III. BIOLOGY--OF THE WHOLE IN SINGULARS (part 2 of 2)

III. BIOLOGY--OF THE WHOLE IN SINGULARS (part 2 of 2)

2790. The sense of feeling is characterized by poles only being excited in it by absolute proximity or immediate contact. Just because it is the first sense, through which the animal is set free, so must that which is liberated be at once perceived in the moment of liberation, and thus in immediate contact. The sense of feeling is a polarity of contact, a polarity without distance. The stronger the contact, by so much the stronger is the polar excitation--there is increased pressure. The gravity acts simply by pressure. The perception is therefore resolvable into one of pressure or contact.

2791. Different degrees of pressure necessarily impart different amounts of feeling. Perception of the different degrees of pressure made by an object betrays its inequalities of surface. The sense of feeling is also the sense for determining inequalities, for the Soft and Hard, for the Solid, Fluid, and Gaseous; all these feelings, however, are referable to the contact.

2792. Through diseased conditions, the polarizability of the sensitive nerves may become exceedingly elevated, and they then perceive the polarity of contact prior to the contact having taken place. For the two bodies invariably excite poles that are antagonized to each other. Were other bodies not to approach them more closely, or else act upon them more energetically and so extinguish the polarity; they would remain at an infinite distance in a state of polar relation towards each other. Feeling can therefore be extended to an indefinite distance. Hysterical, mesmerized, and even healthy human beings, feel further than they grasp or touch with the hand.

2793. Homogeneous polarities, or those of the same kind, are throughout nature to be found also by means of others; e. g. electrical polarities are not disturbed by the intervention of magnetic ones. Such is the case also in feeling. That which is related to oneself is felt, although it is more remote from us than other objects, upon which we do not bestow any attention, or towards which we do not turn our poles.

2794. The sense of feeling differs according to the diversity of certain points in the integument, and is thus nobler in character, the higher the rank which these may hold. Thus it is most feebly developed in vegetable situations, where hairs, nails, claws, and scales are placed. It must attain the highest grade of perfection in the animal organs, and thus in the limbs or their parallels, the lips.

2795. In the limbs, by reason of their mobility, the feeling becomes voluntary. It is then wholly in our power to strengthen or weaken the contact, to press gently or firmly, and allow these periods of feeling to succeed each other rapidly or slowly.

2796. Feeling associated with motion is called touch; this condition of the organ the tactile sense. The tactile sense is by no means different from that of feeling; it is only the combination of feeling with motion.

2797. The fingers are the most perfect organs of feeling, because they are the most moveable parts of the body, and therefore they are organs of touch.

2798. As simple feeling perceives the asperities of bodies, so does touch the forms. The perception of forms is based upon the form that resides in the tactile organ itself.

2799. All possible forms reside in the motion of the fingers.

2800. Each hand is a semi-ellipse, in which the four fingers are the periphery, the thumb the radius. Both hands together form a perfect ellipse with two radii.

2801. Now, in the ellipse are involved all geometrical figures. The hands include in their movements the whole of geometry.

2802. We can only perceive the forms of nature, because they all reside in ourselves, because we can create them. This, and none other, is the meaning or sense of the doctrine of pre-established harmony.

2803. The sense of touch is also the sense of form. The fingers constitute so perfect an organ, that it is scarcely requisite for us to estimate all its value. In it the whole body is repeated simply in forms, in spiritual motions.

2804. Through the hand the whole planet becomes an object unto us. It is the hand which instructs us how to know this terrestrial world.

2805. The greatest perfection is attained by the greatest variety or multiplied diversity of the organs. The limbs are simply destined for motion, yet feeling also resides in them, because they are invested with integument. Could the limbs therefore divide into motor and tactile members, the conceivable sum total of perfection must be attained. This division is present alone in Man. The feet have become simply locomotive members, because they are those of the sex; but the hands have become tactile members, because they are those of the encephalic animal.

2806. It is not, as has been imagined, the hands, as hands, which confer nobility upon our species, for by their means an essential half of the animality, or the power of locomotion, is lost; but it is the preservation of all possible functions in an animal, and in such a manner that each stands upon its highest grade of perfection. The highest perfection cannot, however, be attained where two functions are attached to one organ. Should both hands and feet exercise the sense of touch, the motion is impaired; should both move the body, then the sense suffers.

2807. The four hands of the Apes are therefore an imperfection, which we have no need to envy them. They can, properly speaking, only climb and grasp with them, but not run. Each gait of theirs becomes therefore ungainly, the horizontal as well as the upright or perpendicular, and they make use of both alternately; because too the act of handling, i. e. of climbing, is their only proper movement. Now, in the act of climbing all the limbs are brought into requisition, and consequently a free voluntary touch and a free progression disappear.

2808. The feet support the body and stand in its service.

2809. The hands are, on the contrary, supported by the body, are free.

2810. The wings also support the body.

2811. Feet and hands define man. Through the two only does he become free.

Tegumental Covering.

2812. The skin, as being originally a branchia, is provided also with its branchial operculum. This is the epidermis.

2813. Scales are plications or folds of the epidermis, which accord with the situation of the branchial vessels; they are therefore arranged generally in a circular form around the body, and are more definitely varied upon the dorsal than ventral aspect of the body. Large scales, or those which may be regarded as formed by the confluence of several scales, are called scutes.

2814. It is merely the epidermis which is concerned in the production of the squamous covering; but if the former branchial vessels emerge themselves so as to project above the integument and become dried, then hairs originate.

2815. If these hairs ramify, then there are feathers.

2816. It is only therefore the Mammalia and Birds who possess a proper external covering or garment.

2817. The claws or nails are scales upon the extremity of the branchial arches, which have become animal in character, or in other words, are digital scales; they are animal branchial opercula.

2818. The nails are demi-claws, and therefore leave the points of the digits free. Free digital apices or points constitute the most perfect organ of touch, because this is then divided into two parts and because the nail increases the amount of resistance.

2819. The organs of defence are therefore an appendage of the sense of feeling, as are the bones of the motor system.

Splanchnic or Visceral Senses.

2820. These senses will not be found to disown their predecessors; and just as the latter extracted the qualities from terrestrial matter, so also do they. But while the former had to deal with the material, the present set will have to transact business with the spiritual qualities.

2. Function of the Gustatory Sense.

2821. Digestion is a chemical process, and one indeed wherein actual mixture and decomposition take place; it is therefore also, and "par excellence," an aqueous process. For matters that are actually decomposible are alone submitted to digestion, since it is of too coarse a character to perceive the proneness of such bodies to decomposition.

2822. It belongs only to a higher grade of perfection, or to a nervose condition of the digestive process, to perceive the rationale of the decomposition, or the spiritual conflict, which prevails between the matters, when they are about to separate.

2823. Now, the organ which only perceives the qualities of matters, without reference to their actual separation, is a sense. Upon the highest grade of perfection the digestive passes over into a sensorial function.

2824. Tasting is the first commencement of the digestion in the nervous system, where the aliments are felt just before the analysis into their polar quantities has taken place. The gustatory is a water-sense.

2825. For the exercise of the sense of taste the same conditions are requisite as for digestion, viz. solution and capacity for decomposition. Without the capacity for being dissolved, and without the occurrence of actual solution, nothing can be tasted, any more than digested. The saliva is the gastric juice for the tongue.

2826. If water be the basic element in the process of digestion, so in gustation must the higher water, or the salt, be the basis of taste. Salt alone is sapid, and every thing in order to be tasted, must possess saline properties.

2827. The tongue, by means of the saliva, passes over gradually into salt. Salt is the last extremity of the tongue. The salt-formation is a member of the gustatory formation. Hence tasting is only an ascension of the inorganic to the animal tongue. The salt is the gustatory sense of the earth.

2828. The general object of taste is the salt of the sea. It alone can and must be converted into a pleasing taste or relish. What is general in nature, is the antetype of that which is equivalent in an organism. Sea-salt and the tongue or saliva are one in kind.

2829. Every thing admits only of being tasted, in so far as it is salt; every thing is but savoury, in so far as it is marine salt.

2830. As the component parts of sea-salt are acid and alkali, so also are both these the extremes of tastes. Tastes are divisible accordingly into acid and alkaline savours.

2831. As salt is a product of what is inorganic, so will the sapid bodies of this kind be pleasant objects for gustation, provided they do not act chemically nor in excess. Therefore, what is saline, or acid and alkali combined, is agreeable to the taste, even if its action should last a long time.

2832. On the contrary, the proper organic savours, which admit with difficulty of being reduced to the former or inorganic kinds, if they do not prove at once nauseous or unpleasant, yet become so by lengthened operation, e. g. the Sweet, the Bitter.

2833. According to these savours has the organ of taste been regulated. It hath in itself also polar relations. The point or tip of the tongue tastes what is acid, its root more readily what is bitter, its dorsum or back what is poignant or moist.

2834. The matters are not mechanically analyzed upon the tongue; it does not therefore taste the several component parts, but only their chemical behaviour or relation in the water, in other words, their reaction.

3. Function of the Olfactory Sense.

2835. In the lungs the air is materially analyzed and deprived of its oxygen; but, when these organs have assumed a nervose character, the tension only of the air unto the analysis will be perceived. Now, the action of the air is the electrism. The nose perceives only the electrical condition of the air.

2836. The sensation of the electrical relations is called Smelling. The olfactory sense is an air-sense. We smell nothing but the electricity, and neither the contact, nor the impressions, &c. of the particles that find their way into the nose. These particles would have no effect upon the nasal organ, if they did not stand in an electrical relation unto it.

2837. Now, the electrical bodies in nature are the resins or Inflammables. What salt is for the gustatory, that is resin for the olfactory sense. The nose is an electrical, a resinous organ.

2838. In like manner the solubility of bodies in the air is as requisite for smell, as that in water is for taste. The water is the menstruum of the sapid, as the air is of odorous, bodies; and this indeed of necessity, because water and air are the antetypes of these mineral classes.

2839. In order to be an odorous body or object of smell, the resin must resolve itself into air, or become aeriform. Aeriform resin is æthereal oil. Bodies such as those which part rapidly with their electricity, substances containing hydrogen, æthereal oils and burnt spirits, are the usual objects appreciated by the olfactory sense.

2840. The hydrogenous body is therefore provided with a sweet scent. Most bodies which are evolved by fermentation, in so far as they are electrical, are odoriferous. Most blossoms smell agreeably, because they secrete aerial matters.

2841. The products of putrefaction emit a fetid odour, because they indicate the presence not of aerial, but aqueous and terrestrial matters. Nearly all animal bodies stink, besides many secretions of the sexual parts, because they belong to the vegetable nature.

2842. The objects of taste have their residence in what is inorganic, but those of smell, as being objects of a higher sense, have it in the vegetable kingdom. The succeeding or auditory sense has the animal kingdom for its object, while the eye scans the universe.

2843. The nose is in every respect an electrical organ; it is an electrophore, or rather a battery consisting of numerous plates. Of the truth of this, its numerous tortuous passages and laminated bones are striking proofs.

2844. That the nose consists of a great number of blood-vessels, as well as of arteriose olfactory nerves, is quite commensurate with its character or signification, as being a higher pulmonary organ.

2845. The objects of the three vegetative senses are the three elements of the planet, earth, water and air; in the first of these reside the relation of the gravity, rest, and crystallization; in the last the relation of the electricity; in the water that of the chemism. The sense of feeling is an earth-sense, that of taste a salt-sense, that of smell a resin-sense.

b. Functions of the Animal Senses.

2846. The objects of the animal senses are no longer matter, nor its chemical qualities, but the higher relations of the solar system, and the highest organizations, the animals themselves. Throughout the supra-planetary solar system there is naught to be conceived but motion and light in action. Wherever there is æther, it is in motion; the corresponding organs of sense must therefore perceive these two relations. Now, since the animal is also motion and light, and this alone, so by means of these senses will the innermost of animality be at once perceived. Animals become acquainted with themselves only through these senses, and by them only enter, in so far as they are animals, into communication with each other. In so far as they are mere masses of matter, they are capable of self-perception through other senses. These senses may therefore also be called cosmical, while the three former are terrestrial.

2847. They correspond thus with each other. The tactile sense is a precursor of the sense of motion, and represents the motion, gravity, and pressure, after a terrestrial manner; the two splanchnic senses are the precursors of the light-sense, since they dwell upon the qualities of the matter, while the light also is only a quality of the æther. The sense of smell, being as it were an air-sense, will in particular border most closely upon the light-sense.

2848. Through the two cosmic senses the universe is translated into the animal, like the planet is through the terrestrial senses; through the former also the animal spirit, which is a transcript of the universal spirit, passes over into other animals. They are the senses of the highest instruction, of freedom.

4. Function of the Auditory Sense.

In the æther resides the movement of the world.

2849. To the motor system that only which is its equal, and thus the movement of nature, can of necessity become an object. The motor system represented as a sense, cannot, however, perceive the borrowed or derived motion, not the planetary or massive motion, but the primary motion of the æther. The planetary motion is related to the primary motion as the oxydation is to the electrism, as chemical analysis to chemical affinity, and consequently also as respiration to smelling, as digestion to tasting, in short, as the material metatype to the spiritual antetype.

2850. The limbs are the planetary motion organized, and therefore perceive only this material motion--pressure. Touch is related to the animal sense of motion, as digestion is to the tasting.

2851. Smell and taste no longer perceive the bodies in the very act of decomposition, but their laws or their spiritual operations; so will the motor sense not perceive, like the sense of touch, the mass when in motion, but only the motor laws of the mass.

2852. These laws of motion are those of the primary motion. This is, however, a product of the light in the æther, an effect of polarity, and that indeed the first polarity which was manifested in the universe. The motor sense therefore perceives only a motion which has originated through primary polarity.

2853. Such motion is not relative in kind, i. e. it does not affect several portions of the matter in reference to some other matter; but it affects the whole matter internally, or its atoms, so that all matter may remain in its place and yet every atom of it be moved.

2854. This motion is like the motion of heat in the matter. By it heat is excited. For internal motion of the atoms, when aroused by polarity, so that every atom enters into a state of motion against the other, is a discharging of the poles, and consequently development of heat.

2855. This internal motion has, however, been produced by an external; for the external motion acts by contact, and this is a process of polarization. Now, the interior of a mass is only moved by repeated contact, or through the restlessness of polarization and by a proper amount of force, or one which is proportional to the mechanical resistance of the mass to be excited. The last of these is the stroke or blow, the first the vibration of the body. By vibration or oscillation only can a body be internally polarized; for, if it does not oscillate upon the shock being applied, it is still indeed set in motion, but "en masse," so that the internal parts remain in a state of rest.

2856. Oscillation is distinguished from continuous or progressive motion by its affecting the atoms of the body, while the latter acts upon the body itself. Through the vibration heat is engendered, because the poles are free and the matter passes over into æther.

2857. Vibration must endure the longest in solid bodies, and thus in that which belongs to the earth. Among these the hard bodies must take precedence, because the soft are of an aqueous nature. Among the hard bodies again the heaviest must vibrate most effectually, because they offer a longer resistance, and do not yield so soon as light bodies to the effort made at separation. The purest representative of the earth-element or the metal is thus the best instrument or means of vibration, and consequently the object of the motor sense.

2858. Thus as the salt of the earth-element is the object of taste, and as the resin of the earth-element is the object of smell, so would the metal be the object of this motor sense.

2859. But no sense-object is without its medium for transmission, except in the case of the sense of feeling or touch. The salt is only tasted by means of the water, the Inflammable only smelt by means of the air; the metal's primary motion could not therefore be perceived directly by the auditory sense. It must be propagated through the medium which ranks next to the heat, and whose atoms insinuate themselves most easily into those of the vibrating body--thus through the air. Man perceives the primary motion, in which things tend to resolve themselves into æther, through the air. By the metal, or by every vibrating body, the vibration of the air is communicated.

2860. This vibration is not, however, a general movement to and fro, but a dissolution of the material bands. This dissolution can only take place according to the laws of the primary motion. They are rigidified in the solid masses as crystalline forms. Every law of motion is a crystalline form which has become free or spiritually manifested. Through the vibration forms are engendered in bodies, which are commensurate with the substance and form of the mass and the degree of vibration. These forms, being as it were the ghosts or phantoms of crystals, are called sonorous figures.

2861. If the air be displaced when in a state of covibration, it is not thrown into undulatory circles or waves, like water into which a stone has been cast, but in each of its parts the sonorous figure of the rigid body is repeatedly represented. The vibration of air is a progressive motion of sonorous figures.

2862. If the sonorous figures are not incommensurable, several may be at one and the same time in a single portion of air, without interfering with each other. They harmonize, because they have originated according to concordant laws. But if they are products of different laws, they are then confused, and an indeterminate offensive vibration originates, just as savours become loathsome if they depart from their laws.

2863. These figures of the air are only perceived by the Ear. The ear is the only sense in which the motor system is represented in a pure state, devoid of any vegetal signification, and simply endowed with nervose nobility. The ear is therefore the only organ which can perceive the primary motion of the matter; for like acts only in or upon its like.

2864. The metals are the ear of nature, the salt her tongue, the resin her nose, the earth her hand.

2865. The power or capacity excited by sonorous figures of covibrating according to the same laws, constitutes Hearing; the phenomenon is called Sound. Hearing is a primary motion in the musculo-osseous system of the ear, which is communicated to the auditory nerve. The auditory sense is æther-sense, metal-sense. Hearing is magnetizing.

2866. The sonorous figures are formed in the auditory organ, and even in the auditory nerves, just as they have been represented upon an infinitely small scale in the air. The nerve becomes in hearing a sonorous figure.

2867. It is not the mere motion in the auditory organs which produces the sensation of sound; the nerve certainly perceives each movement in the ears, because none is possible apart from or without primary motion; only such a motion is no sound, but only a noise. What has been written in the tingling metal according to eternal laws, is transcribed or copied in the auditory nerve; it is only this writing, but no massive motion of the air, which is legible by the nerve.

2868. Melody is a retrogression of the matter into æther, of the formed world into the primary world; through melody is the spirit of the world revealed. The ear is the first liberation of the animal from all terrestrial matter; through the ear the animal becomes for the first time spiritual.

2869. Melody is the voice of the universe, whereby it proclaims its scheme, or its innermost essence. Hence the wondrous, mysterious action of harmony, the secret sovereignty of music. Music is the expression of the ardent desire to revert to the primary idea. It makes man unconsciously yearn after a condition which he knoweth not; it transports him unconsciously into this condition of divine repose and godly bliss.

Speech.

2870. That which melodizes proclaims its spirit: the melody of animals displays their internal law.

2871. The musical system of all animal laws is Speech.

2872. Speech is the representation of all nature's sonorous figures in the human organ of sound.

2873. Through speech Man delineates himself in spiritual outlines or sketches, which, devoid of matter (or body), he sets down before himself. Such sketches are easily seen through, since to them every material covering is wanting, and they lie purely before the sensation, as the law, the will of nature.

2874. Through speech Man appears as a double essence. He is a corporeal essence; and the spoken word appears before him in the same outlines, but without body. When conversing, Man is a self-manifestation unto self.

2875. Previous to speech no self-consciousness originates.

2876. Without an auditory organ there is no self-consciousness.

2877. To the organ of hearing, however, belongs also the auditory nerve and the cerebellum. Without a cerebellum there is no self-consciousness.

2878. While Man appears unto himself, he appears also to change. Nature is gloomy, incomprehensible; the spirit is clear, and enlightens her.

2879. Manifestation is only possible through self-manifestation; through a doubling of itself, through its expression.

2880. Animals appear only, in so far as they are individual self-manifestations of Man.

2881. With speech Man creates unto himself his world. Without speech there is no world. For the Apes there is no world, but only tree-fruits, female and male.

2882. Through speech Man becomes acquainted with or learns to know himself; through it he becomes a self-substantial essence, which resembles God, because it creates for itself its world, and recognizes itself, i. e. speaks.

2883. Words are forms of our body mathematically laid down.

2884. A single world is dead, so also are many.

2885. Words, which are connected together according to organic laws, form an organic system, are at once alive, and have a meaning.

2886. Speech originates gradually like the organs, like Man. Speech grows like a plant; at first it is only root, next it puts forth a stem, then leaves, and finally blossoms, when it is the perfect expression of the animal body.

2887. The organ of speech is composed of the three terrestrial organs of sense, the air-, water-, and earth-sense.

2888. The air-organs are the principal medium, because they must produce the sonorous figures; the tongue imparts to them the specific modification; but the lips and jaws, as being motor members, afford the articulation or the movement proper. The lungs and nose breathe out the tones; the tongue digests them; the lips move them, and fashion them into perfect bodies--words.

2889. A word is at once for itself a regularly inter-articulated body. The sounds are its members, its organs or fundamental formations.

2890. Speaking is a gentle respiration, carried on by the mouth, nose, and limbs or jaws.

2891. As respiration has a special thorax, so also has speaking. The speech-(or voice-) thorax is the larynx.

2892. The larynx represents the ribs and arms, which all move in order to form a sound. The tongue is, so to speak, the head upon this thorax.

2893. The nose imparts euphony to the sounds. It tests their fragrancy. The tongue gives them a special quality, their chemical character or taste; the teeth and lips furnish the cadence as a kind of joint to the sounds, or in other terms the words.

2894. Four organs of sense belong to speech, viz:

Touch in the Jaws. Taste in the Tongue. Smell in the Nose. Hearing in the Ear.

2895. The ear receives the products of the three vegetative organs of sense. It is a synthetic sense.

2896. The tongue gives the vowels; the jaws the consonants.

2897. In accordance with this the vowels are the body of speech, and the consonants the limbs or members, whereby it effects its movements.

2898. Vowels express time, consonants space; the one the chemical import, the other the form.

2899. The vowel E expresses the present, A that which has just past, O that which has quite passed, U that which has passed long ago, I the future.

2900. The more consonants there are in the words, so much the richer is the language; the more vowels, the poorer it is. Such is the speech of savages or wild men.

2901. The speech of animals is a vocal or vowel-speech.

5. Function of the Optic Sense.

2902. As the primary motion of the world is manifested to the animal through the ear; so does the primitive cause of the motion, that of every activity and every phenomenon, i. e. light, appear unto the nerve-sense.

2903. The light-sense is similarly formed or modelled according to the light of nature, and kindles also the light within itself, just as the light originated in the æther; viz. through primary antagonism taking place in its own substance.

2904. Light is the binary division of the æther-mass, not an antagonism between it and some other matter; in like manner sight is a binary division of the nerve-mass in itself, without antagonism to other organs.

2905. Sight is the tension of the æther directly continued into the animal æther, just as taste was a chemical action continued into the animal chemism, and smell an electrical process continued into the animal electrism.

2906. In sight the nervous mass is completely self-antagonized, is a phenomenon unto itself; the eye is the brain placed opposite to the brain.

2907. Sight is thus a tension between optic and central brain; as illumination is tension between planetary and solar æther.

2908. Illumination and vision are of one kind, only occurring in two different sorts of worlds. The planet sees by means of the illumination, the animal illuminates or gives out light by means of seeing. Sight is a light-sense.

2909. Now, the illumination is a fixation of æther, a coloration, and thus a descent of the æther into what is terrestrial. In seeing we perceive the æther, as to how it becomes world; in hearing we perceived the world, as to how it became æther.

2910. Seeing and hearing are opposite functions; the first indicates the creation, the latter the return of the creation into chaos.

2911. Through sight we become acquainted with the universe, through hearing with the miniature universe, or man. Sight passes out of us, hearing into us; or through sight Man is posited in the world, through hearing among his fellow-men. Sight is the speech of the world, hearing that of the planet.

2912. Sight is the speech or language of the universe, hearing the language of Man. Through sight the world reveals unto us its spirit or its thoughts; but through hearing man only discloses what are his own. As words are but the representations of the disintegrated body of Man, so are the world-forms the representatives of the disintegrated body of the primary spirit. The word is a rigidified, crystallized thought of Man; a natural body is a rigidified, crystalline thought of the primary act--a word of God.

2913. Through hearing self-consciousness originates; through sight consciousness of the world, universal consciousness. By means of the former we only become acquainted with human relations--which is understanding; by the latter with those that are universal--this being reason.

2914. Without the ear there would be no understanding, without the eye no reason.

2915. Understanding is microcosm, reason macrocosm. From what is intelligent we expect human wisdom, from what is rational world-wisdom.

2916. That the light also has a medium, whereby it acts upon us, is at once evident from our existing in such a medium; but it could also act directly upon us, were it not inevitably broken up beforehand into colours in traversing the media. All terrestrial elements may be a medium for the transmission of light, such as the gaseous, fluid, and solid, i. e. if they are transparent.

2917. We perceive only coloured light, because our organ of light is only a rigidified colour, a material light. There is no pure light for us; there is none also in general.

2918. Sight is thus a terrestrial light-tension, a colour-becoming.

2919. This happens only through refraction. The eye is a refracting medium. It is distinguished from the brain by being a translucent, refractive, encephalic substance.

2920. Light does not stream into the eye like water into the sponge, but it progresses gradually into and operates upon it.

2921. The eye, in order to experience the sensation of light, is placed in a similar tension to the air, water, or crystal. This tension between it and the brain is perceived by the latter as illumination. The eye is a prism, in which the brain sees the world, in which the brain observes its own tension, or the production of colour. Sight is a deoxydation of the eye.

2922. The optic nerve is an organized ray of light, the brain an organized sun, the eye an organized chromatic sun or rainbow.

2923. Just as the sonorous figures are delineated in the ears, and as the nerve perceives these, but not any concussion of the air; so also does the optic nerve perceive not the light in general, but its terrestrial formation or the chromatic image, which has been propagated into the eye.

2924. In an eye, while seeing, the world is depicted; as in the ear, when hearing, the crystalline forms of the air are delineated.

2925. The eye does not on that account see two worlds. For the chromatic image is nothing else than that which is external to or without the eye. It is verily one and the same influence of light, which acts continuously in a straight line between the chromatic image and the object apparent or beheld.

2926. As a stick thrusts us from the side whither it comes; so does the chromatic image from the side whence the light comes. The exit and entrance of the light are not distinct from each other. The objects could not therefore appear reversed, because we do not see the image in the eye, but feel its process of deoxydation along with its direction.

2927. The objects of the eye are colours. Like as they are related in nature, so also must they be in sight; for they are only the eye extended, or this again is only the formed colour.

2928. We see nothing else but colours, no bodies. For the eye there is no material world. It directly perceives the spirit, and indeed its own spirit, or the world of light.

2929. There is no pre-established harmony, but complete conformity between the world and organ of sense. (Vid. Oken's Essays, "Ueber das Universum als fort-gesetztes System der Sinne," and "Erste Ideen zur Theorie des Lichts." Jena bei Fromann, 1808.)

II. Functions of the Sexual Animal.

A. VEGETAL SEXUAL ORGANS.

1. Of the Sexual Intestine.

2930. As the sexual animal is in every respect the encephalic animal reversed, so also is this the case in respect to its functions. The sexual intestine gives out through its mouth or anus, while the other or animal gut takes in. As being the intestine of the vegetal animal it receives the fermented product of digestion, or the excrement, and conveys it backwards towards the sexual orifice or mouth.

2931. The intestinal function of the sexual animal is an act of vomition. The evacuation is an act of vomition, seeing that the intestinal contents are moved backwards.

2932. The sexual stomach is the rectum. In it the excrementitious matter is accumulated, so that it may be ready for being broken away in the process of evacuation.

2933. The commencement of the sexual intestine is the cæcum, its extremity the anus.

2. Functions of the Sexual Lung.

2934. We may distinguish two circulations, the splanchnic or visceral, which takes place between the lung, intestine, and liver, and the great circulation, which instead of going to the viscera passes to the other organs, and is called the bodily or systemic circulation. The liver excretes the product which results from the splanchnic circulation; the systemic circulation has its organ also, but one which does not secrete a special, but general product.

2935. The general secernent organ of the whole body together with all its systems is the sexual system, which having been elevated by virtue of this general character to the rank even of an animal, is a true sexual animal. That which is a general and not a partial excretion, is imparted by the sexual animal. It is the animal reversed.

2936. Thus the secernent organ of the general circulation must belong to the sexual system, and perform in it that which the liver, or in other words the reverse of the lungs, has done in the splanchnic circulation. The kidneys are the lungs reversed.

2937. If the bile be an extract from the visceral blood, so is the urine an extract from the body's blood, and is consequently the purest reflex or pattern of the former.

2938. The urine is sexual blood, just as the excrement is a product of the sexual digestion. The urine is reversed blood.

2939. The formation of urine is a retro-formation of the blood into digestive fluid or sap. The urine is blood of the sexual animal which has become chyle. It has both properties in itself. It is discoloured blood, and consists for the greatest part of water and salts, all of which are characters belonging unto chyle. It, however, contains urea, which corresponds to the noblest parts of the blood. This substance, like fibrine, consists for the greatest part of nitrogen; it may be called dissolved or decomposed fibrine. It imparts colour to the urine; it is converted by oxydation into lithic or uric acid, and is precipitated of a red colour analogous to that of the blood-globules. In addition to this, albumen, gelatine, carbonate of lime, and phosphorus, consequently the whole blood, are present in the urine.

2940. In urea the muscle flows or runs out of the animal, in albumen the nerve, in lime and phosphorus the bone, in gelatine the tegumentary together with the visceral system, lastly, in water the menstruum of the digestion and respiration.

2941. Thus the urine, just like the blood, is the whole body rendered fluid, but only in a sexual manner, namely, as being half decomposed.

2942. So the bile, from its not representing the whole body, does not contain the latter in itself. It properly contains only the excretion of the intestinal process.

2943. The kidneys stand accordingly opposed without distinction to all the organs, in so far as all of them are affected by the circulation. Their remote sympathy, or if we please, their antagonism, is with the animal systems, or with bone, muscle, and nerve. With the osseous, as being the profoundest system, there is of necessity also a close sympathy. In diseases of bone the bones, as well as the morbid matter, flow away principally through the urine. Their most intimate sympathy must be with the organs of circulation, with the lung, liver, intestine, and skin. As the skin is also an organ of evaporation, so is the antagonism between it and the kidneys of a direct or immediate kind. The skin is the kidneys expanded into a large cyst. These are in turn, just as the lung is, the inverted skin.

2944. A lung in the reversed animal can do nothing else but expire. It only expels the evaporated matter of the sanguinary system, but takes in none, so as to alter or support the blood. The sexual animal aims at the destruction of the animal. The urinary cyst, as being the remnant of the allantois, and of the primordial kidneys or sexual branchiæ, is simply destined to purposes of expulsion. It is the larynx reversed. Micturition takes place through contraction of the cyst, as does expiration by that of the lungs in Reptilia. It is a cough.

B. FUNCTIONS OF THE ANIMAL SEXUAL ORGANS.

2945. The sexual functions proper correspond to the sensorial functions, though to these upon an inferior stage. They are sensorial functions, which are simply occupied with the materials of the senses, so that they are vegetative senses. They are a prefiguration of the sense of feeling, taste, and smell.

1. Functions of the Male Organs.

2946. The testes secrete semen in the same manner that the salivary glands do their fluid or juice.

2947. The semen is sexual saliva, and is thus sexual virus or poison. Like the saliva destroys that which is living, so does the semen. The saliva, however, destroys it in order to form a new animal out of the food; with the same motive the semen destroys it. But both differ in this, that the saliva takes care of the body to which it belongs, while the semen attends to another body, the foetus or fruit.

2948. The saliva is only the highest condition of the digestive fluid, and is thus a totality merely of the intestinal system; the urine is the total product of the vascular system in its antagonism with the lung; but the semen is the product of the whole body. Through the semen the whole body, rendered fluid or reduced to the primary form, runs away. The semen is the chyle already prepared for all parts; but because it is in a sexual animal, it thus takes the reverse direction and passes out.

2949. A fluid, in which the whole animal has been dissolved, is parallel to the nerve-or point-mass. The semen is a fluid point-or nerve-mass, the fluid brain.

2950. Even what is spiritual directly resides in the semen; it need only assume a form and the cerebral functions commence.

2951. The penis, as being the sexual tongue, has only retained the sensibility of the sense of touch and the function of ingestion.

2. Functions of the Female Parts.

2952. The female aperture is the pharynx for the ingestion.

2953. It is by means of the female parts that the whole sexual system becomes for the first time equal to the perfected animal; through them for the first time the male tongue obtains an oral cavity.

2954. In the total representation of the sexual animal the female parts environ and include the male. This moment is called copulation.

2955. Copulation is the representation of the entire animal out of two incomplete ones. The sexual animal is only an entire beast in copulation, and is only then to be considered as equal to the encephalic animal. Copulation is a representation of the hermaphrodite.

2956. This propensity for bringing about the sexual animal's completion is sexual passion or lust.

2957. In copulation the male parts are "par excellence" the sensorial organ, the female only the recipient mouth. Both are properly organs of sense, but the one is operative or active, the other patient or passive.

2958. Previous to copulation the female parts are consequently inactive, just as digestion is before taste. As digestion first commences after taste has given up the food and excited the stomach to activity, so also the sexual function first commences in female animals, after the act of tasting is past.

2959. Through copulation what is female becomes masculine. It now secretes for the first time self-substantial semen. Through impregnation the female ovaria are first excited to secrete the saliva, which the whole animal contains in a state of solution.

2960. As the chyle becomes what it is, or is derived from the saliva and food; so from the semen and vitellus proceeds the foetus, but in such a manner that the female substance gives it the mass, while upon this the male only bestows the polarity.

2961. Thus, were the male semen to actually solidify into the foetus; it is still not its mass which comes into consideration in the latter, but only its polarizing strength. It supplies the place of the nervous system. This power appears to reside principally in the (seminal) Infusoria or animalcules, just as that of the blood does in the blood-globules. Meanwhile both are only signs of the maturity of their respective juices, as the Infusoria in sea-water are a proof also that the sea can produce other animals from its mucus or slime. The Infusoria are the primary mass of the Organic. Its life is only a manifestation of the seminal polarity. The Infusoria are semen which has been poured out over the earth. Propagation is only possible through reduction taking place to the infusorial primary mass.

2962. The semen and the ovum first meet or come together in the uterus.

2963. The ovum is the mean between vegetable and animal semen. As the former is distinctly formed and at once represents, upon a small scale within itself, the principal parts of the future plant, so does the ovum; but only in parts, from which the animal organs first of all grow forth, upon which having commenced, the former or vegetal parts are cast aside.

2964. The ovum is the entire animal in idea, or in design, but not yet in structure; it is the thought unto the animal; it is related to the animal as the thought is to the word.

2965. The ovum has therefore no organ of the animal preformed within itself, but only the materials requisite thereunto. But the materials are not so general in character, that like as from the infusorial mass, everything could become or derive its existence from everything else. But they are at once destined for definite organs, as the vitellus for the intestine, the albumen probably for the integument.

2966. In an ovum therefore the animal resides preformed only in a spectral or phantom-like manner. There are principal masses present in it, from which the principal organs originate.

Mammæ.

2967. In the oviparous animals the secretion of the vitellus is distinct from that of the albumen; the one takes place in the ovarium, the other in the oviduct or uterus.

2968. By degrees the albumen-secreting vessels advance further outwards upon the orifice of the sexual parts, and are then called milk-organs--Mammæ.

2969. Mammæ are only the vascular bundles of the oviduct placed in the direction outwards, or albumen-glands of the integument.

2970. Mammalia are those animals where the ovarium has completely separated into albumen-and vitellus-organ.

2971. Those mammæ which have scarcely been detached from the oviduct, and become free, are necessarily more incomplete, and are situated in the neighbourhood of the sexual parts--as udders.

2972. As the separation of the substances composing the ovum is an advancing-step towards their improvement, so also is the removal of the albumen-glands from the vitelline sac a nobler condition. They cannot, however, remove further off than to the thorax, because this is the highest post or station of the vegetative parts.

2973. Milk is a vegetable product of the animal.

2974. Numerous mammæ are a lower development.

2975. The milk is albumen, which has been secreted by tegumentary glands; it is animal albumen. The lacteal or milk-organs therefore belong to the sexual system.

2976. As the male parts are only the female otherwise developed, it is to be comprehended why the male animals also have mammæ. They are probably the embryo's principal organ of absorption.

Functions of the Uterus.

2977. Now, the uterus obtains the sexual food in a living state, and from its being such is affected by it.

2978. The uterus must be thus a world for the living germ. Two processes are, however, indispensable for the germ, namely nutrition and respiration; both of which are furnished by the uterus.

2979. The uterus is to be regarded as the water, the sea in which the germ or embryo is developed. The water decomposes into basic nutritive matter and oxygenous matter of respiration. The water of the uterus is the blood; this is separated through the antagonism of the foetus into mucus and oxygen. The mucus penetrates into the amnion, the oxygen into the chorion, or the placenta.

2980. The fundus of the uterus is more arteriose than the os uteri, and stands therefore in opposition with it.

3. Development of the Foetus.

a. Anatomy.

2981. The germ may be regarded as a vesicle, full of nutritive matter or albumen, situated within the cavity of the uterus, the walls of which act upon it.

2982. As the fundus of the uterus is the arterial pole, so it oxydizes the vesicle and repels that part which lies close upon it. Through this originates a saccular inversion, as in the mesentery of the peritoneum, and the vesicle separates into three divisions. In itself it is amnion, the inverted part is the integument of the embryo, the tube which unites these the umbilical cord.

2983. The amnion is thus the root or primary cyst of the integument.

2984. Through continuous oxydation blood-vessels are developed upon the surface of the amnion, which finally withdraw to constitute a special integument, which is called chorion. Its vessels are in like manner repelled from the fundus uteri, and prolonged into the inversion of the umbilical cord and the embryo. The chorion is thus the root or primary cyst of the vascular system.

2985. These two bladders, sacs, or cysts are the only general ones which circumscribe or invest the entire embryo, because there are only two general vegetative systems, namely, the tegumentary and vascular.

2986. The embryo has not originated freely in these shut sacs, but only through their introversion; it is itself a portion of these sacs.

2987. The embryo properly lies external to its envelopes, as the intestine does in respect to the mesentery.

2988. Just as the two general vegetative systems have been developed from primary cysts, so also are there sacs for the two special vegetative systems, or the intestinal and sexual; but, on that very account, these cannot be general sacs, nor any longer envelop the embryo.

2989. At the entrance of the inversion of the umbilical cord is situated a small vesicle, which divides and is prolonged into the two intestines. It is therefore the root or primary sac of the intestinal system, and is called in Man the 'vesicula umbilicalis,' in the Mammalia the 'tunica erythroides,' and in oviparous animals the 'vitellus.'

2990. In the same situation is placed another cyst, which is prolonged into what has been called the 'urachus' and the urinary cyst, and from which the primordial kidneys, the true kidneys, and the sexual parts are developed by sacciform eversion. This sac is called the 'allantois,' 'tunica allantoides,' and is consequently the root or primary sac of the sexual system.

2991. These cysts or sacs are consequently not envelopes that serve for the protection of the foetus, but its developmental organs, which disappear, so soon as their prolongations into the foetus itself enable them to exercise their functions.

2992. There are thus as many developmental sacs or cysts, as there are vegetative systems present, viz.:

a. Two General Cysts. 1. The Vascular cyst--Chorion. 2. Tegumental cyst--Amnion.

b. Two Special Cysts. 3. The Intestinal cyst--Vitellus. 4. Sexual cyst--Allantois.

2993. It is only the vegetative systems which take root in the foetal envelopes, but not the animal systems. There is no developmental cyst for the nervous, muscular, and osseous systems.

2994. The persistent vegetative systems are the developmental organs for the animal systems; as the intestine for the bones, the veins for the muscles, the tegument or branchial sac for the nerves.

2995. The foetus consists of three floors or stories like a house, whereof one has been based upon, or rather developed out of the other, viz.:

a. Of the Developmental cysts. b. " Vegetative systems. c. " Animal systems.

2996. According to time the sacs are developed in the following series. The first sac is that of the vitellus or the intestine, which is also the first that is present in the development of the animal kingdom. Upon this vitelline membrane the blood-vessels ('vasa omphalomesenterica') are developed, are prolonged into the body with the intestine, turn again outwards and form the chorion. From this the amnion next separates into the envelopes, and the integument upon the embryo. Lastly, the allantois appears, and in its prolongation the sexual parts.

2997. Originally the whole chorion is replete all around with vessels; but as the process of oxydation occurs most powerfully upon the fundus uteri, so are the vessels developed most abundantly in that very situation, and form the placenta.

2998. The placenta is no peculiar organ, but only the more energetic part of the chorion.

2999. It must necessarily be placed around the insertion of the umbilical cord, because at this spot the inversion takes place, on account of the strong oxydation.

3000. The placenta is always situated upon the fundus uteri, because it originates only through its influence. It cannot therefore begin to suck, like the mouth of a leech, in a fortuitous or voluntary manner anywhere. If it is found occupying some other situation, it is a proof that the oxydizing process of the uterus has been displaced. This is consequently an abnormal situation.

3001. Opposite to the foetal vascular system is first of all developed the general system of animal life, namely, the nervous system, and indeed the spinal chord, or what has been called the 'carina' or primary streak.

3002. The development of all other systems oscillates in this antagonism of blood and nerves.

3003. In the antagonism of the placenta is formed the liver, which in the embryo is one of the largest organs, and in its antagonism the brain is developed.

3004. In the antagonism of the amnion the integument is evolved, and in its antagonism the branchiæ and lungs.

3005. In obedience to the antagonism of the arteries and veins, the vitelline sac divides into small and large intestine. The one pursues a course towards the arterial extremity of the body, the brain, the other towards the venous or sexual parts; mouth and anus.

3006. Finally, from the antagonism of the allantois the sexual parts emerge at the very extremity of the body, which is placed opposite to the mouth.

3007. The osseous and muscular system first makes its appearance, when the vegetative parts are present.

3008. The intestines, the vessels, and the commencement of the sexual parts are originally situated in the umbilical cord, which is itself surrounded by the integument. The umbilical cord is therefore nothing else than the posterior extremity of the body or abdomen, through which the embryo respires and is nourished.

3009. The first respiration and deglutition is therefore a respiration and deglutition effected by the sexual parts, as in the lowest animals.

b. Functions of the Foetus.

1. Nutrition.

3010. The juices which are contained in the developmental sacs are nutritive juices or chyle; they contain principally albumen. The chyle of the intestinal vesicle depends upon the vitellus.

3011. The foetal water in the amnion is derived from albumen in the ovum; it is here secreted by the oviduct, but in the Mammalia by the internal wall of the uterus, and absorbed by the general envelopes.

3012. The cause of this secretion resides in the decomposition of the blood through the influence of the chorion. Thus if the maternal blood become deoxydized, it must necessarily revert to the condition of chyle. This chyle is the foetal water.

3013. The foetal water is absorbed by the embryo through the integument.

3014. No blood is transferred from the mother directly to the foetus.

3015. The blood-vessels of the uterus and placenta do not open into or communicate with each other.

3016. The foetal water corresponds to the albumen or the white of eggs, not to the vitellus. This becomes also during incubation consumed in the formation of the body of the chick, and not the vitelline mass, which is first of all destined for the intestine.

3017. Towards the termination of pregnancy, when the foetus is endowed with muscular motion, the foetal water is also absorbed. Nutrition is therefore in the commencement an absorption carried on by the integument, and lastly by the intestine.

2. Respiration.

3018. The respiratory organ of the foetus is the chorion, and in particular the placenta. Its tissue is like that of the branchiæ or spleen.

3019. The arterial blood transmitted through the umbilical vein is conducted through the foramen ovale into the left ventricle of the heart, and from thence directly to the principal organ of the foetus, the brain and spinal cord. From hence it returns, venous in quality, to the right side of the heart, and from thence through the ductus arteriosus into the inferior or descending aorta, from which, pursuing its course through the umbilical arteries, it again reaches the placenta, in which it undergoes a renewed oxydation.

3020. If therefore the umbilical cord be compressed, the foetus dies suddenly, as happens indeed accidentally in certain cases, which completely resemble those of death produced by suffocation. The chick when in the egg dies, if the egg-shell be coated over with varnish, or if the egg be submitted to the noxious influence of gases which are devoid of oxygen.

3021. The respiration effected through means of the placenta, admits also of being proved by the sudden change which occurs in the circulation after birth. No arterial blood being then any longer brought to the heart through the umbilical vein, the left heart is no longer stimulated, and the foramen ovale collapses and is closed. Thus, all the blood enters the right side of the heart, and finding no thoroughfare into the ductus arteriosus, it is driven forcibly into the lungs, which now expand, and thereby leave an empty space between the pulmonary vessels, into which the air rushes in.

3022. The first act of respiration is therefore the result of the lungs being injected with venous blood, and thus of necessity ensues. When, on the contrary, cases arise causing pulmonary suffocation, the blood then regurgitates to the umbilical vessels, in order to reach the original branchia or placenta.

3023. Another process of respiration is found to take place in the vessels of the allantois. Its fluid becomes oxydized and penetrates through the urinary cyst into what have been called primordial kidneys. This kind of respiration through the anus is persistent in many Worms and larvæ of Insects.

3024. Finally, there is a respiratory process on the body of the embryo itself through the branchial apertures on its neck; these in the Frogs and Salamanders still continue visible after their exclusion from the egg. This oxygen must be derived from the foetal water.

3025. Without doubt also the vitelline vessels respire, and thus each vegetative system has its own process of respiration. The intestine respires through the vitelline vessels, the vascular system through the vessels of the chorion, the sexual system through those of the allantois, the integument through the branchial apertures. The lungs belong to, and perform respiration for the whole body.

Decay of the Developmental Organs.

3026. When all the organs are developed, the intestines are drawn together with the vitellus into the abdomen. The chick is still nourished several days after exclusion from the egg by the vitelline mass, which passes through the vitelline canal into the intestine. The vitelline membrane subsequently becomes flaccid, and finally disappears through maceration. In the Mammalia the umbilical vesicle separates at an earlier period from the intestine, and continues to lie in the umbilical cord.

3027. The secernent point of the vitelline membrane or of the umbilical vesicle is the coecum.

3028. There are therefore two intestinal systems, which branch off in a bifurcated manner from the coecum, namely, the sexual intestine and the small or truncal intestine.

3029. All embryos have originally umbilical herniæ, which do not originate through protrusion of the intestines out of the abdominal cavity, but through their entrance into the latter being retarded.

3030. The umbilical herniæ therefore indicate an earlier condition of the animal, which has originated through arrest of the development.

3031. At birth all the enveloping membranes die, and their point of liberation is called the navel or umbilicus.

3032. The animal has originated through the umbilicus, and through this has it respired.

3033. All animals which breathe by the anus, do so properly through the navel; animals of this kind are fundamentally umbilical animals.

Parallelism of the Foetus with the Animal Classes.

3034. During its development the animal passes through all stages of the animal kingdom. The foetus is a representation of all animal classes in time.

3035. At first it is a simple vesicle, stomach, or vitellus, as in the Infusoria.

3036. Then the vesicle is doubled through the albumen and shell, and obtains an intestine, as in the Corals.

3037. It obtains a vascular system in the vitelline vessels, or absorbents, like as in the Acalephæ.

3038. With the blood-system, liver, and ovarium, the embryo enters the class of bivalved Mollusca.

3039. With the muscular heart, the testicle, and the penis, into the class of Snails.

3040. With the venous and arteriose hearts, and the urinary apparatus, into the class of Cephalopods or Cuttle-fish.

3041. With the absorption of the integument, into the class of Worms.

3042. With the formation of branchial fissures, into the class Crustacea.

3043. With the germination or budding forth of limbs, into the class of Insects.

3044. With the appearance of the osseous system, into the class of Fishes.

3045. With the evolution of muscles, into the class of Reptiles.

3046. With the ingress of respiration through the lungs, into the class of Birds. The foetus, when born, is actually like them, edentulous.

3047. After birth it is suckled or fed. The milk is the nutrition continued by means of albumen; for the mammæ are verily only the albuminous vessels of the Bird, which are placed free and external in the Mammiferous animal. After the time for sucking is past the young one obtains teeth; and thereby becomes for the first time independent of the mother, and passes over into the class Mammalia. Now, should the sketch here afforded of these parallels be not in all respects correct or justifiable, still sufficient proof remains, that a perfect parallelism is found to take place between the development of the foetus and that of the animal kingdom.

3048. Animals are only the persistent foetal stages or conditions of man.

3049. Malformations are only persistent foetal conditions, or animal formations in individual animal bodies.

3050. Diseases are vital processes in animals. Pathology is the physiology of the animal kingdom. A human foetus is a whole animal kingdom. (Vid. Oken's 'Die Zeugung,' 'Beyträge zur vergl. Anatomie,' and 'Ueber die Nabelbrüche.')

Periods of Life.

3051. If the young in the ovum or in the mother's body resembles the aquatic animals, and has passed through their organization; so after birth does it belong to the air-breathing animals and traverse their organization.

3052. One period is that of sucking; the edentulous condition of the Bird. This is called the suckling age, baby-hood or infancy.

3053. One is that of the eruption and persistence of the milk-teeth; the condition of the Rodentia, a repetition of the gelatinous animals. This is the age of childhood.

3054. One is the eruption of the permanent set of teeth until the attainment of puberty, or the development of the sexual functions; the condition of the Marsupialia; repetition of the Conchozoa or Shell-animals. This is boyhood.

3055. From the state of puberty until the development of the faculty of understanding; the condition of the Shrews and Bats, the repetition of Insects. The age of youth.

3056. The period of the understanding passes through the Ungulata, and is a repetition of Fishes, Reptiles, and Birds. This is the first stage of manhood.

3057. After the understanding the reason matures; this is the condition of the higher Mammalia up to Man; it is a repetition of the Mammalia. This is adult age or mature manhood.

3058. Then follows the decadence or dying off of the sexual functions; a retrogression through the animal classes. Gray old age.

3059. Finally, the reason and understanding die; childhood returns and terminates with the death of the vegetable in the animal.

3060. Death results through the sexual animal.

3061. Death is only a continuous growth through retrogression into the organic primary matter or Infusoria.

3062. Death is an organized decomposition.

3063. Decomposition is a forming of seeds, ova, and foetuses.

3064. Dying is a multiplication of self.

III. ZOOLOGY.

3065. Zoology is Zoogeny divided and self-substantially represented. What in Zoogeny was the organ of a single indivisible animal here becomes the organ of a separated animal, or becomes a self-substantial animal.

3066. The self-substantial animals are only parts of the Great animal, which is the Animal Kingdom.

3067. The animal kingdom is only one animal, i. e. the representation of animality with all its organs, each of which is a whole for itself.

3068. A single animal originates, if a single organ frees itself from the general animal body, and yet exercises the essential animal functions.

3069. The animal kingdom is only a dismemberment of the highest animal, i. e. of Man.

3070. Animals become nobler in rank, the greater the number of organs which are collectively liberated or severed from the Grand animal, and which enter into combination. An animal, which e. g. lived only as intestine, would be, doubtless, inferior to one which with the intestine were to combine a skin; and that animal again must be regarded as higher than the latter, which should present, in addition to these organs, vessels, liver, branchiæ, tracheæ, and lastly bones, &c.

3071. Animals are gradually perfected, entirely like the single animal body, by adding organ unto organ. The animal kingdom is developed through the multiplication of the organs.

3072. Each animal ranks therefore above the other; two of them never stand upon an equal plane or level. Animals are distinguished by their position of stages or degrees from each other, by the number of their different organs, but not by the division of a single organ.

3073. The animal system cannot be arbitrarily disposed according to this or that organ, just as it may chance to meet the eye; but only in accordance with the rigid prescripts of the animal body's genesis.

3074. The animal body separates into two series of organs, which, corresponding with, pursue a proximal course in relation to, each other; into the Anatomical systems and the Sensorial organs, unto which the sexual parts appertain.

3075. The number of the sensorial organs is 5, and they thus stand according to their genetic development one above the other:

Tactile sense or Skin. Gustatory sense or Tongue. Olfactory sense or Nose. Auditory sense or Ear. Optical sense or Eye.

3076. In animals, which are characterized by the sense of feeling or touch, the other sensorial organs must be either still wanting, or if present but imperfectly conditioned, i. e. not constituted like those of man, who is the type, pattern, or paragon for every formation.

3077. Their sensations are limited to those of general touch or feeling, and of those derived through the medium of the other senses we meet with but feeble manifestations.

3078. Their body itself will only be a tegumentary body, with the organs subordinated to the integument, namely, the viscera. They are therefore devoid of a true tongue, of a nose, and of ears and eyes consummated after the fashion of these organs in man; they are devoid of an osseous, muscular, and myelonal (spinal chord) system, and therefore of the nose "in toto," as being the anterior extremity of the myelon.

3079. Such are what have been called the Invertebrate animals, which are consequently, in accordance with their physiological signification, Splanchnic or Tegumentary animals.

3080. The tongue exhibits for the first time in Fishes a resemblance to the human structure, while their nose, ears, and eyes have not yet attained the latter grade of perfection. To the nose are wanting the posterior nasal foramina, to the ears the external auditory meatus, to the eyes the palpebræ and power of motion.

3081. In the Reptiles the nose opens for the first time into the mouth, and serves for the thorough passage of air. It is thus developed as in Man, while to the ears the external auditory meatus and cochlea are wanting, the eyes being barely endowed with lids and motion.

3082. In Birds, for the first time, the external auditory meatus, as well as the cochlea, is exhibited in its perfection, while the eyes are scarcely gifted with motion, and have only the inferior lid perfect; the tongue and nose, with the limbs also, have again become retrograde in character.

3083. For the first time, in the Mammalia, the eyes are moveable and covered with two perfect lids, without the other organs of sense having suffered degradation through this completion of the eyes.

3084. Thus in respect to the Senses there are only 5 animal divisions of equal value or worth. They should properly be called classes; but, as the lowest division, from comprising within itself the viscera or the vegetative systems, is very rich in contents; were we to call these divisions classes, many inequalities in rank, and hence also in the number of the orders and families, would originate--

1. Dermatozoa Invertebrata. 2. Glossozoa Pisces. 3. Rhinozoa Reptilia. 4. Otozoa Aves. 5. Ophthalmozoa Mammalia.

3085. Now, with the sense of feeling, or the integument, the sexual system is associated or conjoined, and that indeed as the first or lowest development of the tegumentary system. Nevertheless, the sexual system divides into two groups, into the sexual organs, which are impressed with a true sensorial signification, and into their product, or the sexual juices, and the ovum or foetus. With these two divisions the development of the integument proceeds "pari passu."

In the ovum the tegument and its contents are not as yet separated. Both consist of a transparent mucous or gelatinous mass, as is exemplified by the vitellus and albumen; such is the case also in the Infusoria, Polyps, and Acalephæ or Sea-nettles.

In the sexual organs, however, both parts separate into membranous capsules or cysts, and glandular contents, as in the roe or ovary; milt or testes; kidneys, with furthermore the oviduct, penis, and urinary cyst. The latter are sentient membranes. Such is the case in the Bivalve Mollusca, and Snails.

In the next place the tegument becomes, for the first time, a self-substantial organ of sensation by appearing as an envelope of the body; the vesical form is then repeated, and by this means the annular character originates as a series of cysts arranged one behind the other; it is thus a veritable skin, from which, finally, the members sprout forth, as in Worms and Insects.

The Dermatozoa will accordingly range in three stages.

1. Blasto- or Oozoa. 2. Sexual animals. 3. Cutaneous "

An annulated tegument, cutis or true skin, appears for the first time in the Worms, with here and there lateral filaments and tentacula. True feet and antennæ appear in the Crustacea or Crabs. Lastly, feet and wings in the Insecta or Flies.

3086. The external sexual parts, especially the male, first make their appearance, and that indeed with a very striking amount of development, in the Snails, and in like manner the body of the Bivalve Mollusca or Mussels has become almost a complete mass of ova or roe. In the Cuttle-fishes the first traces or rudiments of urinary organs appear. The animals which belong to this group are accordingly the Conchozoa or Shell-animals.

3087. Animals, which are directly resolvable into sexual fluids, or that represent parts of the ovum, are the gelatinous Infusoria, Polyps, and Acalephæ. Unto this category belong the Protozoa or Mucus-animals.

3088. The complete subdivision of animals, according to the organs of sense, would consequently stand thus:

I. Dermatozoa Invertebrata. 1. Oozoa Protozoa. 2. Glandular animals Conchozoa. 3. Cutaneous " Ancyliozoa.

II. Glossozoa Pisces. III. Rhinozoa Reptilia. IV. Otozoa Aves. V. Ophthalmozoa Thricozoa.

3089. Unto these organs of sense the anatomical, or internal parts, are subordinated, and range parallel to them in a striking manner. The following is their order of succession in accordance with that of their origin:

1. Intestinal system. 2. Vascular " 3. Respiratory " 4. Osseous " 5. Muscular " 6. Nervous "

3090. That the vegetative systems are correctly arranged after this manner, is proved chiefly by their order of development in the animal series.

3091. The animals, occupying the lowest grade, are nothing but an intestine, which is in many instances scarcely separated or distinct from the tegument; they are devoid of vessels and branchiæ, and are barely provided with self-substantial ovisacs. Their body consists of one or two concentric cysts of an homogeneous and transparent substance--Intestinal animals, Protozoa.

3092. When the intestine is freed from the mass of the body, both then obtain the form and substance of tegumental cysts, whereof the external being only an intestinal tunic, thus represents the peritoneum. They are now, however, united by means of a vascular system, which is again surrounded by a cyst, and thus by a pleura. Their body consists of three concentric cysts; intestine, peritoneum, and pleura. It contains too a liver and self-substantial sexual parts--Vascular animals, Conchozoa.

If these cysts be repeated in the direction of the axis, the tegument becomes an annulated skin. An annulose animal is a multiplied cystic animal. Associated with this character, the respiratory organs are gradually evolved to form vascular plexuses, branchiæ, feet, tracheæ, and wings, while the sexual parts are for the most part separated--Ancyliozoa, Respiratory animals.

3093. The osseous system first appears in the Fishes, along with imperfect, mostly tendonless, and only white muscles, as also a myelon that is only developed into a stunted encephalon, in which the brain-organs of the Thricozoon are in great part wanting.

3094. Typical, or true muscles, provided with tendons, and of a red colour, are first exhibited in the Reptilia.

3095. A complete nervous system, pretty similar to that of the Thricozoa or Pilose animals, having a cerebrum and cerebellum, with similarly distributed and delicate nerves, is first displayed in Birds.

3096. According to the anatomical systems there are, therefore, six divisions of animals:

A. Splanchnozoa. 1. Intestinal animals Protozoa. 2. Vascular " Conchozoa. 3. Respiratory " Ancyliozoa.

B. Sarcozoa. 4. Osseous animals Pisces. 5. Muscular " Reptilia. 6. Nervose " Aves.

3097. The Pilose animals first originate through completion and combination of all the organs of sense. They are Æsthetic or Sensorial animals.

3098. The arrangement of animals, according to the organs of sense, coincides consequently with that derived from the anatomical systems, and each animal division is therefore determined by two principal organs, by a vegetative and an animal. Every animal is at once a vegetable and animal body, the inferior kinds being partly so, but the highest or the Pilose animals entirely so, or in every respect, i. e. in them are found all the anatomical systems, and all the sexual and sensorial organs.

3099. The signification of animals is accordingly as follows:

I. Anatomical Systems.

A. Vegetative Systems.

1. Intestinal animals. 2. Vascular " 3. Respiratory "

B. Animal Systems.

4. Osseous animals. 5. Muscular " 6. Nervose " 7. Sensorial "

II. Organs of Sense.

A. Tegumental Sense.

1. Oozoa Protozoa. 2. Glandular animals Conchozoa. 3. Cutaneous " Ancyliozoa.

B. Cephalic Senses.

4. Glossozoa Pisces. 5. Rhinozoa Reptilia. 6. Otozoa Aves. 7. Ophthalmozoa Thricozoa.

The ovum divides into vitellus, and albumen, along with the calcareous shell, and into germ or envelopes; the intestine into pharynx or stomach, bowels and absorbent vessels, thus:

1. Gastric animals Vitelline animals Infusoria. 2. Intestinal " Albuminous " Polyps. 3. Absorbent " Involucral " Acalephæ.

The sexual parts divide into female, male, and urinary organs; the vessels into veins, arteries, and hearts, thus:

1. Ovarial animals Venous animals Mussels. 2. Orchitic " Arterial " Snails. 3. Renal " Cardiac " Kracken.

The annulated tegument divides into papillæ, feet, and wings; the respiratory organs into tegumental network or rete, into branchiæ and tracheæ, thus:

1. Papillary animals Reticular animals Worms. 2. Pedal " Branchial " Crabs. 3. Alary " Tracheal " Flies.

When parallelized with the organs of plants, the following remarkable relationships between them are rendered apparent:

1. Cells | Stomach | Vitellus Infusoria. 2. Bark | Intestine | Albumen Polyps. 3. Root | Absorbents | Envelopes Acalephæ. 4. Ducts | Veins | Ovary Mussels. 5. Liber | Arteries | Testes Snails. 6. Stalk | Hearts | Kidneys Kracken. 7. Tracheæ | Retia | Papillæ Worms. 8. Wood | Branchiæ | Feet Crabs. 9. Foliage | Lungs | Wings Flies. 10. Seeds | Bones | Tongue Fishes. 11. Pistil | Muscles | Nose Reptiles. 12. Corolla | Nerves | Ears Birds. 13. Fruit | Senses | Eyes Thricozoa.

A. DIVISION INTO PROVINCES.

3100. The animal body divides first of all into the vegetative and animal. There will therefore be animals in which the former, and others in which the latter, systems predominate. The kingdom consequently separates into a vegetative and into an animal province. The vegetative parts are all tegumental developments, and thus the creatures in whom they prevail are Splanchnic or Visceral animals, but the animal parts are developments of the flesh, and constitute the Sarcose animals.

First Province. Splanchnozoa.

3101. Unto the Splanchnic or Tegumental animals are wanting bones, muscles with the nerves belonging to them, and thus the neural axis or encephalon; they are consequently devoid of bone, muscle, and brain, being in a word asarcose or fleshless animals.

The tegument is, however, the general organ of sensation or feeling; they are thus Sensitive animals.

3102. In them, developments only of the sense of feeling can occur, such as sensitive papillæ, tentacula, feet, and wings. All the remaining organs of sense can only be exhibited as rudiments of a very feeble or stunted character. They do not possess a true tongue, nose, ears, and eyes, i. e. constructed after the type of these organs in Man. The eyes only, from their being the sense of the animal system proper, can assume a definite kind of development.

3103. But, these organs of sense are the sensorial organs of the head, or rather are the head itself; the Tegumental animals are therefore devoid of a true head. They only possess such an one, in so far as it is determined by the tegument and nervous sense, by the mouth and the eyes.

These animals are what have been called Invertebrata, a name which is, however, defective, from its indicating the absence of one part only or of a single animal system, while the word flesh comprehends bones, muscles, and nervous mass; they are asarcose animals. But even this last appellation is not correct, because it is negative. Their positive system, or that under which they actually exist, is the tegument; so that the name of Dermatozoa or Sensitive animals, is the only proper one.

As the tegument includes the viscera and forms therefore the trunk alone, they may thus also be designated Trunk-animals.

Second Province. Sarcozoa.

3104. As in the animal body, bones, muscles, and encephalic system are suddenly associated with the tegumental system; so also does a second series of animals, having these systems, suddenly originate. Now, as the first formation of the osseous system is the vertebra, so all these animals have, as is generally understood, a vertebral column, and are on that account indeed Vertebrata; but, they are much more than this, and hence the title is of too limited a character. Besides there are among them animals, in which only the chorda dorsalis is present, without the ring of the vertebral body being formed around it.

Along with the animal systems the head is for the first time developed with its organs of sense--Cephalic animals.

These animals have consequently, in addition to the general sense of feeling, a true tongue, nose, ears, and eyes--Cephalæsthetic animals.

B. ANIMAL CIRCLES.

3105. Animal Circles are representations of entire anatomical systems as self-substantial bodies.

3106. Now, the vegetative body divides into three principal systems, into the Intestinal, Vascular, and Respiratory system, with their functions, or the digestive, nutritive, and respiratory processes. There are therefore Intestinal, Vascular, and Respiratory animals.

Circle I. Intestinal Animals.

3107. The intestinal system is the first form of body, or that from which the other systems have not yet separated. The body of these animals consists therefore of the homogeneous primary mass--the animal protoplasma, mucus or slime--Mucus-animals.

Now, the protoplasma is a hollow globule. The intestinal system is therefore nothing else than the original cystic form. Thus, there are Cystic animals like the Infusoria.

Again, cysts can increase in no other way, than by dividing into their like, or engendering cysts within themselves. The first kind of increase or multiplication of species is thus fissiparous, or produced by division.

The newly-engendered cysts are to be compared with the vitellus, and when they have attained perfection, to the ovum. They are therefore Oozoa or Ovum-animals.

In these animals consequently there are no separated sexual parts, namely, in addition to the vitelli, neither testes nor renal organs, or at least only obscure indications of them. In these Cystic animals the lowest feeling only, that of the sex or general sensation, can occur.

The Oozoa or Cystic animals, when compared with the plants, are the first flower that has been set free, or in other words, a flower which no longer stands polarwise upon a stem, because it is not developed in the differencing air, but in the indifferent water. It may be said that nature, having brought matters as far as the development of the sexual parts, then quits or passes out of the vegetable world; while these parts, or even the entire plant, requiring now no longer the stem and root, become a root themselves, and in behalf of this enter the water.

Animals, which have the form of flowers, are round or radiiform. There are Radiata or Radiated animals.

3108. These Anthoidal or Flower-like animals are Infusoria, Polyps, Acalephæ; being single or double concentric cysts.

3109. We may regard the Flower-animals as the fundamental mass of the sexual parts, which has attained unto free motion. They are sex throughout, or nothing but sex; it cannot therefore be said that they possess sexual parts like the plants, but that they are sexual parts. They are sexual parts that swim.

3110. Formerly, most of these Anthoidal animals were actually taken for real plants, on account of their floral and ramular form, and even their very substance; so slightly withdrawn are they from the vegetable kingdom. The whole difference between the two is effected by the water. Could we transpose them into the air, they would then become real plants.

3111. Now, as the vegetable flower is not a mere sexual system, but is also stock or trunk; so also is the animal flower at once an organ of digestion, respiration, and nutrition. The lowest condition of these organs is, however, only one of absorption, evaporation, and rigidification; these processes will therefore be present also, though only upon the lower stage--they are Intestinal animals; for in a simple intestine the same processes could occur, only within each other, whereas they are mutually dissevered or set apart in intestine, lung, and capillary system or parenchyma.

3112. The sexual parts are themselves viscera, or the viscera themselves are sexual parts, just as the fungus is at one and the same time root and seed-capsule. The sexual parts themselves absorb, respire, and nourish.

The floral sac is not therefore a mere sexual sac, but also an absorbent sac; upon a somewhat higher grade it is even a digestive sac, the sac-wall itself being a respiratory and nutritive paries or wall.

The sexual function has at once become an ingestive function, tending unto nutrition, or the deglutition of the food is itself an act of copulation.

The sexual capsule in these animal flowers can as well be termed stomach as uterus, and its wall ovary as well as branchia.

3113. As being of a sentient, mucous nature, they are point-substance or nervous mass. The tentacula are higher organized stamina, and thus occur as cilia, surrounding the oral aperture or mouth, as in the Infusoria. These palpi or feelers are, from being organs of ingestion, both male penes as well as digits or tongues, as in the Polyps. Their structure is still wholly tubular, while their elongation appears to be for the most part effected by injection with water--they are absorbents, as in the Acalephæ. The Oozoon brings forth young in the same cavity, in which it digests and by which it respires, and impregnates itself with the same filaments, whereby it seizes, swallows, and tastes its food.

In the bottom of the cavity of the Germ-animals, granules develop, which are born or escape through the floral opening--pharynx, and again become similar beings. In others the granules also sprout forth attached to the walls of the cavity, remain there some time united with the parent animal, and thus completely represent the mode of propagation in plants by means of gemmules or buds. Among the Polyps and Acalephæ it is well known that the ova issue from apertures near the mouth; while in the Actiniæ this is stated to take place from the stomach. The ovaria are, as is well known, situated between the stomach and parietes of the body.

3114. The intestinal animals are an entire animal organism, but only in the chaotic condition. They are the fundamental tissue, the cellular system of the animal, and the higher animals are only separated cells.

3115. The propagation is in every respect similar to that of plants. Now, as the seeds are the whole plant upon a small scale, so is the granule or ovum the entire animal; it is liberated through the pharynx and continues to grow merely by increasing in size. But if the young animal protrude through the tegument, that is a true gemmiparous propagation.

3116. Those Oozoa, which like plants can develop buds, consist of several animals, and may be cut in pieces like plants; when each piece becomes again an entire animal.

3117. The Oozoa represent those products of nature which are prior or antecedent to the animal world; namely, first of all plants, and further still the inorganic kingdom also, or the earth, since they have originated in the water and can be as well developed from the stones as the Lichens. There are therefore Lithozoa or Stone-animals, and Phytozoa or Plant-animals, among the Oozoa.

3118. Would we compare these animals with the parts in plants, they then represent their cell-development, or cells, bark and root. They are themselves either vesicles, as the Infusoria, or barks, as the Corallines, or a root-like fascicle of tubes, as the Acalephæ.

3119. In the animals, however, the cells have become stomach, the bark intestine, the root absorbents. The Oozoa represent therefore the aggregate of the intestinal system, the primary mass of the animal body.

Their whole body is a digestive body, or parenchyma, traversed in many species in all directions by tubes or absorbents, as in the Acalephæ.

As yet no nervous filament, nor any muscular fibre, &c. has been separated from their mass, as in like manner a tegument has barely been freed or separated from the intestine. These animals are nerveless and sine-tegumental, precisely because they are wholly made up of nervous mass and tegument.

Circle II. Vascular Animals.

3120. In the next place the digestive separates completely from the tegumental function, and each constitutes a function for itself, but which now being separated from its fellow could no longer subsist. Between the two therefore is formed the nutritive function in the vascular system.

Now, the vascular system of the self-substantial intestine is the liver. This organ will therefore for the first time make its appearance in this animal circle--Hepatic animals. Upon a higher stage, salivary glands are also developed on the intestine, and will here likewise begin for the first time to appear--Salivary animals, Snails.

3121. Through the separation of the viscera from the remaining substance, this must necessarily remain behind as a hollow cyst or tegument investing the former. The true free tegumental formation is therefore by no means accidental, but is necessarily bestowed with the viscera in the course of animal development. This tegument is peritoneum. There are animals which are invariably bicystic, but consisting of concentric cysts--abdomens.

Around the ventral integument, however, the vascular system also forms its tunic; this is the branchial membrane or operculum--pleura, mantle. There are tri-cystic animals--intestine, abdomen, and thorax disposed concentrically around each other--Mussels. Their body is therefore not articulated, but its parts are still inserted within each other.

The Vascular animals are consequently multiplied Protozoa; or Mucus-animals of the second power--_Ovum_².

The sense of feeling ascends upon its second stage, when its organ, having been freed from the mass of the body, surrounds the viscera as a self-substantial tegument. The feeling is then no longer one of a merely general character, but is a definite perception of external objects, a passive power of feeling.

3122. True muscles could not as yet originate in this skin, and that for obvious reasons, although fibres are present; for the former are to be brought under the signification of arterial fibres.

3123. Cilia, when furnished with fibres by whose agency they are rendered moveable and susceptible of inversion, are called tentacula, which here occur under every variety of form.

3124. Would we compare the Vascular animals with the plants, they must then represent their ducts, liber, and stalk. The heart is the stalk, the arteries liber, the veins tubes or ducts. These animals have assumed also upon the whole the cauline or cylindrical form--Cauline animals.

3125. From their having obtained in addition to the intestine only the vascular system, they are still governed by the water, and live therefore for the greatest part in this element. They have the first mode of respiration and thus an aqueo-respiratory process--possess branchiæ but not tracheal tubes.

3126. The sexual parts, which in the Germ-animals were still coalesced for the most part with the body, here become self-substantial through the separation of the teguments, make their appearance as a repetition of the digestive system under the condition of a free or separate system, and are evolved into true ovaria and even male parts--Sexual, Glandular animals.

3127. The first step towards the evolution of male parts is, however, only half achieved. Only one testis originates, while the other remains behind as ovarium--Androgynous or Bisexual animals.

3128. These animals, which are characterized by the vascular system, and by the first self-substantial or external sexual parts, which indicate organs of sense, are the Conchozoa, such as the Mussels, Snails, and Kracken.

Circle III. Respiratory Animals.

3129. When once the intestinal and vascular system, through perfection of their individual parts, such as the liver and branchia, and through separation of the sexual parts, are completed; then the individualization of the tegument steps into view, and it becomes an independent respiratory system.

3130. Through the increased process of oxydation the tegument hardens and is converted into horn. All induration, however, only takes place in opposition to soft places. The tegument therefore separates into hard and soft rings--Annulate animals.

3131. The annulate tegument is a tracheal tube wholly converted into a body. To distinguish it from the general tegument it may be called the cutis or skin--Cutaneous animals. The annular tegument may be regarded as a series of cysts placed one behind the other. The Annulate animals are therefore multiplied Malacozoa; Mucus-animals of the third power--_Ovum_³.

The respiratory organs, being in their lowest condition, will not as yet be freed from the tegument; the vessels simply form a network or projecting filaments and lamellæ--reticular branchiæ; as in the Worms. The tentacular organs, from being yet soft and thus scarcely moveable, are still very imperfect. Upon the lowest stage the tegument or skin simply feels; in the next place papillæ, and finally filaments, originate, especially about the mouth--Cutaneous, Papillary and Filamentary animals.

3132. If the tegument, as being the original branchial membrane, is converted into horn; then the branchiæ cannot continue as retia, but must elongate above the tegument into filaments, ramules or lamellæ.

With this, these elongated branchiæ separate into two organs, one part of them becoming indurated in like manner with the general tegument, and supporting the other as gill. Horny branchial filaments, which contain vessels, nerves, and fibres, are called feet--Pedal animals.

3133. The limbs or members of these animals are simply hollow tegument, hollow hair, and are therefore thoroughly different from the bones or the animal system.

The tegument thus hardens around the soft parts and the viscera. A horny coat of mail originates, and thus we have horny or mailed animals, in opposition to the Malaco-or Conchozoa.

3134. Beneath the horn, however, there must still be soft skin, and this becomes fibrous by the strong oxydation which it undergoes. Fibrous fascicles are attached to the coat of mail and to the hollow limbs, and are consequently within the tubes.

3135. These fibrous bundles are not flesh, but a fibre-drawn tegument, so that there are also no true muscles. They must on that account too be numberless.

3136. The articulations or joints are external not internal; they thus consist of tegumental tubes, not of bones, abutting against each other, and are not surrounded by flesh. Hence, like all the preceding groups they also are devoid of flesh--asarcose animals like all the preceding ones.

3137. In the branchiæ, however, it is only the cauline portions which become horny, while their ramules continue to perform the respiratory function. The branchiæ therefore are appended to the extremity or roots of the feet; or rather these latter form the branchial arches.

Annulate animals, having true or hornified and likewise annulated feet, are called Crustacea or Crabs.

Thus, in these animals the sense of feeling obtains special and moveable organs; they are Tactile animals.

Tactile organs are prolongations of tegument moved by muscular fibres, which in some degree adapt themselves by pressure unto the forms of objects, or have the power of seizing and retaining them--such as feet, antennæ, maxillæ, palpi.

3138. But if the tegument be entirely converted into horn, and the respiratory vessels have in this way disappeared within it, then the internal respiratory organs are formed by inversion of that part of the tegument which is between the rings, and through these openings the air penetrates to the internal parts--stigmata, tracheæ.

3139. The tracheæ can first of all originate when the respiratory process has attained its highest development, or, in other words, when the creature breathes air.

3140. Lastly, in the air-breathing Ancyliozoa even the external branchial lamellæ harden and are converted into wings--Pterozoa, Insects or Flies.

The wings of Insects do not correspond to the wings of birds; they are not feet, but pedal appendages or branchiæ, and thus are no new or unknown organ.

Circle IV. Sarcose Animals.

3141. The second animal province may be regarded as the fourth stage in the self-substantial development of the anatomical systems, although, properly speaking, it ranks as regards its value or worth upon a level with the three former circles, and resolves itself directly into three stages, which accord with its three systems. But since these stages are at the same time also classes; they should, for uniformity's sake, retain the latter name.

3142. The animal kingdom accordingly divides into four great districts or circles.

CIRCLE I. Intestinal Animals, Oozoa--Protozoa. II. Vascular " Sexual animals--Conchozoa. III. Respiratory " Cutaneous " --Ancyliozoa. IV. Sarcose " Cephalic " --Vertebrata.

C. ANIMAL CLASSES.

3143. The animal Classes may be designated as the self-substantial representation of a stage in the development of an anatomical system or of the inferior organ of sense, and in the Sarcose animals of these systems themselves or of the cephalic senses.

3144. There are then as many classes as there are stages of development or systems. Thus the intestinal system separates into pharynx or stomach, intestine and absorbents.

3145. The vascular system into veins, arteries, and hearts.

3146. The respiratory system into branchial membrane or skin, into branchiæ, and into lungs or tracheæ, i. e. air-tubes. Taken in a strict sense, such divisions do not constitute classes, as has been already remarked.

3147. It is only the animal systems, which do not divide into several functions, but remaining upon a level with each other, are simply repeated in the higher organs of sense.

First Province. Splanchnozoa, Dermatozoa.

FIRST CIRCLE. INTESTINAL ANIMALS, OOZOA.

3148. The intestinal animals are nothing but depressed cysts. They rank therefore upon the lowest stage of development, and consist of mucus or granular nervous mass--Protozoa, Gelatinose animals.

3149. It is an established fact that, with animals as well as plants, the first function consists in imbibition or absorption, and the body must consequently be an absorbent cyst or a pharynx, which nevertheless takes up the food in the same way that the tegumental lymphatic vessels absorb. We can therefore style these animals pharyngeal or gastric, although the name is not perfectly correct--Infusoria. Then the intestine associates with the pharynx or stomach, so that they are Intestinal animals--Polyps or Corals.

Lastly the intestine sends out absorbents, and then the animal consists of pharynx or stomach, intestine and absorbents; such may be termed an Absorbent animal--Acalephæ.

The Intestinal animals therefore divide according to the developmental stages into three Classes.

Class 1. Gastric, Vitelline Animals.

3150. The lowest animals commence with the water, which has scarcely become mucus; they are nothing but drops, vesicles, which swim about independently--Protozoa or Primitive animals.

3151. The Protozoa correspond to the vitellus or the male semen, which is nothing but vitellus in a state of solution. They are the animal semen of the planet, the animal dissolved. Animal generation cannot take a deeper commencement or origin. The stone, which is decomposed into carbon mixed with water, can become nothing less than a point. They are the animal germinal powder. The fungus is a tissue of vesicles, which dissolves directly into seeds--fungus-powder or dust. Thus, they are ovaria or testes which have dissolved into seed, fluid testes--Vitelline, Seminal animals.

3152. The vitellus or semen is point-or nerve-mass dissolved. The Vitelline animals are sentient or nerve-points, which have combined all other processes in this identical mass. The divided point-mass ranks, however, in the signification of vesicular or cellular tissue. These animals are nervose cells.

3153. Nerve-cells must originate in every water, because every water is in a state of tension with the earth and the air; thus, dissolves the former and absorbs the latter. The water itself is a digesting and respiring mucus.

3154. The nerve-cells have an internal cavity, from the surface becoming oxydized and consequently converting itself into a denser layer, or into tegument. This, however, can only take place at the expense of the internal mass, as being that alone which abuts against the external parietes and becomes rigid.

3155. As the animal life is not simply a single act of rigidification, but a repetition of the same, alternating with solution, so must the Protozoon again replace the mucus-granules which have been disposed of from its interior; it must eat.

3156. It is a matter of indifference for the philosophy, whether the reception of food is effected by one or several mouths. There are Acalephæ and even Intestinal worms (Entozoa), which absorb by several mouths, almost like plants.

3157. But in the animal the mouth or mouths is or are definite organic openings, not merely interspaces or pores as in the plants; for they rank in the signification of the blossoms, or of composite parts.

3158. It can be therefore said that every animal hath a mouth or mouths, and consequently a stomach or stomachs.

3159. Their motions consist in abbreviations or straitenings of the cyst. Indications can scarcely be present of the secretions of higher organs, such as the intestine, vessel, branchiæ, liver, and such like parts.

3160. On the contrary, developments of the tegument and nerves may occur, the former as cilia which serve also as organs of motion and as branchiæ, the latter as ocular points or rudimental eyes; for both are none other than nervose tegument. The mouth of these animals is still passive, and subordinated to the water. It is surrounded only by cilia, which by the vortices produced by their movements in the water, impel or draw the latter into the mouth and with it the food. Such animals are called Infusoria.

3161. As the Infusoria are the seed or vitellus itself, so also are they the very ovum, and require no special sexual parts for propagation. They absorb, and are so nourished, and if there is a sufficient quantity of the mass to admit again of its division into several points, they thus divide. A magnified Infusorial animalcule has become, as it were, an ovarium or a testis, which then produces seed by dissolving itself into the latter. They are a constant conflict of the organ and its product, of the Solid and Fluid, a vitelline and orchitic process.

Class 2. Intestinal, Albuminous Animals.

3162. With the separation of the cyst into an internal and external layer, or into intestine and tegument, the animal must necessarily ascend a stage higher, since it now contains two systems different from each other, and is consequently a double Infusorium.

3163. The form of the Intestinal animals passes gradually from that of the globe into the tube--Tubular animals.

3164. They are tubular nerves surrounded by a tegument.

The cilia also are perfected and lengthen into filaments, which no longer perform simply vortical movements, but now actually seize and convey the food self-substantially into the mouth. Such animals are called Polyps. Their multiplication takes place no longer by division or fissure, but by ova and shoots, or ramification.

The oviducts or egg-tubes lie between the intestine and tegument, and open upon the margin of the mouth between the tentacula. In many instances the ovisacs, or cysts, hang also freely from other parts of the body, as in the Sertulariæ.

The sprouts or offshoots detach themselves from the parent and become independent animals; but they frequently continue to stand as ramules upon the maternal animal, though they nourish themselves independently of the latter.

3165. If the process of oxydation be augmented, then, the tube's external wall indurates, becomes coriaceous, and, lastly, ceratoid or horn-like in texture. The nerve-tubes or the animal proper can now swim no longer, since one kind only of motion is left it, namely, to protrude itself out of, and then retract itself within, the tube. It consequently falls to the ground, and while the external mucus hardens, it clings to the former; such are the Sessile or fixed Polyps.

3166. Sessile Polyps having coriaceous or horny tubes are called Plant-animals, Zoophyta, Phytozoa.

3167. The adherent, dried and dead external tegument of the Polyp is called stem. Such a ramified stem completely resembles a plant.

3168. These woody or herbaceous stems are not rooted in the earth, but have the power of adhering firmly to every substance, to stone, glass, shells, and such like bodies. They do not therefore draw in nourishment through any root.

3169. The ramification is often wholly plant-like in character, resembling that of a shrub with separate ramules, which even assume too the form of leaves, and the animal tubes that of flowers.

But frequently the ramules grow together also by their extremities, giving rise to a trellis-work, the production of which in plants is impossible. The soft animalcules, which come in contact, cleave unto each other, and grow together like wounded parts in the Sarcose animals.

3170. Upon the surface of the ramules or the leaves are apertures, out of which the mucous substance protrudes the radiated mouth. But these mouths are frequently, especially in the Cystic corallines, of two different modes of formation. The one kind are cysts without filaments, and contain ova, which are developed and fall out. The others have filaments, which move and do not produce ova. The former look like seed-capsules, the latter like flowers with stamina, while the entire trunk resembles a monoecious plant.

3171. With increased oxydation calcareous earth is deposited in the external tegument or rind, and the stem is converted into stone--Lithozoa, Lithophyta, Corals.

This calcareous earth contains the most general acid, or the carbonic, and thus oxygen combined with the inorganic carbon, while the bones contain phosphoric acid, oxydized gelatine.

3172. As the calcareous earth is, properly speaking, only a granular deposit in the tegument, like it is in the cartilages of the higher animals; so is it not to be regarded as a free worm-tube, but as the body itself. Meanwhile it forms a tube open above, from which the mouth of the animal projects.

3173. As the animal ramifies, so also do the stony tubes increase, and there originates a phytoidal or plant-like stem, but one consisting of a stony mass.

3174. Thus the Coral is the earth-animal, and indicates the globular or osseous mass under its first grade of formation in the animal kingdom.

But there are also Polyps, whose stem only originates through saccular inversion of the upper portion of the animal's body; yet this is only distinct in the soft stems. In most of the species, where a separate intestine is to be found, it is probably only the upper part of the body which is so inverted. Meanwhile there are some, whose intestine forms a circle by returning upon itself, and opens into an anus.

3175. If then the Infusoria are the vitellus or seed of the animal kingdom; in like manner the Corals are its ova. The carbonate of lime is the shell surrounding the albumen, while the animal or intestine is the vitellus--Albumen-animals.

3176. Nature forms these living ova, when she takes vitellus and albumen out of the sea-slime, invests them with a shell derived from the earth, and hatches them, after they have been vivified by sun and air.

Class 3. Absorbent, Involucral Animals.

3177. Did the former animals remain in the condition of ova, from want of a perfect vascular system; they are next developed, so soon as vessels appear and form a vascular plexus, into foetal involucra or envelopes. These animals are vitellus with the vascular membrane.

3178. The Absorbent animals are no longer simple vesicles, but large cysts or capsules like the developmental envelopes of the foetus, along with a choroid plexus--Involucral, Foetal-animals.

This choroid plexus does not, however, consist of arteries and veins; but is only a ramification of the intestine, so that the vessels are of a lacteal character--Absorbent animals.

3179. In these animals there is no longer any egg-shell, but everything has been taken up into the galvanic circle; the shell has itself become organic and life-imbued. Their substance is still mucous or albuminous; they are still vitellus, though converted into a vascular tissue.

3180. They therefore cling firmly nowhere; but swim about freely, like brain-masses converted into radiated cysts.

3181. Free Mucus-animals, traversed by vascular plexuses, are Acalephæ.

3182. There are Acalephæ which are simply air-sacs, like the air-sacs of ova, to which hang ramified vessels as absorbent tubes--Cystic, Tubular Acalephæ.

Others represent hemispheres with numerous absorbent tubes, which concur in the middle of the animal to form a kind of stomach, from which again other tubes pass towards the border, in order to elongate into tentacula. Thus the absorbent vessels have become motor and sensitive organs.

Besides this, many have around the mouth four large lobes, which must be viewed as the antetypes of the sentient lobes of the Bivalve Mollusca.

Lastly, others have a true mouth, which leads to a similar gastric cavity, out of which the same vessels emerge and ramify. Both kinds are called Hutquallen or Acalephæ.

There are yet others having the same structure, but oviform, with respiratory lamellæ upon the absorbent tubes, Rippenquallen or Beroes.

3183. An Acalephan is a brood-egg, which swims freely about without a shell.

3184. The vessels are quaternary in their distribution, and form a cross, like the involucral vessels of the chick.

3185. In these animals the ova first begin to be detached and agglomerated together in definite situations so as to constitute ovaria. The number here is also four.

They lie usually within four cavities surrounding the stomach, and into these wide apertures situated near to the mouth lead; they are at the same time regarded as respiratory cavities.

In other species vesicles, wherein seminal animalcules are developed, occupy the same situation. Here therefore is recognised for the first time a separated sex.

In the Röhrenquallen or Physaliæ the ovisacs mostly depend externally in the form of bells.

Besides this we find in the Acalephæ all sorts of laminæ, which are probably organs of respiration.

It is not known what is the meaning of the air-sacs and of what the air consists.

Most of the species emit light like globes of fire, just as many Infusoria do also. It is probably a phosphorescence given out by the mucus when passing over into a state of decomposition.

Very many have also the stinging property of the nettle; but, whether the cause of this is chemical or mechanical, is not yet exactly known.

SECOND CIRCLE. VASCULAR, SEXUAL ANIMALS.

3186. So far, or in the ascending scale up to the Acalephæ, the animal is only viscus with an absorbent canal, which is at the same time a canal of evacuation, without a distinct intestine being set apart for that purpose; such is the general rule.

3187. After the Acalephæ the formation undergoes a change; the distinction between the exterior and interior is prominently displayed, and the internal wall becomes freed as a separate and perfect intestine along with a mouth and anus; the external wall appears as a free tegument. But, seeing that two concentric and separated cysts could not subsist without combination by means of the nutritive system or the vessels; a perfect vascular system is formed, divided into veins, arteries, and hearts.

The tegument, wherein the vessels become self-substantial, is the branchial membrane. There is therefore placed around the intestinal body a vascular body also, or branchial membrane, which is consequently pleura or mantle (pallium), as in the Mussels. The body of the intestine consists of intestine and peritoneum; that of the vessels of branchiæ and pleura or mantle.

These animals are hence bisystemic, being both Intestinal and Vascular animals; but, since the vascular system is a new addition, it is thus characteristic of the circle, and its members must be therefore called Vascular animals. With the vascular system, however, all its further developments have been bestowed; thus especially the complication of the vessels with the intestinal ramifications or, in other words, the liver--Hepatic animals. The salivary glands also are a similar complication, and in this series therefore they make their appearance.

Lastly, the renal glands are such a kind of vascular organ, or branchiæ of the sexual parts; they also begin to be astir in this series.

With the separation of the systems into separate teguments or membranes, the sexual parts also separate. The ovarium becomes an independent organ furnished with its own excretory ducts; the male parts are individualized to form veritable testes furnished with excretory ducts, or even with a penis. Still this is all effected only by degrees, or as yet within the confines of this circle.

These animals divide according to the viscera into Venous, Arterial, and Cardiac animals; according to the sexual parts, into Ovarial, Orchitic, and Renal animals.

Class 4. Venous, Ovarial Animals.

3188. With the protrusion into view of the vascular system, the veins are chiefly developed along with their principal organ, the liver, as being the bond of union between the circulation and the intestine.

3189. The animals, which first bring to bear in addition to the intestine a liver, are the Bivalve Mollusca.

3190. With the veins arteries also originate, but with a preponderance of venosity or the venous character. The blood is lymphatic, colourless.

3191. The cardinal venous organ or the liver evokes also into existence a corresponding organ of respiration, namely, free branchiæ with the tegumental form--branchial laminæ or leaves.

3192. In the middle between the branchial laminæ and the liver, the heart is evolved; this organ comprising always a ventricle with an auricle, but consisting of a venous, membranous tissue almost devoid of fibres.

3193. The first heart is in other respects arteriose; it receives the blood from the branchiæ and transmits it to the liver as well as to the remaining parts of the body, from which it proceeds directly to the branchiæ without entering any venous or right heart.

3194. In these animals, as is well known, four branchial leaves lie externally on the belly, which includes the intestine with a large liver, and hangs together with the branchiæ as a separate purse within the mantle.

3195. In the Mussel a structure originates for the first time, which can be compared with a thoracic or pectoral cavity. What covers the branchiæ, must stand in the signification of the thorax or chest. The pallium or mantle of the Mussels is pleura.

3196. Their shells are branchial opercula (as in the Fishes). They are secretions from the mantle, and everywhere accompany the branchiæ.

3197. The locket or hinge of the shell-valves corresponds to the rachis or spina dorsi, as is especially distinct in the Teredines or "ship-worms."

The shells of Bivalve Mollusca are a calcareo-thoracic box, open in front, inverted behind, and moveable like ribs.

3198. The two sphincter or occlusor muscles signify shoulder and haunch.

3199. These animals begin for the first time to exhibit bilaterality or symmetry, because in them there is stirring the idea of the osseous formation. From the branchiæ being situated symmetrically upon both sides, the cardiac chambers are also symmetrical.

3200. The pectoral tunic (mantle) usually elongates at the anal extremity into two tubes, respiratory tubes, through which the water is drawn in and thrust out or expelled. Such is the case in the highest Worms or Holothuriæ, only there the respiratory tube leads into the body itself. A similar arrangement is found in the Echini. Many aquatic larvæ from all kinds of Insects or out of different classes breathe through anal tubes. All these animals consequently repeat the Mussels, and this formation admits of being followed out up to Man, where it is left as allantois and primordial kidneys. The thorax of the Mussel thus opens by the anus. But, since the thorax is that which is here preponderating and is nearly the whole animal, so does the anus open into the posterior respiratory tube.

3201. The Mussel can be regarded as an animal consisting of three cysts or sacs inclosed within each other, namely, of intestine, around this the ventral pouch, and around this again the thoracic sac or mantle. If, moreover, the shells be regarded as a cyst, the animal then consists of four sacs. The heart and branchiæ lie within the thoracic cavity; intestine, liver, and ovarium within the abdominal or ventral cavity. The Mussel is thus a doubled Acalephan.

What is termed foot in the Bivalve Mollusca is nothing else than the abdominal tegument dilated in front to form a muscular ridge.

3202. The Mussels are embryos, in whom the liver originates, and whose chorion acquires a placenta. Then again, as the embryo is nearly all liver, and hangs surrounded by a watery fluid within the widely-expanded chorion and amnion, so does the abdominal pouch hang within the pallial cavity, or in the wide, water-full chest.

3203. In the abdomen there is still only the ovarium, and that indeed very large. There are properly two ovaria, each of which, according to my observations (vid. Göttinger Gelehrte Anzeigen, 1806. Stück 148), opens laterally under the shoulder-muscle and gives exit to the ova, which then enter within or between the branchial fringes, in order to be there developed.

3204. Here the respiratory organs are still at the same time a kind of uterus. The ova may be oxydized therein, like the embryo is in the uterus. These branchiæ are probably still to be compared with, or designated as, sexual branchiæ.

3205. In the back of the shoulder these animals have a highly vascular organ with two excretory passages, which open near to the orifices of the oviducts. I formerly regarded it as a kidney, but, according to more recent observations, it should be a testis. In the anterior part of the foot there is frequently situated a gland which ejects a gelatinoid moisture, which hardens into glutinous filaments--the byssus or beard. It is probably a memento of the tentacula of the Acalephæ. There is besides also an organ in the feet of many Bivalve Mollusca, which occasionally squirts a watery juice out to a great distance. I have occasionally found this organ in our Teichmuschel. Its signification is probably the same as that of the preceding organ.

3206. The organization of the Bivalve Mollusc can be thus most distinctly described; it is an abdomen, wherein is an intestine with mouth and anus, a liver and a double ovarium; upon the sides of this abdomen are situated the branchiæ in the form of four laminæ; around the branchiæ and the abdomen is the pleura or mantle, which is always open posteriorly.

3207. The mouth is placed directly at the anterior extremity of the abdomen, is devoid of neck and head, as also salivary glands; it is consequently not a true mouth, but only a pharyngeal aperture. Thereupon, however, are situated four sensitive lobes, which are in structure exactly like the branchiæ--cephalic or pharyngeal branchiæ. They are the further formations of the four arms of the Acalephæ.

3208. The Mussel has a perfect splanchno-neural system with ganglia and a pharyngeal ring, which probably corresponds to the nerves that sweep around it.

3209. The Mussel has no other organ of sense than that of the passive sense of feeling, the tegument. It cannot once move its sensitive lobes voluntarily; it has no lips.

3210. The abdomen only elongates in most of them to form a moveable, variously constructed foot or keel, which cannot, however, creep but only push. The progression of the Bivalve Mollusca is backwards, as in the Acalephæ. In the Snails the ventral surface first becomes a creeping sole.

3211. The Mussels repeat the Infusoria; are Infusoria with a bivalve calcareous testa or shell.

Class 5. Arterial, Orchitic Animals.

3212. In the preceding class of Bivalve Mollusca, it is in truth the abdominal viscera only, such as the intestine, liver and ovarium, which have been perfected; and then the veins and arteries with a membranous heart. The cephalic organs, eyes, maxillæ, salivary glands, and even moveable lips with tentacula, are wanting, as well as the muscular heart. Lastly, the arterial sexual system or a self-substantial testis and the penis were absent.

Now, bivalve Mollusca, which have eyes, maxillæ, a muscular heart and a ventral sole or foot, with salivary glands and a penis, are Gasteropoda or Snails.

3213. The Snails possess salivary glands, a trace of the tongue and of maxillæ, moveable lips and tentacula, with thus an approximation to the head, unto which the eyes are rarely wanting--Salivary animals.

3214. With the development of the head or rather of its inferior organs of sense, the antagonism makes its appearance also in the ovarium. A half of the ovarium is converted into the testis.

The Snail is therefore a Mollusc, which is female upon one side, male upon the other.

3215. The androgynous or bisexual animal is, as a general rule, asymmetrical.

3216. The mantle also or the branchial cavity obeys this want of symmetry. The branchiæ of one side dwindle down; those of the other turn with the mantle towards the head, and the respiratory aperture occurs upon the back.

3217. With the one-sided evolution of the mantle, one shell also is only developed, while the other is stunted or placed under arrest. The Snail's shell is one of the Bivalve Mollusc's shells, its operculum is the other. This last is stony, horny, and finally is entirely wanting.

It is remarkable that the right shell has been pretty generally perfected, while the left dwindles down into the operculum; all the Snail's openings are therefore upon the right side, such as the anus, with the orifices for the escape of the ova and semen.

Male animals are situated on the right side, female on the left; or where the right side was predominating, there originated the male sex, where the left, the female.

3218. As the orifice of the mantle and the shell is properly the aperture of the branchial foramina; so can it be said, that the Snail were a Mussel, which does not simply extend the foot, but also the mouth or head to the branchial opening; it is a Mussel reversed.

3219. Every thing else in the Snails is arranged in accordance with these fundamental organs and forms.

The cephalic portion of the intestinal canal is indicated also by muscular fibres. The pharynx and the mouth can contract and expand, seize and bite off; the former frequently admits of being protruded and retracted as a fleshy proboscis with perforating maxillæ.

3220. Since the muscular fibres are only tegumental fibres, and therefore lie within cavities; they thus act like as in the feet of Insects.

The tentacula of many Snails are moved like the feet of Insects; but as they are not horny, but soft, they are turned either inside out or "vice versâ." The oviduct and seminal duct or penis follow the same mode of formation. They are likewise everted and inverted.

3221. These members of the Snail are true Insect-limbs that have remained soft, and are thereupon susceptible of inversion and eversion. Were an Insect's foot soft, every one will admit that it would then yield so as to become inverted, if the fibres pulled upon it. The limbs of Insects have thus only become stiff, and are thereby Snail's horns that resist inversion. All these members are teguments, and give the lie only unto limbs; for it belongs to the essence of a limb, that it be dense.

3222. That which suffers eversion or its converse is no limb, but only a sheath, a prepuce. Nearly the whole Snail is but a prepuce, a "membrum virile" or "verge."

3223. There is no class of animals, in which the testes and penis are found so disproportionately developed as in the Snails--Orchitic, Penes-animals.

3224. The vascular and nervous systems are related pretty nearly as in the Mussels. But the heart is fleshy and has, by reason of its unilateral or single branchia, only one auricle also.

3225. The Snails repeat the Corals in the cylindrical form of the body, the tubular-shaped shell, and the return of the intestine upon itself towards the mouth, as in many Corallines.

3226. In them also the organ, which virtually corresponds to the kidney, appears to be astir, namely, what has been called the calcareous gland, situated within the branchial cavity, and which opens not far from the anus.

Class 6. Cardiac, Nephritic Animals.

3227. Hitherto there has been found only a single "cardia," namely, the left or arterial heart, which, receiving the oxygenated blood from the branchiæ, propels it to all parts of the body--for the purposes of nutrition. But now also the right heart suddenly makes its appearance, which drives the blood into the branchiæ--for oxygenation. This must doubtless be regarded as a higher development, especially since, as I have shown, in the higher animals as well as in the embryo, the right heart is first perfected subsequently to the left.

The Conchozoa with a double heart are the Sepiæ or Cuttle-fishes. These are in consequence correctly called Cardiac animals, and must be regarded as the fundamental form of this stage.

With this completion of the heart other structural changes, which probably stand in intimate connexion with it, appear. In the Snails indeed a kind of renal organ, or what has been called the calcareous gland in the branchial cavity, has been already shown to exist. Whether the shoulder-gland in the other Mollusca belongs also to the members of the present class, may be left undetermined. This kidney, like other vegetative organs, pours out its secretion quite involuntarily. In the Cuttle-fishes it is, however, combined with an organ, by means of which it can discharge its fluid, or the ink, voluntarily as in the higher animals. The kidney or ink-gland with the ink-sac is therefore characteristic likewise of the Sepiæ, and admits of our calling these creatures Nephritic or Renal animals.

At the same time the whole form of the body is altered; it becomes cylindrical, and is provided upon the ventral aspect with neither a muscular keel nor sole, whereby it might glide or shove itself along; thus herein also a resemblance is manifested to the higher animals.

This motionless body is on the contrary endowed with independent organs of locomotion, namely, with fins or arms, which are wanting in the Snails and Bivalve Mollusca. The labour of motion is consequently removed by the organs which minister unto it from the body, and thus we trace another similitude to the higher animals, which transport their body from place to place by wings or feet. These animals can be therefore called Cylindrical Snails, out of contrast to the Sole and Carinate Snails or the Bivalve Mollusca.

Closely allied now to these cylindrimorphous Conchozoa are all those Mollusca in whom the keel (carina) or sole is wanting; i. e. such snail or mussel-like animals, which either cannot transport themselves at all, or effect this by means of fins or podoidal appendages, in short all that have been called Snails, having no sole, and all supposed to be Mussels, but without a keel.

Now, the Heteropoda or Pterotracheæ and the Pteropoda or Clionæ have projecting processes which act like fins.

The Brachiopoda or Terebratulæ, though unendowed with the power of locomotion, have, as their first name implies, arm-like organs.

The Cirripedia or Lepades, being likewise without the power of continuous motion, possess podoidal or foot-like appendages. In both these families, however, these appendages are nevertheless true motor organs; for by means of them they seize their food, an act which hitherto has been seen to take place neither in the Snails nor Bivalve Mollusca.

Lastly, the prehensile organs dwindle down into mere filaments or small lobes, but the body always retains its cylindrical form without keel and sole, as in the Ascidiæ or Meerscheiden.

In the Salpæ only the cylindrical body is left, unto which appendages are still, and not rarely either, attached, serving them wherewith to lay hold of each other. In accordance consequently with their external form all these animals appertain to one class along with the Cuttle-fishes. I call them Kracken.

The renal organs are still not to be found in all of them; the structure alone of the heart agrees essentially, despite of its simplicity, with that of the Cuttle-fishes. In the Ascidiæ, simple as well as compound species, it is indeed but a single, though muscular pouch. Now, this pouch drives the blood alternately, at one time into the branchiæ, at another backwards into the body, and is thus in the first act a venous or right heart, in the latter an arteriose or left; consequently, according to function this single pouch is compounded or made up of the two hearts.

The branchiæ deviate entirely from those of the Mussels and Snails, and exhibit a very complicated structure; in the mussel-like families they present the form of a trellis-shaped sac, as in the Ascidiæ, or that of filiform appendages to the feet, as in the Cirripedia, or they are funiform as in the Brachiopoda. In the Pteropoda they are very varied; in the snail-like Heteropoda they are mostly pectiniform or tuft-shaped; in the Sepiæ or Cephalopoda phylliform or fin-shaped.

The external character ccommon to the whole class is the cylindrical body, unto which may be aptly conjoined the possession of special organs of motion; whether such organs be prehensile in function, media of support, or veritable instruments of progression.

The snail-like Pteropoda, Heteropoda, and Cephalopoda, have a head, but this is wanting in the mussel-like Salpæ, Ascidiæ, Cirripedia, and Brachiopoda.

THIRD CIRCLE. RESPIRATORY, CUTANEOUS ANIMALS.

3228. Respiratory animals are Dermatozoa with a predominating system of respiration.

Now, the respiratory system is the tegument, which here then must attain the highest pitch of perfection.

This again takes place through the increased process of oxydation, which produces induration of the parts.

The vessels, which surround the tegument, must nourish this portion of it to a greater degree and render it harder or more compact than any other, whereby alternating expansions and contractions thereof originate, in other words, the structure of the trachea.

3229. The whole body of the Respiratory animals becomes a trachea, a series of rings. The Respiratory are therefore the Annulate animals.

The rings are to be regarded as cysts, which are mutually juxtaposited or repeated, not being inserted within each other as in the preceding animals, but behind each other, so that the present circle consists of multiplied Cystic animals.

3230. The Annulate animals must represent the developmental stages of the tegument, while the viscera make a retrograde step--Tactile animals.

3231. The tegument has two functions: it is an organ of respiration and of general feeling or sensation. In both cases it passes through three stages of development.

It is either entirely a branchia, i. e. reticular in character; or the branchiæ become individualized in certain situations and partly horny, constituting branchiæ proper; or finally, the tegument is converted into an air-breathing organ, tracheæ or air-tubes.

3232. It either feels with its whole surface, or by papillæ; or the branchiæ change into horny feet; or lastly, into alary appendages or wings. The Ancyliozoa consequently divide into Reticular or Papillary animals; into Branchial or Pedal, and into Tracheal or Winged animals.

3233. As the arterial character preponderates in these animals, so do the venous organs, especially the liver and renal structures, retrograde.

3234. The body is now an intestinal and tegumental body with predominating respiratory and sentient organs; here therefore sensitive papillæ, antennæ, feet and wings, appear in abundance.

3235. With the retrogression of the viscera, the glandular structure also and large proportional bulk of the sexual parts disappears. They assume the form of the intestine and tegument, i. e. become tubes.

The spawn like the milt consists, as a general rule, of only two long membranous tubes, running near the intestine.

3236. The external sexual parts belong to the sense of feeling and follow the developments of the tegument; they make their appearance as antennæ, and are usually accompanied by foot-like accessory organs.

3237. The nervous system in like manner accompanies the tegument. It consists of two gangliated cords passing along the ventral surface.

3238. As the maxillæ are only repeated feet, so they are rarely wanting, and are, like the latter, disposed after the fashion of scissor-blades. The same holds good of the antennæ; they are mostly in pairs, and consist of a series of rings projecting from the head.

3239. The eyes are usually present, but only as tegumental organs, or placed upon the points of the antennæ.

Class 7. Reticular or Papillary Animals.

3240. The repetition of the Intestinal or Vascular animal, taking place under the dominion of the respiratory system, must be accompanied by the vascular system. The tegument is a vascular, a branchial membrane, a branchial network or skin.

3241. A body with predominating tegumental and intestinal system, is cylindrical. It can only become gross or lump-shaped, if the glandular viscera, such as liver, ovarium and testes, get the upper hand or prevail.

3242. A tegument which appears as a branchial membrane, is annulate or ringed.

3243. An animal, having an annulate respiratory membrane without annulated feet, is a Worm.

Upon the lowest stage the vascular system is still similar to that of the Vascular animals; its blood is a colourless fluid--White Worms, Entozoa.

In order to be a Worm, it is sufficient to have an annulate tegument. Even if the intestine be wanting and the tegument supplies its place; the character is nevertheless complete. Here it is the skin, which digests, while in the Intestinal animals it is the intestine, which digests and breathes. Since it is here the tegument, which undertakes the offices of the whole body; the vessels, liver, and salivary glands are wanting unto the intestine.

The sexual parts are also frequently arrested and the ova appear to originate in the tegument.

Many undergo division without injury to themselves; yet the detached portions do not become again entire animals.

In most of them, however, the sexual parts of both sexes are present, being associated with, though separate and distinct from, each other; those of the female mostly opening upon the sides of the body.

As being Dermatozoa, they have for the most part special organs of sensation around the mouth, under the form of papillæ, filaments, spines and cups. The nervous system, wherever it is to be met with, consists of a ring surrounding the pharynx, and of a double ganglionic cord lying along the ventral surface of the body.

3244. Upon a higher stage of development the arterial system gains the preponderance, and the blood becomes mostly of a red colour--Red-blooded Worms.

3245. With the arterial the fibrous system also makes a more decisive appearance. The tegument is a fibrous tunic--it is itself an artery. All Annulate animals with a fibrous tunic, which can consequently contract, belong to this class, whether too they have red blood or not, like the Holothuriæ and Star-fishes.

3246. The Lumbricales or Earth-worms and the Hirudines or Leeches respire obviously through the whole tegument, though a special organ of respiration does begin to be evolved, in the first family in the "saddle," in the second in the lateral vesicles or cysts.

3247. In others the branchial vessels make their appearance above the level of the tegument as filaments or ramules, and are arranged in two rows, as in the common Sea-worm and in the Nereides.

3248. Lastly, they accumulate about the neck or head, as in the Amphitrites and Serpulariæ.

3249. There are also Worms which respire only through the intestine, its vascular system being bathed on all sides by water, as in the Aphroditæ. This water becomes, as it would appear, simply imbibed by the tegument in Thalassema, but through an opening at the anal extremity of the body in the Holothuriæ.

3250. These Worms have also no liver, or at the very best only traces of that organ, by reason of the preponderance of the arteries.

3251. Papillæ or sensitive filaments gradually sprout from the external branchial filaments, lie along the sides of the body, and are the prelude of the feet; as in the Nereides--Papillary, Filamentary animals.

3252. Others of these filaments become horny and appear as setæ or bristles, placed somewhat similarly to the above, as in the Earth-worm.

3253. Mouth and head are more perfectly developed than in the Entozoa. The first can readily expand and contract, frequently protrude the pharynx like a proboscis or tube, and not unfrequently has manducatory pincers, like as in Insects.

3254. On the head there are mostly annulate tentacula with muscular fibres, and frequently simple eyes.

3255. In those species which draw the water itself into the body and use it for the purposes of respiration, the formation of the mouth has risen higher, and the pharynx been provided with maxillæ, in number five or ten--Echini, Holothuriæ. These maxillæ form in themselves a peculiar skeleton around the pharynx, which is ranged circularly instead of by pairs.

3256. The nervous system is directed according to the relations of the tegument and intestine. It forms two ganglionic cords running along the ventral side of the body, and, where it makes with the nerves going to the maxillæ a ring around the pharynx, corresponds to the pharyngeal or pneumogastric nerves.

3257. In reference to the sense of feeling it may be said, that the Worms were those among the Sensitive animals, which feel by the whole tegument or body. Their body itself is a tentaculum.

3258. The sexual parts are likewise intestini-and dermiform, not glandular in figure like the ovarium and testis of Mussels and Snails, but tubular, as in the Entozoa. There are usually two oviducts and two seminal tubes to be found.

3259. So far as we are acquainted with the Red-blooded worms, they are androgynous, at least as regards the Earth-worms and Leeches, and their sexual parts are indeed tolerably symmetrical; yet they do not open posteriorly, but far forwards on the ventral side of the body, this being the case with even the male sex-organs.

Class 8. Branchial, Pedal Animals.

3260. The representation of the Cutaneous animals is not yet the entire completion of the tegument. It attains a higher grade by separating in accordance with the visceral systems, and in the conversion of the branchiæ into sensorial organs or feet.

The branchiæ endeavour to separate self-substantially, and form a body of their own. The branchial body is the thorax.

By this attempt, the abdomen originates "per se" as the body of the intestinal and sexual system. The branchiæ upon it are arrested or stunted. In like manner the body of the nerves separates itself from the thorax and becomes head.

But meanwhile this separation is only imperfect; the head and thorax, if otherwise distinguished by their size and the feet, are for the most part connate; abdomen and tail are usually fused together, and only to be recognized as distinct by the limbs or members.

With this greater division of the body each division of it obtains its articulation into rings; but they will be hardened by virtue of the separation of the branchial network, or will become horny--Horny animals.

3261. With the conversion into horny texture of the body, its branchial filaments or tentacula must undergo a similar change, and divide likewise into rings like the general or bodily tegument.

Annulate, horny branchial filaments, are feet--Pedal animals.

A part of the branchiæ remains hanging to the feet, mostly to their basal joints, and is supported by animal motor members or limbs; the respiration becomes voluntary--Branchial animals.

The Annulate animals, having branchiæ and feet, are the Crustacea or Crabs.

The branchiæ and feet are, of course, most largely developed upon the thorax.

Those upon the abdomen continue small, and those upon the tail or sexual body dwindle in size and change into other organs, such as fins, sacs, filaments, pincers.

3262. The number five of the branchiæ is also exhibited in the feet. There are mostly five large pairs of feet on the thorax, and as many small ones on the abdomen, as in the Crabs.

On the tail they appear more dwindled in size, and are frequently reduced to a smaller number.

Each part of the body has properly five rings; and these parts being the thorax, abdomen and tail, there are thus fifteen rings in all.

In the Crabs it is distinctly demonstrated that the maxillæ are nothing else but feet; there are therefore for the most part, after taking into account sundry arrests and coalescences, five pairs of maxillæ also.

The Crabs have usually two pairs of antennæ, whose signification is unknown; one pair is probably the elongation of the ear.

All Branchial animals have eyes, frequently too supported upon articulated pedicles.

They have a double nervous cord upon the ventral surface of the body.

They have, like the Mussels, a heart upon the dorsal aspect, and arteries with veins.

The intestine opens into the apex of the tail, and is surrounded by a liver.

The sexual parts still open for the most part on the thorax, and indeed by two orifices, as in the Worms.

There are no more androgynous or bisexual beings in the present class.

In some few the branchiæ already enter the body and become air-tubes, as in the Scolopendræ, Spiders and Scorpions.

The Branchial animals repeat, as being the second class of their circle, the Corals and Snails; their "quasi" coat of mail is therefore harder, often richer in calcareous ingredients, and, in addition to this, lies frequently upon the thorax or branchia as a special testa, called the scute or shield.

Class 9. Tracheal, Alary Animals.

Annulate animals, whose branchiæ have undergone a partial conversion into tracheæ and into wings, are the Insecta proper or Flies.

3263. A Worm with feet, tracheæ and wings, is an Entomon or Insect.

3264. The first separation takes place in respect to the three tegumental segments of the body, the abdomen, thorax, and head. All three are, in the Insects, more separated from each other than in the Branchial animals, and united together usually by a narrow tube; even in cases also, where they are connate with each other, they are still easily recognized by respect being had to size, form, or appendages.

Every Insect is divided into three segments. In the abdomen are the organs belonging to the Worm, such as the intestine, and a fatty body which appears to be an analogue of the liver, a dorsal vessel, tubular sexual parts and air-tubes (tracheæ), but nothing else.

The abdominal feet now disappear entirely, and even the number of thoracic feet diminishes, owing, doubtless, to the production of wings.

3265. The thorax alone is reserved for the limbs or locomotive members. It never carries more than three pairs of legs and two pairs of wings. Of the viscera, it contains nothing but the oesophagus, while in the Crabs, important intestinal organs and even the liver, are situated within its cavity. It is in Insects therefore nothing else than a medium of support to the respiratory organs which have become limbs. Hence the thorax never has more than three rings, namely, one for each pair of legs. The wings invariably stand upon its two posterior rings.

3266. Since the limbs of the Insect are only the lateral filaments of the Worms, which have become hard and consequently hollow; they are as such not to be termed true feet, but are only to be compared with branchial arches or ribs; a step by which their greater number also admits of being understood. They are not to be compared with our feet, but unto the toes, which have been separated from each other as far as the rings of the body. The Crab has properly five thoracic and five abdominal toes. All its thoracic feet taken together are only equivalent to our hand.

The feet of the higher animals are only Insect-feet connate or coalesced.

3267. In other respects they already typify or prefigure true limbs, as well from their position as by the division of their joints. A perfect beetle's foot divides exactly like the limb of Man, into femur, patella, tibia, tarsus, and phalanges. These parts of the leg must not, however, be so absurdly divided and named, as has hitherto been unfortunately the case in our systems, where the femur has been called coxa, the patella trochanter, the tibia femur, while the toes have been lumped under the name of tarsus. (Ed. 1st, 1811. § 3087.) The regular number of the toes or tarsal joints is five, so that they correspond to our digital phalanges, to the metacarpal, and the anterior carpal bone.

3268. The wings are the branchiæ of the Mollusc that have been set free; they are placed therefore upon the back and are four in number. In many Insects there is still a pair of wing-like scales in front of the four wings, as in some Lepidoptera. They perhaps correspond to the shells of Molluscs, are branchial opercula.

It is only from this point of view that the structure of Insects admits of being fully understood; and apart from this it is absolutely devoid of all analogy. Thus it is possible for only six legs to take their origin from the thorax in the direction downwards, and nevertheless for there still to be wings upon the dorsum or back. The wings of Birds are by no means homologous to the alar appendages of Insects; they are, as is well known, the anterior members themselves, and there is no longer therefore in the Bird any feet attached to the thorax below, as in Insects. Besides, if the wings did not signify arms in the Bird, then it must have four legs. Thus in the Insect the wings could not also mean feet.

Their structure also speaks in favour of our view of the Insect's wings. They are known to be completely traversed by respiratory tubes, are true, or only desiccated, branchiæ--aerial gills. (Ed. 1st, 1811. § 3088.) Wings and feet are dependent from the same ring of the body, and are thus like the branchiæ and feet of the Crabs. Let the Crab's branchiæ elongate and dry, and they will thus be wings.

3269. Since the wings are newly eliminated organs of the sense of feeling, so are they here characteristic of the animal, and are consequently of greater importance for the purposes of division and arrangement than the organs of the head, which in all the lower animals is only an apparent head, and cannot therefore serve to characterize groups, &c.

3270. That the tracheæ in Insects have been developed out of the branchiæ by saccular inversion, is a fact displayed in a particularly distinct manner by the Scorpions and Spiders, who still possess at bottom internal branchial laminæ, unto which, however, air instead of water finds its way. It may be said, that with the general conversion into horny texture, the arteries of the Mussels were transmuted into internal tracheæ, and the branchial flabellæ into external organs. Would we interpret the body of the Insect in a strictly philosophic sense, the parts must then receive very different names to what they now bear. Properly speaking, in our own species the thorax has no limbs, but only the neck. The upper limbs are not lungs, but branchial organs, and it is the cervical vertebræ, from between which nerves are sent off to the arms, for it is just upon the neck also that the branchiæ have been left. What is termed therefore the thorax in Insects, would be properly their neck. Their abdomen would consist accordingly of thorax and abdomen, and it is this also, which carries on the principal share of the respiratory process. It therefore consists generally of ten rings, and has ten pairs of spiracula, namely, twice five, for both thorax and abdomen.

Or again, the abdomen may be regarded as an intestinal and sexual cavity, and the thorax may be left with its own name. In that case there would be five spiracles for the sex, five for the intestine, and perhaps only two for the thorax.

Would we proceed yet further; the head can then only be viewed as pharynx, and consequently as neck.

3271. In most Branchial animals that live in the water, a perfect circulation is present, because, by reason of their feeble amount of respiration, all the blood is not consumed. This is also the case in the young of air-breathing Insects, so long as they may have to grow. But when they have ceased to do this, so strong an amount of tension emerges in the circulation, owing to the increased respiration of air, that blood remains but in scanty quantity to be carried back by the veins, and the arteries now for the most part convey the air in a pure state, namely, uncombined with blood, as in the higher animals.

3272. As the air-tubes pass to all parts of the body, like the arteries whose place they now supply, so does the nutritive juice become everywhere oxydized and converted into parenchyma or tissue. The nutritive juice doubtless transudes at once through the intestine and penetrates to all parts, as in the Plants.

3273. Of the vascular system nothing at last remains but the dorsal vessel, whose ramifications appear to disappear entirely. According to its analogy with the Crabs, Scorpions, and Spiders, it is the aorta. It appears, as if in Insects the circulation dies off from the living body.

The whole Insect is an air-organ, an aero-vascular stem. All the organs respire directly, such as the intestine, the motor fibres, nerves, sexual parts, and wings. There is no part unto which tracheæ do not pass, and in this respect completely resemble the arteries of other animals.

3274. The intestine is invariably furnished with an anus, and that too situated quite posteriorly. It is usually expanded into several stomachs and has appendages, almost as in Fishes, which virtually correspond to the abdomino-salivary or pancreatic gland.

3275. The salivary ducts open into the mouth, and thus as in the Snails and Kracken, whose similar structures they repeat.

3276. Whether what have been called the biliary vessels are what the name implies, and really convey bile from the fatty body to the intestine, or whether they are lacteal vessels and discharge their fluid near the rectum into the dorsal vessel, does not yet admit of being determined. They have been thought to constitute an urinary apparatus; only certain cysts which occur in connexion with the sexual parts, appear rather to correspond to the latter.

3277. The nervous system consists, as in the Worms, of two ganglionic ventral chords.

3278. In the head, the feet again, and probably also wings, undergo repetition. This repetition is nowhere so distinct as in Insects. He who can still entertain any doubt of the maxillæ being arms, let him resolve to descend into the Insect-world, and he will become in place of a sceptic, a believer. (Ed. 1st, 1811. § 3095.) What have been called manducatory pincers move outwards as well as the legs, and seize like arms, are only arms. Their gripe takes place in the lateral or horizontal direction, and resembles that of scissors or shears.

3279. Where, moreover, there are three pairs of legs on the thorax, we find also three pairs of maxillæ, namely, an upper and lower maxilla, and a labium or inferior lip, which consists of the same parts as the maxillæ, only they are united by tegument.

3280. Where there are five or more pairs of legs on the thorax, as in the Crabs, there also are found as many pairs of maxillæ.

3281. Upon these maxillæ, palpi are likewise situated, which are probably nothing else than what has been termed tarsus, thus repeated in the head also. They are only arrested upon the upper maxillæ or mandibles. (Ed. 1st, 1811. § 3096.)

3282. The wings appear to be repeated upon the head as antennæ. Thus the head also is in the Insects a perfect trunk.

3283. Upon the head there is nothing more than the eyes. They have also become horny in texture, whereas before they were completely membranous, as in the Snails.

The eyes have been subordinated to the sense of feeling; they are nervous papillæ placed beneath a transparent tegument upon the apex of a tentaculum.

Insects therefore have a number of eyes; they stand either separate, as in the Worms, and are then called simple eyes, or they are crowded together, constituting compound eyes.

3284. Of the other sensorial organs a papilliform elevation in the pharynx is frequently exhibited as a tongue.

3285. Ears are found in the Crabs at the root or base of the antennæ, or in them there is only a tympanic cavity with an ossicle inclosed within; in the Insect there is nothing of the same kind. But meanwhile, since many species attract each other by means of sounds, they must thus possess the faculty of hearing. The antennæ therefore probably correspond to the auditory conch. The auditory conch of the Mammalia ranks also in the signification of the hand, and thus of the organ of feeling.

Nevertheless the antennæ may be transformations of the wings. The auditory ossicles are indeed members which have originated from branchiæ. Probably the antennæ are the auditory ossicles themselves which have emerged outwards, as in the Fishes and Reptiles.

There is no trace of a nose; nor can there be any, for it is the anterior orifice of the vertebral canal, and this is wanting in all lower animals. A noseless animal is an inferior or Tegumental animal.

3286. The sexes are separate, because they are Air-breathing animals and perfectly symmetrical in form. The ovi-and seminal ducts are likewise symmetric and in pairs. The ovipositors and penes are perfect, as in the Snails, because they can be shoved forwards, but not everted as in the latter.

3287. The position of the sexual parts at the posterior extremity of the body has been permanently established, with exceedingly few exceptions, as in some aquatic Insects.

That they correspond to the head, or are imperfect cephalic organs, is most distinctly shown in the Insect. They are usually environed by valves, pincers, and filaments, which resemble maxillæ and palpi.

3288. The Ovum-animals multiply by division, by granules or gemmæ, i. e. shoots, the Sexual animals by membranous ova, the Arthritic animals by horny ova. These last, or egg-shells, are hard, and frequently also so strung together or laid by the parent upon each other as to represent the annulate body of some Insect.

3289. In the ova of the Dermatozoa or Tegumental animals the vitellus only appears to exist, being without albumen, which first seems to make its appearance along with the animal systems. As the animal separates into higher and lower substances, so also does the ovum or microzoon. The simplicity of the Tegumental animals has been prophesied or foretold in that of their ova.

The Insecta, as being the third class of their circle, repeat the Acalephæ and Kracken. With the last they bear much resemblance in form and in their motor organs.

3290. Would we arrange the Worms along with the spiral vessels or ducts, the Crabs with the woody rings in the stem, we must term the Tracheal animals foliage or leaves. Their wings are pinnate leaves, and among the Orthoptera many occur which, as well in the form of the body as of the wings, appear as if they had been just liberated from the Papilionaceous tree. The tales or stories, about leaves changing in the torrid zones into Insects, are not without meaning; for poetry is none other than the Ideal of natural history.

Metamorphosis.

3291. We now proceed to retrace our steps. The Insect is a Tegumental animal represented in limbs. There can be therefore present in the Insect no other development than in the Cutaneous animal, which works itself up into the Branchial and Tracheal animal.

The Insect passes through three stages prior to its attaining the adult or perfect condition. It is at first Worm, next Crab, then a perfect, volant animal with limbs, a Fly.

3292. The representative passage of the Insect through the preceding classes in the course of development, constitutes its metamorphosis. Thus the Insect's metamorphosis obtains a meaning and an explanation. Upon the whole, the history of every kind of pregnancy is none other than the passage which takes place through all the animal classes, as I have first represented in my book upon "Generation" (Von der Zeugung, 1805); but in no class of animals are the periods so dissevered or drawn apart as in Insects. It therefore comes to pass that these animals are the equivalent transcripts or copies of a system common to them and the preceding animals.

3293. The Worm is the first condition of the Insect. It is represented, by the larva, which, according to its diversity of size, is called maggot, caterpillar, grub, &c.

3294. The larva is only a Cutaneous and Intestinal animal. It knows of nothing else but eating like the Worm; it has no sexual function, no lust, nor pain; it can scarcely move; in many the feet are wanting, as in the larvæ of Flies, which thus resemble the Entozoa; many have a crop of lateral papillæ, like the caterpillars, which resemble the Nereids.

3295. The change into a nympha, chrysalis, or pupa, commences with the horny induration met with in the Crab, and in the higher organized kinds of Snail. The pupa is the embryonic Crab or its antetype, it is the Snail in its shell.

3296. In the third condition the Insect makes an advance above the branchial condition, and casts aside the Snail's or Crab's shell; and is then the perfect Insect, the Fly.

3297. The metamorphosis is accordingly the embryonic transition of the Insect, after extrusion from the egg, through the three classes of its circle. In the ovum state it only passes through that of the Intestinal and Sexual animals.

3298. This is a retrospective proof that the higher animals also pass in the ovum through the condition of the lower animals, but after birth through the classes which directly precede them.

What holds good of the Insects, does so also of the preceding groups of animals, although in a less degree; the higher class of each circle still passes after birth through one or other of the inferior classes.

Thus, the Acalephæ first appear under the form of Infusoria; next change into Polyps, and then obtain for the first time the form of the perfect Acalephæ. The same phenomenon occurs in the naked snails or Slugs. They have, when freshly hatched from the egg, a small mussel-like shell, which they lose at a later period.

The Echini or Sea-urchins, which I believe ought to be ranged with the Kracken, also pass through a metamorphosis.

Finally, it is well known that the Crabs also are subjected to a metamorphosis. Their first condition must be regarded as that of the Worm.

The law is thus universal. The second and third class of every circle traverse after birth the classes, to whose series they belong.

It would even appear that the classes, also of a lower circle, are subject to similar changes; at least many Entozoa, and thus the first class of the third circle, appear to undergo such a metamorphosis, since they first of all resemble an Infusory animal, next change as pupæ into Molluscs, and are then manifested for the first time as Worms.

3299. The Dermatozoa or Sensitive animals range in the following manner, according to the anatomical systems:

A. INTESTINAL ANIMALS. B. VASCULAR ANIMALS. C. RESPIRATORY ANIMALS.

1. Gastric animals. 4. Venous animals. 7. Reticular animals. Infusoria. Mussels. Worms. 2. Intestinal animals. 5. Arterial animals. 8. Branchial animals. Polyps. Snails. Crustacea. 3. Absorbent animals. 6. Cardiac animals. 9. Tracheal animals. Acalephæ. Kracken. Insects.

3300. According to the developments of the feeling-sense they stand thus:

A. OVUM-ANIMALS. B. SEXUAL ANIMALS. C. CUTANEOUS ANIMALS.

1. Vitelline animals. 4. Ovarial animals. 7. Papillary animals. Infusoria. Mussels. Worms. 2. Albuminose animals. 5. Orchitic animals. 8. Pedal animals. Polyps. Snails. Crustacea. 3. Involucral animals. 6. Renal animals. 9. Alary animals. Acalephæ. Kracken. Flies.

3301. From these tables the number and kind of relationships or affinities is readily deduced. There is a Relationship of Proximity, as that between Infusoria, Polyps, and Acalephæ.

A Relationship of Repetition, as of Infusoria, Mussels, Worms. There is also a Relationship of Series, which takes its rise from the parallelism of the classes. The two last relationships have been confounded together under the term analogy, which at best is but a word of random definition.

Second Province--Sarcozoa, Cephalozoa.

FOURTH CIRCLE--SARCOSE ANIMALS.

3302. The system of motion and sensation, which broke forth so forcibly in the tegument, now passes over into other forms, into the globular form of bone, the fibrous form of flesh or muscle, and the point-form of the nerves.

3303. The nervous system when liberated from the vegetative organs is, or consists of, the myelon (spinal chord) and the encephalon, i. e. brain.

3304. These animals are therefore Osseous, Muscular, and Encephalic animals, whereupon the senses are proportionately developed, and constitute the basis of the highest animal forms--Sarcozoa. The Dermatozoa are asarcose or fleshless animals.

3305. With the sudden appearance of the animal systems all organs of the head, such as tongue, nose, ears, and eyes, are also developed; no asarcous animal has nostrils. Now these parts, especially the nostrils, as marking the terminal extremity of the vertebral column, make up the head--Cephalozoa, or Cephalic animals.

Class 10. Osteozoa, Glossozoa.

3306. The animals, in which the osseous system for the first time makes its appearance are, the Fishes.

The Fish alone has more bones than any other animal. It has dorsal rays, which are wanting in all others.

3307. The animal systems are for the first time slightly separated from each other. Bone, muscle, and nerve are rather a gelatinous mass, which only bids fair for becoming something higher; on this account the bones are frequently but soft cartilages or tendons, the muscle composed of white fibres like those upon the intestine or vessels, the nerve thick, oleaginous, and soft in texture, while the brain is in its constituent parts hardly comparable with that of the Thricozoa.

3308. The muscles of Fishes are not yet perfect in character, since they are devoid of individualization and red colour, and their fibres run mostly parallel with each other without uniting into tendons. Their muscular body is a muscular wall.

3309. The Fishes, ranking upon the first stage of the Sarcozoa, repeat the same stage of the preceding circle, and thus the Infusoria, Mussels, and Worms; or the stomach, veins, and branchial rete or network; furthermore, the vitellus, ovary, and skin, which systems must in them accordingly predominate.

Pelvis.

3310. In Fishes the pelvic organs, sexual parts, and tail predominate. The tail, as being an appurtenance of the pelvis, is larger and stronger than in other animals. It mostly makes up the largest part of the body, and is, properly speaking, its only motor organ.

3311. The sexual parts have still the form of the intestine, and occupy the greatest part of the abdomen. The ovaria are two sacs, like two Infusoria, in whose parietes granules are developed; even the testes are only two such sacs or seminal vesicles wherein the "milt" is contained. Fishes may be termed anorchitic, or animals devoid of testes.

The ova are small, consisting of spawn or roe without shell, but they separate into albumen and vitellus.

3312. External sexual parts are not present. Everything usually opens into a cloaca, which is thus here a true pharyngeal cavity.

3313. With the perfected formation of the head, the animal, so to speak, undergoes a sudden and entire change, and the sexual parts are developed with all their accessory organs, such as the sexual lung. Kidneys are present and mostly an urinary cyst. The kidneys are indeed still so amorphous and soft, that they more resemble coagulated blood than an organ, yet meanwhile agree in this respect with the 'milt' and branchial substance.

Abdomen.

The abdomen is not simply confluent with the sexual body, but thrust by it completely forwards. The anus mostly lies in front of the middle of the body.

3314. The intestine separates for the first time distinctly into cephalic and sexual, or small and large, intestine.

3315. The vitelline canal is the coecum. This is very distinct in the Sharks and Rays.

3316. In Birds therefore the vitelline canal is the coecum also, and the two coeca, falsely so called, which are placed upon the side of the rectum cannot represent the coecum coli, or else the Bird must have three of these blind appendages or sacs.

3317. The spleen here appears for the first time; while the pancreas divides into a number of coecal appendages.

Thorax.

3318. The thorax of the Fish is reduced within very narrow limits; it is like the first thoracic formation, and is thus a Mussel's thorax. The branchiæ with their opercula are similarly formed to the branchial plates and shells of the Bivalve Mollusca. The thorax is therefore attached only externally to the body, and the Fish is to be viewed as a Mussel, from between whose shells a monstrous abdomen has grown out.

3319. But this Molluscan thorax is conjoined with animal systems, and has assumed their noble or elevated type of structure. Here therefore the osseous and sarcose system blend together, and the higher formation of the thorax emerges into view.

3320. For the first time an advance is made towards the formation of a trachea, namely, by the branchial framework or skeleton, which opens into the mouth, and corresponds therefore properly to the larynx. Fishes are therefore the first animals which breathe through the mouth. In all the preceding classes the air entered the body, or the water found access to the branchiæ, by other routes.

3321. They may be termed Mouth-breathing animals, for the first formation of the trachea extends no further than to its junction or communication with the mouth; since, for it to be continued into the head and open self-substantially as a nasal organ, constitutes a second step in advance, which cannot be ventured upon in an Abdominal animal. In Fishes everything relates to the abdomen, and this is expressed by the first union of the trachea having taken place with the oesophagus or the mouth.

3322. But, at the same time that the trachea is inserted within the mouth, it opens externally and in the lateral direction upon the body, thus letting the water escape from it posteriorly after a mussel-like or sexual fashion. Thus, the trachea is not yet closed inferiorly, nor hence also the thoracic cavity. Between the head and abdomen there are still openings--branchial foramina.

3323. The trachea is itself, however, a thorax upon a small scale, consisting as it does of rings, or as it were ribs. These arches are not yet united by muscles with each other, and the water flows out between them into the apparent thoracic cavity, from which it next escapes beneath the branchial operculum.

3324. These tracheal rings are the branchial arches. The branchial vessels are tracheal and by no means pulmonary vessels.

3325. Thus, upon taking a retrospective glance at the matter, we may fairly conclude that the branchiæ of the Dermatozoa are not equivalent to the lungs of the higher animals, but are only the antetypes of the bronchi, being thus cervical organs.

3326. The trachea is thus formed prior or antecedently to the lungs, but is still membranous and devoid of any continuous connexion between its rings.

3327. The lung is an organ extraneous or foreign to the trachea, and becomes only as if accidentally associated with it.

3328. But a Sarcozoon is not devoid of lungs nor of aerial respiration; for, being the totality of all lower animals, it consequently unites in itself the respiratory apparatus of the Branchial and Tracheal animals; thus gills and lungs.

3329. In the Fish the first lung appears, that is to say, if we designate or interpret the respiratory organ in Insects only as tracheæ, which do not open into the mouth.

3330. The Fish's lung is the air-or swim-cyst.

3331. The lung is still subordinate to the abdomen and intestine. It is therefore still separated from the trachea or the branchial arches.

3332. Fishes swallow the air and drive it into the pulmonic cyst, where it is analysed or decomposed.

3333. This lung, so soon as it stands opposite to and enters into conflict with a branchia, is what serves to direct or control the action of the heart. It is only when the swim-cyst is allowed to hold good as lung, that the circulation in Fishes admits of being understood. For otherwise venous blood must flow into the heart, from this into the branchiæ, from these directly into the aorta, and so to the different organs without again entering a cardiac cavity, a structure which occurs in no other class of animals, but rather in every instance its reverse. The first heart is arteriose, not venous in all animals, even in the Mussels and Snails and in the embryos. Now, the Fish is still such an embryo, and has only an arteriose heart.

3334. Thus, the following is the "modus operandi" of the parts in question; the swim-cyst is the lung, in which, seeing that it contains air, the blood is oxydized; this oxydized blood flows into the heart and renders it arteriose in character, despite the concomitant influx of venous blood into that organ. Upon this, the blood passes out of the heart through a true aorta, which is called the branchial artery. Instead then of this aorta giving off only some twigs as bronchial vessels to the gills, and next proceeding to pursue its course as a main trunk through the body and along the back, it passes wholly to the branchiæ, i. e. it entirely becomes a bronchial vessel, is slightly oxydized, and then returns upon itself to form the aorta, which should have taken its course directly from the heart.

Senses.

3335. In accordance with the thorax, the corium or true skin is developed. It is mucous in character and muco-secernent like the intestine, from its being constantly in the water. The whole skin is undermined by mucous canals and perforated by their excretory apertures. These foramina of the lateral line are arrested, and metamorphosed branchial foramina, which have only retained the evaporative function of respiration.

3336. The remnants of the tegument's annulation are the scales. They are desiccated air-branchiæ, alary opercula or elytra, and consequently indicate that feature of the Insect, which has continued to work its way into the class of Fishes.

3337. Like the skin, so are the limbs--tegumental members. What is flesh and bone upon them, has kept quite close to the body, and that only which is designed for splitting into digits projects, constituting tegumental digits with cartilages--fins. These fins are something better than the lateral papillæ of the Worms, are furnished at their base with joints, and are in number only four, but crippled or stunted in every possible way.

3338. The fin-rays do not correspond to the digits, but to the nails. They are fibrillated nails, like the wing-feathers of Birds.

3339. Lastly, the head possesses all the organs of sense which belong to a head, but they are still far removed from their perfect condition.

3340. As the nervous system is the first mass, from which the remaining ones have been set free, so also is the nervous sense the first after that of the tegument, which appears as a whole, and serves as a pattern for the subsequent senses. The eye is the sense which is first developed most perfectly, not directly as regards its own completeness, but when considered in reference to the others.

As the sense of feeling has been at once manifested in the vegetative animals as a peripheric nervous sense; so antithetically or vice versâ it is in the higher animals the light-sense, as being the central nervose sense, which appears.

3341. Hitherto both these senses stood altogether alone with each other upon the stage of animal existence, in order, as it were, to play their parts in mutual consent; but so soon as the sense of feeling became individualized into tactile organs, then also the eye made its appearance in a detached or isolated manner.

3342. The Fish's eye is upon the whole composed of the same structures as in the Mammalia; but it is devoid of motion and external coverings.

3343. The ear, as being the sense of motion, has scarcely withdrawn itself from the brain, has not yet become a true external organ, and that portion of it which appears externally, is subservient to inferior systems, such as the branchiæ or gills.

3344. The external auditory organ has become confluent with the branchial aperture, and the auditory ossicles have become parts of the branchial operculum.

3345. In the internal ear only the three semicircular canals have been left. The cochlea is not yet developed.

As true palpebræ or eyelids are wanting to the visual organ, so also are the conchs of the external ear.

3346. The nostrils exist, because a vertebral canal, which terminates in them, is present; stoutly-developed olfactory nerves are also present, so that the sense of smell cannot be wanting. Only this sense has not yet taken the respiratory organ into communication with itself, and both therefore live for themselves in an arrested or stunted condition. This nasal organ does not open into the mouth, admits of neither water nor air passing through it, and therefore serves not as a test-organ to the respiratory process. This is my main point for distinction of Fishes from Reptiles.

3347. Every Sarcozoon, whose nostrils do not open into the mouth, is a Fish. The Siren therefore does not belong to the present class, while the Lepidosiren, having an imperforate nasal organ, does.

3348. The tongue has remained rather an organ of touch and deglutition, than an instrument of taste. The salivary glands are scarcely developed.

3349. But the tongue here appears for the first time in the animal kingdom as a perfect organ provided with muscles, and a lingual bone, as in Man; Fishes are, as regards the development of this sense the Glossozoa, Lingual or Tongue-animals.

3350. As Fishes are the repetition of the intestine and vitellus, so they may be termed abdominal or rather Pelvic animals. They are an abdomen, unto which are appended branchiæ, fins and head.

They are the repetition of the Infusoria, Mussels, and Worms; in them we meet with mucus, branchial opercula, articulated filaments, and labial cirrhi or palpal organs.

Class 11. Myozoa, Rhinozoa.

3351. Those Sarcozoa which for the first time obtain true muscles and a perforated nasal organ are the Reptilia.

3352. True muscles are red, have a definitely circumscribed outline, and are divisible into head, fleshy portion or belly, and tail or tendon. As such they are found for the first time in Reptiles.

Thorax.

3353. With the osseous system in Fishes the sexual abdomen was chiefly developed; with the muscular system therefore, as in the present class, the abdomen proper or intestinal abdomen becomes perfectly developed, and the thorax more spacious in calibre.

3354. The thorax is still blended with the abdomen. In Fishes the disposition was already stirring to create for themselves an air-organ; only this was imperfectly attained, since the swim-cyst communicated with the gullet, but not with the branchial arches or larynx, nor with the nasal organ, as in the present class.

3355. Now, if the swim-cyst be symmetrically developed, if it communicates with the branchial larynx and opens through the nose, the aerial respiration is completely attained, and shares its dominion over the body along with the digestive function.

3356. A Fish, respiring through the nose into two swim-bladders, is an Amphibious animal, a Reptile.

3357. In the Reptile, however, the thorax is still subordinated to the abdomen. Its lungs traverse the whole abdominal cavity, and its manner of breathing is still similar in character to the abdominal function. The lungs are simply two membranous bladders, like two intestines, and admit also of being voluntarily filled with air like the intestine is with water. This filling or inflation of the Reptile's lungs takes place also by the abdomen being expanded at the same time that the mouth is closed by the muscles of the fauces, and is therefore a true process of deglutition.

3358. Their inspiration is still therefore fish-like in character, excepting that the air is drawn in by the nostrils; the respiratory process, however, and the respiratory organ is constituted as in the perfect air-breathing animals.

3359. Reptiles may therefore be called Abdominal animals, while the Fishes are Pelvic animals.

3360. The metamorphosis of the branchial arches into larynx is placed beyond doubt in the Reptiles. The anterior branchial arches frequently unite with the lingual bone, whereby the latter obtains several cornua.

3361. The thyroid gland also makes its appearance here for the first time, while the branchial vessels separate from the arches. Fishes have therefore no thyroid gland.

3362. The circulation is complete. The venous and also the arterial blood enters the heart. But both kinds of blood are still mingled with each other as in Fishes. Yet already, through the direction and arrangement of the cardiac orifices, provision seems to be made for their separation.

3363. The rationale of this mixture of the blood appears to reside in the fact, that many of these animals, and probably all of them in the ovum state, breathe by branchiæ. (This proposition, which was announced in the 1st Edition, 1810. § 305, and there based upon the transitional stages traversed by the animal classes during embryonic development, has since then been raised to a state of certainty.)

3364. The mixture of the blood takes place through an opening in the septum separating the two cardiac ventricles, and which corresponds to the foramen ovale of the foetus. The heart of Reptiles is therefore a persistent foetal heart.

3365. Without doubt, however, the arterial blood only enters the left heart, while the venous remains in the right, to be thence driven into the lungs.

3366. In other respects the foramen ovale is not a true opening, but a bifurcation of the vena cava, one branch of which passes into the right, the other into the left ventricle, as I have demonstrated in the 'Beyträgen zur Anatomie' (Frankfurt bei Wesche), in treating of the calf's heart.

3367. There are generally no foramina in the body, but only fissures without orifices.

Abdomen.

3368. The digestive organs are pretty similar to those in Fishes, as is exemplified by the intestine, liver, and spleen; the digestive process is, however, more energetic, and frequently aided by venom or poison.

3369. The sexual parts are perfect. The first true testes and ovaria have originated. The tegumental formation has consequently passed over at the extremities into a glandular, because the vascular system preponderates. Even in the highest Fishes, such as the Rays and Sharks, the testes and ovaria are still not developed to the extent which they are in Reptiles.

3370. In the female the oviducts pass together as complete cornua into an uterus. In the male the seminal ducts are still indeed separate, yet the two bodies or crura of the penis are frequently developed, and continue separate in the Serpents and Lizards, but are connate in the Tortoises.

3371. The kidneys are distinct and symmetrical; their ureters usually unite into a large urinary cyst. Thus, the sexual lung is also significantly developed.

3372. Many of these urinary bladders split, as in the Tortoises, into two cornua. This is the form under which the cyst again occurs in Birds, where its two cornua have been incorrectly termed coeca, but the urinary cyst rectum, because the intestine opens into it.

3373. In Reptiles also there is a cloaca or sexual orifice, into which all the sexual apertures meet together.

The ova of Reptiles possess a vitellus and albumen, and are surrounded by a membranous or sometimes by a calcareous shell.

3374. Hence Reptiles have originally also a coecum, but it has for the most part disappeared; like its antetype the vitelline canal, which is so small in most Fishes and Birds, as to be scarcely distinguishable.

The tail projects from the body, and is rather trailed after the animal, than enabled to assist the body in its motions, as in Fishes.

Senses.

3375. Many Fishes have only a vertebral column without lateral bones; in the Thoracic animals this deficiency can hardly occur any longer, although we are not, on the other hand, to expect any great amount of perfection to be attained by these parts. Reptiles have osseous ramules, whether such be ribs or true feet; the Serpents have indeed only ribs, but these exist in great numbers; in the Frogs, on the contrary, ribs are wanting, but they have limbs.

In no Reptile do fin-rays occur; consequently, there are no peculiar bones as in Fishes.

3376. In Reptiles the limbs themselves are in a varied or undetermined state, although they constitute a class in which the formation of true muscular limbs is decided. In Reptiles the toes appear for the first time.

3377. As regards the tegument, it quite corresponds with that of the Corals, Snails, and Crabs, of which the Reptiles are a repetition. In some cases it is slimy and naked; in others Mussel-shells originate, as in the carapace of the Tortoises; the scales, scutes, and claws of Serpents and Lizards repeat the rings and scutes of Crabs.

3378. The head has separated itself more from the thorax, the eyes and ears being much more perfect; as regards the latter organs the cranium is always perforated, in the former there are eyelids.

3379. The eyes have still no power of free motion, and the eyelids are as yet very imperfect. It is principally the lower eyelid which closes, while in Mammalia the upper one is the most developed.

3380. The external auditory meatus is notwithstanding usually covered by integument, the auditory ossicles are mostly blended into one, which projects above the skull; the cochlea is wanting.

3381. Reptiles produce sounds for the first time through the lungs; they have voice, but as yet no song.

3382. The nose, however, gives the finishing touch to the head. It has not only opened as a vertebral canal in front, but also as a thoracic cavity posteriorly into the mouth, which was not the case in Fishes. The open nose is the æsthetic character of Reptiles, just as the red muscles are the characteristics of the anatomical systems. The Reptiles are Rhinozoa.

3383. The tongue takes a higher rank than in Fishes. It is throughout soft, fleshy, and smooth; but in most species is still slit into two, which reminds us of a similar condition of the penis.

3384. The teeth are in these animals more like digits than in Fishes. While here they consist for the greatest part of front teeth, and are therefore associated with the intestine, in Reptiles they are mostly lateral, and thus true maxillary teeth, which are annexed to the salivary system. With this special dental formation the saliva is also more active; it is a rapidly fatal poison.

3385. The poison-teeth or fangs have likewise a groove, which can be regarded as the continuation of the salivary duct.

Class 12. Neurozoa, Otozoa.

3386. Those Sarcozoa, whose nervous system is for the first time perfectly developed, and whose ear is open externally, are the Birds.

3387. The completion of the nervous system is the brain; now the brain defines or determines the head; the Bird is, properly speaking, the first Encephalic animal.

3388. In the Bird the head has for the first time, and that indeed suddenly, freed itself from the trunk, and been placed upon a long neck, far removed from the thorax. In no class are there such long necks and so many cervical vertebræ to be found as in Birds. They can be therefore called also Cervical animals, as the neck is not simply present, in order to render the head independent or self-substantial.

The caudal vertebræ, on the contrary, are lessened throughout the Birds, to a degree met with in no other class of animals.

3389. The brain separates for the first time completely into cerebrum and cerebellum, begins to exhibit convolutions, and has in general most of the individual parts analogous to those in the Thricozoa. They are therefore Encephalic animals, which the name of Neurozoa will properly enough imply. The nerves are in comparison with the spinal cord much thinner than in Reptiles and Fishes.

In the Bird also, all the spiritual or mental faculties make their appearance for the first time and suddenly, whereas in the preceding classes but slight traces of them were observed. Such for example are their mechanical instincts, varied modes of nidification, powers of imitation, susceptibility to instruction, knowledge of their benefactors, sentiment of joy, wheedling or coaxing manners, and so on. We have no example of Fishes and Reptiles having learnt any artificial tricks.

3390. Birds are the closest repetition of the Insects, but stand remote from the Crabs and Acalephæ, indications of which are reflected by their structure, disposition, mechanical instincts, and in their nests.

Thorax.

As the sexual body with the tail predominates in Fishes, and the abdomen in Reptiles, so does the thorax in Birds. The whole abdomen and sexual body has been subordinated to the thorax.

The ribs are here directed in such a manner for the first time, that the thorax can act as a voluntary pump-organ. Sternum and respiratory muscles are usually large and peculiarly built.

3391. The lung is only a cluster of Insect tracheæ. They are full of foramina, out of which the air can penetrate into the whole body, exactly as in Insects. In Fishes the lung was still an actual intestine, as seen in the single air-cyst; in Reptiles it was nothing more than a double intestine; in Birds this lung is divided after the fashion of an Insect into aerial vessels or ducts.

In the Bird the intestine lies in the air, and breathes from it, as in the Insect. Birds are also animals which breathe by the intestine.

3392. The whole Bird is lung. Its body is a thoracic cavity, while in the Fish it was simply a sexual cavity, and in the Reptile had obtained the abdominal form. In Birds therefore there is a number of ribs and a strong ossification, from the air itself penetrating into the bones.

Even the intestine has passed over into a motor organ. In Birds and Insects only do we find a true muscular stomach, wherein the food is crushed.

Members or Limbs.

3393. In these animals the formation of limbs or members must be wholly attained. Everything, that works, must work to the production of limbs. The whole body becomes limb.

3394. With the perfected nervous and respiratory system the bones and muscles make also a perfect appearance. The skeleton is hard, complete, and full of air instead of marrow; the muscles are red and separated, the movements free and complex.

3395. The elevated condition of the motor system is demonstrated in the limbs, which here appear in the greatest diversity. There are only two pairs of limbs, thoracic, and abdominal or sexual members. These two are equivalent, so long only as the sexual and abdominal cavity belonging to the trunk proper predominate, and therefore preserve the equilibrium. But the limbs, which have been given to serve the office of the trunk, are destined for progression or swimming, and are simply terrestrial or aquatic members.

3396. The higher limbs are thoracic respiratory members, which are filled with air and clothed with tracheæ, thus exercising a function conformable to the thorax. The thorax has an aerial character. The highest thoracic limbs must be aerial members.

3397. As the abdominal members move upon the earth or in the water, so do the thoracic in the air. The terrestrial limbs are feet, the aerial limbs, wings.

3398. The wings are in the member-formation the extremes of the thoracic limbs. It does not follow from this that they are the noblest in rank, but only that they are the uttermost unto which bodily motion can attain.

3399. The winged animal is the Bird.

3400. The Bird is an Insect with fleshy limbs.

3401. The wings of Birds repeat the alary appendages of Insects in the flesh.

3402. A Bird's wing is a strange but very instructive composition. It consists, namely, of a Reptile's foot and an Insect's wings.

3403. We saw how the branchiæ of the Insect dried up, separated from the feet, and being liberated as wings, were permeated by tracheæ. In the Bird these wings have remained standing upon the feet and been converted into feathers.

3404. A feather is an Insect's wing.

3405. As the Bird grows out at the thoracic limbs into the Insect's wings, so does it upon the whole body into dried branchial laminæ.

The whole body of the Bird is clothed with branchial laminæ or plates.

3406. The wings of the Insects might be called free tracheæ.

The Bird's feathers are Insect-tracheæ. As in the Insect the wings are a leash or net of tracheæ held together by membranes, so feathers are tracheæ dividing into fibre-like ramules.

3407. The Bird is a Reptilian or Frog's body, beset all over with Insects, like as with parasitic animals.

3408. The highest Insect only attains to the possession of four wings, which in some Moths split again into several feathers. In the Bird a vast number of such wings originates.

3409. An Insect's wing is not more than one feather, and is therefore placed also directly upon the body. These wings must multiply so soon as they occur upon a membered trunk, upon arms. Thus, we need not ask why the Butterfly has four, but the Bird only two wings, seeing that the latter is the nobler animal. The discourse cannot be concerning the wings of the former, for the Butterfly has indeed none, but only four feathers.

3410. What the Bird is, it is by virtue of its feathers. It is throughout a trachea, a pair of bellows. Its bones are hollow, full of air, and stand likewise in communication with the lungs; the feather-quills are also hollow.

Senses.

3411. The wings have all the muscles to themselves; the bone has in them gone to ruin. On the legs, on the contrary, the muscles have declined, and the bone has got the upper hand.

Hence it results, properly speaking, that only the thoracic members are perfected, because the Bird is nothing but thorax. The abdomen has, so to speak, vanished, and through this the abdominal limbs are left only, as thin and dry poles or staffs.

3412. From the same cause the muscular flesh upon the head has disappeared. Neck and head are lean, or like Insect horn, which serves only the nervous system.

3413. Beyond the excess of motion the sense of feeling has been nearly lost. The toes are simply destined for motion, and to be used as scrapers, and the digits have become the supports of feathers.

3414. The bill is an Insect's proboscis. In the Bird no teeth whatever project from the flesh, but the jaws themselves. To such an extent has the flesh been withdrawn. What has been called the cere is the only remnant of the facial flesh. Even nostrils and tongue have suffered ossification.

3415. The tongue is a feather. Saliva is scarcely present.

3416. The ears, as being the sense of motion, are far more perfectly evolved than in all the preceding classes. They have opened outwards, and possess an additional auditory part, the cochlea.

With the limbs the sense of hearing must of necessity grow perfect.

3417. The Bird is thoroughly, or "out-and-out" organized as an animal of song. In it Nature attains unto a definite hearing and speech. The Bird speaketh the language of Nature.

With the Bird, the voice, properly speaking, breaks forth for the first time, and that too in a high grade of perfection, as melody.

3418. The ear is the highest representation of the trachea in muscles and bones. The Bird is the Otozoon.

Sexual Parts.

3419. The kidneys are symmetrically constructed, although not yet a perfectly coherent mass. They are of very large size. But a strange feature has come to pass in the urinary cyst, which is the sexual lung. Into this, as has been already said, the intestine opens, and thus it here again passes over into the lung, just as it has passed over into a fleshy cardioid stomach, and completely upwards into the feather-like tongue.

Into this sexual lung the seminal ducts also enter, or the penis, when one is present, along with the oviduct.

3420. The ovum consists of two completely separated substances, and these indeed are so distinct, that the vitellus is secreted at an entirely different place to the albumen, the former in the ovarium, the latter in the oviduct--whereas in Fishes both originated together.

The separation cannot extend further, or else the substances would no longer unite with each other, and the vitellus must be first mixed with the albumen, after it has been completely formed, after or when it is an embryo. In the Bird albumen and vitellus come together during their passage out of the parent's body, or in the act of being laid, and thus before the albumen has been converted into the chick. But in the Mammalia they are first completely united, subsequently to their being laid--i. e. during the period of lactation.

3421. The vitellus is directly secreted from the arteries, but the albumen from an enteroidal sac or the oviduct, which is finally converted into mammary glands.

3422. The vitellus is more a product of the thorax, and is therefore formed directly into the intestine and entire embryo.

3423. The albumen is an intestinal or digestive product, a solution of the organic mass into protoplasma or primary mucus. It is not fashioned itself into the embryo, but is only absorbed as fluid nutriment by the latter.

3424. The shell of the ovum is the last bone, which the animal deposits from the sexual blood, as being analogous to the urine. It is an aerial product, or an analogue of the feather's quill.

3425. Even the nest of the Bird is a spiritual repetition of its plumage, for in it the stalks of plants, tracheæ, or feathers are united into one body, which reminds us in the Swallows of the Acalephæ.

FIFTH CIRCLE. AISTHESEOZOA.

Class 13. Aistheseozoa.

3426. An animal with all its organs of sense perfectly developed, is a Thricozoon.

3427. The nervous system emerges at length freely above the other systems, and it is no longer its mass, but its organs which impart character to the animal. The nervous organs are, however, simply the organs of sense. Through these therefore must the present differ from the preceding class of animals.

3428. Now too the senses first make their appearance in a self-substantial manner above the other organs, serving merely their own functions, and only by chance those of others.

3429. As in Birds the whole body was subordinated to the thorax, in Reptiles to the abdomen, in Fishes to the sex, in Insects to the tracheæ, and so on; in like manner is it here subordinated to the system of the senses or the head.

3430. As the higher senses determine or define the anterior part of the head, and are in their state of perfection provided with muscles; so here the face or visage is invested by flesh, whereby, properly speaking, a true, namely, a moveable countenance, first originates. The Aistheseozoa have a fleshy face.

3431. All possess moveable eyes; fleshy noses, which stand open both externally and internally; ears opening outwards, and mostly provided with a moveable flap; a fleshy tongue, free in front, and moveable lips; with at least thoracic limbs and a skin covered with hairs.

3432. In the Bird, Reptile, and Fish the face is merely invested by tegument, nearly devoid of any muscles, and therefore immoveable. They have a tegumental face, which is incapable of producing any expressions.

3433. In the tegumental face the eyes are motionless, and very rarely both directed so forwards that they can view an object together; the nostrils are frequently devoid of a fleshy rim; the tongue often feather-like, cartilaginous, or covered with teeth; true fleshy lips are wanting, as are frequently the teeth, with even the limbs and digits, or these are divided into a number of rays, forming either feathers, or fins; in the Aistheseozoa there are never more than five toes present, and if there be fewer, then the number admits of being referred to some crippling of the normal quantity, five.

3434. It is remarkable, and serves to the discovery of many laws, that the highest sense here appears for the first time in its state of perfection. The eye in the Aistheseozoa is present in a perfect condition throughout the class, with the exception of the eyelids; the other organs of sense are, on the contrary, exhibited in all their gradations of structure.

3435. It appears, as if the whole animal was first perfected, when the eye is present with all its investment or clothing. The eye of the Aistheseozoa has not simply all its internal chambers and all its humours, but also all its muscles; it is moveable and has perfect eyelids, with very few exceptions--Ophthalmozoa.

3436. The ear now begins to suffer arrest. Its completion is indeed the formation of an external concha or flap for receiving the rays of sound, the hand being repeated in the ear, and its skeleton constituted by the auditory ossicles. This auditory hand occurs only in the Aistheseozoa, and might serve as characteristic if it were not wanting in many, while the eyelids are present. As in the Whales, where the auditory passage can be, however, closed, an act which is not possible in any Bird. The Bird must hear whether it will or no.

In all Thricozoa the interior of the ear is perfect, having cochlea, semicircular canals, tympanum, and, as brachial parts, the three conjoined auditory ossicles. The concha of the ear passes besides through all stages of development, from having a simple margin to one with most varied convolutions, lobes and opercula.

3437. Still more than the ear does the nose undergo modifications. In the Whales it seems to be less adapted for the purposes of smell than of respiration. The olfactory nerves are in them very delicate, and the apex of the nose is destitute of motion.

In other beasts, on the contrary, it is elongated into a very muscular proboscis or snout, and is endowed with the power of voluntary motion.

The form also of the nostrils is very varied, they being round, narrow, patulous, and frequently capable of being closed.

3438. The tongue is indeed mostly fleshy and soft; yet in many species it is provided with horny points, in others invested by a dense coriaceous tegument, so that it appears to represent an instrument for deglutition rather than gustation.

3439. The lips also are mostly fleshy and moveable; yet in many they retrograde exceedingly and lose their mobility, as is partly the case in the Ornithorynchus.

3440. In most, however, the limbs, especially the toes, are still subject to variation. Their perfection consists in the number five, and in the difference between the two pairs of limbs, as in Man. In the Apes the posterior feet are also hands, which is an imperfection; in the Marsupials there are hands posteriorly but toes in front; in other respects there are generally toes, sometimes five, then four, finally two perfect and two dew-claws in the Ox, and at length only one in the Horse, while the posterior extremities are virtually lost in the Whales.

3441. The dental system, as being the set of maxillary claws, is alone present in its state of perfection in the Thricozoa. They alone have, in addition to the incisor teeth, all the five kinds of teeth that differ from each other in form, namely, canine, false molars, laniary, with second and third true molars, corresponding to the five fingers reckoned from the thumb.

3442. In the dentition of those animals which tear their food the greatest amount of completeness and variety is met with, since each tooth has a different form and function.

In the Bears the molars are uniform in character, and so on through the Apes up to Man.

In the Marsupials they are tolerably similar, as also in the Bats and Shrew-mice.

They are still more alike in the Pig and Horse, and the incisor teeth begin to be wanting in the Ruminantia, e. g. the Ox.

In Mice the canines are wanting, in the Sloths the front teeth, and in the Ant-eaters actually all.

3443. In opposition to the perfect eye the general sense of feeling is developed in the tegument. The tegument which is best developed will be that, which represents a self-substantial organ with all its appurtenances, and thus an organ of touch, whose nobility of rank consists in motion. A skin, which is moveable by means of muscles, must take the noblest rank. A skin with tegumental muscles is an organ of feeling, which is already in some degree subjected to the influence of the will. If tegumental muscles do not occur in all these animals, they still do in most of them.

The production of the most perfect coat or covering is the second step, whereby the tegument ascends.

3444. Hitherto the outer covering of animals was pretty inorganic, consisting either of hollow tracheæ, feathers, or semicavernous scales, coat of mail, or lastly, only mucus. All these organs were only constructed after the type of individual vegetable systems, in greatest part only after the respiratory organ, and were therefore partial in aspect or deficient.

The highest covering must also bear the highest meaning. This is that, which grows out of the sanguinary system collectively, out of the capillary vessels. The capillary vessels of the covering are, however, the hairs. The hair is the most perfect covering of the animal.

3445. These animals are the Thricozoa.

Already the highest birds, e. g. the Ostrich and Cassowary, exhibit feathers which merge over into hairs.

3446. An integument clothed with hair, and self-substantially moveable is the perfection of this organ, it is a fur--Furred animals.

3447. The fur is the peripheric combination of the Vegetable and Animal. The hairs are the highest Vegetable, as being the vascular system grown out of or above the animal, and constituting the fundamental or basi-system of the whole body. The tegumental muscles are the lowest Animal. In the fur consequently the whole animal has been represented, but as a limit set between animal and world.

3448. The tegumental covering also varies. The hairs become scanty in respect of number; instead of them spines, horny rings or scales occur, yet there are always hairs on the belly. In many Whales they seem to dwindle into bristles. In some they have coalesced to form a kind of bark, as in the Stellerian Walrus or Sea-cow.

Thorax.

3449. In all the respiration is aerial; in all there is a true costal structure, and a respiration effected through the motion of the ribs or a pumping action; in all the lungs are filled with cells; in all there is a diaphragm, a larynx, a trachea with cartilaginous rings, and a thyroid gland. But the air no longer penetrates from out the lungs into all the cavities of the body, as in Birds.

Abdomen.

3450. The two intestines, namely, the large and small, are more distinct from each other than in other animals; the cæcum coli is in most distinct; the stomach expanded and membranous in texture, so that it operates simply through chemical influence. Liver, pancreas, and spleen occur in all.

3451. The sexual parts are in every respect very perfect. The penis is present in all, and all have an uterus, fallopian tubes, and separate oviducts. The penis is in many still retracted into a cloaca, and the testes frequently lie within the abdominal cavity.

3452. As in the tegument the parts separate and each becomes self-substantial, the fibre animal, the tegument vegetal, and so on even in the sexual animal. The ovarium, consisting of two parts, now also separates, since one becomes animal, but the other remains vegetal. The albumen-organ becomes animal, detaches itself from the sexual parts, is developed in the self-substantial tegument and called mamma.

The Aistheseozoa are thus also Mastozoa or Mammalia.

3453. This separation of the sexual animal is one of the first characters. The mammæ could never be wanting, because they indicate an essential stage in the development. The albumen-organ becomes an organ of sensation. If the existence of mammary organs be doubtful, as in the Ornithorynchus, the hairs are in that case perfectly distinct. No Reptile nor Bird can have hairs, because their covering is derived only from a partial system, the respiratory; while hairs are from the general vascular system, which is the foundation of the tegument, of the sense of feeling. The Ornithorynchus is a furred animal, and this would suffice to bring it among the Aistheseozoa, were we even to deny it mammary organs.

3454. Both sexes, male and female, have breasts. In youth they are most readily detected in the male, because their sexual parts then rank nearer to the female. In other respects the mammæ are probably the chiefest organs of absorption for the embryo.

3455. The mammæ are nobler in rank, when, as udders they become self-substantial; and the more they remove from the belly or abdomen, and come, as breasts, to be placed upon the chest.

D. ORDERS AND FAMILIES.

3456. Had the names been given in strict accordance with rank; then the class-divisions, which correspond to the circles, would have been called Orders.

3457. Families would be class-divisions, which correspond to the classes themselves.

3458. In no class therefore could there be more than four orders admitted, or five, if the sensorial organs be reckoned to constitute a special circle.

From the same reason there are no more than thirteen or seventeen families.--These names cannot meanwhile be so strictly adopted, because the classes are not of equal rank, as has been observed; on this account it is necessary to shove in here and there other divisions, which should be termed at one time Cohorts, at another, Alliances.

3459. If the animals of a class differ from each other, it is only possible by their bringing to bear in addition to their characteristic organ some other organ, and consequently becoming similar to an earlier or later class.

3460. Yet nevertheless in this ascent the animals could never outstep the confines of their own circle. There can be no Dermatozoon which could have bones; for in that case it would be an Osteozoon, and belong to another province.

Every class therefore comprises as many orders only as there are circles with which it comes into contact. Thus in the first circle there is only one order, in the second two, and so on.

Each class therefore includes also as many families only as the circles which are touched by it contain classes. Thus the first to the third class has three, the fourth to the sixth, six; the seventh to the ninth, nine; the tenth and so on, thirteen.

3461. The serial arrangement of animals into families is naturally difficult; but in Physio-philosophy we have to treat not about the execution of the Systematic in detail, but concerning its principles.

FIRST CIRCLE. INTESTINAL, OOZOA--MUCUS-ANIMALS.

First Class.

Gastric, Vitelline Animals--Infusoria.

3462. The Infusoria admit of being reduced to three divisions: the lowest of which, such as the Infusoria proper or Monades, are provided for the most part with cilia; the next in succession, as the Rhizopoda, possess extensible processes, and are mostly covered by a multi-chambered shell; lastly, the most perfect Infusoria have all kinds of internal organs, and especially what has been called rotatory apparatus, as being the dawn of future tentacula.

3463. These three Families obviously correspond to the three classes of the present circle, and that indeed as follows:

To the first class, or Infusoria proper, correspond the Monades.

To the second class, or Polyps, the Rhizopoda.

To the third class, or Acalephæ, the Rotifera.

3464. The Monades are obviously the simplest organized creatures, being mucous vesicles, which move, obtain their food by stirring up vortical currents in the water, and emit what is undigested again by the mouth.

3465. They occur very abundantly in all infusions, and can very well originate, like Fungi, by division of the organic mass, although they are in a condition to propagate themselves, i. e. by spontaneous division.

3466. The Monades are the semen of the animal kingdom, which is dissolved in, or rather produced from, the sea.

3467. The animal body is nothing else than a compound fabric of Monads.

3468. Decomposition is a separation into Monads, a retrogression into the primary mass of the animal kingdom.

3469. All propagation, even that of the sex, commences like the animal kingdom, or with its first family. On that account the embryonic development must be a passage through the animal kingdom.

3470. The Rhizopoda usually adhere together within a multi-chambered calcareous shell, out of which they protrude mucous filaments, and are therefore the antetypes of the Corals or Polyps.

3471. The Rotifera exhibit all kinds of viscera, such as intestine and ovaries; besides what have been called rotatory organs, which remind us of the arms or tentacles of the Acalephæ.

3472. The families of these animals may be therefore aptly named as follows:

Fam. 1. Typical Infusoria--Monades; cilia or vibratile organs. 2. Polypary Infusoria--Rhizopoda; extensible processes. 3. Acalephan Infusoria--Rotifera; intestine and oral organs.

Second Class.

Intestinal, Albuminous Animals--Polypi.

3473. The Polyps also do not admit of being divided into more than three families. The first are only tubes or vesicles with capillary tentacula around the mouth, as the naked Polyps, Tubulariæ, Sertulariæ, and Cellulariæ.

The others have true ciliated tentacular rays surrounding the mouth, and are always condensed inferiorly into a horny, and occasionally stony axis or stem, as is seen in the Gorgoniæ, Alcyoniæ, and Isidiæ.

The third have ordinary tentacula, occurring in great numbers like tassels or tufts around the mouth; their integument is either hardened into stone, or becomes fleshy, as in the Star-corals and Actiniæ.

3474. There is no doubt that the naked Polyps are closely allied to the Infusoria, and among them indeed to the Rotifera, so that they represent but a higher stage of these creatures, characterized by superior size and by tentacular in place of ciliary or vibratile hairs.

3475. The Cellulariæ cannot be more distinctly characterized than by saying that they are cortices or ramules inhabited by Vorticellæ. Thus they are Vorticellæ surrounded by a shell, and may be compared to ova, in whose coriaceous or leathery shell calcareous granules are blended, as in the eggs of the Crocodiles and Tortoises.

3476. They increase by means of ova and by ramification, if the former mode of division is not carried too far.

3477. The tubes of the Tubulariæ appear to be nothing else than the posterior extremity of the Polyp, desiccated or dried. These tubes are not therefore the product of an excretion, but the body itself.

3478. On the contrary, the tubes of the Sertulariæ must be held as being a tegumental excretion, within which the Polyp ramifies and produces ova-cysts. If the naked Polyps resemble ova which are devoid of shells, such as the roe or spawn of Fishes, then the Sertulariæ resemble ova surrounded by a tough skin, like those of Rays and Serpents.

The Radiated Polyps or Horn-corals are invariably ramified and converted towards their interior into a common horny or stony mass; so that the animals themselves appear to have coalesced upon this into a common tegument or bark. They possess a stomach and ovaries surrounding it, which open into the border of the mouth between the rays. They thus increase by ova and ramifications.

They therefore represent the class proper of the Polyps.

The tufted Polyps comprise the proper Corals or Lithozoa, are in form and substance like the Acalephæ but with this difference, that the covering is mostly lithoidal, while in many Acalephans, as the Porpitæ, it only appears as a cartilaginous disc or plate.

3479. These Corals are true ova, having a perfect calcareous shell, like that of the Bird. The gelatinous animal which adheres within a wide-mouthed Madrepore, e. g. Fungia, resembles a vitellus just hatched, and from which the foetal envelopes have been developed.

3480. The numerous tentacular filaments surrounding the wide mouth resemble the shags of the chorion, which accumulate around the orifice of the umbilical cord to constitute a placenta in the higher animals.

The Corals are brood-eggs inclosed within the uterus of Nature or in the sea. The Coral-animals are an umbilical cord, treasured up for the embryo, while the Tubulariæ are only membranous vitelli, and the Gorgoniæ, ova with desiccated albumen.

3481. The families of Polyps stand therefore in the following order of significance:

Fam. 1. Infusorial Polyps--Tubulariæ. 2. Typical Polyps--Alcyoniæ. 3. Acalephan Polyps--Actiniæ.

Third Class.

Absorbent, Involucral Animals--Acalephæ.

3482. The Acalephæ also can only be brought under three divisions, viz. Röhrenquallen, or Physaliæ, Rippenquallen or Beroes, Hutquallen or Acalephæ.

3483. The Physaliæ are without doubt the lowest, being only giant Infusoria; the Beroes are allied through their simple bodily cavity, to the Gorgoniæ; the Acalephæ, through their form, to the Madrepores, especially the Actiniæ.

3484. They range therefore in the following order of significance:

Fam. 1. Infusorial Acalephæ--Physaliæ. 2. Polypary Acalephæ--Beroes. 3. Typical Acalephæ--Medusæ.

3485. The first have not yet attained to the unity or single character of the mouth, but imbibe their food through numerous tubes. They are bundles of ramified Vorticellæ, a thoracic duct full of glands and roots, which absorbs nutriment out of the sea, instead of an intestine.

As the first family they are the antetypes of the Mussels and Entozoa, and especially of the Hydatids and Tape-worms, and we shall not be far from hitting the mark, if we compare their air-bladder with the hindermost cystiform member of the body in the Hydatids.

3486. The second family have a single mouth and ribs mostly full of lamellæ, which are probably the antetypes of gills; they are also frequently traversed by nutritive vessels.

They are antetypical of Snails, being in form an abdominal pouch, in substance a liver, and frequently possessing paired tentacula. Higher up, and they indicate the Crabs.

3487. The third have, as a general rule, one central mouth surrounded by four arms and very numerous vessels, which run from the gastric cavity to its margins, and there mostly elongate into filaments or hairs, being thus true lymphatic vessels, which convey the nourishment directly from the stomach through the whole body, and become on its margin tentacula.

3488. As antetypes of the Kracken they particularly manifest the form of the Sepiæ, or Cephalopods, in the strong and frequently papillated arms that surround the mouth. Gland-like nodes are also developed in the margin of the pileus, but their meaning is as yet doubtful. Upon a higher stage, and they are antetypical of Insects.

Their vascular system forms an exceedingly regular, quaternary net, with branches and ramules ranging opposite to each other, which have been believed to be the vitelline network of the ovum when hatched. These vessels terminate likewise in a common marginal vessel, as in the vitellus.

3489. Viewed as a whole they resemble in form, appendages, and substance the foetal involucra or envelopes. The upper surface may be compared with the convex back of the envelopes, the lower to the concave funnel of the umbilical cord, and the succigerent filaments or hairs to the shags of the chorion. They are probably elongated by injection, like the so-called legs of the Star-fishes.

The secretion of the ova in four ovaries speaks also in favour of their higher grade of development. They lie in four cavities around the stomach, which also open near to the mouth. Their size also is significantly expressive of their higher position.

Finally, they are of separate sexes. In them is the milt for the first time distinctly displayed, and in the same situation indeed where in other animals the ovaries are.

3490. Hence, in these three classes there are found no more than three families, which together make up only one order. The want of a fourth family and so on, proves that the development of these animals does not pass over into the succeeding circle. Their body therefore is only an homogeneous, transparent mass, variously excavated and perforated, but not separated into two cysts, namely, tegument and intestine, and without the other viscera, which are formed by the vascular system, such as the liver, kidneys, and salivary glands.

SECOND CIRCLE. VASCULAR, SEXUAL ANIMALS.

3491. These animals will both traverse the three classes of their circle, as also repeat the preceding three classes, and they consequently divide into two orders and six families.

Fourth Class.

Venous, Ovarial Animals--Mussels.

3492. The Mussels or bivalve Mollusca resolve themselves into two orders, according to the structure of their mantle or respiratory sac. It is either closed in a tubuliform manner, and opens posteriorly into two mostly tubular-shaped respiratory apertures, and in front has an orifice for the passage of the foot--Camacea (Lochmuscheln); or it is slit along its whole length anteriorly; and the pedal aperture is confluent with the anterior and also indeed with the posterior respiratory opening--Ostracea (Spaltmuscheln.)

The first order still represent the cystic form of the Oozoa, and partly by tubuliform calcareous shells placed around the two ordinary shell-valves; but the second, by the freer development of the organs, represent the animals of their own circle.

Order 1. Protozooid Mussels--Lochmuscheln.

3493. These animals repeat the Mucus-animals; are tubular in form, and mostly provided with two long respiratory tubes.

Fam. 1. Infusorial Mussels--Sackmuscheln or Pholades.

Cylindrical, with a tubuliform mantle almost entirely closed and frequently surrounded by a calcareous tube, in addition to the two ordinary shell-valves; the pedal aperture is situated at the oral extremity; the respiratory tubes retractile by means of muscles; the foot is cylindriform.

Of the same kind are the Pfahlmuscheln, Teredines, and Sandmuscheln, as also the Solenidæ. They typify the Nudibranchiate Snails and the Salpæ.

Fam. 2. Polypary Mussels--Klaffmuscheln or Tellinidæ.

Body flat, mostly discoidal; there is a large fissure on the abdominal side of the mantle for the passage of the foot, while posteriorly there are two long respiratory tubes with retractor muscles. Here belong the Tellinidæ and Venusidæ.

I have shown, that they are already to be recognized by the uncinate or hook-shaped groove for the mantle in the shell, and which proceeds from the insertion of the retractor muscles. The foot is usually lancet-shaped. They typify the Patellæ and Ascidiæ.

Fam. 3. Acalephan Mussels--Cardiacea.

Body globular in form, mantle having a pedal slit on the abdominal side; two respiratory apertures without retractor muscles; foot mostly uncinate or strap-shaped.

T have shown that these creatures are to be recognized by a discoid groove in the shell, which simply depends upon the mantle, the retractor muscles being wanting. Here belong the Cardiacea and gigantic Chamidæ, in which last a byssus occurs, and the union also of the two occlusor or sphincter muscles, as in the following order. They antetypify the air-breathing Snails and Cirripedia.

Order 2. Conchozooid Mussels--Spaltmuscheln.

3494. These animals represent their own circle.

The pedal slit in the mantle occupies the whole length of the latter, and is confluent with the anterior or also with the posterior respiratory aperture; so that only one or even no aperture is left, and this when present is besides never elongated in a tubular form; the retractor muscles are therefore wanting also, and the shell simply exhibits a discoid groove for the mantle. The occlusor muscles approximate and unite at their terminations. Both usually coalesce into one.

Fam. 4. Typical Mussels--Mytilaceæ.

Occlusor muscles separate, and mantle slit to such an extent, that only the posterior respiratory aperture remains; foot mostly tongue-shaped or coniform, with occasionally a byssus.

Here belong the fresh-water Mussels and the Mytili proper, of which last many bore into rocks. They typify the Capulidæ and Brachiopoda.

Fam. 5. Snail-Mussels--Arcaceæ.

Have two separate occlusor muscles and a perfectly separate mantle without respiratory aperture; the foot small, mostly cartilaginous. Here belong the Arcæ, Aviculæ, and Pearl-mussels.

They typify the Trochidæ and Pteropoda.

Fam. 6. Kracken-Mussels--Ostracea.

Only one occlusor muscle, mantle entirely open or slit, so that both respiratory apertures are only oblique incisions therein; foot very small, frequently furnished with a byssus. They typify the Buccinidæ and Cuttle-fish.

Fifth Class.

Arteriose, Orchitic Animals--Snails.

3495. The Snails likewise divide into two orders, according to the two circles, preindicated by the Ovum-and Sexual system. Their branchiæ are either ramulate or pectiniform, the sexual parts combined or separated.

The first kind are still frequently gelatinous in texture, transparent and naked; their branchiæ usually stand out freely as filaments, lamellæ, or ramules upon the back, or lie simply as a vascular network within the mantle. All are androgynous. They therefore obviously repeat the Protozoa or Mucus-animals.

The second are invariably covered by the shell and by a mantle, within the cavity of which the branchiæ lie concealed as one or two comb-like bodies. Tentacula and eyes, which are occasionally wanting in the preceding order, are here universally present; the sexes separate.

As in the Snails, the male parts make their appearance for the first time distinct and individualized, and are also a characteristic organ of the class; so also do they serve as bases of division, and the Snails may be divided into those which are Androgynous or bisexual, and those with separate sexes, i. e. Dioecious.

Order 1. Protozooid Snails--Androgyni.

3496. The male and female sexual parts united together in a single individual, branchiæ ramuliform, occurring either as filaments, leaflets or ramules, freely situate upon the naked body, or as a network lodged within the pallial cavity and surrounded by a shell.

The Nudibranchiate species live in the sea, those with hollow branchiæ or the Pulmonea in the air; the former feeding mostly upon animals, the latter upon plants.

Fam. 1. Infusorial Snails--Notobranchiata, or Tritoniæ.

Body gelatinous and membranous, cylindrical and naked, devoid of shell, with branchial filaments or ramules disposed in two rows upon the back.

Here belong the Tritoniæ and Dorides. Their body is muscular; the tentacula not retractile; the male sexual parts open in company with the female upon the right side of the neck, as in the higher organized Snails. All inhabit the sea. They prefigure or typify the Salpæ.

Fam. 2. Polypary Snails--Pleurobranchiata, or Patellæ.

Body and sexual parts as in the preceding family, the branchiæ, however, occurring as ramules or leaflets upon the sides of the body, are more or less covered.

Here belong the Phyllidiæ, Schüssel-and Schildschnecken. They are the antetypes of the Ascidiæ.

Fam. 3. Acalephan Snails--Dictyobranchiata or Limacidæ.

The branchiæ form a rete or network within the pallial cavity, and respire the moisture of air; mantle and viscera are mostly surrounded by a shell; the body is therefore bipartite, being separated into a splanchnic or visceral body and a foot with head.

Here belong the Air-breathing Snails, both land as well as fresh-water species. They typify the Cirripedia.

The shells are mostly thin and horny, yet nevertheless contain a considerable quantity of calcareous earth, and are mostly devoid of opercula.

Those species, which dwell in fresh water, do not possess introvertible tentacula like the marine Snails, and the eyes are placed at their basis; the sexual orifices are separate.

In the Land-snails, the tentacula are introvertible, and support the eyes upon their apex; the sexual apertures are blended into one. The former, like the marine Snails, lay numerous small ova inclosed within a gelatinous mass in the water; the latter deposit their ova free, covered with a membranous, and occasionally calcareous shell, in the earth. Copulation is effected in all by a reciprocal interchange of the androgynous species.

I have observed that individuals of Limnæa auricularia can continue to propagate for several generations without being impregnated; they must impregnate themselves.

Order 2. Conchozooid Snails--Dioecii.

3497. Branchiæ situated within the cavity of the mantle, and hanging down in the form of a comb; shell for the most part spirally contorted; sexes separate--Pectinibranchiata.

Here belong the Capulidæ, Turbinidæ, Neritæ, Conidæ, Volutidæ, Buccinidæ, Muricidæ and Strombusidæ.

The tentacula are not retractile, and have the eyes mostly seated at their basis; the penis is external, very large, and cannot be drawn within the body, but is only reflected into the pallial cavity; most of them have a protrusile perforating proboscis, and an operculum. They lay numerous small ova, contained within large membranous cases, which frequently hang in rows to each other like a necklace of pearls. The shells are in some instances horny, in others of a stony texture.

Fam. 4. Mussel-Snails, Capulidæ.

Only one branchial comb within the mantle, and covered merely by a flat hood-shaped shell; no operculum.

Here belong the Capulidæ; all the species are marine. They prefigurate the Brachiopoda.

Fam. 5. Typical Snails, Turbinidæ.

Two branchial combs, mantle devoid of a respiratory groove, shell turbinated; mostly furnished with an operculum, and that indeed of a stony texture. Here belong the Turbinidæ, and Trochidæ, such as the Cyclostomata, Paludinæ, Ampullariæ, Janthinæ, Neritæ. Live in the sea and in fresh-water.

Fam. 6. Kracken-Snails, Buccinidæ.

Like the preceding family, but their mantle has a groove, and there is a horny operculum. Here belong the Conidæ and Volutidæ, Buccinidæ, Muricidæ, Strombusidæ. Almost all live in the sea and are of sanguisugal habits. They antetypify the Cuttle-fish.

Sixth Class.

Cardiac, Nephritic Animals--Kracken.

3498. Body cylindrical, without sole or foot; frequently venous hearts together with the arteriose hearts, and a kidney-like organ.

Such are the proper Cylindrical Snails, which are either sessile or fixed, or move themselves by fins and what have been called arms--Sessile and Natant Kracken. Here belong the Salpæ, Cirripedia, Brachiopoda, Pteropoda, Heteropoda, and Cephalopoda. They all live in the sea.

Branchiæ and sexual relations very varied.

They divide likewise into two orders, in accordance with the two circles of Mucus-animals and Conchozoa; the former are spathiform, mostly gelatinous, and firmly sessile or fixed; androgynous, without head and rudders or fins. The branchiæ trellis-like and filiform--Ascidiæ, Cirripedia and Brachiopoda.

The others have a kind of head with arms and eyes, or fin-shaped steerage-organs upon the body; branchiæ pectiniform, reticular, and leaf-shaped--Pteropoda, Heteropoda, and Cephalopoda.

Order 1. Protozooid Kracken--Rumpfkracken.

3499. Body sacciform, mostly gelatinous, without head and eyes; species androgynous. They are destitute of independent locomotion, most of them being quite stationary or fixed, and surrounded frequently by a shell; some few float about passively in the sea.

Fam. 1. Infusorial Kracken--Salpæ.

The Salpæ are gelatinous, freely natant cylinders, perforated by an open tube, within which are situated the branchiæ, heart, mouth, intestine, and liver, without any tentacula. They continue to hang for a long time to each other, as though they were in the ovary.

They undergo a remarkable metamorphosis, which traverses two generations, the young meanwhile not resembling the mother but the grandmother.

Body within a sacciform mantle, with two opposite respiratory apertures.

Fam. 2. Polypary Kracken--Ascidiæ.

The Ascidiæ have a sacciform body with two co-approximate respiratory apertures; branchiæ internal and trellis-shaped.

These gelatinous or cartilaginous animals adhere firmly to rocks, with the respiratory apertures directed upwards as in the Mussels, but the branchiæ are not foliiform; the internal cavity is lined with a membranous sac, upon which the branchial vessels are dispersed in a trellis-like manner. At the bottom of and within the sac is the mouth, which is destitute of tentacula. Intestine, liver, and a heart that is simple or undivided. Mode of propagation unknown.

They are frequently connato-sessile, like the Polyps.

Fam. 3. Acalephan Kracken--Cirripedia.

Body sacciform, without branchial openings, oral apertures situated at the inferior extremity of the longitudinal fissure in the mantle, and provided with a kind of maxillary apparatus; above or behind the mouth are annulate or horny filaments representing caudal fins or feet, upon the basal joints of which is a branchial filament. Here belong the Balani and Lepades--Fuss-kracken.

These animals are likewise sessile, at least when full grown, and are surrounded by shell-plates, which remind us of the Echini or Sea-Urchins, whose antetypes they are; this resemblance is particularly distinct in the Balani, which have similar odontoid valves upon the aperture or mouth of the shell. These animals also undergo a metamorphosis, since in the early periods of their existence they swim about like small Crustacea, and later on become fixed or sedentary, and surrounded by the plates of shell.

The Lepades have the ordinary shells of Mollusca, but each of the two valves consists of two pieces, between which an odd one is interposed down the back.

These five shell-pieces become in the Balani a regular set of teeth, which are adherent within the cylindrical shell, by which the posterior part of the body, or the peduncular and elongated mantle, is surrounded. (Vid. Oken's 'Allgemeine Naturgeschichte,' V, 1835, 509.)

They bear a resemblance to the Crustacea, not simply in the annulate horny feet, but also in the double and ganglionic nervous chord lying along the abdomen; only they are androgynous, which occurs in no Crustacean.

Order 2. Conchozooid Kracken--Kopfkracken.

Tentacula upon the head or fins upon the body. They repeat the Conchozoa or Shell-animals.

Fam. 4. Mussel-Kracken--Brachiopoda.

The body is surrounded by a mantle open above, and by two shells; on the sides of the mouth there are two arms.

These animals look exactly like Bivalve Mollusca; they are firmly adherent to rocks, being frequently supported upon a hollow pedicle, which is a prolongation of the mantle. Branchiæ and sexual parts but little known; species probably androgynous--Armkracken.

3500. In the following families the body is free and sacciform, provided with arms or fins, and mostly with eyes upon a kind of head.

These animals have the mouth situated above or in front of the body, and are distinctly separated into mantle and abdomen, while they are frequently surrounded by a shell. They have a kind of head with tentacles or arms, and frequently furnished with eyes like the Snails, or pretty nearly like the Fishes; the sexual parts united and separated. They all row, paddle, or steer themselves about in the sea.

Fam. 5. Snail-Kracken--Pteropoda.

Body mostly gelatinous, sacciform, closed all round and free; fins upon the sides of the neck, with two tentacula frequently projecting from near the mouth; androgynous, naked, and inclosed within a shell.

These transparent animalcules swim about upright in the sea, and wave the fins in this position as rapidly as a butterfly does its wings. Most of them are covered with a spathiform and likewise transparent shell. The branchiæ are placed externally on the body, but are not very distinct. Several species have an appendage in front of the neck, which is obviously a rudiment of the Snail's pad or sole--Flugelkracken.

The Heteropoda appear to resemble the Plantar or Sole-Snails, but the body is mostly gelatinous, and the foot or sole is only compressed to form a fin, so that they can only swim but not creep with it. Many of them have a shell almost like that of the Argonauta. Pterotracheæ--Ruderkracken.

Fam. 6. Typical Kracken, Cephalopoda or Sepiæ.

Muscular animals inclosed within a sacciform mantle, open in front; head furnished with eyes, and surrounded by more than four strong prehensile arms; laminated or leaf-like branchiæ within the mantle, sexes separate; in the body is a nephroidal or kidney-like gland, which secretes a dark-coloured or inky fluid, on which account they are called by us 'Dintenschnecken'--Sternkracken. They are obviously the highest organized Malacozoa, and already remind us strongly of Fishes, partly from their size, partly by their fleshy body, and in part by their perfect organs of vision.

The body is often as large as the trunk of a man; the head being separated from it by means of a neck, has in its interior a kind of cartilaginous brain-case or skull, with externally a pair of jaws resembling a Bird's beak, and with eyes tolerably similar to those of Fishes. Auditory organs are also present, which consist of a tympanic cavity inclosing an otolithe or ear-ossicle; nostrils are wanting. The so-called arms are perfect organs of locomotion, as also useful for seizing the prey, being provided for this purpose with sucking cups, which adhere by producing a vacuum, when applied. In other respects these arms are nothing else but the Snail's sole divided in front into lobes. The ova resemble berries, and hang attached to one another in branched clusters like a bunch of grapes. The Sepiæ possess a remarkable gland, which is complicated with the liver, and secretes a dark brown juice, which has been called ink or sepia; it probably ranks in the significance of the kidneys.

Many are covered with a shell externally, as the Nautili and Argonautæ; but in the common Sepiæ this shell adheres within the mantle upon the back, and forms a straight lamina or plate, which is sometimes horny, sometimes calcareous in its texture. It has been called the "white fish-bone." What is regarded as the dorsal side of the animal is its ventral side, because upon the former lies the pallial aperture and the anus, while the vitelline sac is also inserted there.

In the form of the body, as well as in the circular position of the cephalic arms, the Sepiæ strikingly resemble their antetypes, the Acalephæ and Cirripedia, and their metatypes, the Asteriadæ and Crustacea.

With these animals the second stage or circle through which the Dermatozoa pass, or that of the Sexual animals, is closed. They require only a slight additional grade of perfection, and they would pass over into another class of animals. Thus were the arms to become horny and articulate, they would be Crustacea; had the head a nose, and the body consequently a myelon or spinal chord, they would then be Fishes.

SECOND CIRCLE. RESPIRATORY, CUTANEOUS ANIMALS--ANCYLIOZOA.

3501. Body annulate.

Here range the Worms, Crustacea, and the proper or volant Insects.

3502. In this circle a remarkable relation is revealed. If, namely, its classes, orders, and families be compared with those of the two preceding circles, it is then distinctly shown that the present one again commences quite from below, ascends parallel with both these, and transcends them in its highest inmates or members.

As an example of the first case, the imperfect condition of some Entozoa, and their great resemblance to Infusoria, is sufficiently expressive.

The Worms evidently pass parallel to the Mucus-animals, and the Entozoa indeed to the Infusoria, the Red-blooded Worms to the Polyps, but the Holothuriæ chiefly to the Acalephæ, near which they are still arranged up to the present day, although they are articulated, and have an intestine and vessels.

Thus this class traverses the three inferior classes, and consequently imparts to them only the value of orders, or must itself be raised only to the rank of an order, a step, however, which, considering the great number of Worms, would not be suitable or just. The names may therefore remain for the sake of uniformity; only it must be borne in mind that they are of unequal value.

The same relation is exhibited in the Crustacea or Crabs. They obviously admit of being parallelized with no other animals than the Malaco-or Conchozoa. The Entomostraca and Crabs evidently repeat the Mussels, the Aselli the Snails; but the Spiders and Scorpions the Kracken or Cephalopoda. Consequently here also the orders correspond to the preceding classes.

The true or proper Insects transcend the Sexual animals, and therefore conform to the classification of their own circle, namely, they repeat the Worms and Crabs, and finally mount forth upon their own stage.

The inferior or lower organized animals form consequently two series, viz. the Smooth and Annulate, which in their lower members range parallel, and that indeed after the following manner:

A. Smooth. B. Annulated or Ringed.

I. Protozoa. I. Worms. a. Stomach, 1. Infusoria. 1. White-blooded Worms. b. Intestine, 2. Polypi. 2. Red-blooded Worms. c. Absorbents, 3. Acalephæ. 3. Holothuriæ.

II. Conchozoa. II. Crustacea. d. Veins, 4. Mussels. 4. Crabs. e. Arteries, 5. Snails. 5. Aselli. f. Hearts, 6. Kracken. 6. Spiders.

III. Ancyliozoa. III. Flies. g. Retia, 7. Worms. 7. Tracheoptera. h. Branchiæ, 8. Crabs. 8. Dictyoptera. i. Tracheæ, 9. Flies. 9. Ceratoptera.

The Worms have simply an annulate body with reticular or filamentary branchiæ, but no feet; the branchiæ are supported by the body.

The Crabs have an annulate body with feet; the branchiæ are supported by limbs.

The Insects have an annulate body with feet and wings; the body is supported by the branchiæ.

Seventh Class.

Reticular, Papillose Animals--Worms.

Protozooid Ancyliozoa.

3503. There are Worms with a soft body and white blood, without proper tentacula; others with red blood, with and without tentacula, having also bristles along the sides of the body; lastly, the rings of the body become hard or muscular, and a circle or ring of osseous maxillæ forms around the mouth, which is usually surrounded by numerous tentacula, as in the Star-fishes and Holothuriæ, in whom the blood is nevertheless colourless.

They divide accordingly into three orders, and each of these again into three families, in accordance with the classes, namely, those of the Protozoa or Mucus-animals, through which they pass.

Order 1. Infusorial Worms--Parasites.

3504. The White-blooded Worms or Entozoa are very imperfect animals, a fact which proves that this circle recommences quite inferiorly or from below. They live for the most part in the interior of other animals, being thus located in darkness and in places where they obtain but little oxygen. Their blood therefore is not simply colourless, but even its vessels are only imperfectly developed. They respire without doubt through the tegument. In many, a distinct or separate intestine being wanting, it is the tegument also which digests; in others the intestine is simply a sac without an anus. The sexual parts too are in many species of a doubtful character, while meantime there are both androgynous and dioecious individuals. In the latter the male parts open invariably at the posterior extremity of the body, as in Insects; the female parts in front of its caudal end, as in the Crustacea. Both are in other respects constructed as in Insects, namely, there are two oviducts or seminal ducts, which unite before reaching their external orifice. They divide into three groups.

In one of these the body is tolerably smooth, and the pharynx commencing from a simple suctorial mouth elongates into a ramified intestine without an anus; they are androgynous--Saugwürmer.

In others the body itself supplies the place of the stomach; it is corrugated, and receives the food through one or several orifices, without separating into a special intestine. They have nearly all a claviform proboscis or rostrum, with which they perforate substantial cavities for themselves; it would seem that they are both androgynous and of separate sexes--Hydatids and Tæniæ.

Others are separated into tegument and intestine like the Mussels and Snails, but without having a distinct vascular system, heart, and liver, though provided with a nervous chord and separate sexual parts--Ascarides.

Fam. 1. Monad-like Worms, Saugwürmer.

Body tolerably smooth, suctorial mouth and sucker, the intestine losing itself in the tissue of the body, and without an anus; androgynous.

They remind us through their small size and structure of the Monades, especially the Cercariæ, and among the Worms typify or prefigurate in particular the Hirudines or Leeches, both by their form and power of suction, as also in the ramification of the intestine.

Many Cercariæ might be metamorphosed into Distomata, and so be or constitute their young.

The Planariæ are slightly different from the Liver-flukes or Fasciolæ hepaticæ, since they are white, bloodless, have a ramified intestine without anus, and increase also by fissiparous generation. They belong to the present order, although they live not as parasites, but in a state of freedom.

Fam. 2. Rhizopodoid Worms, Hydatids.

Body annulate or articulate, with a claviform proboscis without an intestine; they appear to have several mouths.

The Cystica develop ova simply upon the internal wall of the tegument; the body's last ring is expanded into a cystic form, and is mostly much larger than the whole body. The Coenurus cerebralis, or Brain-hydatid, ramifies like the Polyps.

The Cestoidea have in each joint or member of the body an ovarium, and, as it would appear, male parts also, so that they are androgynous. The sexual orifices are at the border or upon the surface of the posterior members. The member can be viewed as an ovarium liberating itself; as in the Lerneæ and Arguli.

The Filariæ or Thread-worms, which also belong here, are in the form of a cylindrical tube, with separate sexual parts, which open posteriorly.

Fam. 3. Rotiferal Worms, Ascarides.

Body cylindrical, intestine free, with mouth and anus; sexual parts separate.

Upon the mouth these Entozoa have some papillæ or points, which may be regarded as tentacula. The larger species have a distinct nervous cord. The Gordius cannot well take any other position than the present, although it does live in a state of freedom.

Order 2. Polypary Worms--Hirudines.

3505. Body cylindrical with branchiæ in or upon the tegument, blood red; two ganglionic nervous threads run along the ventral surface of the body, as in Insects; all are indeed androgynous.

Here belong the Red-blooded Worms, as Hirudines, Lumbrici, Nereides, and Serpulæ.

Fam. 4. Tubularial Worms--Dermatobranchiata.

Body cylindrical. The branchiæ are only a vascular network in the tegument.

Here belong the Hirudines and Lumbrici.

The Hirudines have a perfectly naked body, without filaments and bristles, a perfect network of vessels containing red blood within the tegument, an intestine with an anus, both sexual parts androgynoid; posteriorly they have a pad or sucker; in the mouth there are mostly maxillæ, and upon the head simple eyes.

The Naiades and Lumbrici have bristles in longitudinal rows upon the sides of the body. The latter are androgynous. The Naiades increase by division.

The Thalassemæ have a protuberant white body; red blood-vessels only upon the intestine; mouth rostriform.

These Worms stick in the mud, and are nourished by it. They have here and there bristles, but which do not form any longitudinal rows. They appear to absorb water through the skin, and respire by the intestine. They cannot, by reason of their red blood, range with the Holothuriæ.

Fam. 5. Alcyonioid Worms--Notobranchiata.

Body depressed, with pedal filaments, tentacula and branchiæ in two longitudinal rows upon the back.

These Worms all live in the sea, adhering mostly upright in the earth, and have frequently annulate, rigid tentacula, ocelli, and pairs of maxillæ, like Insects. The gills are not unfrequently covered with pergamentaceous scales, as in many Nereides, and especially in Aphrodite.

Fam. 6. Actinioid Worms--Auchenobranchiata.

Body inclosed within a pergamentaceous or calcareous tube with lateral bristles, branchiæ and tentacula upon the neck or head.

The neck is surrounded by a kind of mantle, almost as in the Snails, so that several animals have been arranged here, which are now known to be veritable Snails. Upon the head many have a horny operculum, whereby they can close the shell.

Here belong the Amphitritæ, Terebellæ, Serpulæ, and Sabellæ.

Order 3. Acalephan Worms--Sternwürmer.

3506. These creatures attain the most perfect structure of the Worms. The blood is white, the form cylindrical, globular and stellate; the mouth surrounded by a ring or wreath of maxillæ. The nerves form a ring around the pharynx, and upon the latter are placed membranous cysts, which spirt water into the tentacula or feet as they have been called, and thereby expand them.

It is impossible for these animals to continue to range with the Acalephæ, although they resemble them in outward form; for they consist of two cysts, the intestine having become freed from the outer one as a special sac; moreover, they have a perfect vascular system, distinct muscles, a mouth with a dental apparatus, which prefigurates a complete skeleton, a peculiar vascular system for the injection of the tentacula or feet, a nervous ring surrounding the pharynx, an ovarium entirely separated, and lastly, a perfectly annulate body.

Fam 7. Physalial Worms, Holothuriæ.

Body cylindrical, very plentifully supplied with muscles. Mouth and anus present, the former of these being surrounded by a dental wreath and ramified branchimorphous tentacula; branchiæ upon the intestine, and branchial aperture at the anal extremity. They correspond to the Physaliæ.

Their tegument is a perfect muscular tunic, consisting of several longitudinal bands, which pursue a downward course upon its internal surface; in other respects being transversely corrugated and full of papillæ, partly replete with hollow podoidal filaments, which by the injection of water into them are elongated; thus, they present a resemblance to the Acalephæ.

Fam. 8. Beroeal Worms, Echini.

Are at bottom Holothuriæ with ossified tegument, or Asteriadæ with shortened rays.

The Echini have an anus, pretty like that of the Holothuriæ, and also similar feet, which are protruded in a similar manner through apertures in the shell. The dental wreath surrounding the mouth is a complete bony framework, which has been called, on account of its form, "Laterna Aristotelis," and bears a considerable resemblance to the valves of the Balani, the antetypes in general of the Echini, just as these are of the Opossum Shrimps.

Fam. 9. Medusal Worms, Asteriadæ.

Body stelliform, consisting of bony rings; contains a free multilobular intestine with blood-vessels and branchiæ; several ovaria; it would appear that they are without male parts.

Here belong the Encrinites, Pentacrinites, and Asteriadæ proper. Around the mouth of the Encrinites and Pentacrinites stand long, ramified, and likewise articulated tentacula, which remind us of the arms of the Acalephæ and Cephalopoda.

Fundamentally too, in the Star-fishes, the disk only is the body proper, and the rays are the tentacula, which, being monstrously developed, surround the mouth; what have been called pedicles upon these, represent the suckers of the Sepiæ.

Eighth Class.

Branchial, Pedal Animals--Crustacea.

Conchozooid Ancyliozoa.

3507. The Crustacea are Worms with horny rings to the body, jointed feet and tentacula, which mostly breathe by branchiæ.

They correspond to the Conchozoa, or Shell-animals, and divide therefore into three orders, each of these including six families.

Here belong the Crabs, Wood-lice, and Spiders.

In the lowest forms the head, thorax, and abdomen are blended together, and the back mostly covered with a great horny scute--Mussel-like Insecta.

In the next place the thorax and abdomen admit of being clearly distinguished, both by their form as well as by their appendages, which are much larger on the thorax, as in the Cray-fish.

Then follow cylindrical forms with numerous feet, appended to uniform rings, but having a head free and distinguished by tentacula, maxillæ, and eyes--Wood-lice.

The Wood-lice bear a resemblance to the air-breathing Insects, although all parts of the body still pass over or blend gradually into each other.

In the Arachnida or Spiders aerial respiration takes place, and their body enters into relations with the more highly organized Insects, since the head becomes small, the abdomen large, thick, and short.

As the Crustacea pass parallel to the Conchozoa or Shell-animals, so do they divide into three cohorts or groups: the Mussel-, Snail-, and Kracken-like Crustacea, or Crabs, Wood-lice, and Spiders.

COHORT I. MUSSEL-LIKE CRUSTACEA--CRABS.

3508. Head and thorax connate, being mostly covered with a shell or shield, abdomen stunted or caudiform; maxillæ and branchiæ present.

Order 1. Lochmuschelartige, Pfriemenkrebse.

3509. The feet mostly simple and pointed, without large claws or forcipes, and furnished with setæ or lamelliform branchiæ; eyes sessile.

Fam. 1. Pholadoid, Mussel-Insects.

Small, almost microscopical, and slightly annulated animals with an uni-or bi-valvular dorsal shield or testa, stunted maxillæ, and few legs, having attached to them setiform branchiæ.

These animals are found in all stagnant waters, in which they are incessantly paddling or rowing themselves about. They remind us of those Infusoria which, like Brachionus, are covered by a scute or shield. They are what have been called Monoculi (Entomostraca or Lophyropoda), e. g. Daphniæ.

Number of feet small, and beyond their appended setæ there are no branchiæ; two eyes frequently blended together; antennæ mostly furcate like the feet; sexes separate; a perfect circulation within a true Mussel-like ventral cavity. They are microscopic Mussels with eyes and feet.

Fam. 2. Tellinoid, Branchiopoda.

Similar animalcules to the above, but with a body strongly annulated, naked or covered with a double shell, and provided with numerous feet, unto which are attached leaflets that serve as branchiæ.

Here belong the Branchiopoda properly so called.

Fam. 3. Cardiaceoid, Shield-Crabs.

Large animals, with strongly annulated body and numerous feet; head and back covered by a shield, whereupon are the eyes--Phyllopoda.

Here range the Trilobites, Apus, and the Molucca or King-Crabs.

Order 2. Spaltmuschelartige, Scheerenkrebse.

3510. Five pairs of thoracic feet, of which the first pair is mostly large and forcipiform; the eyes upon moveable pedicles or foot-stalks.

These animals usually attain a striking size, and are generally the largest among the horny Ancyliozoa.

The sexual parts open mostly upon the posterior legs.

The abdomen or tail usually supports five pairs of stunted feet, to which the ova hang.

The number of maxillæ agrees tolerably well with that of the thoracic feet.

Fam. 4. Mytiloid, Locust-Crabs.

All the feet of pretty equal length, and the forceps stunted in size; the branchial plates free upon the abdominal feet--Squilla.

Fam. 5. Arcaceous, Macroura.

Abdominal feet arrested, branchial comb upon the femora of the thoracic feet and beneath the dorsal shield, tail extended, as in the common Cray-fish.

Fam. 6. Oyster-like Crustacea, Brachyura.

Characters similar, but tail bent under the body--Taschenkrebse.

COHORT II. SNAIL-LIKE CRUSTACEA--ASSELN.

3511. Body mostly cylindrical, annulate, without a true carapax or scute; head free; feet short and simple; branchiæ vesici-or folii-form; mostly placed under the tail; eyes non-pediculated, or even wanting.

Order 3. Androgynoid--Saugasseln.

3512. Body soft and slightly annulate, maxillæ, feet and branchiæ arrested; live by suction as parasites upon other animals, mostly fishes.

Fam. 1. Tritonia-like, Lernæaceæ.

Body soft, without shield, eyes and branchiæ; feet and maxillæ stunted; ova carried in two tubes at the hinder part of the body--Kiemenwürmer or Lerneæ.

Fam. 2. Patella-like, Argulaceæ.

Body distinguished into head, thorax, and abdomen, with few natatory feet, maxillæ moulded to form suctorial organs, mostly eyes; lay also strings of ova; head elongated in many in a scutiform manner. The so-called Fish-lice or Argulaceæ.

Fam. 3. Luftschneckenartige--Pycnogonidæ.

Body short, with four pairs of long feet; eyes, but no branchiæ and maxillæ; abdomen puny in size. The Whale-lice.

Order 4. Kammschneckenartige--Nagasseln.

3513. Body cylindrical, horny, and distinctly annulate, maxillæ, eyes, and mostly seven simple pairs of feet, branchiæ as cysts or leaves.

Fam. 4. Capulidenartige, Walzenasseln.

Body cylindrical, with five or seven pairs of feet, and some branchial vesicles; body and abdomen very puny. The Læmodipoda; Caprella, Cyamus.

Fam. 5. Turbinidenartige, Seitenasseln.

Body horny and distinctly ringed, mostly compressed, with perfect maxillæ; seven pairs of thoracic feet and branchial vesicles; abdominal feet rudder-shaped. They swim usually lying upon the side; many leap--Amphipoda; Flohkrebse or Gammarinæ.

Fam. 6. Buccinidenartige, Sohlenasseln.

Similar to the preceding family, but the body is depressed, and the abdominal feet furnished with branchial plates. The Isopoda; Oniscidæ, to which belongs the genus Armadillo.

COHORT III. KRACKEN-CRUSTACEA--KOBE.

3514. Body not tripartite; spiracula or air-openings; more than three pairs of feet, no wings. Here belong the air-breathing Crustacea; Scolopendræ, Acari, Scorpions, and Spiders.

These animals are abruptly distinguished from the preceding by a conversion of the branchiæ into spiral-shaped tracheæ, which ramify and traverse the whole body. They all therefore live in the air, and if they do also dwell in the water, they still come to the surface to inhale that element. The eyes are only simple points or ocelli, which are accumulated frequently upon the sides of the head.

The most inferior of them are distinguished from the preceding cohort, or the Asseln, by almost nothing save the essential character of their own cohort, the tracheæ. They have mostly a number of feet, and only simple eyes, as the Scolopendræ.

The following have a short body, in which the abdomen predominates; thorax and head connate; never more than four pairs of feet--Acari, Scorpions, and Spiders.

They likewise divide into two orders, like the Kracken.

Order 1. Rumpfkrackenartige--Langkobe.

3515. Body horny, tolerably cylindrical and uniform; feet mostly very numerous.

Fam. 1. Salpoid, Spindelkobe.

Only three pairs of thoracic feet, but still podoidal appendages to the abdomen--Podura, Lepisma.

Fam. 2. Ascidioid, Schnurkobe.

Body cylindrical, with very many feet; sexual parts on the thorax--Juli.

Fam. 3. Cirrhopodoid, Bandkobe.

Body band-shaped and depressed, maxillæ perforate, sexual parts placed posteriorly--Scolopendræ.

Order 2. Kopfkrackenartige--Kurzkobe.

3516. Body thick, mostly globiform; head and thorax blended together; only four pairs of feet.

Fam. 4. Brachiopodoid, Acarides.

Body rounded; all three parts confluent; usually only two simple eyes. The Acari are mostly so small, that their parts can only be distinctly seen through the microscope. Their mouth is always very much arrested, and has maxillæ, which are in some cases adapted for manducation, in others for suction.

Fam. 5. Pteropodoid, Scorpions.

Body tolerably cylindrical, and all three parts connate; palpi very large and forcipiform.

Fam. 6. Sepioid, Spiders.

Body rounded, head and thorax connate, abdomen separate, mostly eight simple eyes.

Their most remarkable organs are the four spinnerets in front of the anus, which probably stand in the signification of the renal organs, just as the material of the Spider-threads does in that of the urine.

The tracheæ are but few in number, and expand into lung-like vesicles.

The sexual parts do not lie posteriorly by the anus, but at the root or base of the abdomen.

It is moreover remarkable, that their mandibles are perforated and pour a poisonous juice into the wounds they inflict. They must be therefore regarded, like the venom-teeth of Serpents, as elongated salivary ducts.

The Crustacean families can also be named according to the orders of their circle, namely, the Worms and Crustacea, e. g. thus:

ORDER I. Worm-Crabs--Pfriemenkrebse.

Fam. 1. Entozooid--Mussel-Insects. 2. Hirudinous--Branchiopoda. 3. Holothurioid--Shield-Crabs.

ORDER II. Crustacean Crabs--Scheerenkrebse. Fam. 4. Typical Crustacea--Sea-Mantes. 5. Asselkrebse " --Macrura. 6. Arachnoid " --Brachyura.

Ninth Class.

Tracheal, Alary Animals--Flies.

Typical Ancyliozoa.

3517. Body tripartite, only three pairs of thoracic legs, spiracula and wings. They divide, according to the classes of their circle, into three cohorts, of Worm-, Crab-like, and perfect Flies.

As the wings are their characteristic organ, so also must they be divided according to them, and not after the cibarial instruments. Those wings which are developed to the least degree are the homogeneous, transparent wings traversed by few tracheæ or ducts--Tracheoptera, as Flies, Bees, and Butterflies.

Their chrysalis or pupa condition is perfect.

Then follow wings having very numerous veins united by transverse veins so as to form a network--Dictyoptera, as Neuropterous, Orthopterous, and Hemipterous Insects.

The pupa is moveable.

Finally, the anterior and posterior pair of wings become wholly dissimilar to each other, the former being horny, and the latter membranous in texture with reticulated veins, provided likewise with joints like the legs, so that they can be folded up under the anterior pair or elytra--Ceratoptera, as the Beetles.

Pupa state perfect.

Strictly speaking, it is a matter of indifference whether the names of orders and families be adopted from the first or second parallel series; whether e. g. we speak in the first cohort of Protozooid or Worm-flies. The nearest series will, however, bear the greater amount of resemblance to them. Meanwhile I will in the sequel vary in the choice of names, in order to exhibit different samples of this double parallelism.

COHORT I. WORM-FLIES--TRACHEOPTERA.

3518. Wings membranous with few longitudinal ducts, and almost devoid of transverse ducts, eyes larger than head. Here belong the Flies, Bees, and Butterflies. The abdomen is indeed annulate, but soft; its first ring is frequently set free and unites with the thorax, but supports neither feet nor wings.

The sexual parts always lie at the anal extremity.

The head is almost nothing but eye, and the Insects of this order may very well be termed Megalopidæ, or large-eyed, out of contrast to the succeeding ones. Between the two large compound eyes there are usually found three simple ocular puncta or ocelli, which they have adopted from the preceding class.

The larvæ are either entirely apodal, white and soft like Entozoa, or they have, in addition to the thoracic feet, numerous abdominal feet like the higher Worms.

The Flies with their soft and imperfect body, and the apodal larvæ, repeat the Infusoria and Entozoa; the Bees therefore the Polyps and Red-blooded Worms; the Butterflies with their large farinose or dusty wings and polypodal caterpillars, the Acalephæ and Holothuriæ.

Order 1. Entozooid Flies--Diptera.

3519. All the thoracic rings coalesced, and along with them the first or basi-abdominal ring, unto which are attached the halteres or balancers; only the two posterior wings present; the labium prolonged into a proboscis, which incloses the setiform maxillæ. Larvæ apodal and white.

The Diptera resemble the Entozoa in a striking manner through their apodal, soft and white larvæ, and even through their habitation, which is mostly in fetid and moist animal matters. Added to this, they respire usually through two tubes which open upon the anus.

Many during their metamorphosis do not shed their skin; but it becomes, during the pupa condition, only horny, representing a small case, whose bottom springs up in front like an operculum, and gives exit to the perfect Fly which has been therein developed.

Upon the first abdominal ring of the imago two nodose pedicles stand out, which are called halteres; they are probably the old respiratory tubes.

The maxillæ have changed into bristles, which act like pestels within the groove-shaped labium, puncture and pump in the fluid.

They divide into three families like the White-blooded Worms, or according to the orders of their cohort.

Fam. 1. Typical Diptera, Schmeissen.

Antennæ triarticulate, the last joint being mostly spatulate and furnished with a lateral awn or bristle; only two suctorial setæ inclosed between the terminal valves of a fleshy proboscis, which admits of being retracted within a large cephalic or oral cavity. The Muscidæ, unto whom the Common House-flies belong, and also the Hippoboscidæ or Louse-flies. It is my opinion too, that the Fleas also are to be ranged among the Diptera.

Alliance 1. Klappenmucken. The two punctuating setæ placed between two valves without a proboscis--Flea (Pulex) and Louse-fly (Hippobosca.)

Alliance 2. Acalyptera. Proboscis having thick lips, and retractile into a large cephalic cavity; alulæ or halteral opercula arrested--Hypocera to Dolichocera.

Alliance 3. Dung-flies. Characters similar to the above, but the alulets are of considerable size--Muscidæ.

Fam. 2. Hymenopteroid Diptera, Dasseln.

Antennæ as in preceding family, but the bisetaceous proboscis is thin and horny, with small labia, or else large labia with four setæ--OEstridæ, Conopidæ, and Syrphidæ.

Alliance 4. Parasitic Diptera. Two setæ with or without a lipless proboscis--OEstridæ, Myopariæ, and Conopidæ.

Alliance 5. Syrphidæ. Four setæ within a similar kind of proboscis; the third joint of the antennæ spatulate; the palpi thickened.

Alliance 6. Leptidæ. Four setæ within a short thick-lipped proboscis, the third antennal joint mostly coniform--Therexidæ, Leptidæ, and Dolichopidæ.

Fam. 3. Lepidopteroid Diptera, Gölsen.

Antennæ multiarticulate and stipiform; proboscis with and without labia, mostly four and six setæ for punctuation--Tipulidæ, Tanystomidæ, Stratiomydæ, Tabanidæ.

Alliance 7. Gnats. Antennæ filamentary and multi-articular. Proboscis varied.

Alliance 8. Spiessmucken. Four setæ within a hastate horny proboscis with or without arrested labia; third antennal joint not annulated, with the bristle or awn at the extremity--Tanystomidæ, as Asilidæ, Empidæ, Bombylidæ.

Alliance 9. Stielmucken. Four or six setæ within a thick-lipped proboscis; third antennal joint stipiform and annulated--Stratiomydæ and Tabanidæ.

Order 2. Leech-flies--Hymenoptera.

3520. Four naked veined wings, labium mostly elongated, the two pairs of maxillæ acting above it like spears. Larvæ mostly apodal, or with more abdominal feet or prolegs than in the true Caterpillars.

Most of the larvæ still bear a great resemblance to the Entozoa, though they do not respire like them through the anus, but by lateral apertures or spiracula; the larvæ with abdominal feet repeat the Nereidæ and Aselli. In other respects they live no longer in putrid moisture, fungi, roots, and such like bodies, but in living animals or in cavities specially prepared for their reception by the parents, and even in a state of freedom upon leaves.

And here is particularly worthy of our notice the structure of the cells, which are by many species fabricated quite substantially of wax or wood-shavings, and are to be compared with the webs of Spiders, since both serve as nests for the young. They repeat the Polypidoms.

Others make cases of leaves, and carry into them honey upon which to deposit their ova.

Others again simply bore holes in wood or in the earth, in order that they may in a similar manner provide their young with honey or larvæ. Finally, others simply stick, by means of their ovipositor, the ova into animals or leaves.

The dwellings are fabricated by the maxillæ, which but seldom serve as cibarial instruments, seeing that the labium undertakes this office as a lick-organ.

Another remarkable feature of this order is the arrested development of the sexual parts of the females in certain generations, an occurrence which depends upon the time of the year or the size of the cells, and whereby they are constrained to lead a social life as workers.

They divide, according to the Red-blooded Worms or the orders of their cohort, into three families.

Fam. 1. Dipteroid Hymenoptera, Bees.

Abdomen aculeate; labium elongated in a rostriform manner. They dig or build cells, and carry thither honey to the larvæ, which are apodal.

Alliance 1. Fossorial Bees--Andrenidæ. 2. Carpenter-Bees--Anthophoridæ. 3. Cell-Bees--Apidæ.

Fam. 2. Typical Hymenoptera, Wasps.

Aculeate; labium not elongated--rapacious Hymenoptera, such as Ants, Fossorial, and Cell-wasps, larvæ apodal.

Alliance 1. Hohlenwespen--Formicidæ. 2. Fossorial Wasps--Sphegidæ. 3. Cell-Wasps--Vespidæ.

Fam. 3. Lepidopteroid Hymenoptera, Terebrantia.

Instead of the sting there is an ovipositor, with which the females stick their eggs into other insects, mostly into caterpillars, or else into leaves and wood--Ichneumonidæ, Tenthredinidæ, and Uroceridæ. The larvæ of the first are apodal, those of the second provided with thoracic and abdominal feet like caterpillars, those of the third with thoracic feet only like the larvæ of Coleoptera.

Alliance 1. Stutzwespen. Ovipositor short; wings nearly veinless. Deposit their eggs in small insects; larvæ apodal--Chalcididæ, Oxyuri, Chrysididæ.

Alliance 2. Schlupfwespen. Ovipositor very long, divided into three hairs; wings veined. Deposit their eggs in caterpillars; larvæ apodal--Ichneumonidæ, Evaniidæ.

Alliance 3. Pflanzenwespen. Ovipositor spiral or saw-shaped. Deposit their ova in plants; larvæ mostly furnished with feet, and frequently resembling caterpillars in form--Cynipidæ, Tenthredinidæ, and Uroceridæ.

Order 3. Holothurioid Flies--Lepidoptera.

3521. Four veined wings, covered with small dust-like scales; maxillæ have coalesced into a proboscis; larvæ with thoracic and abdominal legs.

The larvæ or Caterpillars remind us of the Nereides, especially the setaceous Aphrodites, such as the Holothuriæ, and further still, the Aselli and Scolopendræ. There are Caterpillars, which are scarcely to be distinguished from a Wood-louse. They subsist almost throughout upon leaves, and being exposed to the light are therefore variously coloured. They have maxillæ, and in the labium is the orifice of the salivary glands, from which they spin the threads used in weaving their cocoons, or social tents. Where they crawl they leave, like the Spiders, their threads beneath them.

The pupa state is perfect; the perfect insect generally creeps out of the chrysalis by a slit taking place down the back.

The abdomen is almost throughout covered with hair, which is indicative likewise of a strong mucous secretion.

They take in their fluid nourishment by suction, but the mechanism by which this is effected is not yet known, as from the jaws themselves forming the proboscis, there can be no suckers lodged within the latter that might act. It is probably effected by expansion of the abdomen taking place during respiration. Their deglutition would be therefore a respiratory act.

Besides their very non-artistic webs, no artistic instincts are to be observed in this order. The ova are just layed without more ado upon plants, and rarely upon other objects. The Butterflies are generally related to the plants, and especially to their corollæ, whose colours and forms they carry in themselves.

They divide according to their proximal orders into three families.

Fam. 1. Dipteroid Lepidoptera, Moths.

Antennæ filiform, wings mostly thrown like a mantle round the body; proboscis short.

Small and nocturnal in their habits, proceeding from tolerably apodal Caterpillars, which reside mostly concealed in plants, or make themselves cases of hairs and leaves.

Alliance 1. Typical Moths, Tineidæ.

a. Typical Tineidæ: Alucitidæ. b. Pyraloid: Tineæ. c. Tortrix-like: Crambidæ.

Alliance 2. Bombycoid Moths, Pyralidæ.

a. Tinea-like: Aglossæ. b. Typical: Hydrocampæ. c. Tortrix-like: Deltoides or Herminiæ.

Alliance 3. Homalopteroid Moths, Tortricidæ.

a. Tinea-like: Fruit-Tortrices. b. Pyraloid: Heterogeneæ. c. Typical: Leaf-rolling Tortrices.

Fam. 2. Hymenopteroid Lepidoptera, Silk-Spinners.

Antennæ filiform, wings tile-shaped.

Lepidoptera of considerable size, proceeding out of

Caterpillars, with many feet, and frequently covered with hair, which live mostly in a state of freedom upon plants, and in some cases make large cocoons freely exposed, in others under the earth--Noctuidæ and Bombycidæ.

Alliance 1. Moth-like Spinners, Noctuidæ.

a. Typical: Hadenæ. b. Pseudobombycoid: Catocalæ. c. Bombycoid: Erebidæ.

Alliance 2. Typical Spinners, Pseudo-Bombyces.

a. Noctua-like: Psyches, Limacodes. b. Typical: Notodontæ. c. Bombycoid: Callimorphæ.

Alliance 3. Homalopteroid Spinners, Bombycidæ.

a. Noctua-like: Bombyces. b. Pseudo-Bombycoid: Saturniæ. c. Typical: Hepialidæ.

Fam. 3. Typical Lepidoptera, Homaloptera.

Antennæ varied; wings flat and expanded; proboscis long--Geometridæ, Vespertina, Diurna.

Large Lepidoptera proceeding from free-living, strongly-coloured, and mostly naked Caterpillars.

The Geometridæ have level, tolerably triangular wings and filiform antennæ; they proceed from naked Caterpillars with few abdominal feet.

The Vespertina have level, long, and narrow wings, and spindle-shaped antennæ; they emerge from perfect Caterpillars.

The Diurna have the wings folded upwards in a reverse position, claviform antennæ, and proceed from perfect Caterpillars.

Alliance 1. Moth-like Homaloptera, Geometridæ.

a. Typical: Geometræ. b. Sphingoid: Aposuræ. c. Papilionaceous: Uraniidæ.

Alliance 2. Bombycoid Homaloptera, Sphingidæ.

a. Geometroid: Zygænidæ and Sesiadæ. b. Typical: Sphingidæ. c. Papilionaceous: Castniæ.

Alliance 3. Typical Homaloptera, Papilionidæ.

a. Geometroid: Hesperiidæ, Lycænidæ and Erycinidæ. b. Sphingoid: Nymphalidæ and Heliconiidæ. c. Typical: Pieridæ and Papilionidæ.

COHORT II. CRUSTACEOUS FLIES--DICTYOPTERA.

3522. Four wings, with longitudinal and numerous transverse veins, the anterior pair being mostly leathery in texture; eyes mostly smaller than head.

Here belong the Neuroptera, Orthoptera, and Hemiptera.

The metamorphosis is tolerably imperfect, and the larvæ have never more than three pairs of thoracic feet, and therefore correspond no longer to the Worms, but to the Crabs, where the number of the feet has been already more determined. Many also strikingly simulate the Crustacea.

In all three families also the pupa runs about, eats, and has rudiments of wings.

The abdominal rings are mostly horny and hairless. The spiracula lie upon the upper margin.

The eyes are generally much smaller than the head, and may therefore, in comparison with those of the preceding and subsequent groups, be said to be of middling size; the simple eyes have for the greatest part disappeared. Meanwhile the first family displays large eyes, the second eyes of a middling size, the third small eyes.

They divide like their antetypes, the Crabs, into three orders.

Order 4. Crab-Flies--Neuroptera.

3523. All the wings alike and membranous; maxillæ with mostly large eyes; abdomen soft.

These Insects which, on account of their delicate wings, are known with us by the name of Flohrfliegen, live mostly upon flesh, and many of them by capturing living prey. Many undergo a short pupa stage. Many live in the water and have, too, branchiæ, whereby they strikingly remind us of the Crustacea, especially the Branchiopoda.

Like the Crustacea, or in accordance with the two first cohorts of their class, they divide into two families.

Fam. 1. Tracheopteroid Neuroptera, Nagbolden.

Do not subsist by rapine, but gnaw slowly animal and vegetable matters; many also as flies eat no longer.

Alliance 1. Dipteroid Neuroptera, Kieferläuse. No wings; gnaw skin, feathers and hair, mostly Bird-lice--Philopterus, Liotheum.

Alliance 2. Hymenopteroid Neuroptera, Blumen-and Mulmlaüse, Thrips, Psocus, Termes.

Alliance 3. Lepidopteroid Neuroptera, Phryganeidæ (Wassermotten.)

Fam. 2. Dictyopteroid Neuroptera, Raubbolden.

Alliance 4. Typical Neuroptera, Flohrfliegen, Panorpidæ, Hemerobiidæ, Myrmeleonidæ.

Alliance 5. Orthopteroid Neuroptera, Raphidiidæ, Mantispidæ.

Alliance 6. Hemipteroid Neuroptera, Ephemeridæ, Libellulidæ.

Order 5. Oniscal Flies--Orthoptera.

3524. Maxillæ and dissimilar reticular wings; the anterior, pergamentaceous; abdominal rings, horny; eyes of moderate size; pupa moveable.

Live for the greatest part on plants.

Fam. 1. Tracheopteroid Orthoptera, Saltatoria.

Alliance 1. Dipteroid Orthoptera, Grylli.

Alliance 2. Hymenopteroid " Locustæ.

Have a hard ovipositor, which reminds us of the sting in the Hymenoptera.

Alliance 3. Lepidopteroid Orthoptera, Acrydia.

Fam. 2. Dictyopteroid Orthoptera, Cursoria.

Alliance 4. Neuropteroid Orthoptera, Mantidæ.

Alliance 5. Typical " Blattidæ.

Alliance 6. Hemipteroid " Forficulidæ.

Order 6. Arachnoid Flies--Hemiptera or Bugs.

3525. Horny suctorial proboscis with puncturating setæ; dissimilar reticular wings, the anterior mostly pergamentaceous, the posterior membranous, and mostly capable of being folded up, as in the Chafers; eyes small, pupæ moveable.

The Bugs have much resemblance to the Mites, and Spiders are as it were winged Mites. One party of them suck blood, another vegetable sap. They manifest no artistic instincts.

The Aphides or Leaf-lice require only a single pairing, to enable them to propagate through several generations. During the summer they produce only females, and in autumn the males first appear.

Fam. 1. Tracheopteroid Hemiptera, Leptoptera.

Alliance 1. Dipteroid Hemiptera, Coccidæ, Aphidæ.

Alliance 2. Hymenopteroid " Cicadæ.

Alliance 3. Lepidopteroid " Fulgoridæ.

Fam. 2. Dictyopteroid Hemiptera, Pachyptera.

Alliance 4. Neuropteroid Hemiptera, Water-bugs.

Alliance 5. Orthopteroid " Narrow bugs, Hydrometræ, Reduvii, Cimicidæ.

Alliance 6. Typical Hemiptera, Broad bugs, Capsidæ, Lygæidæ, Coreidæ, Scutelleridæ.

COHORT III. PERFECT FLIES--CERATOPTERA, BEETLES.

3526. Maxillæ and dissimilar reticular wings, the anterior being horny, the posterior membranous and susceptible of being folded upon themselves; eyes small; pupæ motionless.

The Chafers or Beetles are the highest Insects, because they possess the greatest variety of organs, namely, two kinds of wings; not to mention the perfect condition of their manducatory apparatus, antennæ, and the first thoracic ring which is free.

The Beetle represents the Flies in their entire perfection; everything is rendered horny in the former even to the lower wings, which are furnished with several joints, almost like the feet. The upper wings are horny and meet together so closely by their inner margins upon the back, that they form a closed suture, like the shells of the bivalve Mollusc. The antennæ are also more perfect than in other families, and mostly jointed like the feet, while at their extremity they are frequently thickened into laminated moveable clubs, which open when the animal would fly, as if to listen.

Their habitation, mode of living and subsistence is exceedingly complex, and therein also they combine again all the families of this class, and it might be said, all the preceding classes.

The Beetles are also much more numerous than any other order, and could in this point of view even hold good for an entire class, especially, if they represented a special organic system, but which is not the case.

They live upon vegetable saps, and matters, blossoms, leaves, and wood, living animals, putrid flesh, dung, and such like.

They dwell mostly indeed in concealed situations, but also in those that are freely exposed, while many live in water, and are so subjected to its influence that their larvæ actually respire this element through branchiæ.

The larvæ are white and have three pairs of horny thoracic feet. They live concealed.

The pupæ are invested by a transparent tegument, which tears in an irregular manner.

The Beetles divide distinctly into three divisions, which correspond to the three cohorts of this class, or repeat the three cohorts of their circle.

The Beetles have been pretty generally divided according to the number of tarsal joints into those having three, four, five, or an unequal set of these "articuli," whereby, however, the greatest disorder has originated. I have therefore divided them in my 'Naturgeschichte' according to their mode of living into Phytophaga, Sarcophaga, and Rypo- or Coprophaga, which gradually seems to meet with approval. At least a much more natural arrangement comes to light by using these means.

I have also declared the Rhyncophora to be the lowest and the Lamellicornes the uppermost in rank, a view, which at present appears to be generally adopted.

By these means I obtained two firm points, whereby the division or classification of the intermediate members is uncommonly facilitated, although many may still stand in the wrong place. But who can point out a single system in which Insects range correctly, or, what is more, wherein it would not be easy to prove that no single order and family occupies the right place.

In such trumpery systems of classification, one would think, that some respect might be had for principles, or at least a feeling of shame for the blockhead's weakness of intellect. But in vain! Where the sense for philosophy or for principles is wanting, it is not to be inculcated or driven in. We still see Natural Histories shoot forth, with whose shrub-like ramification we must have compassion. Every thicket of briars is rooted deep, and admits only of being extirpated by wearisome and patient culture.

The Rhyncophora indicate that the Phytophagous beetles are the lowest; the Lamellicornes that the Coprophagous are the highest. The Sarcophagous chafers accordingly take their place between the two.

Now, however, the Rhyncophora are tetrameral. In like manner are the Phytophagous beetles, such as the Borkenkäfer and Holzschröter. They consequently form the main stem, unto which all the true Phytophaga must be annexed. But among them also belong the Pentameral, namely, the Holzböhrer, Schnell-and Prachtkäfer; I have therefore disposed them in this order, and I believe quite correctly.

The Lamellicorn or Dung-beetles are pentameral, and on that account to be co-arranged with the Necrophaga or Carrion-feeders and Sexton-beetles, as well as with the parasitic Lampyridæ, and the predaceous Raub-and Laufkäfer, despite their exceedingly great difference of living and even anomalous structure. On the contrary, most of the heteromeral kinds agree in their mode of living, and tolerably too in structure, with the Dung-beetles, at least the Mulmfressenden, such as the Meal-beetles or Tenebrionidæ, and indeed the Stenelytra also, while the Cantharides are parasitic at least as larvæ.

It seems also to me, that the fungi must be viewed as flour or dung, and that therefore those very Fungivora, whose structure does not point the way otherwise, can be placed with the Mulm-and Mistkäfern, although they are only tri-and tetrameral, like the Lycoperdinæ and Erotyli. Besides this the antennæ of the Fungivora are usually thickened, and even club shaped, whereby they thus stand nearer to the Necrophaga, such as the Speckkäfern and Sexton-beetles, as being those which likewise live upon putrid substances. It is difficult to separate the Coccinellidæ from them; their external resemblance to the Erotyli is also striking.

The pentameral Raub-Lauf-and Sandkäfern form, as it were, the trunk or main stem of the Zoophagous beetles, to which are annexed likewise the pentameral Malacopterous chafers, namely, the Lampyridæ, as parasites.

But the heteromeral Cantharides have also the same soft wings and mode of life, so that they are not in a natural system, even if devoid of principles, to be separated from the Malacopterous beetles.

The nourishment of the Lamellicorn beetles appears to me to be most perfect in kind. Mould or dung can be regarded as a fully prepared aliment, or, as it were, a minced and cooked meat with greens prepared by Nature, like as Man restores it by art. Thus the lower Thricozoa, e. g. the Mice, eat the crudest vegetable substances, such as roots and seeds; those that stand higher, grass and leaves; then snails, worms, and insects; finally flesh, and last of all fruits, as the Bears and Apes. But Man lets the crude matters ferment or reduces them to rapid decomposition by cooking, whereby a mixed kind of food results, which bears obviously the greatest resemblance to dung which, as just observed, is a food cooked by nature.

According to these considerations I now arrange what have been called Beetles in the following manner into divisions drawn from philosophical principles.

The Beetles again commence, like the whole class of Flies, from below, and the inferior kinds pass therefore parallel to the Tracheo-and Dictyoptera, while the superior project above them, as was the case also in the preceding classes.

In a more remote manner also they repeat the lower classes, namely, the Protozoa, Conchozoa, Worms and Crustacea, a fact which is, properly speaking, self-evident, and which is rendered clear by the following table. We have thus:

Order I. Tracheopteroid Coleoptera--Phytophaga. Order II. Dictyopteroid " --Zoophaga. Order III. Ceratopteroid " --Rypophaga.

It can also be said; the first correspond to the Worms, the second to the Crustacea, the third to the Flies.

Lastly, it may still be said; the first correspond to the Protozoa, the second to the Conchozoa, the third to the Ancyliozoa.

Order 7. Tracheopteroid Beetles--Phytophaga.

3527. Body cylindrical, head mostly long, antennæ setiform, maxillary teeth obtuse, tarsi mostly tetrameral.

They gnaw hard seeds, leaves, and wood, and mostly live concealed. The larvæ almost or entirely apodal.

Fam. 1. Dipteroid Beetles--Rhyncophora.

Head rhynchiform or snout-shaped, tarsi tetrameral.

Fam. 2. Hymenopteroid Beetles, Blattkäfer.

Head tolerably short as well as the antennæ, tarsi tetrameral.

Fam. 3. Lepidopteroid Beetles, Holzkäfer.

Head pretty short, antennæ very long, tarsi tetra-and pentameral--Borkenkäfer, Holzbohrer and Schröter.

Order 8. Dictyopteroid Beetles--Zoophaga.

3528. Body long and depressed, antennæ short, maxillæ large with pointed teeth, feet mostly pentameral and without ungues.

They subsist upon living or dead animals, dwell usually in water or upon dry land, and run very swiftly. The one kind seize upon living beasts, and on that account constantly swarm about them, as the Raub-and Laufkäfer; the others only subsist as larvæ by suction upon other beetles or snails externally, but live, as Flies, upon leaves and flowers, as the Lampyridæ and Cantharidæ.

Fam. 4. Neuropteroid Beetles--Water-beetles.

Like the following, but all three parts of the body closely annexed, and rudder-like fringes of hairs upon the feet--Parnidæ, Hydrophilidæ, Dyticidæ.

Fam. 5. Orthopteroid Beetles--Prædatoria.

Maxillæ very large and pointed, antennæ setiform, wings hard and tolerably flat like the body, tarsi mostly pentameral.--Raub-Lauf-and Sandkäfer.

Fam. 6. Hemipteroid Beetles--Parasitica.

Body pretty cylindrical, head rounded with moderate sized maxillæ, elytra narrow and soft, tarsi penta-and heteromeral.

They hang as larvæ like Mites to other beetles, and suck them; but after the metamorphosis they live upon leaves and flowers--Lampyridæ and Cantharidæ.

Order 9. Ceratopteroid Beetles--Rypophaga.

3529. Body quadripeltate and mostly short, with hard elytra, thorax large, head small, with short claviform antennæ and blunt maxillary teeth; feet mostly furnished with ungues, tarsal joints varied. Their habitation is very varied, being both free and concealed, and they live for the greatest part on decaying excrementitious matters, such as fungi, dry rot, and even animal ordure.

Fam. 7. Phytophagoid--Necrophaga.

Body mostly rounded, with hard and large elytra; antennæ claviform; tarsi tri-tetra-and pentameral--Lycoperdinæ, Erotyli, Coccinellidæ, Byrrhidæ, Dermestidæ, Sylphidæ. They correspond to the Worms and Tracheopterous insects.

Fam. 8. Zoophagoid--Mulmkäfer.

Body elongated and also nearly spherical, mostly of a dark spotted colour, with hard elytra, thorax rounded, head retractile, palpi filiform, tarsal joints heteromeral or unequal in number--Helopidæ, Diaperidæ, Tenebrionidæ, and Pimeliariæ.

They live usually in dark situations, eating meal and dry-rot; have an unpleasant smell. They correspond to the Crabs, Wood-lice, and Spiders, as likewise to the Dictyoptera.

Fam. 9. Perfect Beetles--Erdkäfer or Lamellicornes.

Mostly large, convex and short bodied Beetles with large thorax, broad head, lamellated antennal clubs, spinose tibiæ and pentameral tarsi. Their habitation is in dung or under the earth, where they live in the larval state frequently for years before they change; some Chafers eat also leaves of trees and flowers. They are distinguished by their striking size and singular forms, being mostly furnished with horns on the thorax or head. I do veritably believe that they may be generally interpreted as being the highest organized beetles and members of their class, although they are generally placed or arranged midway between the lower forms, while the Sand-and Laufkäfer are esteemed the most perfect.

Tabular Co-arrangement.

The Dermatozoa now admit of being co-arranged in the following manner, from which their three Cardinal relations of Proximity, Repetition, and Serial analogy or Parallelism, admit of being distinctly recognized.

PARALLELISM OF THE LOWER ANIMALS.

| | IX CL. PTILOTA. | A. PROTOZOA. | VII CL. WORMS. | Co. I. TRACHEOPTERA. | | | | I CL. INFUSORIA. | O. 1. Weisswürmer. | O. 1. Diptera. | | | | F. 1. Monades | F. 1. Saugwürmer | F. 1. Schmeissen | 2. Rhizopoda | 2. Tæniæ | 2. Dasseln | 3. Rotifera. | 3. Ascarides. | 3. Gölsen. | | | | II CL. POLYPI. | O. 2. Rothwürmer. | O. 2. Hymenoptera. | | | | F. 1. Hydræ | 4. Earth-worms | F. 1. Bees | 2. Alcyonia | 5. Nereides | 2. Wasps | 3. Actiniæ. | 6. Serpulæ. | 3. Terebrantia. | | | | III CL. ACALEPHÆ. | O. 3. Sternwürmer. | O. 3. Lepidoptera. | | | | F. 1. Physaliæ | 7. Holothuriæ | F. 1. Moths | 2. Beroeæ | 8. Echinidæ | 2. Spinner | 3. Acalephæ. | 9. Asteridæ. | 3. Wanner. | | | | B. CONCHOZOA. | VIII CL. CRUSTACEA. | Co. II. DICTYOPTERA. | | | | IV CL. MUSSELS. | Co. 1. KREBSE. | O. 4. Neuroptera. | | | | O. 1. Röhrenmuscheln. |O. 1. Pfriemenkrebse.| F. 1. Nagbolden. | F. 1. Pholades | F. 1. Entomostraca | A. 1. Kieferläuse | 2. Tellinidæ | 2. Branchiopoda | 2. Termitidæ | 3. Cardiacea. | 3. Phyllopoda. | 3. Phryganeidæ. | O. 2. Spaltmuscheln. |O. 2. Scheerenkrebse.| F. 2. Raubbolden. | 4. Mytilaceæ | 4. Squillæ | 4. Hemerobiidæ | 5. Arcaceæ | 5. Macroura | 5. Raphidiidæ | 6. Ostraceæ. | 6. Brachyura | 6. Libellulidæ. | | | | V CL. SNAILS. | Co. II. ASSELN. | O. 5. Orthoptera. | | | | O. 1. Androgyni. | O. 3. Saugasseln. | F. 1. Saltatoria. | F. 1. Tritoniæ | F. 1. Lernoeæ | A. 1. Achetidæ | 2. Patellæ | 2. Arguli | 2. Gryllidæ | 3. Pulmonea. | 3. Pyncnogonides. | 3 Locustidæ. | O. 2. Dioecii. | O. 4. Nagasseln | F. 2. Cursoria. | 4. Capulidæ | 4. Læmodipoda | 4. Mantides | 5. Turbinidæ | 5. Amphipoda | 5. Blattidæ | 6. Buccinidæ. | 6. Isopoda. | 6. Forficulidæ. | | | | VI CL. KRACKEN. | Co. III. KOBE. | O. 6. Hemiptera. | | | | O. 1. Rumpfkracken. | O. 1. Langkobe. | F. 1. Leptoptera. | F. 1. Salpæ | F. 1. Poduræ | A. 1. Aphidii | 2. Ascidiæ | 2. Juli | 2. Cicadæ | 3. Cirripedia. | 3. Scolopendræ. | 3. Fulgoridæ. | O. 2. Kopfkracken. | O. 2. Kurzkobe. | F. 2. Pachyptera. | 4. Brachiopoda | 4. Acaridæ | 4. Water-bugs | 5. Pteropoda | 5. Scorpions | 5. Narrow bugs | 6. Cephalopoda. | 6. Spiders. | 6. Broad bugs. | | | | C. ANCYLIOZOA. | IX. CL. PTILOTA. | Co. III. CERATOPTERA. | | | | VII CL. WORMS | Co. I. TRACHEOPTERA | O. 1. Phytophaga | VIII CL. CRUSTACEA | II. DICTYOPTERA | 2. Zoophaga | IX CL. PTILOTA or FLIES. | III. CERATOPTERA. | 3. Moderkäfer. |

| Co. III. CERATOPTERA. | O. 3. Rypophaga. | | O. 1. Phytophaga. | F. 7. Necrophaga. | F. 7. Erdkäfer. | | | | F. 1. Rhyncophora | A. 1. Fungivora. | A. 1. Phyllophaga. | | | | A. 1. Langrüssler | Scaphidiidæ | a. Melolonthidæ | 2. Kurzrüssler | Erotyli | b. Anoplognathidæ | 3. Breitrüssler. | Encidæ. | c. Rutelidæ. | | | | F. 2. Blattkäfer. | A. 2. Speckfresser. | 2. Anthobii. | | | | A. 1. Galerucidæ | 1. Dermestidæ | a. Lepitrichidæ | 2. Chrysomelidæ | 2. Nitidulidæ | b. Dichelidæ | 3. Crioceridæ. | 3. Silphidæ. | c. Glaphyridæ. | | | | F. 3. Holzkäfer. | A. 1. Dung-feeders. | 3. Melitophaga. | | | | 7. Bostrychidæ | 1. Byrrhidæ | a. Cetoniæ | 8. Elateridæ | 2. Sphæridiidæ | b. Trichii | 9. Cerambycidæ. | 3. Histeridæ. | c. Goliathi. | | | | O. 2. Zoophaga. | | | | | | F. 4. Water-beetles.| F. 8. Mulmkäfer. | A. 2. Coprophaga. | | | | A. 1. Sumpkäfer. | A. 1. Trachelidæ. | a. Aphodii | a. Heteroceridæ | a. Lagriæ | | b. Parnidæ | b. Pyrochroæ | | c. Hydrophilidæ. | c. Mordellæ. | | A. 2. Flusskäfer. | Serropalpidæ. | b. Copridæ. | d. Girinidæ | d. Mycteridæ | | e. Haliplidæ | e. OEdemeræ | | f. Dytiscidæ. | f. Melandryæ. | | | | | F. 5. Mordkäfer. | A. 2. Stenelytra. | Arenicolæ. | | | | A. 1. Raubkäfer | | | a. Pselaphidæ | a. Cistelidæ | a. Æglaliæ. | b. Scydmænidæ | b. Helopidæ | | c. Staphylinidæ. | c. Cnodalidæ. | | A. 2. Laufkäfer. | Taxicornes. | b. Trogidæ. | d. Carabidæ | d. Niliondæ | | e. Brachinidæ | e. Cossyhidæ | | f. Cicindelidæ. | f. Diaperidæ. | | | | |F. 6. Schmarotzkäfer.| A. 3. Tenebrionidæ. | Geotrupidæ. | | | | A. 1. Leuchtkäfer. | | | a. Lampyridæ | a. Tenebriones | a. Geotrupes. | b Melyridæ | b. Toxicidæ | | c. Cleridæ. | c. Opatridæ. | | A. 2. Ziehkäfer. | Melanosomata. | b. Lethri. | d. Notoxidæ | d. Blapsidæ | | e. Horiidæ | e. Pimeladiidæ | | f. Cantharides. | f. Sepidiæ. | | | | | O. 3. Moderkäfer. | F. 9. Erdkäfer. | A. 3. Lohfresser. | | | | F. 7. Aaskäfer | A. 1. Phyllophaga | a. Lucanidæ | 8. Mulmkäfer | 2. Coprophaga | b. Passalidæ | 9. Erdkäfer. | 3. Lohfresser. | c. Oryctidæ.

Second Province.

--FOURTH CIRCLE--SARCOZOA.

Pisces, Reptilia, Aves and Thricozoa.

3530. These animals necessarily pass through all 4 circles, and each class therefore divides into 4 orders, or into 5, if the senses be allowed to hold good as constituting a distinct order in themselves.

Two points of departure for classification here admit of being thought of, either wholly from below, or first of all from the commencement of the present circle. In order to be convinced of this, we need only make a slight attempt. The animal series is as follows:

A. SPLANCHNOZOA.

Circle I. Intestinal animals Protozoa.

Class 1. Gastric animals Infusoria. 2. Intestinal " Polypi. 3. Absorbent " Acalephæ.

Circle II. Vascular animals Conchozoa. 4. Venous animals Mussels. 5. Arteriose " Snails. 6. Cardiac " Kracken.

Circle III. Respiratory animals Ancyliozoa. 7. Reticular animals Worms. 8. Branchial " Crabs. 9. Tracheal " Flies.

B. SOMATOZOA.

Circle IV. Sarcozoa. 10. Osseous animals Fishes. 11. Muscular " Reptiles. 12. Nervose " Birds.

Circle V. Aistheseozoa. 13. Sense-animals Thricozoa.

3531. Now it is here conceivable, either that the families of Fishes, Reptiles, Birds, and Thricozoa, pass parallel to all the preceding classes from the Infusoria upwards, or that they first commence with the class of Fishes.

In regard to this question the Birds and Thricozoa give the most clear and decisive answer. If we adopt the last proposition, then the Birds must follow each other thus:

1. Fish-like Birds Palmipedes. 2. Reptilian " Grallæ. 3. Typical " Gallinæ. 4. Thricozooid Birds Struthionidæ.

According to this, the Aquatic Birds would occupy the lowest rank, just as they have actually done hitherto in all other systems. The three other families too do not admit of any other position. But what is to be done meanwhile with the large majority of other Birds? They would extend or pass beyond the Thricozoa, and have thus no anatomical system whatever for their basis. Besides, Humming-birds, Sparrows and Linnets would in this way rank higher than the Gallinaceous and Struthious Birds, which some indeed believe to be the case, but without any proof, so that it is scarcely necessary to abide by such an opinion.

The Thricozoa must stand thus:

1. Icthyoid Cetacea. 2. Herpetoid Pachydermata. 3. Ornithoid Ruminantia. 4. Typical All the remaining Thricozoa.

In the systems now in vogue the Thricozoa certainly follow in this manner, and no scruple whatever is made of placing the Mice, Ant-eaters, Shrews, and Bats above Elephants, Horses, and Deer. Yet apart from all this, the former must pass beyond the Thricozoa, and would thus likewise have no other organ as a foundation than perhaps the organs of sense, of which there are but five, while the families of Thricozoa not yet provided for are much more numerous, namely, besides those named, the Seals, Dogs, Bears, and Apes.

The above methods of arrangement must be consequently cast aside without limitation or reserve, although they may have held good for hundreds of years. But what does or will not hold good in an age that is devoid of principles?

It is thus evident that the smaller Birds stand below the Aquatics, just as the smaller Thricozoa do beneath the Whales, quite apart from organic structure, which in every respect is imperfect. They must correspond, consequently, to the Asarcous animals, wherewith also their great number agrees.

If this holds good of the two highest classes, so also must it hold good of the two lower, namely, Fishes and Reptiles, and we shall thus have:

I. Protozooid Fishes, Reptiles, Birds, and Thricozoa. II. Conchozooid Fishes, &c. III. Ancyliozooid " &c. IV. Icthyoid " &c. V. Herpetoid " &c. VI. Thricozooid " &c. VII. Ornithoid " &c.

3532. But this parallelism depends essentially upon the organs, and they are called, in the language of Physio-philosophy, more correctly:

I. Intestinal Fishes, Reptiles, Birds, and Thricozoa. II. Vascular Fishes, &c. III. Pulmonary " &c. IV. Osseous " &c. V. Muscular " &c. VI. Nervose " &c. VII. Sensorial " &c.

But as these names are unused, and give or convey only the anatomical idea, but no external image, the first appellations are to be preferred.

Tenth Class.

Osteozoa, Glossozoa--Pisces.

3533. No one of the upper classes is in such an extensive state of confusion as that of Fishes. Nor does this result simply from the great deviations in their structure from the normal type, these being rather useful than otherwise for the purposes of classification; but mainly from the utter want of any principle which might serve systematists as a guide. Thus at one time we find them having recourse to the nature of the osseous tissue, at another to the fins, now to the teeth or to the scales, ay, even to the fin-rays, and all this because the characteristic or typical organ has never been sought after, nor the presence of such an organ as indispensable been so much as known.

3534. The characteristic organ of Fishes is the Osseous system, which is consequently the principle also of their division.

The physical nature, form, position, and number of the osseous parts must therefore be principally considered, and hence, above all, the substance or texture of the bones; the limbs also, and the maxillæ with their teeth, as well as the teeth upon the palate, upon the tongue and the branchial arches.

With regard to the component substance or texture of the bones we encounter a great difficulty. The Cartilaginous Fishes appear to belong to each other, and are also usually arranged together. Yet amongst them we find those species, such as the Lampreys, which obviously occupy the lowest grade of all Fishes, while the Sharks and Rays remind us of the Reptilia and Thricozoa, as well by their external structure as the development of their sexual parts, since they possess perfect testes, and ovaria separate or distinct from the oviducts, while they no longer deposit roe, but large ova inclosed in leathery shells, like the higher Reptilia. Now, if we separate these Fishes from the Lampreys, with whom in the scaleless tegument, the branchial foramina, and even the external form they have many points of resemblance, nothing else remains to be done than assign them the uppermost place, and so parallelize them with the Thricozoa. But one is next constrained to unite into one family the Pikes and Herrings, which perhaps admits of being done.

There belong namely to the upper Fishes without doubt the Abdominales, which are divisible into five families: the Carps, Pikes, Shads, Salmons, and Herrings. Now, if the Sheat-fishes be placed inferiorly on account of their scaleless body and amorphous maxillæ, four families will still be left, which should correspond to the Fishes, Reptiles, Birds, and Thricozoa, so that no place is left remaining for the Sharks. Now, however, the Salmons correspond decidedly to the Reptilia; and the Flying Fishes, which are ranged below the Pikes, probably to the Birds. If we unite them with the Herrings, then the Sharks may occupy the place of the Thricozoa.

This being preassumed, we can now attempt the classification. The substance or texture of the bones is of such importance, that notwithstanding the separation of the Sharks and their congeners, the other Cartilaginous Fishes must be left along with them, and range upon the lowest stage, so that they thus correspond to the Intestinal animals.

The next great distinction in the osseous system is the regular and irregular form which it imparts to the body, so that the Regular-shaped can be separated in a tolerably "tranchant" manner from the Irregular Fishes.

The regular form of a Fish is obviously the ellipse, as we find to be the case in our fresh-water Fishes, namely, the Perches, Salmons and Carps. They are collectively covered with large scales, which is therefore also a sign of their regularity.

The Irregular Fishes are cylindrical, fusi-clavi-spheri-and tubuliform, usually destitute of scales or covered with plates, scutes, and spines. Thus, since the Cartilaginous Fishes are collectively irregular in form, the Irregular Osseous Fishes must be allowed to follow them.

The greatest variety of the osseous system is shown in the limbs, especially the posterior pair, which in the other classes also are generally imperfect and make their appearance the last. In Fishes they are not divided into digits, but only into rays, which probably correspond only to the digital ungues or to feathers. An animal which has fin-rays is assuredly a Fish, for fin-rays do not occur in any Reptile.

The posterior fins change even their situation. Those Fishes in whom they are placed near to the anus, are obviously the more perfect, as the Abdominales.

In others they advance to the rear of the thoracic fins, and are even attached to what has been called the "girdle" or humerus--Thoracici.

In others they even get in front of the thoracic fins on the throat--Jugulares.

Lastly, they are actually wanting--Apodales.

In the Lampreys there are neither thoracic nor ventral fins.

The skeleton of Fishes is not simply divided to a greater extent than in other animals, but has actually a greater number of bones, such as the rays in the perpendicular fins, which are wanting in all animals, even in the Reptilia. An animal with dorsal rays must surely be placed among the Fishes, and consequently the Lepidosiren also.

The misshapen Fishes will therefore occupy the lower stages, the regular the upper, not directly by reason of their form alone; but because the other organs are also more imperfectly developed, the bones being cartilaginous, the tegument asquamous, mucous, or covered with spines, scutes, and plates; the fins wanting or abortive, or displaced from their proper situation; the head disproportionate in size to the body, the mouth wide or narrow, the eyes placed superiorly or upon the forehead.

A lower character is afforded also by very long dorsal fins, such namely as extend from the head to the tail. In the Abdominales, Sturgeons, Sharks, and Rays, the perpendicular fins are small; in the Thoracici, Jugulares, and Apodes they are, on the contrary, mostly very long.

Moreover, a lower character is a very long coccygeal or caudal fin, which denotes that the anus lies far forwards, and therefore that the tail has a great preponderance over the trunk. In the Abdominales and the Sharks the tail is short; in the Rays thin and terminated abruptly, as in Reptiles and Thricozoa. Thus the higher the animals ascend the more does the tail diminish in length.

Regard being had to all these relations, the Irregular Fishes must be viewed as those which correspond to the lower classes of animals, and the Cartilaginous Fishes will indeed make the commencement; to these are annexed the Irregular Osseous Fishes, and nearest to them indeed those with arrested ventral fins, whether wanting or placed on the throat; then come the Regular Fishes, and of these first of all the Thoracici, and next the Abdominales. In this manner we obtain four divisions.

A. Body irregular.

I. Pisces Cartilaginei. II. Stummelflosser--Apodales and Jugulares.

B. Body regular.

III. Thoracici--Tunnies, Breams, and Perch. IV. Abdominales--Carps, Pikes, Salmons and Herrings, Sharks.

Now, these divisions, having been discovered by a simple analysis or testing of facts, are to be arranged according to philosophical principles, and further subdivided, whereby the ground and legality of their existence will be recognized.

A. IRREGULAR FISHES.

3535. Body deviating from the elliptical form, devoid of scales, or covered with spines, scutes, and plates; head and tail disproportionate; fins mostly arrested.

They correspond to the unarticulate Proto-and Conchozoa; their irregular-shaped mucous or mailed body agreeing perfectly with these animals.

Order 1. Intestinal, Protozooid Fishes.

3536. Mouth round and without maxillæ, or disproportionately narrow and wide.

There can be no doubt that the Lampreys are the lowest Fishes, since they remind us in every respect of the Worms by their naked, mucous, and lineiform body, with indistinct head, almost devoid of bones and true teeth, having a circular mouth, obliterated nostrils, puny eyes, and finally branchial cysts, which occupy a higher rank only from their opening into the oesophagus. They pass therefore parallel to the Infusoria, or rather to the commencements of the second animal series, namely, the Etozoa Ancyliozoa.

Now, although much dispute prevails concerning the division of Fishes which should be associated with the Lampreys, yet it appears to me that no others but the narrow-mouthed Fistularidæ and Pipe-fishes can follow, since they resemble them not only in their cartilaginous bones, but in the structure also of their branchiæ. They will thus truly occupy the place of the second family. Whether the narrow-mouthed Globe-fishes are likewise to be united with them or to be set up as a third family, may seem to be matter of doubt. I adopt the first course, and arrange at present the wide-mouthed or Frog-fishes and Shads in the third family.

Fam. 1. Infusorial Fishes, Lampreys.

Body vermiform, naked, and slimy, without membral fins. Ex. Branchiostoma or Amphioxys, Myxine, Petromyzon.

In these Fishes the mouth is quite in front and round, being without maxillæ and adapted for the purposes of suction; only one nostril, but mostly several branchial foramina, which lead to cysts provided with reticular branchiæ, but without opercula.

The Branchiostomata are the smallest Fishes, not much above 1" in length, almost devoid of head, yet with traces of eyes and a nostril. The Myxinæ crawl even into the rectum of other Fishes, and live therein like Entozoa. The river or lesser Lampreys stick in the mud; the Lampreys cling fast by suction to stones, and do not draw the water in through the mouth, but through the branchial foramina themselves, like the lower animals.

Fam. 2. Polypary Fishes, Narrow-mouthed.

Body cartilaginous, mouth having maxillæ, but unusually narrow, only one branchial foramen with immoveable operculum--Fistularidæ, Pipe-fishes and Globe-fishes.

In this family we still meet with species entirely naked, but covered also with plates, scutes, nails, and spines. The corymbiform or tufted branchiæ of the Syngnathi or the Lophobranchii still remind us strongly of the cystiform reticular branchiæ of the first family.

Fam. 3. Acalephoid Fishes, Wide-mouthed.

Body naked or covered with plates; mouth in front and mostly unusually wide.

I here arrange in doubt the Frog-fishes and the Shads, although the last are Abdominales. But they deviate from the Carps and Pikes by their asymmetrical, naked or mailed body, the large transverse mouth, the eyes staring upwards, and the arrested branchial opercula.

Order 2. Vascular, Conchozooid Fishes--Stummelflosser.

3537. Asymmetrical Osseous Fishes, Apodales, and Jugulares.

Among the true Osseous Fishes the Eels must undoubtedly range the lowest on account of their vermiform and asquamous body, and the want of ventral fins. To them are allied the Jugulares, namely, the Blennii and Gadidæ, as well as the Plaice; lastly, the asymmetrical Thoracici without scales, being quite naked or covered with scutes, as the Gobii and Triglæ.

Fam. 4. Mussel-Fishes, Eels.

Body naked and serpentiform, without ventral fins.

The Eels, from their naked, cylindrical or riband-shaped body, the long dorsal and coccygeal fin, the small branchial foramina occasionally confluent beneath the neck, and by their dwelling in the mud, rank among the imperfect Fishes. The one set have soft, the other hard, fin-rays, and on that account they have not simply been separated, but even far removed from each other. This difference alone is not so great as to justify their being arranged, when the structure of the body agrees in other respects, into distinct orders. The influence of the dorsal spines upon the life and natatory or waving movement of Fishes is so slight, and its value generally, in comparison with other parts, to be taken so little into account, that a natural arrangement can never result from these appendages, which do not deserve to be called organs, and viewed as principal characters.

Fam. 5. Snail-Fishes, Haddocks.

Jugulares without distinct scales and spines on the branchial operculum, and hard fin-rays.

These Fishes are allied to the Eels by the aborted ventral fins, the tolerably cylindrical, naked, or small-scaled body and soft dorsal fins. The viviparous Blennius bears with us its name of Aalmutter not in vain, for it resembles a shortened, slimy Eel. The Gadidæ are indeed less slimy and have in part scales, but, by reason of their lengthened form and their fins, cannot be removed far from the Eels; the same holds good of the Plaice.

Fam. 6. Kracken-Fishes, Grundeln.

Asymmetrical Jugulares and Thoracici, with naked and mailed body, in addition to hard fin-rays.

Here belong the Gobiidæ and Triglidæ, the first whereof are usually naked, the second mailed, with roughnesses upon the head and spines on the opercula; in all the eyes placed high up.

B. REGULAR FISHES.

3538. Body elliptical, mostly covered with scales, Thoracici and Abdominales; eyes placed sideways.

Order 3. Pulmonary, Ancyliozooid Fishes.

3539. Regular Thoracici.

The position of the abdominal fins immediately behind the thoracic is obviously a step further in the perfection of structure, and these Fishes must be therefore placed above the preceding kinds, in whom, apart from the asymmetrical form of body, the position of the fins is mostly upon the neck or advanced very close to it. The anus is still situated far forwards, and the tail is therefore mostly larger than the trunk. The dorsal fins are still very predominant. Among them we still meet with naked or microlepidal species, which in their abnormal form also remind us of the irregular Fishes, as the Tunnies and Haberdines or Stock-fish. They are therefore to be regarded as the lowest.

As is the case here in Fishes, so also in the Ancyliozoa the truly regular or bilateral body originates in them for the first time, or at least constitutes a persistent character.

Fam. 7. Worm-Fishes, Tunnies.

Tolerably naked or microlepidal, cylindriform or very much compressed, with small head and mouth; the teeth very feeble, only like a brush; the branchial opercula without spines. Here belong the proper Tunnies and Haberdines: all of them marine Fishes.

Fam. 8. Crustacean Fishes, Brassen.

Body perfectly regular, covered with great scales; mouth small with strong teeth; branchial opercula unarmed. Here belong the Labridæ or Lipped Fishes, Seabream and Osphromanus.

Fam. 9. Ptilotoid Fishes, Perch.

Body quite regular with large scales, mouth of moderate size with scythe-shaped teeth, branchial opercula armed. Here belong the Scianoidæ and Percoidæ. Dwell in the sea and rivers.

Order 4. Sarcose Fishes.

3540. Abdominales, dorsal fins small, with soft ramified rays, mostly placed far behind. Plainly regular Fishes with large scales. The head is regular, with the eyes upon its sides; the set of teeth varied; the trunk large, tail small, as are also the dorsal fins, which proceed more and more backwards to the sacrum or even the tail, a fact indicating their gradual disappearance, and therefore a sign also of greater perfection. Added to this, they are generally distributed over the whole earth in rivers and seas. Finally, it is they that yield the most nutriment to Man, which is also a constant sign of greater perfection; as is evidenced in the vegetable kingdom by the Fruit-trees or plants; in the animal kingdom by the Oysters, Snails, Sepiæ, Holothuriæ, Geese, Fowls, Cattle, &c.

Fam. 10. Typical Fishes, Carps.

Body of the Carps covered with large scales, mostly but one dorsal fin placed pretty far back, mouth nearly edentate, supra-maxillary bones arrested, large teeth on the posterior branchial arches, or what have been called pharyngeal bones. They are for the greatest part fresh-water Fishes, and those which are most used as articles of food.

Fam. 11. Reptilian Fishes, Salmons.

Mouth with strong teeth in the superior and intermaxillary bone; behind the radial dorsal fin there is still a fatty fin and no large scales. Here belongs the Lizard-like fish (Saurus), so called on account of its resemblance to the Lizards. Live in sea and fresh-water.

Fam. 12. Ornithic Fishes, Herrings and Pikes.

The Herrings have teeth in the superior and intermaxillary bone; only one dorsal fin; mostly large scales.

Body of the Pike slightly scaled, furnished mostly with a small dorsal fin situated very far back, mouth full of teeth, but none of these in the rudimental intermaxillary bone. Dwellers in the sea and in fresh water.

Among the Pikes is placed the Exocoetus or Flying fish.

Order 5. Sensorial Fishes.

3541. Bones cartilaginous, mouth opening transversely under the snout.

Fam. 13. Thricozooid Fishes, Sharks.

Abdominales; bones cartilaginous, mouth opening transversely under the projecting snout; mostly several pairs of separate branchial apertures.

Here belong the Chimæræ, Sturgeons, Sharks, and Rays. The last ought to be held as higher in rank, partly on account of their slender tail, partly because the huge Rays, which are called Cephalopterus, have the anterior thoracic rays free and so moveable that they can seize their prey with them as with hands. All lay, with the exception of the Sturgeons, large and leathery ova, and in this approximate pretty closely to the Reptilia.

It has been already remarked, that the large Cartilaginei would not pass correctly into the others, and obviously seem to claim the highest post. At some later period the principle may probably be discovered whereupon their union with the higher Osseous fishes depends. Both are at all events Abdominales.

Eleventh Class.

Myozoa, Rhinozoa--Reptilia.

3542. Body entirely naked or covered with scales, with distinctly separate and red-coloured muscles; two nostrils permeable throughout.

As the Muscular system is here the characteristic organ, it must be regarded principally in the division of the present class; the limbs also exhibit nowhere so great a variety as in this class, since they are in some cases wanting, while in others two only, in some four, are present. In place of fin-rays true toes have, however, made their appearance, these again indicating the greatest variety in the number of the joints; but meanwhile there are in no instance more than five toes.

The osseous system is constructed after the pattern of that of the Thricozoa, and is never furnished with dorsal rays as in Fishes.

The dental formula begins also to be regular. The teeth stand usually in the superior intermaxillary bone, and are sometimes pointed, at others obtuse; in the Ichthyosauri and Crocodiles they are even inserted by gomphosis, as in the Thricozoa. In many Serpents additional kinds of teeth occur, namely, the curved poison-teeth or fangs, which have an involuted groove traversing their concavity. In most Reptiles teeth also occur upon the palatal, but there are no longer any upon the lingual bone. In the Chelonia or Tortoises the teeth are entirely wanting, and they are also scarcely indicated in the Asquamous Salamanders and Frogs.

The os quadratum is found as in Birds; in Serpents, however, the mastoid bone has been freed, and hence the capability possessed by these creatures of expanding the mouth.

Viewed in accordance with the perfection of the limbs, the Salamanders and Frogs ought to be regarded as the highest in rank; but their scaleless tegument, their development out of spawn in the water, as well as branchiæ brings them near to the Fishes. In other respects their position is determined by the dental formula, which, as I have already shown, belongs to the limbs and thus to the motor system.

The position of the nostrils is now, throughout the class, in front of and upon the snout, being no longer situated almost on the forehead or vertex, as in Fishes. Their relation to the scales is likewise of importance for the purposes of division.

The naked Salamanders and Frogs will occupy the lowest place. By their form, absence of teeth, and mode of life, the Chelonia are allied to them.

Then follow the Serpents and Lizards with a perfect set of teeth. The Serpents are distinguished from the Lizards by their want of feet and the long bifid tongue inclosed within a sheath.

Among the Lizards apodal species occur, as the Blind-worms; but they have under the skin some pedal bones, and are, in addition to this, sufficiently distinguished from the Serpents by the short and sheathless tongue.

Among the Lizards with perfect feet there are some with small visual organs, like as in the Serpents; others with unusually large eyes, e. g. the Chameleon, Gecko, Ichthyosauri, and Crocodiles. All other Lizards, the Serpents, Chelonia, Salamanders and Frogs, have small eyes and consequently follow each other.

The Crocodile has teeth articulated by gomphosis, and consequently resembles the Thricozoa.

I divide the present class therefore into the following groups.

A. DERMAL REPTILES--SMALL-EYED.

Order 1. Protozooid Reptilia-Kröten.

3543. Body slimy and scaleless, or maxillæ devoid of teeth.

Fam. 1. Infusorial Reptiles, Petromyzoid--Caudate Batrachia, Salamanders.

Body naked and furnished with a tail.

These cylindrical animals bear the greatest resemblance to the Lampreys, or are Petromyzoid, being provided with setaceous and scarcely discernible teeth, frequently only one pair of feet; they are developed also out of spawn in the water, and many retain the branchiæ during the whole of life.

Fam. 2. Polypary Reptilia, Kugelfischartige--Stutzkröten, Frogs.

Body thick and naked and without a tail, but with four feet.

The Frogs and Toads proper are likewise developed out of spawn, but soon lose their branchiæ. In their form and even the structure of their mouth they are Kugelfischartige, i. e. remind us strikingly of the Globe-fishes, among the Engmäulern or Plectognathi.

Fam. 3. Acalephan Reptilia, Welsartige--Chelonia.

Body thick and coated with scales, maxillæ quite edentulous.

The Chelonia appear certainly to occupy a pretty high rank; they lay large ova covered with a calcareous shell, but frequently live or dwell in the water, and have, in their mode of living as well as form, a striking resemblance to the naked Batrachia. Through their want of teeth they range among all the succeeding families.

Order 2. Conchozooid Reptilia--Ophidia.

3544. Body cylindriform and scaly, teeth acuminate, tongue longitudinally bifid and inclosed within a sheath; no feet and eyelids.

The Serpents stand without doubt below the Lizards; yet it is difficult to arrange them properly into families. The poison-teeth appear to indicate a lower character, because the cranium is thereby removed or recedes from the usual type of structure, while the superior maxilla becomes very much arrested. But as there are moveable and immoveable poison-teeth, and the latter gradually pass over into the ordinary kinds of teeth, while externally also, no character has been found to distinguish the venomous from the non-venomous Serpents, it is best at present to discontinue this separation.

Then the Serpents can be brought according to the structure of their scales into 3 families. They are either of equal and small size, around the whole body; or there are plates upon the belly and tail; or finally, the plates under the latter are divided into two tablets.

Fam. 4. Mussel-Reptiles, Eel-like--Schuppenschlangen.

All the scales around the body small and of equal size; upon the belly only being somewhat larger. Here belong the venomous Hydridæ or Sea-snakes, and huge Boas or Pythons. If once the venomous Serpents could be distinguished as a distinct family, they will indeed be placed higher, and the non-venomous be separated from them. Then probably the Boas may be raised, together with their allies, as the highest family.

Fam. 5. Snail-Reptiles, Haddock-like--Tafelschlangen.

Plates under the belly, those beneath the tail being halved or divided into two.

Here belong our Colubri, but also the venomous Adders.

Fam. 6. Kracken-Reptilia, Grundelartige--Schienenschlangen.

Entire plates upon belly and tail, as in the Rattle-snakes.

Order 3. Ancyliozooid Reptilia--Lizards.

3545. Scales, the usual kind of teeth and tongue; inferior maxillæ anchylosed in front, mastoid bone not freed, mostly feet and eyelids.

They divide likewise into three families.

Fam. 7. Worm-Reptiles, Tunny-like--Schleichen.

Body round and serpentiform, with small scales, feet rudimental, or even wanting.

Here belong the Cæciliæ, Blind-worms, and Scinci. I have united these animals, which elsewhere have stood dispersed among the Serpents and Lizards as well as the Salamanders, and placed them as a distinct family between the two former. By reason of their rudimental feet they keep simply upon the earth and bore themselves passages therein. Their motion is serpent-like, because they lie upon the belly and cannot assist themselves with the feet.

Fam. 8. Crustacean Reptiles, Bream-like--Schuppenechsen.

Four perfect feet, body covered all round with small granular scales, tongue short and hardly slit.

Here belong the Flying Lizards, the Iguanæ and Basilisks. They usually climb about on trees and seek for beetles and berries.

Fam. 9. Ptilotoid Reptilia, Perch-like--Schienenechsen.

Four perfect feet, but plates upon the belly and tail, tongue thin and bifid. Here belong the common Lizards and the "Sauvegards" or Monitors. Their body is usually depressed. They cannot climb, but run about briskly upon the ground and eat beetles, and even the higher animals. Many are a fathom in length.

B. SARCOSE REPTILIA--LARGE-EYED.

3546. These animals have tubercles, spines and plates, with four perfect feet, as in the higher Lizards, but the toes are of pretty equal length; there are no palatal teeth, and the tongue is not fissured. They are of varied size, lead a sluggish and mostly nocturnal mode of life, and have a slow pace, occurring too only in warm climates.

Order 4. Sarcose Reptiles.

3547. Feet abnormal, being fin-and wing-shaped, adapted for climbing or clinging. They correspond quite closely to the three next animal classes.

Fam. 10. Ichthyoid Reptilia, Herring-like--Ichthyosauri.

All four feet converted into fins.

Here belong clearly the monstrous extinct animals, which formerly lived in the sea. They had gomphotic teeth almost like the Crocodile.--Ichthyosaurus, Plesiosaurus.

Fam. 11. Typical Reptiles, Salmon-like--Geckos.

Climbing feet, or retractile claws as in the Cats, and perpendicular laminæ or plates under the soles, by means of which they cling to walls. They usually dwell in houses and catch beetles--Chamæleo, Gecko.

Fam. 12. Ornithoid Reptilia, Pike-like--Dragons.

Body short and bird-like, with very long neck and a long digit, unto which an alary membrane has probably been attached.

Here belong plainly the fossilized species of a single genus known by the name of Pterodactylus. They have been hitherto discovered in different parts of Europe, and probably flew about, like the Bats, by night.

Order 5. Sensorial Reptiles.

3548. Teeth wedged into the jaws, toes regular.

Fam. 13. Thricozooid Reptilia, Shark-like--Crocodiles.

Feet and toes of equal length, with swimming webs between them.

The Crocodiles must be without doubt regarded as the most perfect Reptilia, on account of their notched teeth and regular feet. In many respects they remind us, like the Sharks do among Fishes, of the Thricozoa.

Twelfth Class.

Neurozoa, Otozoa--Aves.

3549. In these animals it is again shown in a striking manner, that the characteristic organ is the principle of classification. Without recourse being had to the varied structure of the head, especially of the beak, the division of Birds would not be possible, although the feet frequently yield good characters.

3550. The development of the young makes an essential distinction upon a large scale, since one great body of Birds must be fed as nestlings, whilst the other, when scarcely emerged from the egg, runs about and seeks its own nourishment. Although in the lower animals the young do not require the assistance of the parents, and, on the other hand, those of the Thricozoa are suckled for a longer time by the mother; yet still those Birds which can, upon issuing from the egg, at once nourish themselves, such as the Fowls, Geese, &c., are probably the most perfect, for they pass parallel to the upper classes of animals, and for the Ostrich to be a Thricozoon, there is indeed as little wanting as to the Crocodile.

3551. There is no doubt whatever that the Natatores in every respect, both in the structure of the feet and head as also in their mode of living and feeding, repeat the Fishes. This opinion the empirical zoologists have already adopted from the Physio-philosophy.

The same may be said of the Grallæ or Wading Birds in reference to the Reptiles. Their feet, neck, and beak are serpentiform, and associated with a frog-like body. Their mode of living and feeding is likewise amphibious. But these birds pass over so directly into the Fowls, that the latter could not be arranged elsewhere, apart even from their displaying by their domestication to Man the higher grade of understanding, which is manifested for the first time in the class of Birds.

The Bustards and Ostriches are, finally, the highest stage of Birds, and form the closest alliance with the Thricozoa.

3552. This point being once settled, it is self-evident that the Birds, which do not stand in need of being fed, occupy the uppermost place, and consequently the nestling or parent-fed Birds the lowest, i. e. the former correspond to the Sarcozoa, the latter to the Dermatozoa.

A. SPLANCHNIC BIRDS.--NESTHÖCKER.

3553. Remain, after exclusion from the egg, in the nest and are fed; neck and feet short, toes four in number and ununited, beak pointed.

By their short neck, which rarely appears longer than the head, these Birds approximate the Reptiles and Fishes, in whom also the head has scarcely separated itself from the thorax.

The uniformity of the feet and toes is likewise an inferior character, as it is found in the Dermal Reptiles and Fishes; while in the Sarcose Reptilia and Fishes the feet and fins make their appearance in the greatest variety, both as regards the form and length of the feet themselves, as the structure of the toes; and such is the case too in the higher organized Birds.

The same holds good also of the form of the head, and especially of the maxillæ and teeth, which are very uniform in the lower Fishes and Reptiles, but occur under very varied conditions in the upper kinds, exactly as in the Natatores and Grallæ, in the Gallinæ and Struthionidæ.

Order 1. Protozooid Birds--Tenuirostres.

3554. Bill awl-shaped.

These Birds present a resemblance to each other, not simply in their mode of feeding, since they are collectively insectivorous, but also in the slenderness of their form, and in the dazzling, varied, sharply defined, and very striking colours of their plumage, as well as in their habits, for they employ their feet and tail usually for the purposes of support, and so climb about the upright stems and branches of trees.

Among them also occur the smallest sized Birds, a fact which, compared with a similar one in the Thricozoa, indicates likewise their lower grade or rank.

Fam. 1. Infusorial Birds, Tree-runners or Creepers.

Bill awl-shaped, three toes in front--Humming-birds, Tree-creepers.

The small size of the Humming-birds seems to render them the lowest in rank of the class, and by this means the system obtains a point of departure, unto which similar forms may be annexed. Their manner of feeding is rather a process of lapping, than an actual snapping with the bill; their food also, which consists of small Beetles and their larvæ, requires scarcely any operation of the bill, so that here the cibarial instruments obviously rank upon the lowest stage, and remind us of the proboscis in Flies, Butterflies, and Bugs.

Fam. 2. Polypary Birds, Woodpeckers.

Bill straight and chisel-shaped, two of the toes directed forwards and two backwards.

The Woodpeckers stand obviously a step higher, because their bill is specially active in seeking out larvæ, and their body is held securely by the toes and stiff tail.

Fam. 3. Acalephan Birds, Cuckoos.

Bill rounded, slightly arched and obtuse; feet scansorial.

These Birds are less animated or lively than the preceding ones, keep themselves more concealed, and live mostly upon caterpillars in warmer countries. Some of them lay their eggs in the nests of other Birds.

Order 2. Conchozooid Birds--Conirostres.

3555. Bill short, thick, and straight, without a notch, three toes directed forwards.

These Birds usually perch upon branches, without, however, being able to walk upon them, since they usually hop, and must therefore make an auxiliary use of their wings. They are all of them granivorous, and in a condition both to crush the seeds with their strong bill, as well as pound them with their fleshy stomach or gizzard.

Their instruments of manducation and digestion are therefore perfect, added to which they are so allied to the subsequent order of Rapaces, that they could not be arranged lower; probably they ought even to rank higher.

Fam. 4. Mussel-Birds, Sparrows.

Bill short and coniform, without bristles; eat simply grains.

Fam. 5. Snail-Birds, Crows.

Bill long and coniform; eat grains, beetles and flesh, and pass gradually over into the Rapaces.

Fam. 6. Kracken-Vögel, Parrots.

Bill very thick and curved. The food consists of grains and fruits. Their spiritual energies or capacities are also more strongly developed.

Order 3. Ancyliozooid Birds--Dentirostres.

3556. Bill with a notch; food consists of worms and flesh.

Fam. 7. Worm-Birds, Cantores or Songsters.

Bill tolerably long and straight; eat worms and berries.

Fam. 8. Crustacean Birds, Fly-catchers.

Bill straight, with sharp edges superiorly, point de-curved or bent downwards. Their aliment consists of insects, which they mostly snap at during flight--Fly-catchers, Shrikes, Swallows.

Fam. 9. Ptilotoid Birds--Rapaces.

Bill unciform; seize upon the Sarcozoa with their claws.

B. SARCOSE BIRDS--NESTFLÜCHTER.

3557. Run about soon after being hatched, and nourish themselves. Bill and feet very varied, the former being mostly obtuse.

These Birds do not fly much nor hop, but walk, run, or swim. In them are found all the diversities of bill and feet; the latter are mostly placed far back, so that the body is usually directed upwards.

Their food also is very varied, consisting of seeds, grass, fruits, worms, and flesh.

Order 4. Sarcose Birds.

3558. Neck long, i. e. much longer than the head and bill, frequently longer than the body.

Fam. 10. Fish-Birds, Natatores.

Natatory feet short.

Mostly large Birds, which live upon fishes, worms, and many of them even upon herbs. Their bills are so varied, that they could represent several families, a fact which likewise speaks in favour of their higher position. It may be regarded as an instructive hint, that animals occupy a higher rank, if in them a richness or variety of forms is to be perceived. This is the case throughout the Thricozoa. The Natatores, through the structure and posterad insertion of their feet, through their closely-set plumage, which frequently presents short and scale-like feathers, by their swimming and diving, and lastly, through their fish-catching, approximate as closely to the structure and mode of living of Fishes as it is possible for a Bird to do, while still retaining the characters of its class. Many row even with the wings, and consequently use them as veritable fins.

Fam. 11. Reptilian Birds, Grallæ or Waders.

Legs, neck, and bill very long.

These Birds are a lively image of, or a composition from, the Reptilia, having a Frog's body with its long feet, and a Serpent's neck with a Tortoise's head.

They wade about in marshes to catch worms and fish; have also bills of very varied structure, yet generally very long and slender, being in some cases naked, in others covered with a skin.

Fam. 12. Typical Birds, Gallinæ.

Bill and legs shorter, the former being arched, the latter armed with strong toes for scraping.

Feed usually upon grains and worms, and live in dry situations. The Marsh-hens pass at once into the true Fowls, and these are attached, like as is no other family, through their capacity for domestication, to Man.

Order 5. Sensorial Birds.

3559. Run only, cannot fly.

Fam. 13. Thricozooid Birds, Bustards.

Fowls with long legs and mostly diminished toes--Bustard, Cassowary, and Ostrich.

These Birds have mostly such shortened wings, that they cannot elevate themselves from the earth. In the Cassowary we find, in place of the primary feathers upon the wings, five barbless quills like so many claws. The Ostrich has a pelvis closed in front like the Mammalia. It has not incorrectly been compared with the Camel, since the Ruminant animals in general have many resemblances in common with Birds, especially in the development of the horny substance, which obviously agrees with the feathers.

Thirteenth Class.

Aistheseozoa, Opthalmozoa--Thricozoa.

3560. All the senses perfect, five digits; the face covered with skin and flesh, the body with hairs; mammæ present.

3561. The Thricozoa combine in themselves all the animal classes, and indeed, so far as the development by grades makes no distinction, in equal proportion.

The differences are in no class therefore so numerous and so strongly pronounced as in this; and yet one is in more doubt almost concerning the rank of the families than in the former classes. It turns out, therefore, that they are not treated according to sound or solid principles, but that these, after the manner in which Natural History is still prosecuted, are despised.

Upon viewing superficially the groups of Thricozoa, it is certainly difficult to determine, which are the lowest families, although the uppermost ones are very well known; so that here matters are the reverse of what they were in Plants. In the case of Birds the empirical inquirer into nature knows neither which are the upper, nor which the lower groups; while in the Reptiles and Fishes he fares still worse.

It is pretty generally conceded that the Whales are the lowest in point of rank, because their posterior feet are wanting, and in this they certainly do depart the most from the usual or normal form of the Thricozoa; yet still it is just these animals which form the proper starting-point for the present class. Even the empirical naturalists here begin to employ physio-philosophical language, and designate these animals by the title of Fish-like Thricozoa. But, if they repeat the Fishes, then there must be Thricozoa, which stand or rank below them, and pass parallel to the Dermatozoa. Which these latter are, is not indeed to be declared until the other groups have been separated and brought into their proper station or place.

If once there are Ichthyoidal there must also be Herpetoidal or Reptile-like Thricozoa. Now, if the Whales correspond to the former, then the serial arrangement of the latter kinds is readily enough decided. To the Whales no other animals admit of being annexed but the Swine-like genera, such as the Hippopotamus, Pig, and Elephant, which, through their muscular mass, almost naked skin, and residence in marshy situations, agree very closely with the Reptilia.

In the next place come the Ruminantia, to take their site opposite the class of Birds, with whom they correspond in their susceptibility to domestication, large ears, fine sense of hearing, and timid disposition. The horns must be regarded as the obscure metatype (nachregung) of the feathers. These three families may be aptly termed Ungulata or Hoofed-animals.

Were matters to fare simply thus, then the center-building of this class would stand firm, and it would consequently not be difficult to say which animals stood below and which above it. For to the Apes are allied the Bears, to these the Dogs, Cats, and Martens, and to the latter again the Seals; all would rank above the Ungulata or Hoofed animals, and represent the proper or typical class of Thricozoa.

But the Thricozoa are Æsthetic or Sense-animals, and consequently the upper families must pass parallel to the organs of sense, if the lower correspond to the anatomical systems.

Now, if the eye has attained its maximum development in Man, the same must be said of the ear in the Apes, of the nose in the Bears, of the tongue in the Carnivora, and of the skin in the Seals.

Having so disposed of these, the only remaining Thricozoa are the Bats, Shrews, Moles, Marsupials, Sloths, and Rodentia.

In common parlance we compare the Bats with the Birds on account of their wings, unto which may be further added the large size of their ears. Their close relation, however, with the Shrews and Rodents assigns them a lower rank. They must be placed parallel with the Ptilota or Flies. The dental formula of the Bats resembles too so strikingly that of the Shrews that a rusty-grown prejudice can alone place the former in the neighbourhood of the Apes. They have obtained this post, without doubt, simply because they have but two mammæ, and these placed upon the chest.

The Moles cannot be removed from the Shrews.

The choice of position now remains between the Marsupials and Rodents. And to determine this point cannot prove difficult, for every one will place the former above the latter on account of their size, more perfect dental formula, and the hands, upon whose model the hind-feet have been in many species formed. To the Marsupials are annexed the Sloths, because several of them still possess marsupial or pouch-bones.

Viewed in this and in every other respect, the Rodentia stand or rank the lowest; and since the members of this family are much more numerous than those of any other, we may conclude that they fill up several families of the asarcose animals.

3562. The series would accordingly be as follows; first of all Rodents, then Sloths and Marsupials; with Moles, Shrews, and Bats, all as the repetition of the Dermatozoa. They are all Myoidal or Mouse-like in character. Next come the Whales, Pigs, and Ruminants as the repetitions of the Fishes, Reptiles, and Birds.

The Carnivora with the Bears, Apes, and Man, as being the proper representatives of the senses, conclude or wind up the list. They alone have a regular dental formula. We have thus--

I. Splanchno-Thricozoa; Mice, Edentata, Marsupialia, Shrews and Bats. II. Sarco-Thricozoa; Whales, Pachyderms, Ruminants. III. Æsthesio-Thricozoa; Carnivora, Seals, Bears, Apes and Man.

3563. It is here shown, just as distinctly as in the series of the classes, that no simple scale exists in the history of development, and consequently in the arrangement of animals. The Mouse-like species stand off from the rest, and then follow the entirely different Ungulata with the Pigs and Ruminants, which once again diverge in like manner, and make room for the development of the Seals, which then proceed through the Dogs, &c., in a less interrupted series up to Man.

He who marvels at this, let him take and set the table of the class-series before his eyes, and he must give utterance with us to the following words; namely, that the lower animals diverge or turn aside, and the entirely different Fishes, Reptiles, and Birds follow, which, once again diverging, make room for the development of the Thricozoa, or, in other words, the "Compendium Animalium." A perfect parallelism is thus found to exist between the classes of animals generally and the families of Thricozoa; but no linear or continuously progressive connexion is discoverable between one set and the other, but an appearance by fits or starts of new forms, just as the systems and organs also are not gradually evolved metamorphoses of one system, but sudden productions "en avant" with new tissues, forms, and functions. The animal system is a multifariously-constructed temple, with its nave, choir, chapels, and towers, while these again are present with the whole diversity of forms, which belongs to them in their several characters or bearings.

A. SPLANCHNO-THRICOZOA--PFOTENTHIERE, MAUSARTIGE.

3564. Small animals with irregular set of teeth; four feet with claws. The regular set of teeth has included all kinds of teeth, and with them four or six incisors.

A set of teeth is irregular, which has more or less than the ordinary number of incisors, in which moreover one or the other kind of tooth is wanting, or if it is separated by a breach or interspace.

The small Thricozoa divide into three orders.

The one have blunt uniform molars, two rodent or gnawing-teeth, and no canines--Rodentia.

The others have, one might say, a wholly aberrant and confused dental formula, there being at one time too few, at another too many teeth; molars uniform, with perfectly irregular incisors and canines--Sloths, Marsupials.

Others, lastly, have a tolerably regular set of teeth, presenting quadriacuminate molars, mostly small canines, and rodent-like incisors--Shrews and Bats.

Order 1. Gedärm-, Eyer, Schleimthier-Haarthiere--Rodentia.

3565. Rodent teeth, without canines.

The dental formula of the gnawing Rats and Mice is so varied, and so devoid of influence upon their bodily structure and mode of life, that all attempts to arrange these animals in accordance with it have failed.

3566. The lower position of the Rodentia admits of being easily proved by taking to our aid the meaning of the dental system. The splanchnic or visceral teeth obviously rank lower than the membral teeth. Now, it so happens that the anterior teeth are in the Rodentia the principal organ, not only of the dental formula, but of the entire animal. Without gnawing-teeth the Mice could not maintain their existence, much less their character. They thus depend wholly and solely upon the visceral teeth, and are consequently the lowest Thricozoa.

In addition to this comes their small size, which is by no means a character to be despised, and one to which all naturalists pay regard, even while they keep it, upon the other hand, in the background; or else they must place the Elephant below the Field-mice.

3567. I divide them, as well according to structure as habit, into three groups. The one has the front and hind feet of equal length, with blunt claws for digging.

The other has similar feet, with sharp claws for climbing.

Lastly, the third has the hind feet longer than the fore for leaping.

Fam. 1. Infusorial Thricozoa--Wühlmäuse.

Eyes and auditory conchæ feebly developed, feet for scraping, tail lax; live always under the ground, and eat roots and grains--Spalax, Rat, Common and Field-mouse, Beaver; mostly only three molars.

Fam. 2. Polypary Thricozoa--Klettermäuse.

Eyes, ears, and tail large, the latter being stiff and hairy, claws pointed; live mostly upon trees, eating nut-kernels and fruit; usually four molars--Squirrels.

Fam. 3. Acalephan Thricozoa--Laufmäuse.

Eyes and ears large, tail hairy, hind feet longest, claws obtuse, lamellar or plicated teeth; live upon the surface of the earth and eat grass--Hares and Guinea-pigs; mostly more than four molar teeth.

Order 2. Ader-, Geschlechts, Schalthier-Haarthiere--Kaumäuse.

3568. Teeth and toes deviating completely from those of every other order; nor in a less degree the method of propagation.

In some instances all the teeth are wanting, in some they exceed the ordinary number, and are quite uniform; sometimes the lateral teeth only are similar, but in this case there are no canines and incisors; or else there are canines with more than six incisors, or also with rodent teeth.

In like manner the toes are irregular; the one kind being disproportionately large and the other absurdly small; some are for the most part wholly connate; in many cases there are hands posteriorly. The claws also are in some instances obtuse, in others sharp for climbing, or else asymmetrically large and unciform. Hands adapted for swimming or flight also occur.

Finally, the sexual parts are quite aberrant, being mostly very large and singularly formed; the mammæ frequently lodged in a pouch, or at least furnished with marsupial bones. The young are born as naked and immoveable embryos, and suckled for a very long time.

All this reminds us of the Conchozoa or Shell-animals as doth also their unusual covering of belts, scales, spines and long hairs.

Fam. 4. Mussel-like Thricozoa, Sloths.

Lateral and canine teeth equal in size and obtuse, incisors mostly wanting, and occasionally all the teeth; claws very large and curved--Ornithorynchi, Ant-eaters, Armadillos and Sloths.

Fam. 5. Snail-like Thricozoa, Herbivorous Marsupials.

Rodent teeth, usually with stunted proximal and canine teeth, lateral teeth level; toes mostly connate and very unequal; they live in the Old World upon roots, grass, and fruit--Wombat, Dasyure, Kangaroo, Opossum.

Fam. 6. Kracken-Haarthiere, Carnivorous Marsupials.

Mostly more than six incisors, triangular molars and large canines; live in the New World and in Australia, eating worms, insects, eggs and flesh--Vulpine Phalanger, Phascogale, Beutelratze.

The abnormal structure of the sexual parts reminds us of the same relation in the Snails and Kracken.

Order 3. Lungen-, Fell-, Ringelthier-Haarthiere--Raubmäuse.

3569. Molar teeth mostly quadriacuminate, with a break in the series, canines and pointed incisors, or rodent teeth with lateral incisors, five toes; live upon worms and insects.

Fam. 7. Worm-Thricozoa, Moles.

Claws, sharp incisors or rodent teeth, with lateral incisors or false molars; live exclusively under the earth, and cast up the mould.

Fam. 8. Crustaceous Thricozoa, Shrews.

Paws, rodent teeth, with small lateral incisors and canine teeth. Many burrow passages without throwing up the soil.

Fam. 9. Ptilotal Thricozoa, Bats.

Alary membrane between the feet and anterior digits; pointed canine and incisor teeth.

Order 4. Sarco-Thricozoa--Ungulata.

3570. Body large and heavy; teeth stunted, molars uniform, tolerably obtuse; feet fin-or hoof-like; mostly udders, rarely mammæ.

Fam. 10. Ichthyoid Thricozoa, Whales.

Skin naked; no hind feet; two horizontal caudal fins; toes of the anterior feet surrounded by a common skin; no auditory conchs; posteriorly two udders. All live in the sea.

It is hardly necessary, in speaking of the Whales, to direct attention to their monstrously-developed osseous system and large fleshy tongue, as also to their correspondence with Fishes in the entire form, manner of living, and imperfect nose. Their head is still confluent with the neck, the teeth are horny plates of coalesced hairs, or uniform simple points, as in Fishes. Most of them have even dorsal fins; the two udders are hardly separated from the sexual parts.

Fam. 11. Reptilian Thricozoa, Pigs.

Four feet with hoofs; canines and mostly also incisors; stomach simple, do not ruminate--Nylghau, Pig, Elephant, Rhinoceros, Horse. These animals love the marshes, and are through their mode of living, as also their form, similar to the larger Reptiles; or, in other words, through their colossal skeleton, with preponderating muscular mass, they are Myozoa, through the proboscis or snout, Rhinozoa.

Fam. 12. Ornithic Thricozoa, Ruminants.

Toes bifid, surrounded by a hoof; above there are rarely incisor and canine teeth; udders behind; stomach fourfold; they ruminate. The horn-formation indicates a relationship with feathers; the want of incisor teeth, large ears, and timidity of disposition that of the family with the class of Birds.

Both families enter into connexion with the Whales through the size of their body, the structure of their feet, form of the head and disposition towards water and mud. They are quadrupedal Whales, which have come out of the water, and adopted a manner of living like the Amphibious Reptiles and Grallatorial Birds.

Order 5. Æsthesio-Thricozoa--Unguiculata.

3571. Here for the first time an equiponderance of the sensorial organs makes its appearance and along with it therefore a resemblance between the animals, which is no more interrupted by such strange or odd forms, as in the preceding orders.

All of them have divided toes with claws or nails, and all kinds of teeth with multiacuminate enamelled molars.

3572. No doubt can exist about the animals belonging to the present order; they are the Apes, Bears, and Carnivora generally, as Seals, Cats, Dogs, Martens, and such like beasts.

I also cherish no doubt concerning the rank of the two first families, namely, the Apes and Bears, although they have been separated in a strange manner by the interposition of the Bats and likewise the Shrews. At some future time one will not believe that the Bats and Shrews were once placed next to the Apes.

3573. Doubt, however, may exist concerning the rank of the Carnivorous or Rapacious animals; so that here the principles of our philosophy must be brought to bear in our behalf. I regard then these animals as the highest representatives of the sensorial organs. By this step three families at once take their proper positions, viz.:

Man upon the station or rank of the Eye.

The Apes on that of the Ear.

The Bears upon the post of the Nose.

Difficulties are consequently presented in regard only to the Rapacious animals, but which are removed, so soon as the three families just named are parallelized with the others thus:

Bone, Tongue, Whales.

Muscles, Nose, Pigs--Bears.

Nerves, Ear, Cattle--Apes.

Senses, Eye--Man.

Now the Seals range of themselves next the Whales.

There are thus left the Rapacious animals proper, which as Dermatozoa or Sentient animals must consequently correspond to the Splanchnozoa. In favour of this, evidence is afforded not only by the particular use made of their feet, but their great number also, which can admit of comparison with no individual family or order.

Now, however, there are three orders of Murine animals.

1. Rodent Mice--the Rodentia proper. 2. Chewing Mice--the Sloths and Marsupialia. 3. Rapacious Mice--the Moles, Shrews, and Flitter-mice, or Bats.

In like manner do the rapacious Carnivora divide into three groups.

1. The mostly sneaking and scansorial Martens and Viverræ.

2. The sneaking and fossorial Skunks, Gluttons, and Badgers, with soles and blunt claws.

3. The high-legged Digitigrades, as Dogs, Hyænæ, and Cats.

As I have given up the dental formula in the Rodentia as a means of division, so now it seems to me that it must be abandoned also in the Beasts of Prey. The whole appearance of them and their mode of living, which is still the main point in view, obviously directs us more towards consideration of the feet, than of the dental formula. The Marten or Weasel kind were formerly compared with the Mice, and called on that account Mustela. They cannot be regarded otherwise than as the lowest in rank.

Unto them are obviously annexed the short-legged Civets, despite their cunoidal set of teeth. Many have half soles or pads under the feet. With these again the Fox-like animals, notwithstanding their viverrine dental formula, enter into alliance. I believe that I have rightly parted the Badger from the Bears, and rightly done it too in this place.

The highest are without doubt the Dogs, Hyænas, and Cats, with their long and upright legs, not to speak of their mental faculties. We accordingly obtain the following arrangement.

Fam. 13. Dermal Thricozoa--Carnaria.

All kinds of teeth included; six broad incisors, a longer canine, two to three small false molars, a large carnivorous tooth and large Querzahn, and frequently also the Kornzahn. Mostly five separated toes, with nails resting upwards, and either sharp or obtuse feet, occasionally soled. They eat flesh, mostly that of warm-blooded animals, and kill their prey themselves.

Alliance 1. Rodent-like Unguiculate Animals--Schleicher.

Feet short and oblique, mostly sharp claws without entire soles.

1. Mole-like Animals--Martens.

Sharp claws without soles, and no Kornzahn--Martens and Otters.

2. Squirrel-like--Civets.

Sharp, curved, and mostly retractile claws, superiorly the Kornzahn--Civet, Paradoxurus.

3. Leporine or Hare-like--Ichneumons.

Straight claws with half soles--Ichneumon, Ryzæna.

Alliance 2. Kaumausartige--Fossores.

Large and straight claws with soles, no Kornzahn.

1. Sloth-like Animals--Mephitic Animals.

Dental formula, like that of the Marten--Skunk, Mydaus.

2. Wombat-like--Gluttons.

Dental formula, like that of Marten, but behind the carnivorous is a small tubercular tooth which is wider, being broader than long.

3. Opossum-like--Badgers.

The tuberculous tooth larger than the carnivorous tooth, and nearly quadrangular.

Alliance 3. Raubmausartige--Digitigrada.

Legs high and upright; no soles.

1. Mole-like--Dogs.

Claws blunt, the Kornzahn both in upper and lower jaw.

2. Shrew-like--Hyænas.

Claws blunt; no Kornzahn but a small Querzahn.

3. Bat-like--Cats.

Claws sharp, curved, and retractile; no lower tubercular tooth, but a small upper one.

Fam. 14. Lingual Thricozoa, Seals.

Feet fin-shaped, the hinder pair stretched out, dental formula complete, but the lateral teeth tolerably even, and six or four incisors; tongue mostly somewhat slit. They correspond to the Whales.

Fam. 15. Nasal Thricozoa, Bears.

Nose elongated into a snout, walk upon soles; all kinds of teeth, of which, however, the carnivorous or tearing tooth is similar to the grinders, six incisors.

The slower gait, originating from their walking on the soles of the feet, with the less pointed molars, assign to these animals a less rapacious habit of living. They therefore kill no large animals, and are satisfied with worms and even roots, fruit, and honey. They repeat the Pigs.

Fam. 16. Nasal Thricozoa, Apes.

The ears begin to acquire the human form, as do even the teeth; never more than four incisors, but a longer canine; hands both fore and aft.

These animals live upon fruits and beetles, and are by their scansorial feet destined to live upon trees. Their varied, piping, and sonorous cry is a property of the sense of hearing, and along with it the larynx also usually obtains a stronger amount of development.

3574. It seems that every family of Thricozoa contains five genera, and that these accord with the organs of sense. In many families this relation is at least striking, e. g.

Among the Pigs the Elephant is obviously characterized by the nose, the Hippopotamus by the skin, the Pig by the dental system; and thus by the sense of taste, the Rhinoceros by large ears, the Horse by the eyes, thus

1. Skin Hippopotamus. 2. Tongue Pig. 3. Nose Elephant. 4. Ear Rhinoceros. 5. Eye Horse.

In like manner do the Ruminantia or Cattle become distinctly marshalled according to the five senses. The Camel recedes from the others by its simply uplying hoofs, the Musk-deer by its monstrous canine; the Goat is distinguished by its fine sense of smell, and the Giraffe by its large ears, the Ox by the large and beautiful eye, thus

1. Hautrind Camel. 2. Zungen- Musk-deer. 3. Nasen- Goat. 4. Ohren- Giraffe. 5. Augen- Ox.

In the Bears also we are confronted by this principle of classification.

The Skin-bear is the Common Bear. The Tongue- " is the Raccoon. The Nose- " is the Nasua. The Ear- " is the Arctitis. The Eye- " is the Cercoleptes.

After this principle had been so strikingly verified in several families, I proceeded with confidence also to those which were more difficult, and it resulted that each consists only of five genera severally distinguished by the predominance of some one organ of sense. This method has been carried out throughout my "Allgemeine Naturgeschichte."

Fam. 17. Ophthalmozoa, Man.

Superiorly or in front hands, inferiorly or behind soles.

3575. Here all the senses enter for the first time into a state of perfect equiponderance or proportion. Skin naked, and therefore a perfect organ of feeling; feet and hands differently constructed for progression and manipulation; tongue and lips fleshy, while the latter have hitherto been only tegumental; all the kinds of teeth different, but still very similar, being of equal height and nearly equal size; nose elevated by its whole length from the face, and fleshy; ears oval, laid close against the head and having regular windings or convolutions; eyes directed forwards, with perfect eyelids, and moveable in all directions.

3576. Man by the upright walk obtains his character, namely, that of bodily freedom, for his hind feet take the place of all the four feet of other animals, by which means the hands become free and can achieve all other offices, the feet alone serving to support the body.

He is the only animal that surveys with the axes of the eyes borne parallel the most extensive horizon. All animals whose eyes look higher up or above the ground, as the Horse, Elephant, Ostrich, and such like creatures, have eyes directed sideways.

3577. With the freedom of the body has been granted also the freedom of the mind. Man sees everything, the whole universe, while the animals can only view individual parts thereof, two of these even invariably appearing different, so that the images seen by them are never reduced to unity.

3578. There is only one human family, only one human genus, and only one species; and this just because Man is the whole Animal Kingdom.

3579. But yet there are five kinds or varieties of Men, according with the development of the sensorial organs.

1. The Skin-Man is the Black, African. 2. The Tongue- " is the Brown, Australian--Malayan. 3. The Nose- " is the Red, American. 4. The Ear- " is the Yellow, Asiatic--Mongolian. 5. The Eye- " is the White, European.

Co-arrangement.

3580. The classes of Sarcozoa pass or rank parallel to each other in the following manner:

| CLASS X. | CLASS XI. | CLASS XII. | | | | | Anatomical | Osteozoa, | Myozoa, | Neurozoa, | Systems. | Fishes. | Reptiles. | Birds. | | | | | I. Intestinal. | Ord. I. | Ord. I. | Ord. I. | | | | | |F. |F. |F. | Stomach--Infusoria |1. Lampreys |1. Salamanders |1. Tree Creepers| Intestine--Polypi |2. Plectognathi|2. Frogs |2. Woodpeckers | Absorbents--Acalephæ.|3. Shads. |3. Tortoises. |3. Cuckoos. | | | | | II. Vascular. | Ord. II. | Ord. II. | Ord. II. | | | | | Veins--Mussels |4. Eels |4. Schuppen- |4. Sparrows | Arteries--Snails |5. Haddocks |5. Tafel- |5. Crows | Heart--Kracken. |6. Grundeln. |6. Schienens- |6. Parrots. | | | chlangen. | | | | | | III. Pulmonary. | Ord. III. | Ord. III. | Ord. III. | | | | | Skin--Worms. |7. Tunnies |7. Schleichen- |7. Singing-birds| Branchiæ--Crabs |8. Breams |8. Schuppen- |8. Fly-catchers | Tracheæ--Flies. |9. Perch. |9. Schienen- |9. Hawks. | | | Echsen.| | | | | | IV. Flesh. | Ord. IV. | Ord. IV. | Ord. IV. | | | | | Bones--Fishes |10. Herrings |10. Icthyosauri |10. Geese | Muscles--Reptiles |11. Salmons |11. Geckos |11. Herons | Nerves--Birds. |12. Pike. |12. Pterodactyli.|12. Fowls. | | | | | V. Senses. | Ord. V. | Ord. V. |Ord. V. | | | | | Thricozoa. |13. Sharks. |13. Crocodiles. |13. Bustards. |

| CLASS XIII. | | | Anatomical | Sense-animals,| Aisthesio- | Sense-Organs. Systems. | Thricozoa. | Thricozoa. | 1. Tegument. | | 13. Mausartige | I. Intestinal. | Ord. I. | 1. Wühlmäuse | I. Ovum. | | | |F. |F. | Stomach--Infusoria |1. Wühlmäuse |1. Martens |Vitellus--Infusoria Intestine--Polypi |2. Kletter- " |2. Civets |Albumen--Polypi Absorbents--Acalephæ.|3. Lauf- " |3. Ichneumons. |Envelopes--Acalephæ. | | | II. Vascular. | Ord. II. | 2. Kaumäuse | II. Sex. | | | Veins--Mussels |4. Sloths |4. Skunks |Spawn--Mussels Arteries--Snails |5. Beutelhasen |5. Gluttons |Milt--Snails Heart--Kracken. |6. Beutelmarder.|6. Badgers. |Kidneys--Kracken. | | | III. Pulmonary. | Ord. III. | 3. Raubmäuse | III. Limbs. | | | Skin--Worms. |7. Scheermäuse |7. Dogs |Papillæ--Worms Branchiæ--Crabs |8. Shrews |8. Hyænas |Feet--Crabs Tracheæ--Flies. |9. Bats. |9. Cats. |Wings--Flies. | | | | | | IV. _Cephalic IV. Flesh. | Ord. IV. | | Senses._ | | | Bones--Fishes |10. Whales |14. Seals |2. Tongue--Fishes Muscles--Reptiles |11. Pigs |15. Bears |3. Nose--Reptiles Nerves--Birds. |12. Ruminants. |16. Apes. |4. Ears--Birds | | | V. Senses. | Ord. V. | | | | | Thricozoa. |13. Aisthesio- |17. Man. |5. Eyes | | | --Thricozoa. | Thricozoa.| |

3581. By the accompanying table the parallelism of the different families is recognized, as well as their remaining relationships, both among themselves as also with the Asarcous animals, if their table at p. 614 be compared with it, and which could not for want of room be inserted here.

3582. It is, moreover, proved from this table that the classes stand one above the other, but yet that each recommences from below, so that the lower animals of a higher class are more stunted or rudimental than the upper ones of a lower class. Thus the Salamanders are more rudimental, that is, they have organs more imperfect than the Sharks; the Tree-creepers are more rudimental than the Crocodiles, the Mice than the Fowls and Bustards.

Nevertheless these stunted animals stand higher than those of the lower classes, because they are characterized by a higher organ.

What holds good of the classes holds good again of the orders and families also. The lower animal of a consecutive family is again more rudimental than the upper one of the antecedent family. Thus the Ornithorynchus is more rudimental than the Beaver, the Shrew-mouse more rudimental than the Opossum and such like creatures.

In the highest families the equiponderance is first restored, and the lowest Man is still higher than the uppermost Ape.

IV. PSYCHOLOGY.

FUNCTIONS OF THE ANIMALS.

3583. The present section treats concerning the functions of the Whole animal, just as the preceding one did of those belonging to individual organs. It is at bottom the psychological part of Physio-philosophy. The functions are so numerous and difficult also to arrange, that I place this section here, to point out rather its situation than to follow out or trace its development.

3584. All the functions of an entire animal are spiritual or sensorial functions; at least they are conditionated by the senses, and I will also speak of them only in this respect. The mechanical and chemical functions have been already comprehended in the physiological part. The senses only make their appearance gradually in animals, and with them also the spiritual functions.

A. FUNCTIONS OF THE DERMATOZOA.

1. Enterozoa or Oozoa.

3585. These animals are governed chiefly by a passive sense of feeling, from their consisting for the most part of a naked, homogeneous, and gelatinous integument, and living in water, an element wherein the other senses can be but slightly active.

3586. Their sense of feeling stands upon the lowest grade, since it is only the sensibility of the tegument, there being no articulated organs of touch, so that it consists only in the discrimination of an opposing object.

The ability or power to discriminate is not yet consciousness; for unto this a reflexion upon the object discriminated is necessary.

The Infusoria, Polypi, and Acalephæ, simply feel that something else is there, but they are so completely imprisoned in this feeling that they are unable to submit the same to an internal process of comparison.

3587. By reason of this inability to compare their own feelings, not a trace is left unto them of internal change; so that these creatures are truly devoid of memory or recollection.

The Infusoria have only sensation, nothing else; they are therefore in ceaseless motion. They are actually capable of nothing but moving and eating. Of all other spiritual functions they are utterly devoid.

3588. Their spiritual life is in some degree a mesmeric condition. Destitute of the senses of seeing, hearing, smelling and tasting, they feel every thing, or, properly speaking, perform all these functions at one and the same time, and by one organ, the visceral mass. By mesmerism they find their food, perceive the light, and become transparent unto themselves, just as they are really in a physical point of view. For they are only viscera or visceral nerves.

Development of the Mind.

3589. The mind, just as the body, must be developed out of these animals. The human body has been formed by an extreme separation of the neuro-protoplasmic or mucous mass. So must the human mind be a separation, a memberment of infusorial sensation.

3590. The highest mind is an anatomized or dismembered mesmerism, each member whereof has been constituted independent in itself.

The skeleton of this dissected mind, when scientifically represented, would be the science of the mind, i. e. Philosophy, properly so called.

Pneumato-philosophy is the likeness of Physio-philosophy. For spirit is only the tension of nature, and nature only the spirit set in motion.

The philosophy of spirit must develop itself out of the philosophy of nature, as doth the flower out of the stem. For nature is the spirit analyzed and at rest, which we can handle at our pleasure. It does not appear only for an instant; but as stone, air and such like entities, abideth always, as if to solicit and preserve us for its investigation.

A Philosophy or Ethicks apart from Physio-philosophy is a nonentity, a bare contradiction, just as a flower without a stem is a non-existent thing.

3591. As many essential members as Physio-philosophy hath, into so many must Pneumato-philosophy also divide, and this too so exactly that the two shall cover each other.

The reason why one has hitherto rambled about in Pneumato-philosophy without ballast and without compass, depends solely upon the disregard which has been paid to the science or knowledge of Nature. It is in fact not difficult to understand how impossible it must be, from observations made upon the rapidly evanescent phenomena of the spirit, to thence abstract a system of the laws in conformity wherewith this spirit manifests itself or acts. Spirit is nothing different from Nature, but simply her purest outbirth or offspring, and therefore her symbol, her language. With such a basis as this, we shall no longer pursue the ignes fatui of the mind, but first of all endeavour to banish them into the provinces or realms of Nature, and there co-ordinate them in conformity with her laws; then for the first time shall we recognize the flaming lights of the mind and the divine voices, which all matter proclaimeth through the speech of Man.

He, who were once in a condition to reveal or disclose this conformity of Nature's phenomena with those of Spirit, will have learnt the philosophy of the latter.

2. Functions of the Vascular or Sexual Animals.

3592. These animals are no longer merely sentient, 'clairvoyant' Acalephæ, because, in addition to the nervous mass, they are provided with other systems, such as the sexual and vascular, with the special organs of digestion and taste.

These three or four organs must also resolve themselves into three spiritual functions; the vascular system furnishes special organs of feeling and therewith a voluntary sense of feeling; the intestine and chiefly the liver is now the cardinal organ, and will therefore execute the mesmerically percipient functions.

3593. In the liver the faculty of anticipation and foresight, with melancholy, choleric passion, and anger, appear to reside. Encephalic thought is reflected in it.

The liver is the soul in a state of sleep, the brain is the soul active and awakening. In it the spirit broods unconsciously for years, and then breaks forth fearfully, as capriciousness, tyranny and sorrow, but also as earnestness and strength.

Circumspection and foresight appear to be the thoughts of the Bivalve Mollusca and Snails.

Gazing upon a Snail, one believes that he finds the prophesying goddess sitting upon the tripod. What majesty is in a creeping Snail, what reflection, what earnestness, what timidity and yet at the same time what firm confidence! Surely a Snail is an exalted symbol of mind slumbering deeply within itself.

The old artists must have felt this signification, as in many of their representations they have introduced a Snail. One can hardly think, that in so doing they wished to express such common and lascivious ideas, as are at present manifested openly or secretly by our daily enjoyments.

3594. The intestine must moreover be concerned with the sense of taste. Taste, however, leads to voracity, gluttony, daintiness, sluggishness and drowsiness.

3595. Taste in union with the sexual function is the expression of venery or lust.

This is indicated by the secretion of slime, by the monstrous size too of the sexual organs, and by their androgynism, which enables either individual during copulation to enjoy the delicious feeling, belonging to the male and female, either at once or alternately. Their food also appears to be selected from a feeling of desire.

Circumspection in feeling, dainty voracity, and immoderate lust appear to constitute the spiritual character of the Malacozoa, especially of the Snails.

3. Functions of the Respiratory or Arthric Animals.

3596. The Insect is mainly an aerial and motor organ, and therefore its spirit is also of an aerial and motor kind.

The respiratory process produces strength, and this again courage, both which are the distinguishing properties of Insects. The Insect is the strongest and boldest animal upon the earth.

Health, plenitude of life, generosity, nobleness, and heroism dwell in the thorax.

3597. But besides these virtues the spirit of the thorax is also that of smell. Insects have an excellent sense of smell, the spirit of which is cunningness and treachery, wherein no animal will easily surpass them.

3598. The Insect has moreover a spirit of motion or versatility of the tactile sense, which is displayed in the representation of symmetrical figures. This faculty proceeds especially from the creative sexual functions--as mechanical or artistic instinct.

All spirit of motion launches out into mechanical instinct. It disappears in all classes of animals, which chiefly correspond to the sex and belly, as, e. g. in Fishes and Reptiles. On the other hand, in the moveable thoracic animals or Birds, the mechanical instincts at once re-appear.

Mechanical instinct and dexterity of limbs run parallel together.

The dexterity of the limbs taken up into the spirit is an art-sense.

B. FUNCTIONS OF THE CEPHALOZOA.

3599. Here the head is for the first time placed in a perfect condition, and hence an antagonism arises for the first time between head and trunk.

The Cephalozoon no longer distinguishes nature and self only like the acephalous and amnemonic animals; but it distinguishes even its body from its head, because the Fish has begun to be a double animal.

3600. The Cephalozoon hath consciousness; consciousness of its condition, of its body, but not of its head and the operations therein. It has no self-consciousness.

3601. As soon as an animal contemplates a part of its body, of its world, and hath consciousness in a general sense, it has also memory. For memory is a repetition of its own condition, not the reiterated feeling of a foreign object.

The Acephalous or anencephalic animals have therefore no memory, because they live only in opposition to the world, but never in antagonism to themselves. Every perception is therefore a new one for them, because it is always an actual object which excites them. Whether Insects have memory, has not yet been made out.

3602. The brainless animals have no ideas, and naturally so, because they have no consciousness.

It would appear likewise that they do not feel pain.

The Cephalozoa have ideas, and quite certainly pains, because they become partly an object unto themselves.

4. Functions of the Osteo-or Glossozoa.

3603. The Fish's head is the lowest, and therefore its mind also will manifest only the first function, that ranks above the mind of the Acephalozoa, the memory.

With this memory, however, all the spiritual functions, exhibited by the preceding classes, but chiefly mesmerism, have been bestowed.

3604. Fishes are again provident, zealous animals, that, drawn together by mysterious bands, make the longest voyages, wherein they ascend and descend rivers, knowing how to find their prey over miles in extent.

All the mechanical instincts are, on the contrary, obliterated in them, as being fingerless, finned animals. Their principal business is propagation--Pelvic animals.

3605. Gluttony is the principal character of the Glossozoa, in so far as taste stands upon the lowest stage. Touch and taste are only motion and deglutition.

Smell becomes evidently stronger.

The ear still ranks upon the lowest stage, but yet they hear closely. In other respects they are mute, and exhibit all the consequences of aphony.

3606. Fishes are of the Phlegmatic temperament.

5. Functions of the Myo-or Rhinozoa.

3607. Reptiles are Cephalozoa with well-developed lungs and nose, and are therefore gifted with voice.

3608. To memory comes the art of ambuscade or lying in wait, a property of the olfactory sense, the application of memory. The circumspection of the Snails passes over into ambuscade and surprise.

With this character the higher perfection of the belly or of the digestive system, along with the poisoning saliva, is in parallel accordance. To take by surprise and to poison are acts of one series.

3609. Reptiles appear enabled to reflect, i. e. several reminiscences are at their bidding. Now, the comparison of these constitutes reflection. They are therefore more sagacious than Fishes, docile and in some measure susceptible of instruction.

3610. The courage, which they have probably obtained through their aerial respiration, passes over more into impudence and sauciness.

3611. Reptiles are of the Melancholic crasis.

6. Functions of the Neuro-or Otozoa.

3612. The spirit of the thorax and limbs is here predominant, whence comes the restlessness and mechanical instinct of the Bird.

The motor sense, the ear, is the prominent one. The ear, however, is partly the sense for the Indefinite, partly for the demolition of matter. The auditory spirit is fear.

But it passes over into joy, passion, levity, if it perfectly perceives tones.

3613. With the ear and the moveable organs of voice originates a kind of language, which is in a condition to express a multitude of sentiments. The language of Birds hath not a few tones, and expresses not a few passions.

3614. The Bird knits or associates for the first time with some completeness a sense, or definite sensation, to a simple tone. The Bird hath for the first time signs, or symbols, which are not the things themselves, but only signify or mean them.

The Bird understands the relation of the spiritual expression to the organ or matter. It comprehends a connexion where none is materially, but which is only imparted by the idea.

The capacity to understand the thing in the image or idea, I call imagination, and of this Birds furnish us with very definite proofs.

Birds can therefore dream.

3615. Reptiles and Fishes appear to have no ideas because they have no signs, or tones, indicating the resolution of the organ into mind. For the tone is none other than the ghost of the organ or animal. Fishes and Reptiles do not indeed dream.

3616. The Bird, however, appears to get no further than to mere images or ideas. The conception is wanting unto them.

It has therefore no sense of shame. But possesses in a full degree circumspection, desire of imitation, comparison.

3617. To the Bird it is not simply the sensation of its body that becomes, like a foreign product, objective; but its own product, its voice, as something already distinct from its own mind.

3618. It is clear, that if all the sensorial functions were to become objective to the Bird, it would be self-apparent and resolve itself into self-consciousness. Thus does self-consciousness sprout forth gradually with the sensorial functions.

3619. Birds are of the Sanguineous temperament.

7. Functions of the Æsthesio-or Ophthalmozoa.

3620. All the faculties hitherto mentioned occur here. The soul of the eye is still associated with them, and therewith the faculties of perception, understanding and conception appear to be bestowed.

One cannot refuse understanding to the Thricozoa. The actions of the Dog, Horse and Elephant, do not admit otherwise of being conceived; nor also the shame and pride, fidelity, animosity, desire of revenge, and yet many other properties exhibited by these animals.

But it is an understanding without self-consciousness, if we may so venture to express ourselves; an understanding of many signs, but devoid of any combination and separation of these signs; in a word, there is no faculty of judgment.

The Thricozoa are Choleric animals.

8. Functions of the Panæsthetic Animal.

3621. If finally all its organs become objective to the animal, through contemplation of the universe, through hearkening of the animal restored into symbols; it thus contemplates itself, is apparent unto itself, and is quite conscious of itself.

Then is the animal equivalent to the whole animal kingdom and to the universe.

3622. The universal spirit is Man.

In the human race the world has become individual. Man is the entire image or likeness of the world. His language is the spirit of the world. All the functions of animals have attained unto unity, unto self-consciousness, in Man.

3623. The thorough penetration of all the animal's symbols, the comparison of all the world's symbols, and thus free comparison is Reason.

The understanding compares only the symbols of sounds, of men; but the reason compares also the symbols of light, of the world.

Reason is world-understanding; the understanding is animal reason.

All the mental functions of animals have become ratiocinative in Man.

Feeling is in him consciousness, consciousness is self-consciousness, the understanding is reason, the passion, freedom, the mechanical instinct artistic sense, the comparison science.

3624. The spirits of the senses are Art-spirits, the spirit of reason is the spirit of Science.

Art.

3625. Art is the representation of the senses in Nature.

3626. The sense is, however, the last or ultimate design of Nature.

Art is consequently the representation of Nature's design. (Ed. 1st, 1811. § 3517.)

3627. That is beautiful which represents the will of Nature.

But non-beautiful is that which represents real Nature by means of art.

3628. Art is one universal business. Beautiful is that, which represents the world within a fragment or portion of the world.

3629. There is also one natural beauty--unconscious formation of the world's laws.

3630. The highest natural beauty is the universal portion of nature, i. e. Man.

Man expresses the ultimate goal or purpose of Nature's design.

3631. The terminus or goal of Nature is, in Man to revert again into herself. The human countenance most perfectly repeats the trunk, and again reverts wholly and actually into the trunk. That human countenance is beautiful, in which the vertebral column runs back again parallel with the vertebral column of the trunk. The facial vertebral column is the nose.

3632. The face is beautiful, whose nose runs parallel to the spine.

No human face has grown unto this estate, but every nose makes an acute angle with the spine. The facial angle is, as is well known, 80°.

What as yet no Man has remarked, and what is not to be remarked either without our view of the cranial signification, the old artists have felt through inspiration. They have not only made the facial angle a right angle, but have even stepped beyond this, the Romans going up to 96°, the Greeks even to 100°.

Whence comes it, that this unnatural face of the Grecian works of art, is still more beautiful than that of the Roman, when the latter comes nearer unto Nature? The reason thereof resides in the fact of the Grecian's artistic face representing Nature's design more than that of the Roman; for in the former the nose is placed quite perpendicular, or parallel to the spinal cord, and thus returns whither it has been derived.

3633. He who paints or otherwise copies Nature in a purely mechanical manner, is consequently a bungler; he is devoid of ideas, and imitates her no better than a bird does song, or an ape the postures of the human body. The province of Art is alas! not yet understood.

3634. In Man all the beauties of nature are associated or combined.

3635. Thus, Nature can be beautiful, in so far as she represents the individual ideas of Man.

3636. There are only two art-senses, the eye and the ear; and thus but two departments of art, the Plastic and Sonant, or that of form and of motion.

3637. The province of form represents the material universe in its ideas, its design, and thus in its freedom.

3638. The representation of the bodily universe in the ideas is the Architectural art. (Ed. 1st 1811, § 3533.)

3639. The representation of heaven in the Plastic, is the church architecture.

The temple or church is the art of heaven.

3640. The representation of the planet in the Plastic is the house.

The house is the art of the planet.

The architectural art is the cosmical art.

3641. The representation of the Individual is the Sculptor's art.

The sculptural art represents the Terrestrial, and in its highest estate Man. It is the Heroic art.

3642. This art rendered manifest in matter, or repeated in light, is Painting.

Painting represents the symbol, the naught of the world, the heavenly, and also in its lowest estate a Spiritual.

Painting is the art of religion, the Sacred art.

Painting is the art of heathens, whose deities are men; Painting is the art of Christians, whose Men, being sacred or holy, are gods.

God can be painted, but not formed or sculptured.

3643. The art of motion represents the material and the spiritual motion.

3644. The representation of the world's material laws of motion is the Dance.

3645. The representation of the motion of individuals is the Histrionic art.

3646. The representation of the world's spiritual laws of motion, of the laws of the dance, is Music.

3647. The spiritual representation of the Histrionic is the Poetic art.

Science.

3648. The representation of the rational world is Science.

3649. The first science is the Science of Language, the architecture of science, the earth.

3650. The second science is the Art of Rhetoric, the sculpture of science, the river.

3651. The third science is Philosophy, the painting of science, the respiration or breath.

This, like painting, divides into a number of branches, whereof the art of government is the highest.

3652. The fourth science is the Art of War, the art of motion, histrionism, music, poetic art of science, the light.

As in the art of poetry all arts have been blended, so in the art of war have all sciences and all arts.

The art of War is the highest, most exalted art; the art of freedom and of right, of the blessed condition of Man and of humanity--the Principle of Peace.

THE END.

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