned letters in our own country are collected by some amateurs.

The enormous accumulation of proofs and essays, all which are ignored by many philatelists, are not to be lightly rejected. The former are certainly articles de luxe or fantaisie, being simply veritable stamps printed in abnormal colours, as some of the United States, &c. Of the latter are three sorts--those by authorisation; those proposed by enterprising individuals to various governments; and those invented for sale to entrap the unwary.

The best, as in the case of England, were not always chosen: look at the essay of Pellas the Genoese, and admire Italian discrimination--if you can. The Sicilian, on the other hand, is indubitably inferior to the adopted design. In the centre lies the audacious offspring of the Fenian rebellion.

Several essays proposed for Governments which have not yet instituted the postage stamp system, are surpassingly beautiful in device and execution. Those by M. Riester, of Paris, are particularly elegant, Bolivia for example. The Poisson d’Avril (April Fool) stamp is a curiosity in philatelic lore; it was gravely chronicled as emanating from Moresnet, and deceived the very knowing ones. (See cut at foot of next page.)

The longest reign in postal annals is twelve years; the defunct Dutch having lasted that period. Of the Spanish sets only two have outlived a twelvemonth unchanged. The 1 franc of the French empire, and the first issue of Schleswig-Holstein (see p. 755), were current rather more, the 25 centimes of the Empire and the Italian (represented below) less than a year. The ½ tornese, Neapolitan arms, and the same transmogrified into the Cross of Savoy, endured each about a month. The ½ schilling violet, and 3 sch. rose of Bergedorf, were a nine days’ wonder.

Among the notabilities of a choice postage-stamp collection may be chronicled the Connel essay. A New Brunswick postmaster of that name took the liberty of having his own physiognomy transferred to a sheet of postage stamps;--the result was his resignation. The tenpenny above depicted is unique, and was long supposed to be from Van Diemen’s Land; but we rather believe it an English essay.

The space allowed us compels an abrupt conclusion. We had intended touching on the eight various distinct modes of perforation, besides variations; and the distinguishing watermarks of various issues. We should also have liked to describe the amusing and exciting humours of ‘Change, which many of our readers may remember witnessing in Lombard Street and its neighbourhood, or in the gardens of the Luxembourg and the Tuileries in Paris, during the early days of stamp-collecting; but we trust enough has been written to excite the interest of many who have purchased this volume on other accounts, yet may thus be induced to become votaries to the interesting and instructive pursuit of Philately.

TINSELLING.

Should the reader feel inclined to try his hand at tinselling, he must procure one of those full-length theatrical portraits that are sold at the shops for a penny each. He ought to select one of the best-known figures, as he will then have no difficulty in procuring the embossed gold and silver work with which it is to be adorned. The whole figure must be carefully painted with water-colours, and the artist should take pains with those parts which are not intended to be covered or cut away. Having finished the preliminary operation of colouring, the artist should neatly cut away those parts of the engraving which represent drapery, and place under the spaces thus formed, satin, silk, or velvet of the proper colour, which may be secured to the back of the picture with a little gum.

Many tinsellers employ regular print-colourers to shade their silks and satins, but we strongly advise the reader to trust to his own abilities, and boldly set work to indicate the folds of the drapery by proper shadows. The pieces cut out of the engraving will show him where the different shadows ought to fall, and as for the colours to be used, we may state as a general rule that silk, satin, or velvet of a certain colour ought to be shaded with darker tints of the same colour. Gum-water should be mixed with the colours used in shading, to prevent them running when applied to the woven fabric.

The artist may now proceed to the work of tinselling, which consists in gumming little spangles and embossed ornaments over certain parts of the picture. Every piece of armour, every button, every jewel, and every weapon, should be represented in embossed work. All the pieces required for tinselling a figure may be purchased at the proper shops. In the figure of the warrior, the breastplate, shield, sword, and jewels would have to be formed of pieces of gilt or silver paper cut and stamped into proper shapes and patterns. The price of each piece of embossed work depends of course upon its size or elaborateness. When the picture is finished, it should be mounted on fine card-board, and placed in a neat frame.

THE AMERICAN GAME OF BASE-BALL.

The national game of ball of the American people, though having its origin in the English game of rounders, nevertheless possesses sufficiently marked features to entitle it to the distinction claimed for it. Unlike the schoolboy pastime from which it originated, it requires manly qualities in a high degree to excel in it. In fact, the difference between base-ball as played in America, and rounders as played in England, is as great as the contrast between the graceful and daring movements of an accomplished skater of the present time, and those of the skaters who, with pieces of ivory fastened to their feet, used to strive to glide over the ice in the year 1600. In base-ball, as in rounders, you use a bat and a ball and run round bases; but there all resemblance ceases.

The American game of base-ball, as now played, is not more than ten years old, for its date only extends back to the period just previous to the organization of the National Association of Base-Ball Players, which Association formed the present code of rules, and is the only authorized body having any supervisory power over the game. In fact, the history of the game commences with the formation of the National Association, inasmuch as the rules previously in vogue were crude and irregular, and different in one locality from what they were in another. Since the organization of the National Association and the meeting of the first annual convention, however, the game has spread throughout the country, and entirely superseded every other game of ball as a national pastime. At first the Association consisted of delegates from clubs, but now it is composed of a congregation of representatives from State base-ball associations, governed by the National Association proper, each State association having immediate control of the affairs of its own clubs, and possessing its own judiciary committee to settle disputes, but no supervisory control over the playing rules of the game, that matter being placed in the hands of a committee of rules of the parent Association, to which is also attached a judiciary committee, forming a court of appeal from the decisions of State judiciary committees, and also a court to adjudicate upon disputes between clubs of two States.

At the last convention of the “National Association of Base-Ball Players,” which was held in Philadelphia, Dec. 11, 1867, and in which clubs from all sections of the country, from Maine to Iowa, and Michigan to Kentucky, were represented, the following code of rules was adopted to govern the play during the season of 1868:--

RULES AND REGULATIONS

ADOPTED BY THE NATIONAL ASSOCIATION OF BASE-BALL PLAYERS.

RULE I.--THE BALL, BAT, AND BASES.

SEC. 1. The ball must weigh not less than five, nor more than five and one-quarter, ounces avoirdupois. It must measure not less than nine and one-quarter, nor more than nine and one-half, inches in circumference. It must be composed of india-rubber and yarn, and covered with leather, and, in all match games, shall be furnished by the challenging club, and become the property of the winning club as a trophy of victory.

SEC. 2. The bat must be round, and must not exceed two and a half inches in diameter in the thickest part. It must be made of wood, and shall not exceed forty-two inches in length.

SEC. 3. The bases must be four in number, placed at equal distances from each other, and securely fastened upon each corner of a square whose sides are respectively thirty yards. They must be so constructed and placed as to be distinctly seen by the umpire, and must cover a space equal to one square foot of surface. The first, second, and third bases shall be canvas-bags, painted white, and filled with some soft material; the home base and pitcher’s points to be each marked by a flat plate, painted white.

SEC. 4. The base from which the ball is struck shall be designated the home base, and must be directly opposite to the second base; the first base must always be that upon the right-hand side, and the third base that upon the left-hand side of the striker, when occupying his position at the home base. And in all match games a line connecting the home and first base, and the home and third base, shall be marked by the use of chalk, or other suitable material, so as to be distinctly seen by the umpire. The base-bag shall be considered the base, and not the post to which it is, or should be, fastened.

RULE II.--THE PITCHING DEPARTMENT.

SEC. 1. The pitcher’s position shall be designated by two lines two yards in length, drawn at right angles to the line from the home to the second base, having their centres upon that line at two fixed iron plates, placed at points fifteen and sixteen and one-third yards distant from the home-base. The pitcher must stand within these lines, and must deliver the ball as near as possible over the centre of the home base, and fairly for the striker.

SEC. 2. Should the pitcher repeatedly fail to deliver to the striker fair balls, for the apparent purpose of delaying the game, or for any cause, the umpire, after warning him, shall call one ball, and if the pitcher persists in such action, two, and three balls; when three balls shall have been called, the striker shall take the first base; and should any base be occupied at that time each player occupying it or them shall take one base without being put out. All balls delivered by the pitcher, striking the ground in front of the home base, or pitched over the head of the batsman, or pitched to the side opposite to that which the batsman strikes from, shall be considered unfair balls.

SEC. 3. The ball must be pitched, not jerked or thrown, to the bat; and whenever the pitcher moves with the apparent purpose or pretension to deliver the ball, he shall so deliver it, and must have neither foot in advance of the front line at the time of delivering the ball; and if he fails in either of these particulars, then it shall be declared a balk. The ball shall be considered jerked, in the meaning of the rule, if the pitcher’s arm touches his person when the arm is swung forward to deliver the ball; and it shall be regarded as a throw, if the arm be bent at the elbow, at an angle from the body, or horizontally from the shoulder, when it is swung forward to deliver the ball.

SEC. 4. No player shall be put out on any hit ball on which a balk or a ball has been called; and neither shall a strike or a foul ball be called, or a base run on such a hit ball. But bases can be taken on third-“called” balls, and on “balked” balls, in accordance with Section 2 of Rule II.

RULE III.--THE BATTING DEPARTMENT.

SEC. 1. The striker, when about to strike the ball, must stand astride of a line drawn through the centre of the home base, not exceeding three feet from either side thereof, and parallel with the front line of the pitcher’s position, and he must not take any backward step when striking at the ball. The penalty for an infringement of this rule shall be the calling of one strike; and when three such strikes have been called, the striker shall be declared out. If a ball on which such a strike is called be hit and caught, either fair or foul, the striker shall be declared out. No base shall be run on any such called strike, and any player running the bases shall be allowed to return to the base he has left, without being put out. As soon as the striker has struck a fair ball, he shall be considered “a player running the bases.”

SEC. 2. Players must strike in regular rotation, and, after the first innings is played, the turn commences with the player who stands on the list next to the one who was the third player out.

SEC. 3. Should a striker stand at the bat without striking at fair balls, for the apparent purpose of delaying the game, or of giving advantage to a player, the umpire, after warning him, shall call one strike, and, if he persists in such action, two, and three strikes. When three strikes are called, and the ball be caught, either before touching the ground or upon the first bound, the striker shall be declared out, provided the balls struck at are not those on which balls or balks have been called, or not those struck at for the purpose of wilfully striking out. If three balls are struck at and missed, and the last one is not caught, either flying or upon the first bound, the striker must attempt to make his run, and he can be put out on the bases in the same manner as if he had struck a fair ball.

SEC. 4. The striker is out if a foul ball is caught, either before touching the ground or upon the first bound; or if a fair ball is struck, and the ball be held before touching the ground; or if a fair ball is struck, and the ball be held by an adversary on first base, before the striker touches that base.

RULE IV.--RUNNING THE BASES.

SEC. 1. Players must make their bases in the order of striking; and when a fair ball is struck, and not caught flying, the first base must be vacated, as also the second and third bases, if they are occupied at the same time. Players may be put out on any base, under these circumstances, in the same manner as when running to the first base.

SEC. 2. Any player running the bases is out, if at any time he is touched by the ball, while in play, in the hands of an adversary, without some part of his person being on the base.

SEC. 3. No run or base can be made upon a foul ball. Such a ball shall be considered dead, and not in play, until it shall first have been settled in the hands of the pitcher. In such cases players running bases shall return to them, and may be put out in so returning, in the same manner as when running to first base. Neither can a run or base be made when a fair ball has been caught without having touched the ground; but such a ball shall be considered alive and in play. In such cases, also, players running bases shall return to them, and may be put out in so returning, in the same manner as when running to first base; but players, when balls are so caught, may run their bases immediately after the ball has been settled in the hands of the player catching it.

SEC. 4. When a balk is made by the pitcher, every player running the bases is entitled to one base, without being put out.

SEC. 5. A player making the home base shall be entitled to score one run.

SEC. 6. If two hands are already out, no player running home at the time the ball is struck can make a run to count in the score of the game, if the striker is put out.

SEC. 7. Players running bases must touch them, and, so far as possible, keep upon the direct line between them, and must touch them in the following order--first, second, third, and home; and if returning, must reverse this order; and should any player run three feet out of this line, for the purpose of avoiding the ball in the hands of an adversary, he shall be declared out; or if he fail to touch each base he runs to he shall be declared out, unless he return to such base before the ball be held on it.

SEC. 8. If the player is prevented from making a base by the intentional obstruction of an adversary, he shall be entitled to that base, and shall not he put out. Any obstruction that could readily have been avoided shall be considered as intentional.

RULE V.--THE GAME.

SEC. 1. The game shall consist of nine innings to each side, when, should the number of runs be equal, the play shall be continued until a majority of runs, upon an equal number of innings, shall be declared, which shall conclude the game. An innings must be concluded at the time the third hand is put out.

SEC. 2. In playing all matches, nine players from each club shall constitute a full field; and they shall be members of the club which they represent. They also must not have been members of any other club, either in or out of the National Association, for thirty days immediately prior to the match. Positions of players and choice of innings shall be determined by captains previously appointed for that purpose by the respective clubs. Every player taking part in a regular match game, no matter what number of innings are played, shall be, in the meaning of this section of the rules, considered a member of the club he plays with.

SEC. 3. When a club sends a challenge to play a first-nine match game of base-ball, and the same is accepted, the first game shall be played upon the grounds of the challenging club, within fifteen days from the date of the acceptance of the challenge; the second game shall be played upon the grounds of the challenged club within fifteen days thereafter; and if a third game be necessary, it shall be played upon grounds to be mutually agreed upon, within fifteen days from the date of the second game; provided: that the above arrangement may be varied by mutual consent. And when a first-nine match game is to be played, the contestants shall present on the field their recognized first-nines, as far as practicable.

SEC. 4. Whenever a match shall have been determined upon between two clubs, play shall be called at the exact hour appointed; and should either party fail to produce their players within thirty minutes thereafter, the party so failing shall admit a defeat, and shall deliver the ball before leaving the ground, which ball shall be received by the club who are ready to play, and the same shall be considered as won, and so counted in the list of matches played; and the winning club shall be entitled to a score of nine runs for any game so forfeited, unless the delinquent side fail to play on account of the recent death of one of its members, and sufficient time has not elapsed to enable them to give their opponents due notice before arriving on the ground.

SEC. 5. No person who shall be in arrears to any other club than the one he plays with, shall be competent to take part in any match game.

SEC. 6. No player, not in the nine taking their positions on the field in the third innings of a game, shall be substituted for a player, except for reason of illness or injury.

SEC. 7. No match game shall be commenced when rain is falling; and neither shall any such game be continued after rain has fallen for five minutes. No match game shall be postponed unless by the mutual consent of the contesting clubs.

SEC. 8. Every match game shall be decided by the best two games out of three, unless a single game shall be mutually agreed upon by the contesting clubs; and all matches shall terminate before the close of the season.

SEC. 9. No person who shall be in arrears to any other club, or who shall at any time receive compensation for his services as a player, shall be competent to play in any match. No players, who play base-ball for money, shall take part in any match game; and any club giving any compensation to a player, or having, to their knowledge, a player in their nine playing in a match for compensation, shall be debarred from membership in the National Association; and they shall not be considered by any club belonging to this Association as a proper club to engage in a match with; and should any club so engage with them, they shall forfeit membership.

RULE VI.--MISCELLANEOUS.

SEC. 1. If an adversary stops the ball with his hat or cap, or if a ball be stopped by any person or persons not engaged in the game, no player running the bases can be put out unless the ball shall first have been settled in the hands of the pitcher while he stands in the line of his position.

SEC. 2. Any player who shall intentionally prevent an adversary from catching or fielding the ball, shall be declared out; or if any player be prevented from making a base by the intentional obstruction of an adversary, he shall be entitled to that base, and shall not be declared out, even if touched with the ball.

SEC. 3. If a fair ball be held by a player before touching the ground, after rebounding from the hands or person of a player, it shall be considered a fair catch. And if a foul ball be similarly held after touching the ground but once, it shall be considered a fair catch.

SEC. 4. If the ball, from the stroke of a bat, first touches the ground, the person of a player, or any other object, behind the line or range of home and the first base, or home and the third base, it shall be termed foul, and must be so declared by the umpire, unasked. If the ball first touches the ground either upon or in front of the line or range of those bases, it shall be considered fair.

SEC. 5. Clubs may adopt such rules respecting balls knocked beyond or outside of the bounds of the field, as the circumstances of the ground may demand; and these rules shall govern all matches played upon the ground, provided that they are distinctly made known to the umpire previous to the commencement of the game.

SEC. 6. The captains of each nine shall alone be allowed to appeal for the reversal of a decision of the umpire.

SEC. 7. No base can be run, or player be put out, on a dead ball.

RULE VII.--DUTIES OF THE UMPIRE.

SEC. 1. The umpire shall take care that the regulations respecting the ball, bats, bases, and the pitcher’s and striker’s positions, are strictly observed, and he shall require the challenging club to furnish a ball, on which the size, weight, and the name of the manufacturer shall be stamped. He shall be the sole judge of fair and unfair play, and shall determine all disputes and differences which may occur during the game. He shall take special care to declare all foul balls and balks, immediately upon their occurrence, in a distinct and audible manner. He shall, in every instance, before leaving the ground, declare the winning club, and shall record his decision in the books of the scorers. The umpire shall also require that the game be recorded by a scorer for each of the contesting clubs. In all matches the umpire shall be selected by the captains of the respective sides, and shall perform all duties above enumerated.

SEC. 2. The umpire in any match shall determine when play shall be suspended; and, if the game cannot be fairly concluded, it shall be decided by the last equal innings, provided five innings have been played; and the party having the greatest number of runs shall be declared the winner.

SEC. 3. When the umpire calls “play,” the game must at once be proceeded with; and the party failing to take their appointed positions in the game within five minutes thereafter shall forfeit the game. When the umpire calls “time,” play shall be suspended until he calls “play” again.

SEC. 4. When the umpire “calls” a game, it shall end; but when he merely suspends play for any stated period, it may be resumed at the point at which it was suspended, provided such suspension does not extend beyond the day of the match.

SEC. 5. No person engaged in a match, either as umpire, scorer, or player, shall be either directly or indirectly interested in any bet upon the game. Nor shall any person be permitted to act as umpire or scorer in any match unless he shall be a member of the National Association, or of a State branch thereof. Neither shall the umpire or scorer be changed during a match, unless with the consent of both parties, except for reason of illness or injury, or for a violation of the above rules.

SEC. 6. No decision given by the umpire shall be reversed upon the testimony of any player; and no decision whatever shall be reversed, except for a palpable infringement of the rules, and then only on an appeal by the captain.

SEC. 7. No person shall be permitted to approach or to speak with the umpire, scorers, or players, or in any manner to interrupt or interfere during the progress of the game, unless by special request of the umpire. Any match game played by any club in contravention to the rules adopted by the National Association, shall be considered null and void, and shall not be counted in the list of match games won and lost.

* * * * *

For the information of clubs desirous of joining the National Association, or of organising a State branch thereof, we give below those portions of the constitution of the Association bearing upon the subject:--

ARTICLE 3, SECTION 1. This Association shall be composed of delegates from the several State base-ball associations which have been duly admitted to a representation in the convention forming this constitution, or which may be admitted to a representation in the manner hereinafter provided. Each State association shall be entitled to one delegate for every ten clubs, or fractional part of ten clubs, belonging to such association. No individual club shall be entitled to representation in this Association unless located in a state, territory, or district, where there are not sufficient clubs to form a State association. Each delegate shall be entitled to one vote, and no vote by proxy shall be allowed.

SEC. 2. Any State base-ball association desiring to be represented in this Association shall present to the recording secretary, at least thirty days previous to the annual meeting of this Association, a written official certificate, signed by the president and secretary of the State association they represent, giving the names and number of the clubs composing said association, date of their organization, names of their officers, and number of members belonging to each club; also the date of organization of the State association, and the names of their delegates. Territories and the district of Columbia shall be considered as states within the meaning of this section.

SEC. 3. All applications shall be immediately submitted to the committee on nominations; but no such application shall be received by said secretary unless presented thirty days previous to the annual meeting. Said committee shall thereupon ascertain the condition, character, and standing of such State base-ball association, and report the same at the annual meeting, with the said application and their opinion thereon; and a ballot shall thereupon be had at such meeting, upon the admission of such State base-ball association, when, if two-thirds of the members present vote in favour thereof, such State base-ball association shall be declared duly entitled to representation in this Association. Any informality or irregularity in the form or substance of the application may be waived by a two thirds vote of the members present at the annual meeting.

SEC. 4. No State association shall be represented in the Association unless composed of ten clubs, numbering at least eighteen active members each, or by any delegate under twenty-one years of age; nor shall any State base-ball association be so represented until its delegates have paid a fee hereinafter designated.

SEC. 5. Any State association organized after the adjournment of the annual meeting of this Association, may be elected probationary members thereof, after conforming to the requirements of sections second, third, and fourth, by the nominating committee. They shall be liable to the payment of dues and assessments, and be eligible to all the privileges of regular members of the Association until the next annual meeting, at which time they must be duly elected in the same manner as all regular members.

THE GAME OF BASE-BALL.

As before asserted, the American game of base-ball requires a high degree of physical ability, and the possession of manly characteristics to excel in it; for although in theory a schoolboy could easily comprehend the system, in practice an amount of manly vigour, courage, and physical endurance is requisite, surprising to those who regard the game in the light only of an improved edition of the old English school-game of rounders.

The theory of base-ball is as simple as that of any field sport in vogue, and therein lies one of its attractive features. But yet to play the game up to its highest point of excellence requires as great a degree of mental ability, and the possession of as many manly physical attributes, as any known game of ball. The theory of base-ball is as follows:--In the first place, a level field for play is selected, about three hundred feet wide and five hundred long. A space of ground is then marked out in the form of a square, with one corner as the position of the home base, and the other corners for the first, second, and third bases, the first base being on the right of the batsman, as he stands at home base, and the third base on the left. The contestants in a game consist of nine players on each side, and these nine players occupy the following positions: catcher, pitcher, first, second, and third basemen, short-stop, and left, centre, and right fielders. The first six players above-named form the “in-fielders,” and the last three the “out-fielders,” the nine taking the field being known as the “out-hand,” or “field.” After the parties toss for the innings, the losing side go to the bat, and the winning party to the field, and each man to his position. The pitcher then delivers the ball to the batsman of the opposite nine, who endeavours to send it out of reach of the opposing field party, and far enough into the field to admit of his running round the four bases, in which case he scores one run, provided he is not put out in the interim. He is followed by his companions, one after the other in regular rotation, until three of the batting side are put out, when the field side take the bat and have their innings. Nine innings constitute a full game, and no game is considered as played unless five full innings have been completed. The ball--the only trophy in a match--goes to the party making the most runs in a full game, or in any number of even innings played not less than five.

In case of a tie at the close of the ninth innings, the game, unless by mutual consent, must be prolonged innings after innings, until one or other of the contesting sides obtains the most runs. And if anything occur to interrupt or put a stop to the game before five innings on each side have been played, the game must be drawn. The rules and regulations of the game define all further particulars in reference to it.

HOW TO PLAY EACH POSITION.

GENERAL RULES.

There are nine positions in a base-ball field, two less than in a field of cricketers in a match. The catcher plays behind the batsman to receive the ball from the pitcher. The pitcher stands near the centre of the in-field, forty-five feet from home base, and he is allowed only to “pitch” the ball to the bat, not to throw it, jerk it, or bowl it. The first base man attends to balls fielded to him on the base, his principal duty being to hold the ball, while having one foot on the base, before the batsman reaches it. The second and third basemen have not only to hold the ball, but also to touch players running to the bases before they can touch the bases. The short-stop attends to the duties of backing up the pitcher and basemen generally, and of stopping balls from the bat, and sending them to the bases, when the ball happens to come within reach. The principal duties of the three out-fielders are to catch long high balls, and to return in ground balls sent to their positions. But the following are special instructions to occupants of each position in the nine:--

THE CATCHER.

This player is expected to catch or stop all balls pitched or thrown to the home base. He must be fully prepared to catch all foul balls, especially “tips,” and be able to throw the ball accurately and swiftly to the bases, and also to keep a bright look-out over the whole field. “Foul balls” are those high balls which are hit so as to fall to the ground back of the line of the bases, from home to first base and home to third. “Tips” are also foul balls, coming sharply from the bat to the catcher.

When a player has made his first base, the catcher should take a position nearer the striker, in order to take the ball from the pitcher before it bounds; and the moment the ball is delivered by the pitcher, and the player runs from the first to the second base, the catcher should take the ball before bounding, and send it to the second base as swiftly as possible, in time to cut off the player before he can touch the base. In throwing to the base it would be as well, in the majority of cases, to send the ball a little to the right of the base. The same advice holds good in reference to a player running from the second base to the third.

The catcher should have a thorough understanding with the pitcher in regard to a code of signals by means of which he can not only direct the pitcher to throw to a base to catch a player napping off the base--as a wicket-keeper does the batsman when out of his ground in cricket--but also so as to direct him where to send a ball to the bat, high or low, in or out, as the peculiarity of the batsman’s play may require. The catcher needs to be a swift and accurate thrower to the bases, a plucky player in facing and stopping swiftly-pitched balls, and a patient player in his efforts to prevent passed balls from inaccurate pitching. When facing a swift pitcher, his aim should be to stop the ball, and to be on the qui vive for sharp “tips.” Off slow pitching more activity is required, as the chances offered for difficult catches from foul balls are greater.

As the position occupied by the catcher affords him the best view of the field, the person filling it is generally chosen captain, although the pitcher is sometimes selected for that position. We would suggest, however, that some other player than the pitcher be chosen for captain, from the fact that the physical labour attached to that position tends to increase the player’s excitement, especially if the contest is a close one, and it is requisite that the captain should be as cool and collected as possible. The catcher, whenever he sees two or more fielders running to catch a ball, should designate by name the one he deems most likely to catch it, in which case the others should refrain from the attempt to catch the ball on the fly, and strive only to catch it in case of its being otherwise missed.

THE PITCHER.

More skill and judgment is requisite in this position than in any other in the game. In fact, half the battle almost in a contest depends upon the ability of the pitcher; and yet the best man in the position is comparatively useless in a nine unless he be well supported in the field. In cricket a bowler can take wickets when unassisted by a good field party, but in base-ball a pitcher’s skill is entirely thrown away unless well supported in the field, especially by the in-field portion of the nine.

The pitcher’s position is within the lines of a space of ground six feet by four in extent, located on the line between home and second base, the front line of the position being distant forty-five feet from the home base. The pitcher, in delivering the ball to the bat, is prohibited from either throwing, jerking, or bowling the ball, and he is also prohibited from making any motion in his delivery which will admit of a ball being thrown, such as bending his arm outward at the elbow, &c. And if he makes any one of the series of motions he uses in delivering the ball, and fails to deliver it, then he incurs the penalty of a “balk,” in which case players running the bases, but not the striker, are allowed to take one base. The rules governing the delivery of the ball also require the pitcher to deliver the ball over the home base--which is sixteen inches in width--and “fairly for the striker,” viz. within the legitimate reach of the bat, and as near as possible to the point indicated by the batsman, the boundary line in question extending from within a foot of the ground to the height of the batsman’s head. The pitcher in his style of delivery, may adopt any movement he likes, provided he moves to deliver while standing within the lines of his position. It is regarded as throwing the ball, however, if it be delivered in any way except by a straight arm, swinging perpendicularly with the body; and it is considered as “jerked,” if the arm touches the side of the body in delivery. He should remember that the rules define unfairly-pitched balls to be those pitched over the head of the batsman; to the side opposite to that he strikes from; on the ground before reaching the home base, or pitched so as to hit the batsman when he is standing in his legitimate position--viz. astride the line of the home base, and distant one foot from it. The pitcher should be exceedingly cautious, and on the alert in watching the bases when the players are attempting to run, and in such cases should endeavour his utmost to throw a swift and true ball to the basemen. When a player attempts to run in to the home base while he is pitching, he should follow the ball to the home base as soon as it leaves his hand, and be ready at the base to take it from the catcher. The pitcher will frequently have to occupy a base on occasions when the proper guardian has left it to field the ball. And in cases where a foul ball has been struck, and the player running a base endeavours to return to the one he has left, he should be ready to receive the ball at the point nearest the base in question, in order to comply with that section of the rules wherein in such cases it is required that the ball be settled in the hands of the pitcher before it is in play. The pitcher has to face the most dangerous balls sent from the bat, and therefore he requires to be a plucky, courageous fellow, not afraid of being hurt. He should also be an accurate thrower at short distances, and a sure catch. But the most important requisite in the position, next to the ability to pitch the ball accurately, is good judgment in pitching according to the skill and peculiarities of his opponents at the bat.

THE BASE PLAYERS.

THE FIRST BASEMAN.

The principal duty of this fielder is to hold the ball in hand, with some part of his person touching the first base, before the batsman reaches it. If held simultaneously with the base runner’s touching the base, the latter is not out. The first baseman’s position, in the beginning of an innings, is about twenty feet back of his base and towards second base, but not too far away from the foul ball line or from his base, as the majority of balls, which come anywhere near enough for him to field, are hit within twenty feet of his base. The moment the ball is struck, and he finds that it does not come near him, he should promptly return to his base, and stand in readiness, with one foot on the base, to receive the ball from any player who may have fielded it. As we said before, the striker can be put out at this base without being touched by the ball, provided the fielder, with the ball in hand, touches the base with any part of his person before the striker reaches it. The player will find it good practice to stand with one foot on the base, and see how far he can reach and take the ball from the fielder; this practice will prepare him for balls that are thrown short of the base. In the same manner he should learn to jump up and take high balls. This position requires the player filling it to be the very best of catchers, as he will be required to hold very swiftly-thrown balls. The moment he has held the ball, he should promptly return it to the pitcher, or to either of the other bases a player is running to, as in some instances two, and sometimes three, players are put out by promptitude in this respect.

THE SECOND BASEMAN.

This position requires its occupant to be a very active fielder indeed, and especially a good judge of fly balls, and a sure catch. He should also be a swift and accurate thrower at short distances. His position, in the beginning of an innings, is at “right short,” that is, about twenty or thirty feet back of his position and towards the foul ball line, in fact nearly opposite the short-stop’s position on the other side. But he should take his position according to the known peculiarities of the batsman he faces. He should back up the pitcher well, allowing no balls to pass both that player and himself too. When the striker reaches the first base, the second baseman should immediately return to his base and stand prepared to receive the ball from the catcher, and put out his opponent by touching him with the ball, which it is requisite to do on this base as well as on the third and home bases, except in the cases of balls caught on the fly, or foul balls, in both of which instances a player can be put out in returning to the base he has left, in the same manner as when running to the first base, viz. by the ball being held by the baseman, with some part of his person on the base, before the base runner reaches it. When the catcher fails to throw the ball with accuracy to the second baseman, the latter should by all means manage to stop the ball, if he cannot catch it in time to put out his opponent. He should also promptly return the ball to the pitcher. He should be especially on the look-out for a double play when a base runner is on first base, in which case all that the baseman has to do, to put two players out, is to field the ball from the bat sharply, or receive it from short-stop or the third baseman, and first touching second base with ball in hand, to send the ball to first base in time to cut off the player running there. When a base runner, too, is on first base, and a high ball is hit for the second baseman to catch, if he sees the base runner standing near his first base ready to run back on the catch being made, he should manage to let the ball pass through his hands, partly checked in its progress, but not held, in which case the base runner being thereby forced from his first base can be easily captured at second. Should the second baseman, however, see the base runner trying to get to second, he should hold the fly ball, and return it promptly to first base, thereby putting two players out on a double play--one on the catch, and the other on returning to his base on the catch, as base runners have to do in such cases.

THE THIRD BASEMAN.

This position is the most difficult one, to play skilfully, of any of the three bases, as the throwing to first base from this position requires a stronger arm than that from short-stop or second base, while the third baseman has the most difficult catches to make on foul balls of any in-fielder except the catcher. Besides which, errors in the way of failures to stop balls thrown or batted to this position are more important in their results than at any other base, as an error at third base gives a run, while at first or second only a lost base is the result. The third baseman, after fielding a ball from the bat, has to throw it generally from a hundred and twenty-five to a hundred and fifty feet to the first base, while the short-stop has not to throw it a hundred, and the second base player generally not more than about eighty or ninety. A good third base player can readily play at first or second with comparative ease, but skilful players on the first and second bases cannot as readily play third base. In fact, it is a position requiring more practice to excel in it than that of either of the other bases. This position is no place for a left-handed man, first base being the only suitable place in the infield for such a player. When three men are on the bases, the third baseman frequently has a fine opportunity afforded him for double plays. Suppose, for instance, that each base is occupied, and a ball is sent direct to the third baseman, his point of play is to throw the ball to the pitcher or catcher at home base, and for the player receiving it to return it promptly to third base, and if this is done sharply two players can be readily put out on the one ball. The rule for all basemen is to cut off the player nearest to home base. For instance, if three men are on the bases, and a ball is hit to the first baseman, the latter, instead of putting the striker out, should throw the ball home, unless there was no fielder near enough to take it. So in the case of a ball hit to short-stop, under similar circumstances, unless two men are out, in which case the surest play should be selected.

THE SHORT-STOP.

This is the position in the field for the most active of the six in-fielders. Of course, like all in-fielders, his duties include the stopping of hot ground-balls, and in throwing the same accurately to the base the striker of the ball happens to be running to, generally the first base. But his principal work is to back up all the in-fielders. He should be on the alert the moment the ball is hit, and if it does not come within his reach, he should be ready to get on a base to receive it, or to back up the fielder it is thrown in to; in fact, the short-stop should be the “general utility” man of the nine, and especially active in saving the pitcher from over work in fielding. The short-stop should be a fearless fielder, and one ready and able to stop a swift ground-ball; and if he can throw swiftly and accurately, it would be as well to be a little deliberate in sending the ball to the first base, as it is better to be sure and just in time, than to risk a wild throw by being in too great a hurry. His position is generally in the centre of the triangle formed by the second and third bases and the pitcher’s position, but he should change it according to his knowledge of the striker’s style of batting. He must be on the alert to take foul balls on the bound, that are missed on the fly by either the third baseman or pitcher, or indeed any other player he can get near enough to be of assistance to in this respect. In doing this, however, he should be careful not to interfere with the fielder who is about catching the ball so as to prevent him doing so. An effective short-stop and a good first base player, especially if they are familiar with each other’s play, will materially contribute to the successful issue of a well-contested game.

THE OUT-FIELDERS.

A great deal depends upon the skill of the three out-fielders of a nine, when the pitching is of medium pace, and plenty of chances for catches are offered off the pitching. The principal qualifications of out-fielders are: the power to throw a ball in well nearly a hundred yards, and the ability to judge high fly balls and to catch surely. The three positions require equally good fielders, though, if the nature of the ground requires one man better than another, the best judge of a ball should be placed in the difficult position. Out-fielders should watch the batsman closely, and either lay out well for the heavy hitters, or get closer in for those who strive to hit “safe” balls just over the heads and out of reach of the in-fielders. After the ball has been either caught or stopped, the out-fielder should promptly return it, either to the base requiring it, or to the pitcher. Out-fielders should never hold the ball a moment longer than is necessary to throw it. Another point of their fielding should be to start the moment the ball is hit, and try their utmost to take it on the fly, and not wait until it is about touching the ground. Bear in mind that it is easier to run forward to take a ball than, by being too eager, to try and take it by running backward; remember, however, that a ball hit high to long field invariably appears to be coming further than it really does.

THE BATSMAN.

The position of the batsman is expressly defined by the rules, which require that the striker, when about to strike the ball, must stand astride the line of the home base. This line is six feet in length, running through the centre of the home base, and parallel with the front line of the pitcher’s position. He can take a step forward, but he is prohibited from taking any backward step. The batsman is known as the “striker,” and so considered in the rules, until he has struck a fair ball, when he immediately becomes “a player running the bases,” and ceases to be the “striker.” When the batsman takes his position at the home base, viz. standing astride the line of the base, and not less than one foot to the left of it, the umpire asks him where he wants a ball, and the batsman responds by saying “knee high,” or “waist high,” or by naming the character of the call he wants pitched to him, the pitcher being required by the rules to deliver to the batsman a ball within the legitimate reach of his bat, and as near the place indicated as he can, and also to pitch over the home base; and if he fails to do this twice, the umpire, after first warning him of the penalty he incurs, is required to call a ball for every unfair ball delivered after the warning has been given, and when three such balls have been called the batsman drops his bat and goes to first base.

In striking at the ball it must be hit fairly to entitle the batsman to run for his first base, and it is only hit “fairly” when sent to the field in front of the lines of the bases reaching from home to first base and home to third base. If the ball from the bat first touches the ground back of these lines, it is considered “foul,” and in that case, though the batsman can be caught out, he cannot run to his base. The moment the batsman hits a fair ball, therefore, he drops his bat and runs to first base, and if he reaches it before the ball is held by the baseman while touching the base, the striker escapes being put out; but if the ball be held by the baseman, while on his base, before the batsman reaches it, the latter is out. The batsman is liable to be put out in the following manner. If the ball he hits “fair” should be caught by any of the fielders before touching the ground; or if a ball he hits “foul” should be caught by any of the fielders either “on the fly” or on the first bound; or if he strikes at the ball three times and fails to hit it each time, and the ball, on the third strike, be held on the bound, or, if not so held, it be held on the first base before the striker reaches it, the batsman is out; and lastly, he is out if he takes a step backward three times when striking at a ball. These are the various ways in which the batsman or striker can be put out. After making his first base, and thereby becoming a “base runner,” he is liable to be put out as follows. If he be touched by any fielder with the ball in hand and in play, when he is off a base, he is out; also, if when running to a base on a foul ball, he fail to get back to the base before the ball, in play, is held by the baseman; or, if in running to a base on a fair fly ball, he be similarly off his base when the ball is held by the base player after being caught; also, if he fail to reach the next base to the one he occupies when a fair ball is hit, and not caught, and the ball be held on the base he is running to before he reaches it, he is out.

BASE-RUNNING.

The moment the striker hits a fair ball he ceases to be the “striker,” and becomes at once “a player running the bases,” and he then becomes liable to be put out in the several ways alluded to under the head of “The Batsman,” viz. by being “forced off” his base; by being “run out;” and by being put out in returning on a fly or foul ball. We will now illustrate more particularly the manner in which the base-runner can be thus put out. When, as above referred to, the striker has made his first base, and become a “base-runner,” and he is occupying the first base when a fair ball is hit, the moment such a ball be struck that moment he ceases to have any right to occupy the first base, he being what is termed “forced off” by the batsman. In such case he must try and make his second base before the ball is held by a fielder on the base. If he fails to do this he is out. When occupying the first base, too, when a fair ball is hit and is held on the fly, he is required to return and touch the base before he can legally run for the next base; but the moment he has touched the base, after the catch has been made, he can then run for the next base. If, however, the ball that is hit be a foul ball, then he must not only return to the base he left when the ball was struck, but he must remain on it until the ball has been settled in the hands of the pitcher before he can again attempt to run to the next base. If at any time, too, when the ball is in play, he be caught off a base, and be touched by the ball in the hands of any fielder, he is also out. If, too, in running round the bases at any time he should fail to touch any of the bases, he must return and touch the base he failed to touch when first running round, and in such case, if the ball be held on the base before he can touch it, he is out; and he must also return to touch the base, in such case, the same way as he ran round, he not being allowed to cross over from home base to second, or from third to first. Base-runners should, however, remember that they have a right to return to the base they have left--except when “forced off” by the batsman--until they touch the next base; and no base-runner, occupying a base, can force another off the next base, unless he himself be forced off by the batsman, or by a base-runner who is forced off by the batsman. That is, a player occupying the second base, when there is no one on the first base, cannot force a base-runner off the third. When all the bases are occupied, and the batsman hits a fair ball which is not caught, then each base-runner is obliged to vacate the base he occupies and run to the next, and in this case all that is necessary to put either base-runner out, is simply for any fielder to hold the ball on the base the base-runner is trying to reach before the latter reaches it. It should be borne in mind that the moment the batsman is put out by a fair fly catch, or put out at first base, that moment the base-runners preceding him cease to be “forced” to leave their bases, and in this case they must be touched by the ball, in the hands of a fielder, before they can be put out. Base-runners, too, when high balls are hit into the outer field, and in such way as to make a catch apparently certain, should stand on their bases in readiness to run to the next base the moment the ball is held by the out-fielder. When a base-runner is on the first base, and a high ball is “popped up,” which looks as if it would surely be caught by the short-stop or pitcher, or indeed by any in-fielder, the base-runner has a double difficulty to escape from, inasmuch as, if the ball is caught on the fly, he has to return to the base he left when the ball was hit; but should the ball, instead, be purposely dropped before being held, he then becomes obliged to run for his second base, and is in such case liable to be easily put out from being forced off his first base. Either horn of the dilemma is bad, but the safest way generally is to anticipate the ball being caught, and to stand ready to get back to first base easily, as the effort to drop the ball for a double play is one not often successful. A base-runner, when on first base at a time when another is on the third, can safely run down to second, except where two hands are out, as the catcher in the former case sacrifices the one base to prevent the player on the third from getting a chance to run home. When two hands are out, however, it does not matter so much, as the catcher can far easier put the third hand out by a throw to second than can the base-runner at the third get home before the third hand be put out. In the position in a game when two hands are out and a base-runner is running home, the run he would otherwise make does not count, if the batsman be put out before he makes his first base; and neither does it count in such case, if the base-runner in question fails to touch the home base before the third hand is put out. Players who desire to become expert as base-runners should not only familiarise themselves with the theory of base-running by attentive study of the rules, but they must realize by practical experience all the points of play above alluded to before they can successfully exemplify their theoretical knowledge, or derive any advantage from it. It is one thing to be thoroughly acquainted with the manner in which any special object in view should be attained, but it is altogether a more difficult matter to practically illustrate your theory; and an afternoon’s experience in running bases against a field of practical experts would soon show you the fallacy of trusting to thorough theoretical knowledge for success.

ON FIELDING GENERALLY.

Skill in fielding is the first requisite of an expert base-ball player. What is called a “muffin” player is one who is a mere tyro in handling the ball. Muffins can bat well, and yet not be anything but “muffins.” Occasionally, too, we find an effective pitcher who is a “muffin” in fielding. But a player who can field well, though he may not be a skilled batsman, or even able to pitch effectively, is nevertheless eligible to a position in the first nine of a club, when a good batsman who is not a good fielder would be very properly ruled out. Among the requisites of a first-class fielder are: first, the moral qualifications of courage, nerve, control of temper and coolness of judgment in emergencies, together with perseverance in the face of difficulties and in contending manfully against large odds. The physical ability necessary consists of the strength to throw a ball a hundred yards; the agility to catch a flying ball close to the ground, or two or three feet above your head; the activity to pick up a ball while running; the quickness of the eye to judge the fall of a high ball, or the rebound of a foul one; and the endurance to stand the fatigue of a long game.

Among the general rules worthy the attention of fielders are the following:--

The most important rule is the one which commands obedience to the directions of the captain of the nine. Fielders should also bear in mind that the captain of the nine is alone the spokesman of the party and the commander of the field.

Secondly. No out-fielder should hold a ball a moment longer than it is necessary for him to handle it in throwing. In the in-field, however, a ball can be sometimes held by the fielder with safety and advantage.

Thirdly. Never stand still in your position simply because the ball happens to go in another direction than the position you occupy, but always be on the move to aid the other fielders or to back them up. Activity in the field, and judgment in being prompt in support, is one of the important requisites of a first-class fielder.

Fourthly. Play earnestly at all times, whether in an ordinary practice game or in a match. Get into the habit of doing your best on all occasions. It is invariably the mark of a vain and conceited ball player to walk on the field and play in a game as if he was conferring a favour by participating in the contest; and players who play with an air of indifference as to the result of the game, or who become despondent when the odds are against them, are no players for a first class nine.

Fifthly. Next to seeing a man field well, the most attractive thing is to see a player take things easily and good-naturedly. If you miss a fly ball, allow an important ball to pass you, or fail to handle a ball in time on a base, nothing is more boyish than to vent your ill-temper on some one who may have balked you in catching it, or thrown it to you badly. Control yourself and take it smilingly, or if you lack the moral courage to do that, keep your tongue still at least. Your good-natured fellows, who play their best all the time, and yet take everything bad or good with a good-natured smile, are as desirable as companions on a ball field as your growlers are to be detested.

Sixthly. When an error of play is committed, do your best at once to remedy the evil by using your best efforts to get at the ball either after “muffing” it, letting it pass you, or failing to hold it. Some players after missing a ball will walk after it like an ill-tempered, sulky ten-year old.

Seventhly. There is no habit fielders have that is more characteristic of school-boys, or which leads to more unpleasantness and ill-feeling in a match, than that of finding fault with those who commit errors of play in the field. Every man in the field tries to do his best for his own credit sake, and if he fails censure but adds to his chagrin without in the least improving his play; on the contrary, fault-finding is only calculated to make him play worse. In no game are the amenities of social life more necessary to a full enjoyment of the pastime than in base-ball. Particularly acceptable are words of commendation for good play and remarks calculated to remove the annoyance arising from errors in the field, to young ball players, and these form some of the strongest incentives to extra exertion on their part, besides promoting kindly feelings on the field and during the game. The fact is, such men as your constitutional grumblers are the nuisances of a ball field, and destroy all the pleasure which would otherwise result from the game. Every manly player will keep silent when he sees an error committed, or if he makes any remark at all, will apologize for it in some way. Those who find fault and growl at errors of play are of the class who prefer to gratify their malice and ill-temper at the expense of the unlucky fielder who happens to “muff” a ball or two in a game.

Lastly. Remember that the winning of the trophy is one of the main objects in view, and as it is not the most important thing in life to win it, or a very great disaster to lose it, the less you act as if it was, the less likelihood of the spectators suspecting you of having some ulterior object in view, such as the winning of a sum of money, for instance. To conclude, however, let it be remembered by every player in a match that a creditable victory abides only with that party who, in winning the match, have marked their play as much by their courtesy of demeanour, liberality of action, and the good-nature they have displayed in the contest, as by their skill in the several departments of the game.

THE UMPIRE AND HIS DUTIES.

The position of an umpire in a base-ball match is one marked by onerous and important duties. Before proceeding to comment on what these duties are particularly, we will first give the rules of the game applicable to the position which are included in Rule VII. of the code of rules and regulations:--

SEC. 1. The umpire shall take care that the regulations respecting the ball, bats, bases, and the pitcher’s and striker’s positions, are strictly observed, and he shall require the challenging club to furnish a ball, on which the size, weight, and the name of the manufacturer shall be stamped. He shall be the sole judge of fair and unfair play, and shall determine all disputes and differences which may occur during the game. He shall take special care to declare all foul balls and balks immediately upon their occurrence, in a distinct and audible manner. He shall, in every instance, before leaving the ground, declare the winning club, and shall record his decision in the books of the scorers. The umpire shall also require that the game be recorded by a scorer for each of the contesting clubs. In all matches the umpire shall be selected by the captains of the respective sides, and shall perform all the duties above enumerated.

SEC. 2. The umpire in any match shall determine when play shall be suspended; and if the game cannot be fairly concluded, it shall be decided by the last equal innings, provided five innings have been played, and the party having the greatest number of runs shall be declared the winner.

SEC. 3. When the umpire calls “play,” the game must at once be proceeded with; and the party failing to take their appointed positions in the game within five minutes thereafter shall forfeit the game. When the umpire calls “time,” play shall be suspended until he calls “play” again.

SEC. 4. When the umpire “calls” a game, it shall end; but when he merely suspends play for any stated period, it may be resumed at the point at which it was suspended, provided such suspension does not extend beyond the day of the match.

SEC. 5. No person engaged in a match, either as umpire, scorer, or player, shall be either directly or indirectly interested in any bet upon the game. Nor shall any person be permitted to act as umpire or scorer in any match unless he shall be a member of the National Association, or of a State branch thereof. Neither shall the umpire or scorer be changed during a match, unless with the consent of both parties, except for reason of illness or injury, or for a violation of the above rules.

SEC. 6. No decision given by the umpire shall be reversed upon the testimony of any player; and no decision whatever shall be reversed, except for a palpable infringement of the rules, and then only on an appeal by the captain.

SEC. 7. No person shall be permitted to approach or to speak with the umpire, scorers, or players, or in any manner to interrupt or interfere during the progress of the game, unless by special request of the umpire. Any match game played by any club in contravention to the rules adopted by the National Association shall be considered null and void, and shall not be counted in the list of match games won and lost.

It will be seen by the above rules, that among the most important are those requiring each player first, to be a member of a club belonging to the National Association, or a State branch thereof. Secondly, that he is to be considered the sole judge of fair and unfair play, and one from whose decision there is no appeal, except in certain instances where the rules are grossly misinterpreted, in which case the injured parties can appeal for redress to the judiciary committee of their State association. Also, that from the time “play” is called until the period the umpire either suspends play by calling “time,” or closes the game by “calling” it, the game must be proceeded with, or otherwise the party failing to play forfeits the ball. Also that the umpire is required to see that the ball played with is one having the maker’s name stamped on it, and likewise the figures indicating the size and weight of the ball.

HINTS TO UMPIRES.

The umpire should invariably render his decision in accordance with the first impressions of the point of play made on his mind. If he hesitates at all, the influence of any particular bias he may have will affect his judgment, and very likely make his decision a partial one. Be prompt, therefore, to decide according to the very first impression made. Promptness in deciding is strong testimony in favour of impartial judgment, and is always satisfactory to contestants. He should also see that the foul ball posts are in position, and especially that the rule requiring chalk lines from home to first base, and home to third, be complied with. He should keep silent when a fair ball is struck, but if asked if it be a fair ball, he can of course say so; but he is not required to call fair balls.

The umpire, before calling “play,” should see that the captains of the contesting sides are mutually agreed upon what the rules of the ground are for the match. Thus, for instance, that a ball going over a fence shall give but one base, or that a ball taken on the fly from a tree, or the roof of a house, or the side of a fence, shall be regarded as a bound catch, and only legitimate in the case of a foul ball; or that a ball passing the catcher, and being stopped by a fence too close to the home base, shall give one base, &c.

One of his most difficult duties is that of calling balls for unfair delivery in pitching, and also in calling strikes on the batsmen for not hitting at fair balls.

The umpire should first instruct himself in regard to the definition of unfair balls, and the following rules will give him the required information:--

Firstly. A ball that strikes the ground in front of the home base is not a fair ball; as, in the first place, by striking the ground before reaching the baseman, it becomes a “bowled” ball, and secondly, because it is not pitched “over the home base,” and “fairly for the striker;” for unless it goes over the home base before touching the ground, it is not “pitched,” but “bowled” over, and unless so pitched, it cannot be “fairly for the striker.”

Secondly. A ball that is pitched on the side opposite to that the batsman habitually strikes from is not a fair ball, because not pitched “for the striker.”

Thirdly. A ball that is pitched so as to hit the striker--provided he is standing in his legitimate position, viz. astride the line of the home base, and one foot to the left of the base--is not a fair one, for the same reason. The striker should, however, stand far enough from the base to admit of the ball being pitched over it without its striking him.

Fourthly. Balls, too, which are pitched beyond the legitimate reach of the batsman, either in front of him or over his head, are, for the same reason, not fair balls.

All of the above balls are “unfair” balls, and must be called when it is legitimate to call a ball at all, that is, first, after two unfair balls have been pitched, and secondly, after the pitcher has then been warned of the penalty--this warning being given in the form of the words, “ball to the bat,” or some exclamation of similar purport.

Should the striker not stand in his position, as required by the rules, or should he hit at balls at a different height to that he calls for, in such case the umpire is not required to call any of the above delivered balls as unfair balls except those out of the batsman’s reach.

* * * * *

We now proceed to close our instructions in the game with a chapter on scoring, which is a part of base-ball requiring a considerable degree of statistical and analytical talent to do it well.

ON SCORING IN BASE-BALL.

The present system of scoring was first introduced by the writer in 1867, and since then has been adopted by every competent scorer in the country. The scorer of a base-ball match has either a simple task to perform, or a duty requiring his close attention to every movement of the players in the field. To record the “outs” and “runs” in a match requires simply the use of the figures 1, 2, 3 for the score of outs in each innings, and dots for each run scored, and at the close of the game these are added up and the total of each placed opposite the name of the batsman making them; the score of runs made each innings being recorded at the foot of each column of the innings. To score a game properly, however, considerable work is necessary, as will be seen by the following.

INSTRUCTIONS TO SCORERS.

The following diagrams show the blank forms of the score-sheets used in recording the play, and also the total result, in a match game of base-ball; and we present these blanks before proceeding with our instructions in scoring:--

No. I.

Diagram of Score Sheet used to record the Movements of the Players in a Match Game.

The Score of the ___________________ Club of ___________________

+-----+-----+-----+-----+--------+------------------------------+ |Base |Bases|Bases| | | | |run- | on | on |Total| Play | Played at .............. 186.| |ning.| er- |hits.|score. called.| | | |rors.| | | | | +--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--------+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+---+ |H.|L.|B.|M.|B.|T.|O.|R.|BATSMEN.|1.|2.|3.|4.|5.|6.|7.|8.|9.|10.| +--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--------+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+---+ | | | | | | | | |1. | | | | | | | | | | | +--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--------+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+---+ | | | | | | | | |2. | | | | | | | | | | | +--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--------+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+---+ | | | | | | | | |3. | | | | | | | | | | | +--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--------+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+---+ | | | | | | | | |4. | | | | | | | | | | | +--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--------+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+---+ | | | | | | | | |5. | | | | | | | | | | | +--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--------+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+---+ | | | | | | | | |6. | | | | | | | | | | | +--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--------+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+---+ | | | | | | | | |7. | | | | | | | | | | | +--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--------+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+---+ | | | | | | | | |8. | | | | | | | | | | | +--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--------+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+---+ | | | | | | | | |9. | | | | | | | | | | | +--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--------+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+---+ | | | | | | | | |Total | | | | | | | | | | | +--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--------+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+---+ | | | | | | | | |Grand | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |total | | | | | | | | | | | +--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--------+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+---+

+---------+-----+-----------------+-----+-----+ | Game |Posi-| Good Plays in |Total|As- | | ended. |tion.| the Field. | put |sist-| | | | |out. |ing. | +---------+ +--+--+--+--+--+--+ | | |FIELDERS.| |B.|F.|L.|D.|K.|R.| | | +---------+-----+--+--+--+--+--+--+-----+-----+ |1. | | | | | | | | | | +---------+-----+--+--+--+--+--+--+-----+-----+ |2. | | | | | | | | | | +---------+-----+--+--+--+--+--+--+-----+-----+ |3. | | | | | | | | | | +---------+-----+--+--+--+--+--+--+-----+-----+ |4. | | | | | | | | | | +---------+-----+--+--+--+--+--+--+-----+-----+ |5. | | | | | | | | | | +---------+-----+--+--+--+--+--+--+-----+-----+ |6. | | | | | | | | | | +---------+-----+--+--+--+--+--+--+-----+-----+ |7. | | | | | | | | | | +---------+-----+--+--+--+--+--+--+-----+-----+ |8. | | | | | | | | | | +---------+-----+--+--+--+--+--+--+-----+-----+ |9. | | | | | | | | | | +---------+-----+--+--+--+--+--+--+-----+-----+ | | | | | | | | | | | +---------+-----+--+--+--+--+--+--+-----+-----+ | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | +---------+-----+--+--+--+--+--+--+-----+-----+

Winning Club .................... Scorers ...................... Umpire .......................... Duration of game .............

The letters on the left refer to the batting score, as follows:--R, for runs; O, for outs; T, for the number of times the first base is made on hits; B, for number of bases on hits; M, for first base on muffs; B, for first base on called balls; L, for left on bases after clean hits; and H, for home-runs. On the right, the letters refer to the fielding only: B, for outs on bases; F, for fair fly-catches; L, for foul fly-catches; D, for foul bound catches; K, for outs on strikes; R, for run out; the last two columns being for the record of the total number of players put out by each fielder, and the total number of times each assisted in putting out players.

The following diagram presents the blank form used to record the particulars of a match game at its close:--

No. II. Batting Score.

_______________________ Club. _______________________ Club.

+-------------+----+----+----+----++-------------+----+----+----+----+ | PLAYERS. |POS.| O. | R. | B. || PLAYERS. |POS.| O. | R. | B. | +-------------+----+----+----+----++-------------+----+----+----+----+ | 1. | | | | || 1. | | | | | +-------------+----+----+----+----++-------------+----+----+----+----+ | 2. | | | | || 2. | | | | | +-------------+----+----+----+----++-------------+----+----+----+----+ | 3. | | | | || 3. | | | | | +-------------+----+----+----+----++-------------+----+----+----+----+ | 4. | | | | || 4. | | | | | +-------------+----+----+----+----++-------------+----+----+----+----+ | 5. | | | | || 5. | | | | | +-------------+----+----+----+----++-------------+----+----+----+----+ | 6. | | | | || 6. | | | | | +-------------+----+----+----+----++-------------+----+----+----+----+ | 7. | | | | || 7. | | | | | +-------------+----+----+----+----++-------------+----+----+----+----+ | 8. | | | | || 8. | | | | | +-------------+----+----+----+----++-------------+----+----+----+----+ | 9. | | | | || 9. | | | | | +-------------+----+----+----+----++-------------+----+----+----+----+ | Totals | | | | || Totals | | | | | +-------------+----+----+----+----++-------------+----+----+----+----+

Innings.

+----------+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+-------+ | CLUBS. | 1. | 2. | 3. | 4. | 5. | 6. | 7. | 8. | 9. | |TOTALS.| +----------+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+-------+ | | | | | | | | | | | | | +----------+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+-------+ | | | | | | | | | | | | | +----------+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+-------+

Home runs ____________________________________________________________

No. of times first base on hits _____________ times ___________ times.

No. of times first base by errors ___________ times ___________ times.

No. of times first base on three balls ______ times ___________ times.

Total bases on hits __________________________________________________

Times left on bases after clean hits _________________________________

Fielding Score.

Base play--put out by ________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________

Fly catches __________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________

Foul bound catches ___________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________

Catches on strikes ___________________________________________________

Double plays _________________________________________________________

Outs on bases _____________________ times _____________________ times.

Outs on foul balls ________________ times _____________________ times.

Total errors of play _________________________________________________

Umpire, Mr. ______________ of the ______________ Club, of ____________

Owners, Messrs. _______________________ and __________________________

Time of game ______________________ hours ___________________ minutes.

In recording a game on score-sheet No. 1 we proceed as follows:--Under the heading of “Batsmen” we place the names of the batting nine, and under the heading of “Fielders” we place the names of the opposing nine. These names are recorded on the two score-sheets of the score-book; the names of the two nines thus appearing on the book twice, once as batsmen and once as fielders. Over the heading “Batsmen” we record the time of commencing the game, and this is done only on the page of the nine who first go to the bat; the figures of the hour of closing the game being recorded over the heading “Fielders,” on the page of the nine who last go to the bat; and over the figures of the “innings” we record the name of the grounds the match was played on, and the date of the game.

Each fielder is numbered from 1 to 9, and in recording by whom players are put out these figures are used to indicate the name of the fielder. In recording the positions of the fielders we simply use the initials of the words of the position, thus C for “catcher,” P for “pitcher,” &c. Instead of using C for “centre field,” we use M for “middle field,” as C is used for “catcher.” The figures 1, 2, 3 are used to indicate the outs of each innings, and a dot thus (.) for each run. Dots only are used in recording the details of the batting on the left hand of the score-sheet, and also for recording the particulars of the fielding on the left. Thus, if the batsman secures his first base by a “clean hit”--that is, not by means of a wild throw, a dropped fly ball, or a palpably muffed ball--we place a dot in the square of the column of “times bases on hits” opposite the batsman’s name; and if instead he be put out on the fly, we place a dot in the square of the column headed “fly catches,” on the right, and opposite the fielder’s name. Now the above score only gives the data for estimating the skill of the batsman as far as his score of bases on hits, or on muffs, &c. is concerned, and of the skill of the fielder as far as the record of the totals of his work in the field is concerned. To complete the score, however, something more has to be done, and that is, to record how and by whom each batsman is put out; and how this is to be done we now proceed to show.

The scorer must first make himself familiar with the following abbreviations of words used to indicate the various movements and actions of the fielders, and these abbreviations will be found very easy to commit to memory. They are as follows:--

A, Put out at first base. B, „ second base. C, „ third base. H, „ home base. F, Put out on fly catch. K, „ three strikes. R O, Put out between bases. L F, „ on foul fly. L D, „ on foul bound. T F, „ on tip fly. T D, „ on tip bound. H R, „ for home run.

As before stated, the figures 1, 2, 3 are used for recording the outs, and dots for runs; with small figures thus, 1st, 2d, 3d, to indicate being left on the bases.

The key to the above abbreviations is as follows. The first three letters of the alphabet indicate the first three bases, and we use the initial letters of the words Home, Fly, Run Out, and Tip, and the last letter of the words Struck, Foul, and Bound. Thus L stands for foul and F for fly, and both together for “foul fly.” The above system will be found to include everything necessary in recording the important details of a game, to the extent of showing the good plays made at the bat and in the field. In “reporting” the details of a match, however, we necessarily require a still more elaborate system, and our short-hand system for the use of reporters will be found in detail in our “BOOK OF REFERENCE,” published in New York.

In order to illustrate fully the working of the system of scoring above described, we will proceed to score an imaginary game as follows:--

Suppose the fielders in their places and the batsman in his, and the scorers ready to record the game. “Play” is called, and the time of beginning the game at once recorded. The first striker then hits a ball, which is caught on the fly by the left-fielder, who is the seventh striker, we will say, on the other side. On the square of the first innings opposite the name of the first striker you first write down the figure 1, indicating the first hand out, and above it write the figure 7 and the letter F, and your record will then appear thus:

....... : 7 F : : 1 : .......

the 7 representing the name of the fielder, and the letter F the initial of the word fly, showing by whom and in what manner the player was put out. Opposite the name of the seventh fielder, too, under the head of “On fair fly,” you write down a dot, which gives him credit for the fly catch in the score of good plays. The second striker now takes the bat, and, hitting a low grounder to centre-field, makes his second base just before the ball is well fielded in to the second baseman. To record this properly you place a dot opposite the batsman’s name to the left under the head of “number of times” bases are made on hits; and in the next column you place two dots, showing the number of bases made on the hit; or, if you like to be more particular, you can write the figure 2 in place of the two dots, and then you will know the bases he made on each hit. The third striker now comes to the bat, and hits a ball to short-stop, who passes it to the first baseman in time to put the player out. You now have to record the second hand out, and you do it thus: first, the figure 2 for second hand out, and the figure 3 for the name of the short-stop, who is the third striker on the list of names on the other side, and then 4 for the first baseman, who is the fourth striker. The square will then appear thus:

....... :3-4 A: : 2 : .......

thereby showing that the batsman was the second hand out by a ball fielded to the first base player by the short-stop. You then, opposite the fielders’ names to the right, under the head of “number of times assisting,” place a dot opposite the third fielder’s name, and under the head of “on bases,” a dot opposite the name of the fourth fielder, thus crediting the short-stop with the assistance rendered and the first baseman with putting the batsman out. The fourth striker now takes the bat and strikes out, and you then record the out by the figure 3 for the third hand out, and the letter K for struck out (in this instance, as in one or two others, as we have shown, we use the last letter of the word), and under the head of “on third strike,” opposite the fielder’s name acting as catcher, we place a dot. This closes the innings. When the game is closed, we add up the total outs and runs charged and credited to each batsman, and place the totals under the heading of “Outs and Runs” to the left of the batsmen’s names. The above will suffice to show the general plan of scoring we adopt in this system. The statistics of the batsman’s play, to the left of the batsmen’s names, include his total score of outs and runs, the total number of times the first base is made, and the number of bases made on clean hits; and a similar record of bases made on “muffed” and wildly thrown balls, and on balked and called balls, together with the number of times base-runners are left on bases, and the number of clean home runs. The statistics of the fielding, to the right of the fielders’ names, include the totals of outs on bases, on fair fly catches, on foul fly and foul bound catches, on three strikes, from being run out, the totals of the players put out, and of times assisting to put them out.

The American game of base-ball will be found an excellent substitute for cricket in England, for those who have not the leisure time for the English game, as a full game of nine innings a side can be played in three hours at most. It is a more vigorous exercise than cricket, and in a closely contested match, fully as exciting to spectators, when understood. For boys, after school hours, it is far better than cricket, owing to the short time required to play a game.

AMERICAN BILLIARDS.

The four ball, or “American game” of billiards, differs both from the English and French game, and in a measure combines the merits of both. Though it does not require the skill the French game does, it avoids, by custom, the simple, mechanical “hazard” feature of the English game, as first-class American billiard-players at the hazard and carom game never hole the spot ball consecutively, as in the English game. In fact, the hazard feature of the American game is rapidly falling into disuse, the four ball carom game taking its place.

The American tables now are made without side pockets, and no saloon has any tables of this kind, except for playing pool; the four pocket tables and carom tables without pockets being the only style in vogue now. The four pocket tables were introduced by Michael Phelan, Esq., the “father” of the game in America.

The general principles of the American game, which unites those of all others, are as follows:--

THE CAROM.

To make a carom, the player must cause his own ball to strike two or more balls in the same shot.

When he strikes his adversary’s ball, and either the light or dark red, he scores two.

When he strikes the two red balls, or, in billiard phrase, caroms on them, he scores three.

THE HAZARD.

There are two sorts of hazards--winning and losing.

A WINNING HAZARD is made by pocketing the adversary’s ball, or either of the red balls.

In the first case, the player scores two; in the second, he scores three.

When the player pockets his own ball it is a LOSING HAZARD. If his ball is pocketed after having struck the white or adversary’s ball, two points are added to the adversary’s score.

If the ball is pocketed after having struck either of the red balls, three points are added to the adversary’s score.

If the ball be pocketed after having made a carom or winning hazard, the player cannot score the count he may have made.

A miss, or a failure on the part of the player to strike any other ball with his own, counts one for the opponent.

The word carom, used in this portion of the work, is derived from the French word “carombolage.” In England the word “cannon” is used, an evidently corrupt derivation.

In learning all games of billiards practical experience is the best teacher. No amount of intellectual study can impart to a novice the manual dexterity and adroitness essential to the display of the beauties of the game. But months of labour and learning by practical experience alone may be avoided by learning thoroughly beforehand the principles of the science afterwards to be practised as an art.

Among the most important things in billiards is a good attitude, and to attain this should be the student’s first effort. Good attitude is the ‘groundwork’ of a player’s success. If his attitude be ungraceful, viz. strained or unnatural, his playing will assuredly be unreliable.

The student’s attitude must, in the first place, be perfectly easy and natural. His left foot should be slightly advanced, in a straight line, the right drawn backwards and pointing outwards, to the extent and at the angle most familiar and convenient to the player. The left arm should be extended and supported on the table by the tips of the fingers and the junction of the palm and the wrist (which position of the hand constitutes the natural bridge). His body should be perfectly balanced, and should form an acute angle with the side of the table at which he stands. The tapering end of the cue should rest in the natural groove formed by the elevation of the thumb; the thick end should be grasped in the right hand, loosely while being drawn back preparatory to the stroke, and firmly at the moment of contact with the ball. The cue should be held in a perfectly horizontal position, except in the case of some particular strokes, which will be described in the proper place. Beginners should pay especial attention to this. It should be impelled chiefly by the fore-arm, while the body should remain perfectly steady, as the slightest swaying motion of it will give a false direction to the stroke. The speed of the cue, and not the weight of the body, gives strength to the stroke.

In the instructions in the game contained in the body of this work, the fundamental principles of the game are fully exemplified and enlarged upon. But there are exceptions to these fundamental rules to which we now briefly refer, and among them may be prominently named the results of the different degrees of strength with which the cue ball is struck, inasmuch as important modifications of the angles of incidence and reflexion are produced by the varieties of strength in the impulsion of the ball.

It is a general law that the angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflexion; this law is, however, modified in billiards by the degree of strength with which the cue ball is struck. The angle which the cue-ball will take after striking a cushion, being materially altered by the force imparted to it, the greater the strength the more acute will the angle of reflexion become.

When the ball, instead of being played against a fixed and inert body, such as a cushion, is played against a moveable sphere, such as itself, the angle formed by the line of direction of the object-ball, and the line of the subsequent course of the cue-ball, will be more obtuse the greater the strength communicated to the cue-ball.

Without an approximate knowledge of the different degrees of strength to be imparted in order to produce different angles, the pupil labours through a maze of uncertainty; and if not of a patient and reflective tendency, is inclined to arrive at the hasty and erroneous conclusion, that chance constitutes an important element in successful billiard playing.

Before commenting further on the game we will proceed to give the rules of the American four ball game, and also of the French three ball game as played in America; and here we would acknowledge our indebtedness to Messrs. Phelan and Collender, the great billiard-table manufacturers of the United States, for the privilege of quoting from their complete publications on the science and practice of the game of billiards.

RULES OF THE AMERICAN FOUR BALL GAME, BY MICHAEL PHELAN, ESQ.

ON STRINGING FOR THE LEAD.

Whoever, playing from within the “string-line” against an outside cushion, brings the returning cue-ball nearest the head cushion, which is the one at which the players stand, is entitled to choice of balls and lead. Provided--

1. That, in stringing, the player’s ball has not touched his opponent’s while the latter was at rest. 2. Nor has fallen into any of the pockets. In either case the player loses choice and lead. 3. Should the cue-balls, both being in motion, come in contact, the strokes are invalid, and must be played over.

2. In “stringing,” it is required that both cue-balls shall be struck simultaneously, or so nearly together that one ball cannot reach the lower cushion before the other has been put in motion.

NOTE.--It will be well for players to bear in mind also that in “stringing” for the lead both cue-balls should be struck, if not simultaneously, at least so near together that one ball cannot reach the lower cushion before the other has been put in motion.

ON LEADING.

1. The player who wins the choice of balls and lead must either roll his ball down towards the lower cushion, as an object for his adversary to play at, or else compel his adversary to lead off as above described.

2. In leading, the player’s ball must be played from within the string-line, and struck with sufficient strength to carry it beyond the deep-red ball on its appropriate spot at the foot of the table. But it must not be played with such strength as to repass, after coming in contact with the lower cushion, the deep-red ball. Nor yet must it touch either red ball, nor lodge on the cushion, nor fall into a pocket, nor jump off the table. In any of the cases mentioned in this section, or in case the cue-ball is not struck with sufficient strength to pass beyond the deep-red, it shall be optional with the adversary (Player No. 2) to make No. 1 spot his ball on the pool spot nearest the lower cushion, or lead again: or he may take the lead himself.

3. No count or forfeiture can be made or incurred until two strokes have been played.

4. Once the lead is made, the game is considered as commenced, and neither player can withdraw except under circumstances specified on page 803.

ON OPENING THE GAME.

1. The game is opened by player No. 2 playing on the white ball at the foot of the table.

2. Should he fail to hit the white first, or fail to hit it at all, he forfeits one point, which shall be added to his adversary’s score. Should he pocket himself after hitting a red ball first, he loses three points, even though he may have subsequently hit the white.

ON FORFEITURES.

1. If the striker fails to hit any of the other balls with his own, he forfeits one point, which, as well as other forfeitures, must be added to his adversary’s score. (See note, page 812.)

2. The striker forfeits two when the ball that he plays with is pocketed, or lodges on the cushion, or goes over the table, after having struck or been in fixed contact with the other white, no matter whether it has touched one or both of the reds.

[An exception to this clause will be found in Sec. 2, on “Opening the Game.”]

3. The striker forfeits three when the ball that he plays with is pocketed, or lodges on the cushion, or goes over the table, after having come in contact with one or both of the reds, and not the white. The same applies if neither red nor white be struck.

4. If the player cause any ball to jump off the table, and should it, by striking any of the bystanders, be flung back upon the table, it must still be treated as if it had fallen to the floor. If a red ball, it must be spotted; if a white, held in hand. Should it be the last striker’s ball, he forfeits two or three, the same as if he had gone into a pocket.

ON FOUL STROKES.

The penalty of a foul stroke is, that the player cannot count any points he may have made by such stroke, and his adversary is entitled to the next play. The following, in addition to those already mentioned, are foul strokes:--

1. If either player plays with his opponent’s ball, the stroke is foul; and, if successful, he cannot count, provided the error is found out before a second shot is made.

2. Should two or more strokes have been made previous to the discovery, the reckoning cannot be disturbed, and the player may continue his run with the same ball, or he may have the balls changed. The same privilege is extended to the opposing player when his turn comes to play.

3. Should it be found that both players have used the wrong ball successively, he who was first to play with the wrong ball cannot put in a claim of foul against his opponent, as the latter, in using the wrong ball, was simply playing from his proper position on the table.

[It is the position of the cue-ball, and not its mere colour or designation, that governs. Aside from this, before one player can charge another with error, it must be shown that no act of his contributed to that error.]

4. Though the striker, when playing with the wrong ball, cannot count what points he may make, except in those cases mentioned above, nevertheless, whatever forfeitures he may incur while playing with the wrong ball, he is bound to pay, as if he had been playing with his own.

5. Should, however, both the white balls be off the table together, and should either player, by mistake, pick up the wrong one and play with it, the stroke must stand, and he can count whatever he has made.

[As he plays from his proper position, it is immaterial, because no advantage is to be gained, which ball he uses. In this case, as in the others where it is permitted to play with the wrong ball, the balls should be changed at the conclusion of the run. This will prevent confusion and disputes.]

6. If the striker play at a ball before it is fully at rest, or while any other ball is rolling on the table, the stroke is foul.

7. If, after going into a pocket, a cue-ball or an object-ball should rebound and return to the bed of the table, it must be treated as a ball not pocketed.

8. If the player, when playing with the butt or side of his cue, does not withdraw the butt or side before the cue-ball touches the object-ball, the stroke is foul.

9. A stroke made while a red ball is off the table, provided its spot is unoccupied, is foul. When its proper spot is occupied, the red must remain off the table until its spot is vacated and all the balls have ceased rolling. [See following rule.]

10. If the game being played is one in which hazards, or pockets, do not count, a red ball that has been pocketed or forced off the table shall be spotted on another spot, provided its own is occupied, and provided also the non-striker’s ball is off the table at the time. If the light-red, it shall be placed on the dark-red spot; and if that spot is occupied, the light-red shall be placed on the pool spot at the foot of the table. If the dark-red, it shall be placed on the light-red spot, &c. If both reds are off the table at the same time, and their spots are occupied by the two whites, one of the reds may be placed on the pool spot. The other must remain off the table until its proper spot is vacant.

NOTE.--In the full game, or when pockets are counted, the old rule applies, and the red ball, when its spot is occupied, must remain off the table until its spot is uncovered and all the balls have ceased rolling.

11. If, after making a successful stroke, the player obstructs or otherwise affects the free course of any ball in motion, the stroke is foul, and he cannot score the points made thereby.

12. A touch is a shot. And if, while the balls are at rest, a player touches or disturbs any ball on the table other than his own, it is foul. He has, however, the privilege of playing a stroke for safety, provided his own ball has not been touched, but he can make no count on the shot.

13. In playing a shot, if the cue leaves the ball and touches it again, the stroke is foul.

14. If the striker, through stretching forward or otherwise, has not at least one foot on the floor while striking, the shot is foul, and no points can be reckoned.

15. If, when the player’s ball is in hand, he does not cause it to pass outside the string before touching any of the object-balls or cushion (except in the case mentioned in the following rule), the stroke is foul, and his opponent may choose whether he will play with the balls as they are, have them replaced in their original positions, or cause the stroke to be played over; or, should the player make a losing hazard under such circumstances, the penalty may be enforced.

16. Playing at a ball whose base or point of contact with the table is outside the “string,” is considered playing out of the “string;” and the stroke is a fair one, even though the side which the cue-ball strikes is hanging over, and therefore within the “string.”

17. Playing directly at a ball that is considered in the “string” is foul, even though the cue-ball should pass wholly beyond the “string” line before coming in contact.

18. Giving a miss inside the “string,” when the player is in hand, is foul. But he may, for safety, cause his ball to go out of the “string” and return.

19. If a player alters the stroke he is about to make, at the suggestion of any party in the room,--even if it be at the suggestion of his partner in a double match,--the altered stroke is foul.

20. Placing marks of any kind whatever, either upon the cushions or table, is foul; and a player, while engaged in a game, has no right to practise a particular stroke on another table.

ON CASES WHERE THE BALLS ARE IN CONTACT.

[At the request of a majority of the leading players, amateur and professional, the rule observed since 1858, under which no count could be effected unless the striker first played upon some ball other than that with which his own was in contact, has been amended as below. The new rule came into effect January 1, 1867.]

1. When the cue-ball is in contact with any other ball, the striker may effect a count either by playing first upon some ball other than that with which his own is in contact, or by playing first against the cushion, or by a masse. In either of the two last-mentioned cases, it is immaterial which ball the returning cue-ball strikes first.

2. Should the cue-ball be in contact with all the other balls on the table,--or, if with two balls only, while the remaining ball is on the table, in such a way that the striker cannot play either on the free ball or the cushion first,--it shall be optional with him to have all the balls taken up and the reds spotted as at the commencement of the game. It shall also be at his option to take the lead himself or compel his opponent to lead.

[This is the same as starting the game anew, except that there is no occasion to “string” for the lead and choice of balls.]

ON WITHDRAWING FROM, WITHOUT FINISHING A GAME.

1. The player may protest against his adversary standing in front of him, or in such close proximity as to disarrange his aim.

2. Also, against loud talking or any other annoyance by his opponent, while he is making his play.

3. Also, against being refused the use of the bridge, or any other of the instruments used in that room in playing, except when a special stipulation to the contrary was made before commencing the game.

4. Or in case his adversary shall refuse to abide by the marker’s, referee’s, or company’s decision on a disputed point, which it was agreed between them to submit to the marker or company for arbitration. In any one, or all of the foregoing cases, if the discourtesy be persisted in, the party aggrieved is at liberty to withdraw, and the game shall be considered as drawn, and any stakes which may have been depending on it must be returned.

5. Should the interruption or annoyance have been accidental, the marker, if so requested by the player, who is entitled to repeat his stroke, must replace the balls as near as possible in the position they occupied before the player made the stroke in which he was interrupted.

ON CASES IN WHICH THE MARKER MUST REPLACE THE BALLS, IF CALLED ON, AS NEARLY AS POSSIBLE IN THEIR FORMER POSITION.

1. In the case mentioned in the 5th paragraph of the preceding rule.

2. Where any of the balls, when at rest, are moved by accident.

3. Where any of the balls, while rolling, are suddenly obstructed either by accident or design on the part of any person other than the player. In this case, the marker, if so requested by the players or referee, shall place the interrupted ball as nearly as possible in the situation which it would apparently have occupied had it not been stopped.

4. Where the cue-ball, resting on the edge of a pocket, drops into it before the striker has time to play.

5. Where the object-ball, in a similar position, is rolled back into the pocket by any of the ordinary vibrations of the table or atmosphere.

6. In all the cases aforementioned where it is specified that in consequence of a foul stroke the player’s opponent shall have the option either of playing at the balls as they are, or causing them to be replaced by the marker.

7. When either or both of the red balls are pocketed, or forced off the table, it is the marker’s duty to spot them before another stroke is played--except (the game being played is caroms and pockets) the spot appropriate to either be occupied by one of the playing balls, in which case the red one must be kept in hand until its position is uncovered.

8. If, after playing a ball, the player should attempt to obstruct or accelerate its progress by striking it again, blowing at it, or any other means, his opponent may either play at the balls as they stand, or call upon the referee or marker to replace them in the position they would otherwise have occupied.

9. It is the duty of each player to see that a ball is properly spotted before the next stroke is made. As in the case where a player is in hand, a claim of foul, after the cue-ball has been struck in the one instance, and the red ball disturbed in another, cannot be entertained. All claims to the effect that the red ball is not on its spot, or that the striker’s ball is not inside the “string” when he is about to play after having been in hand, should be made before the stroke is played, as it can seldom be decided after the stroke, whether there was any ground for the claim.

ON THE DUTY OF THE PLAYERS TO EACH OTHER.

1. Each player must look after his own interest, and exercise his own discretion. His opponent cannot be compelled to answer such questions as, “Is the ball outside or inside the string?” “Are the balls in contact?” and so forth. These are questions for the player’s own judgment to decide.

2. When the cue-ball is very near another ball, the player must not play directly upon that ball without having warned his adversary that they do not touch, and given him or his umpire time to be satisfied on that point.

3. It is obligatory upon the adversary or umpire to call “time!” or give some other notice of his approach, if, while the player is preparing to make a stroke, either of them desires to look at the balls, or submit a question to the referee.

4. Each player should attend strictly to his own game, and never interfere with his adversary’s, except in the cases mentioned in Section 9, on p. 804, or when a foul stroke or some other violation of these rules may call for forfeiture.

ON THE DUTY OF THE MARKER AND THE SPECTATORS TO THE PLAYERS.

1. In a single game, no one, except the player and his umpire, has a right to interfere with the play, or point out an error which either has been or is about to be committed. The player to whose prejudice the foul stroke is being or has been made, should find that out for himself.

2. Even after a stroke has been made, no one in the room has any right to comment upon it, either for praise or blame: for the same stroke may occur again in the course of the game, and the player’s play may be materially altered by the criticism to which he has just been listening.

3. Let the marker and spectators keep their places as much as possible, for if they crowd or move around the table they are liable to interfere with the players, and certain to distract their attention.

4. When the spectators are appealed to by the marker or referee for their opinion on a point which he has been asked, but finds himself unable to decide, such of them as are well acquainted with the game should answer according to the best of their knowledge and belief. Those who know little or nothing of the game would oblige themselves and others by at once confessing their incompetency. Either they may not have seen the disputed stroke, or, seeing it, may not have been familiar with its merits.

THE THREE-BALL CAROM GAME.

This is considered by many the finest and most scientific game of billiards in vogue. The game is played with three balls only, two white and one red, and on a carom table. The red is placed on the spot assigned to the dark-red in the American four-ball game. At the commencement of the game one of the white balls is placed on the light-red, or upper spot, connected with which is a described radius or semicircle of six inches, usually marked on the cloth with chalk. The other white ball, being “in hand,” may be played from any part of this semicircle, which answers for what is known as the “string” in the four-ball game, and whenever the cue-ball is “in hand” the player has the right of playing it from this half circle. Points are reckoned by caroms, which ordinarily count one point each; but when the rule of counting, as in the four-ball game, is allowed, then misses count, but not otherwise.

In France, where the three-ball game had its origin, there is no standard code of rules to govern it. In America the following rules are observed:--

1. The game is begun by stringing for the lead and choice of balls, as in the four-ball game, the same regulations governing. In “stringing,” the players should endeavour to strike the cue-balls simultaneously, and he whose ball stops nearest the cushion at the head of the table shall have the choice either of playing first or of making his adversary do so--a privilege which thereafter shall belong to both players alternately.

2. Unless a special agreement be entered into between the players and the table-keeper, the game commonly consists of twenty-one points, if each carom counts one only, and of forty-five when each carom counts two, and misses are scored.

3. The first to play places his ball in any part of the semicircle, at his option. He then plays at the ball on the deep-red spot, and has no right to hit the white first without having caused his ball to touch the cushion at some point outside of the “string.”

4. Player No. 2, whose ball has been placed on the spot, plays in his turn. On a carom table he has the right to play on either ball, even though both should be within the “string.” On a pocket table it is his privilege to have the red placed on its appropriate spot, or he may elect to play the balls as they are. Should he adopt the latter course in this instance, or at any other time he happens to be in hand on a pocket table, he must, before hitting either of the balls in the “string,” cause his own to pass outside.

5. When a player is in hand on a carom table, and the other balls are within the “string,” he may play directly upon either. But on a pocket table, he can only play as described in Section 4. Furthermore, he must confine his ball to the semicircle, and not let the lower half of his body pass beyond the right line which the edge of the side cushion would describe if prolonged.

6. The player must have at least one foot on the floor.

7. A ball exactly on the “string line” is considered within the string.

8. The carom is good, and the points count for the player, even though his ball should be lost; and he continues to play. [A ball is considered lost which goes into a pocket, jumps off the table, or remains on a cushion.]

9. A pushing stroke subjects the player to the loss of the point or points he may have made by that stroke, and puts his ball out of hand.

10. A player who plays before all the balls have ceased rolling loses his stroke, and his hand is out.

11. When the cue-ball is in contact with one or more balls, all are taken up and placed as at the commencement of the game; and the player, being considered in hand, continues his play.

12. If the balls are disturbed accidentally, through the medium of any agency other than the player himself--as, for instance, through the interference of his opponent, or the marker, or other outside party--they must be replaced, and the player allowed to play.

13. If, in playing, or after having played, the player disturbs any ball other than his own, he cannot make a counting stroke, but he may play for safety. But if he touches his own ball, except with the cue, or if he touches it more than once with that instrument, the stroke is foul, and he cannot play for safety.

14. A player has no right to disturb the balls, and ought not to do it without the consent of his adversary.

15. When the cue-ball is very near another ball, the player ought not to play without warning his adversary that they do not touch, and giving him time to satisfy himself on that point.

16. Playing with the wrong ball is foul. The rules as to playing with the wrong ball in the four-ball game are applicable to the three-ball game.

17. Blowing on a ball, or using any other means to alter its course or position, is foul. If the player so offending is in play, he must yield the table to his adversary, should the latter demand it. In all cases, the opposing player shall have the privilege either of having the ball or balls replaced, or played with as they are.

18. If a lost ball, on being put back on the table, disturbs another, the ball so disturbed must be put in its place again by the marker or referee, and the player whose turn it is to play shall proceed.

19. The red ball being lost, and its spot being occupied, it shall be placed on the “string” spot; if this latter should happen to be occupied also, then the red shall be placed on the pool spot at the foot of the table. A white ball being lost and its spot being occupied, shall be placed on the deep-red spot, or if that is occupied, on the pool spot, provided that it is not the turn of the player whose ball is lost to play. In that case, there is no occasion for spotting the lost ball.

20. On a carom table, a lost white ball that has been placed on the “string” spot cannot be moved after the opposing player has played a stroke while the ball was in this position; but on a pocket table, where the owner of a white ball that has been lost is compelled to play outside of the “string,” he can, when his turn comes, play from any point within the semicircle, provided that his ball has not been struck by another. On a pocket table, it is held that a ball is in hand until it has been struck or moved from its position, it having been placed on the spot simply to afford the in-striker a chance to count. On the contrary, on a carom or pocket-less table, custom has made the rule that a lost ball ceases to be in hand after one stroke has been played; and, in consideration of this ruling, the player, instead of being allowed to shift the position of his ball, is privileged, in this country, to play at any ball irrespective of its being in or out of the “string,” and regardless, also, of whether he stands at the head or at either side of the table.

[Explanation.--The two rules last preceding may be further explained in this wise: Either on a pocket or a carom table, a ball that rolls on to and occupies the “string” spot in the course of play cannot be moved aside to permit the spotting of a white ball that has become “lost.” The lost ball must be spotted on the dark-red, or the pool spot, as directed in rule 19, if its owner is not entitled to the next play, or within the semicircle if he is. But when, on a carom table, a white ball has been placed on the “string” spot by either player, instead of having rolled thereon, it may be moved aside to accommodate a “lost” white ball, provided that subsequent to the placing of the ball as mentioned no stroke has been played. In marked contrast with this, a white ball that has been placed on the “string” spot on a pocket table, may be moved aside at any time in order to permit the spotting of a “lost” white ball, provided always that the first-mentioned ball has not been touched while occupying the spot.]

21. A player who abandons a game declares it lost by so doing.

There is a pretty variation of this game called the “Pillet Game,” in which the above rules are varied only to the extent of requiring the cue-ball to touch the cushion first before a carom can count, the score in this game being ten points up only.

HINTS TO AMATEURS.

The old adage, “Experience is a great teacher,” holds equally true in billiards as in any other of the many occupations of life. There is no royal road to learning, but the student of the present day enjoys vast facilities over his ancestors in the acquirement of every variety of knowledge. Every new fact promulgated aids in the development of additional facts, which, though ever existent, have but just been discovered. Bearing these axioms in mind, we propose to embody in the present article a few hints to billiard players, which will enable the tyro at once to benefit by the information which the proficient has only obtained by years of practice and observation.

Remember that all players have equal rights, and that no gentleman will take any advantage of an antagonist excepting such as he may be fairly entitled to by superiority of judgment or of skill.

Never make any remark or unnecessary noise when your adversary is about to play, but stand away from the table and not opposite the pocket at which he may be playing.

Do not play carelessly, or strike at random, but with some definite object in view; and if no eligible stroke presents itself, endeavour to leave the balls as safe for your opponent as your skill will permit.

Never despair of winning a game; care and caution frequently insure success, even against apparent impossibilities. Fortune may seem to be against you, but remember that in the long run luck will invariably succumb to skill.

Attempt only strokes which seem to be within the compass of your abilities, except the necessities of the case require a deviation from this rule. This, however, is only to be considered a general law, and not by any means imperative.

Effecting the stroke at hand is but a part of the game, and the player should endeavour, in making this shot, to leave the balls in a position where a second count can be secured.

By way of illustration of some of the “points” in the game of billiards, we present below a few diagrams, and the first is that illustrative of the method of taking advantage of the chances for making points. The following is an explanation of abbreviations used in describing diagrams:--

A. stands for above the centre of the ball; B. for below it; R. to the right of it; L. to the left; and D. for diagonal. Q. P. means the strength or quantity of power with which the cue-ball must be struck. We describe as follows: Q. P. No. 1, strength enough to make the ball roll from the string to the lower cushion and back to the head cushion. Q. P. No. 2, from the string to the lower cushion, back to the head cushion, and from that to opposite the centre pocket. To propel it from the string to the opposite cushion, thence back to the head, and from that back to the lower cushion is Q. P. No. 3. Q. P. No. 4, is sufficient force to propel the ball from the string to the lower cushion, back to the head cushion, back to the lower cushion again, and thence half way down the table.

In playing billiards we frequently find the balls in a position where a count can be effected in several different ways. In such cases, it is advisable for the player to take into consideration the probabilities of effecting the stroke, and the position of the balls thereafter. If the stroke be at all doubtful, he should play where he would have the greatest prospect of success, or, in other words, “take the chances.”

We will suppose the cue-ball to be in hand, and the player desirous of securing a good “break.” The diagram below illustrates the position.

If, in the above case, the student is playing the usual game, it would be advisable for him to play on the object-ball, so as to pocket it and return over line 1, in this way taking three chances to make a count. If he is playing caroms alone, it would be better for him to play on the left of the object-ball, so as to draw it back in the string, as near the other balls as possible. To make the first stroke: strike the cue-ball ¼ A., ¼ R., with Q. P. 2½; and if the object-ball be pocketed in the corner, as represented, the carom will be made on one of the balls numbered 2 and 3. To make the second stroke: strike the cue-ball ¼ A., ½ R., with Q. P. 2½, the object-ball to be hit ⅜ L.

BRINGING THE BALLS TOGETHER.

The grand strength and science of the game consists in managing the balls so as to leave them in a favourable position for the next play, or if the player considers it impossible to count, to leave them as safe as may be for his antagonist.

We cannot insist too strongly upon a perfect mastery of this art. After the player has acquired a thorough practical knowledge of the philosophy of the follow, the force and the twist, the next great essential is the exercise of judgment with regard to the feasibility of strokes and their relative relation to the game. The term judgment is applied to the choice of strokes. The player, for instance, may have two apparent shots; the first may recommend itself to him because it is more facile, but if made will leave the balls safe, while the second, although more difficult, will, if successful, leave the balls in a position where a second count or even a run can be effected. Judgment, therefore, would dictate that he should attempt the second, rather than the first.

The diagram annexed will illustrate our remarks.

Strike the cue-ball ¼ B., ⅜ L., with Q. P. 2½, the object-ball to be hit so as to make it roll over the lines, as represented, and the player will have a break of balls, which, with judicious management, will enable him to effect a long run.

With one more illustration of this feature of scientific play we close our article.

To play the balls as shown in the illustration following the player must strike the cue-ball a little below the centre, and with a deadened stroke, caroming gently on the second ball; the object-ball about one-third to the right. This carom should be practised until each position has become familiar to the player.

In either practice or ordinary play the beginner should never play carelessly, or strike at random, but with some definite object in view; and if no eligible stroke presents itself, endeavour to leave the balls as safe for your opponent as your skill will permit.

[Note.--There are two exceptions to this rule. The first occurs in leading off, and has already been explained. The second is where the cue-ball, while at rest, is in contact with another ball. Then the player does not forfeit. It is impossible to cause the cue-ball to hit, by a direct stroke, the ball with which it is in contact, and the player should not be penalized for failing to accomplish an impossibility. But, as it is possible for him to count by playing away from that ball--for example, by striking some other ball, or a cushion, first, or by taking up all the balls if his own is in contact with two or more--it is a settled ruling that, in case he should pocket his ball either by accident or design, or send it over the table, or cause it to lodge upon the cushion, he must pay forfeit--two points, if his ball was in contact with a white, and three if with a red.]

THE CANADIAN GAME OF LA CROSSE.

The game of La Crosse, now known as the “National game” of the new dominion of Canada, is of Indian origin, and is the oldest and only legitimate American game of ball now in vogue. La Crosse was played among the American Indians before the tread of a “pale face” invaded the “native heath” of the red man, and consequently our British friends cannot claim the credit of even originating the basis of this game, as in base-ball, though La Crosse resembles the Scotch game of Golf.

An attractive feature of La Crosse is that it can be played when base-ball or cricket cannot. No rolling or levelling of grounds are required, and but a merely nominal expense for materiel. The rules of La Crosse are simple enough for a child to comprehend them; but yet it is a game capable of yielding a great degree of exciting sport, both to the young and old as participants, and to both sexes as spectators. Moreover, wherever there is an ordinary field or common, if the grass be not too long, a ground is ready for a match. As regards the physical requisites and advantages, the former are the possession of pedestrian skill and endurance to a more or less degree, with considerable activity of movement, while the latter consist of the benefits the excitement of a contest and the rapid exercise the game yields, agility, speed, and endurance being developed in the process of becoming a skilful player in the game.

La Crosse is played by twelve men on each side. These twelve players occupy the following positions, viz.: goal-keeper, point, cover-point, centre, home, and seven fielders. The goal-keeper’s duty is to defend the goal; point is the player occupying the position out in the field, and nearest the goal-keeper; cover-point fronts the latter’s position; the “centre” is the player who faces the playing party in the centre of the field; home is the position of the player who stands nearest the goal of the opposing twelve; and the fielders skirmish round generally.

Each contesting twelve elect a captain to superintend the game, and they choose umpires and toss for choice of goal.

There are two umpires, and these select a referee, whose decision on disputed points is final.

The “crosse” is a species of battledore, the ball being in the place of the shuttlecock, the difference being, that the portion of the bat formed by network is of a similar form to an English kite (see diagram). The network requires to be strung tightly together, so as not to “bag,” but to be quite level.

The ball is made of soft spongy rubber, not exceeding eight inches in circumference.

The goals consist of flag-poles, with flags, the poles standing six feet above the ground, and six feet apart generally, but the distance is optional on mutual agreement by the captains of the contesting sides. In front of each goal, and distant six feet therefrom, is drawn a line, called the “goal crease,” and within this line the players of the opposite side to that the goal belongs to are prohibited from standing, unless the ball is near the flags. The position of the umpires is behind the above goal flags. The goal-keeper, while defending the goal, may stop the ball in any manner he chooses.

The game consists of each party striving, by means of the crosse, or netted bat each player uses, to send the ball to the goal of their adversaries; and in doing this the ball must not be handled, or even touched by the hand, except it falls into a hole, in which case the man handling it must bat it direct to the nearest opponent; and except by the goal-keeper while defending his goal.

But the appended rules describe all further laws of the game.

It was not until 1867 that a regular code of rules was adopted for the government of all regular La Crosse clubs. These laws were enacted at the Convention of La Crosse Clubs, September 26, 1867, and are now the rules of play for Canada.

A Canadian writer on the game says:--“Although our early days were devoted to cricket, we must confess to a decided preference for our own game, with its athletic struggles. There is nothing like La Crosse. No other game throws such a fascination over the spectator, who seems riveted to the spot in admiration of the dashing and skilful play of the champion twelve. For beauty and variety, skilful play and sober excitement, it has no equal.”

Any information required about the game by those desirous of forming clubs, will be furnished by addressing the Secretary of the Montreal La Crosse Club, Montreal, Canada.

The following are the recognised code of rules governing La Crosse in the Canadas, where it has been adopted as the “National game” of the new dominion:--

LAWS OF LA CROSSE.

THE CROSSE.

RULE 1.--The “crosse” may be of any size to suit the player, but the network must not be bagged: it must be flat when the ball is not on it. A leading or outside string, above the level of the others, may be used. It may rest on the top of the stick, but must not have anything under to increase its height.

THE BALL.

RULE 2.--The ball shall be india-rubber sponge, not less than eight, and not more than nine, inches in circumference. In matches it shall be furnished by the challenged party.

THE GOALS.

RULE 3.--The goals may be placed at any distance from each other, and in any position agreeable to the captains of both sides. The top of the flag-pole shall be six feet above the ground, including any top ornament, and six feet apart, and in a match may be furnished by either party.

THE GOAL CREASE.

RULE 4.--There shall be a line or crease, to be called the goal-crease, drawn in front of each goal, at a distance of six feet from the flags, within which no opponent shall stand, unless the ball is actually near or nearing the flags.

SPECTATORS.

RULE 5.--Spectators must stand at least twenty feet from the goals.

UMPIRES.

RULE 6.--There shall be two umpires at each goal, one for each side. Unless otherwise agreed upon by the captains, they shall not be members of either club engaged in a match, nor can they be changed during a match, except for reasons of illness or injury. They must be thoroughly acquainted with the game, and in every way competent to act. Before a match begins, they shall see that all the regulations respecting the crosse, ball, goal, goal-crease, &c. are strictly complied with, and in deciding whether or not a crosse is bagged they shall take the opinion of the captains and the referee. During the game they shall stand behind the flags, and shall have power to decide all disputes, subject to Rule 7, and suspend from play any player infringing these laws. No umpire shall, either directly or indirectly, be interested in any bet upon the result of the match. No person shall speak to the umpires, or distract their attention when the ball is near or nearing their goal.

REFEREE.

RULE 7.--The umpires shall select a referee, to whom all disputed games whereon they are a tie may be left for decision. He shall take the evidence of the players particularly interested, the respective opinions of the different umpires, and, if necessary, the opinions and offers of the captains, in cases where the discontinuance of the game is threatened. His decision shall in all cases be final.

CAPTAINS.

RULE 8.--Field captains, to superintend the play, may be appointed by each side previous to a match, who shall toss up for choice of goal, and select umpires. They shall report any infringement of the laws to the umpires. They shall be members of the club by whom they are appointed, and may or may not be players in a match; and if not, they shall not carry crosses.

DESIGNATION OF PLAYERS.

RULE 9.--The players of each side shall be designated as follows:--

1. Goal-keeper, who defends the goal. 2. Point, who is first man out from goal. 3. Cover-point, who is in front of point. 4. Centre, who “faces” in the centre of the field. 5. Home, who is nearest the opponent’s goal. The remaining players shall be termed “fielders.”

NUMBER OF PLAYERS.

RULE 10.--Twelve players on a side shall constitute a full field, and they must have been regular members of the club they represent, and of no other club, for thirty days prior to a match.

CHANGE OF PLAYERS.

RULE 11.--No change of players shall be made after a match has been commenced, except for reasons of accident or injury during the match. When a match has been agreed upon, and one side is deficient in the number of players, their opponents may either limit their own players’ numbers to equal them, or compel them to fill up the complement.

SPIKED SOLES.

RULE 12.--The players shall not wear spiked soles to their shoes.

TOUCHING THE BALL WITH THE HAND.

RULE 13.--The ball must not be touched with the hand, save in the cases of Rules 14 and 15.

GOAL-KEEPER.

RULE 14.--The goal-keeper, while defending the goal within the goal-crease, may stop balls in any manner.

BALL TAKEN UP WITH THE HAND.

RULE 15.--Whenever the ball is taken up, or out of a hole, with the hand, during the progress of a game, it must be faced for with the nearest opponent.

ACCIDENTAL GAME.

RULE 16.--Should the ball be accidentally put through a goal by one of the players defending it, it is game for the side attacking that goal. Should it be put through a goal by any one not actually a player, it shall not count for or against either side.

HOLDING, STRIKING, AND PUSHING.

RULE 17.--Players shall not hold each other, nor grasp an opponent’s crosse; neither shall they deliberately strike or trip each other, nor push with the hand.

CHANGING SIDES.

RULE 18.--After each game the players shall change goals, unless otherwise agreed upon.

PENALTIES FOR FOUL PLAY.

RULE 19.--Any player convicted of deliberate foul play, or infringement of these rules, shall be suspended from play by the umpires, at request of his captain.

DECIDING A MATCH.

RULE 20.--A match shall be decided by winning three games out of five, unless otherwise agreed upon.

AMENDING LAWS.

RULE 21.--Any amendment, revision, or alteration, proposed to be made in any part of these laws, shall be made only at the Annual Conventions of “The National La Crosse Association of Canada,” and by a three-fourths’ vote of the members present.

R. CLAY, SON, AND TAYLOR, PRINTERS, BREAD STREET HILL.

TRANSCRIBER’S NOTES:

This text follows the original work as much as possible. Inconsistencies in lay-out, spelling, hyphenation, capitalisation, etc. have been retained, except as mentioned below.

The Table of Contents in the original work usually does not show all levels; this has not been changed. (Sub-)section headers show different levels, based on the text. The sub-sections under Baseball, American Billiards and La Crosse are not mentioned in the original Table of Contents, these have not been added.

Remarks on the text:

Page 75, hang from the strong downwards: possibly typographical error.

Page 127, orbele poplar: possibly error or variant spelling of abele poplar (white poplar).

Page 130, table: Smith’s scores are not according to the calculation given in the text; this has not been changed.

Page 389, illustration plate electrical machine: reference letters B are not visible in the original illustration.

Page 459, first illustration: reference letters D, E and F are not visible in the original illustration.

Page 487, spectra: the scans available of this edition show a fraction of letters in the right-hand margin of the page. A later edition (1881) of the book shows the same illustration, the symbols for the elements have been taken from that edition. The “metal discovered by Professor Bunsen” is rubidium. Page 490 lists the same elements.

Page 569: Angola rabbit it possibly a misspelling of Angora rabbit; the word occurs in other publications of the same period, and has not been changed.

Page 615: “they will be of this form.” Illustration moved to under paragraph; ... on the edge of the board inside, thus: illustration moved to before paragraph.

Page 627, (or Var. A.): there is no Var. A. for this game in the original work.

Page 650, Fig. 6: reference number 1 is missing from the original illustration.

Page 670, ... and ask some to choose ...: possibly (part of) a word is missing (someone, some person or similar).

Page 682, Amstelod.: Amstelodanum (Amsterdam).

Page 697, realgor: possibly error or variant of realgar.

Page 724, In order to the full success ...: possibly a word is missing (In order to achieve ... or similar).

Page 764: Mecklenberg Schwerin: possibly error or English variant spelling for Mecklenburg Schwerin.

Page 798, carombolage: the French word is carambolage.

Page 812, a similar form to an English kite (see diagram): the diagram is not present in the original work

Changes made to the text:

Some missing punctuation, repeated words and typographical errors have been corrected silently.

Footnotes have been moved to underneath paragraph they refer to.

i.e. and i. e. have been standardised to i. e.

Some illustrations have been moved from within text to underneath/above paragraph. Several tables and forms have been moved and re-arranged; therefore page numbers referring to illustrations are not necessarily correct in this text.

Parts of some illustrations have been enhanced for better visibility.

Page vii: Snow-Ball changed to Snow-Balls; Will you ’List changed to Will you List (both as in text)

Page viii: The Hoop added (as in text)

Page ix: Under-hand-hand bowling changed to Under-hand bowling; Single Wicket changed to The Laws of Single Wicket (as in text)

Page x: The Britzschaka, New Brougham and The Family Coach deleted from ToC, these are illustrations, not sections; BROADSWORDS treated as hierarchically higher level section, as in the text

Page xiii: Phantasmacope changed to Phantasmascope

Page xv: To crack Walnuts on your Elbow changed to To crack Walnuts in your Elbow (as in text)

Page xvi: The Row of Halfpence added

Page 1: Heading PART I added for consistency with other parts

Page 16: National-school doys changed to National-school boys

Page 17: water slashed over changed to water splashed over

Page 31: the second mode changed to The second mode

Page 124: fixed their staes changed to fixed their stakes

Page 155: snooters changed to shooters

Page 166: alloted changed to allotted

Page 170: illustration rotated 90°

Page 172: illustration (post) rotated 90°

Page 189, illustration: d changed to D as in text

Page 208: coupé sur peint changed to coupé sur point

Page 212, figure Target: inverted R changed to 1

Page 218: Page 605 changed to Page 219

Page 265, illustration: 7 changed to 4 as in text

Page 302: proportionably changed to proportionally

Page 310: not two high changed to not too high

Page 315, first illustration: text paragraph changed to caption

Page 328: free from noles changed to free from holes

Page 359: Is is a powerful supporter changed to It is a powerful supporter

Page 370, sal ammoniac: NH₄C₂ changed to NH₄Cl

Page 371: section title IODINE--BROMINE--FLUORINE changed to IODINE as in ToC (sections on Bromine and Fluorine follow on same and next page)

Page 381: hickel changed to nickel

Page 391, illustration ringing bells: reference letter A added

Page 392: the knob E changed to the knob F

Page 405: jet-d’eau changed to jet d’eau

Page 406: jet-d’-eau changed to jet d’eau

Page 408: superscripts in chemical formula changed to subscripts as elsewhere

Page 448: a open umbrella changed to an open umbrella

Page 453: representatation changed to representation

Page 489: Kirchoff changed to Kirchhoff; fraction 1/2,500,00: the numerator was lacking in the original, numerator 1 has been added

Page 490: Kirchoff’s changed to Kirchhoff’s

Page 495: combe changed to combs

Page 505, Frequently the claws ...: “former” and “latter” reversed

Page 549, illustration Tumbler: moved to before section, caption deleted for consistency with other breeds

Page 551, illustration Fantail: moved to before section, caption deleted for consistency with other breeds

Page 554: hither and hither changed to hither and thither; créve cœur changed to crève cœur

Page 557: créve cœur changed to crève cœur

Page 593: indiarubber changed to india-rubber as elsewhere

Page 640, Variation A. on Black’s 3d Move: column headers BLACK and WHITE changed to WHITE and BLACK

Page 642, GAME II, White’s second move: 1. changed to 2.

Page 676, Charles I. code: letter r inserted

Page 678: coded messages corrected to be in agreement with cipher given and coding procedure

Page 709: Mississipi changed to Mississippi

Page 712: Liliputian changed to Lilliputian

Page 719: Beurre Diel changed to Beurré Diel (as in Beurré d’Amanlis, same sentence)

Page 737, Cross Puzzle illustration: pieces renumbered according to solution

Page 760: à perçevoir changed to à percevoir

Page 767: Van Dieman’s Land changed to Van Diemen’s Land

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