III. BIOLOGY--OF THE WHOLE IN SINGULARS (part 1 of 2)

III. BIOLOGY--OF THE WHOLE IN SINGULARS (part 1 of 2)

A.--ORGANOSOPHY.

I.--ORGANOGENY.

A. Galvanism.

867. If we take a retrospective glance at the development of the planet, we find that it commenced with the simplest actions, and then assumed a more elevated character by gradually drawing together several actions and letting them work in common. In magnetism the earth-element alone was active, and this having freed itself from the other elements by crystallization, asserted itself as a particular form upon the planet. By this single act of the planet, an extensive series of positions or numbers originated, which may be called mineral individuals.

868. Up to the formation of the solar system or of the planet, the character of creation is analytic. The three primary ideas emerged from each other as gravity, light and heat, and appeared as fire. These three united actions emerged again from each other and became air, water and earth, which together make up the planet. This was therefore the descending creation. But from and after this period, the character of the development of the planet becomes synthetic, for the divided elements again united with each other. By synthesis only or by combination of the elements does the planet progressively advance, and by it only does it divide into lesser planetary masses or bodies, called individuals. This is the ascending creation.

869. To the earth-element, in which the active magnetism is isolated, comes the element-water; and by the identification of both into one body, a new process is evolved, which we have recognized by the term chemism--salt. Then the earth-element combines with air and becomes an Inflammable, in which the process is likewise extinguished and only a dead product is left--the Inflammable. Then it combines with fire and is converted into ore. There never originates therefore from the twofold combination of the earth-element with any other element, but one product, that namely in which the Earthy obtains the preponderance, or a mineral.

870. Two elements only belong to the essence of chemism, and they indeed are the two lowest, the elements carbon and oxygen, both being reduced to their primary condition, i. e. to that of an alkali in natron, and an acid in the hydrochloric or that of common salt.

871. As the principle or rationale of chemical action consists only in the potentiality of two elements to revert to their polar, or the oxygenous, condition, this action must thus become extinct, so soon as the creation of the new or secondary element has resulted. For if the tension equalizes itself in the two, and the two only be coexistent, so in accordance with the compensation no new tension can originate, and yet such is the groundwork of all chemical action. The result of the chemical process is consequently death; and furthermore, because it is also a simple bin-elementary process, it cannot be the ultimate goal or limit attained by the development of the planet.

872. The next stage to which the genesis of the planet ascends consists in the bin-elementary processes being associated with the third terrestrial element. In this manner a process originates in which the powers of earth and of water marry or conjoin with the power of air, and thus originates a chemical power or chemism, influenced by the air.

873. The chemism, when influenced by air, is one of a perpetual character; for this power dies only because the tension of its two elements is balanced or equalized; the influence of the air is, however, none other than the constant renewal of the tension.

874. Now, the process of tension in the air is electrism or that action in which the two poles being devoid of indifference range opposite to each other, can therefore never unite, and the end attained by which is oxydation. The new process is consequently a chemical power constantly excited by electrism--it is an electro-chemism. (Ed. 1st, 1810.) This composite process is known under the name of Galvanism.

875. Hereby the galvanism has been most rigorously and characteristically separated from the chemism, and the succession of stages been exactly indicated. By the accession of a single but higher nature-factor, namely, the air, chemism advances one and only one stage higher. We have consequently made no leap or abrupt transition in tracing out our genesis of nature. Magnetism is the uni-elementary, chemism the bin-elementary, galvanism the tri-elementary process of the planet, in so far as it is occupied with its own evolution, or that of the Solid.

876. Considered in relation to the result and also the internal nature of the process, galvanism is in no wise different from chemism, but only in reference to the continuance of the tension. The fluid and solid are in both the co-equal media or means; the decompositions, separations and combinations also, are alike in both. The air has no other office than to sustain the opposition, which in chemism proceeds through the difference of the two unipolar elements, acid and alkali.

877. The air maintains this animosity of the elements only by oxydation, and so far takes part in the contest like a fellow-combatant; yet this invariably happens only while the water is preserved by these means in its primary condition, that of the acid. The air breathes life only into the chemical body, without being body itself. No galvanism therefore continues, if it be denied the access of air. The chain or column enters it is true into tension also without air, but remains only for a short time in that state, or so long only as there is a trace of oxygen in the water.

878. Galvanism, as a tri-elementary process, represents the planet in its totality. The galvanic column is an entire planet, a planet upon the planet, the planet individualized.

879. The individual, taken in a strong sense, is an entire planet taken up into Singulars, a triplicity of the elements in the particular or special unity. In galvanism there consequently issues forth for the first time an individual, which is equivalent to a cosmic totality. Galvanism is the metatype of the planet. All other and profounder processes are not total in character, nor metatypes of a whole system, but only moieties thereof.

880. The planet, regarded in itself, in its three elements, apart from its relation to the sun, is a galvanic body, a column, just as inversely this is a planet.

881. The attributes, which consequently belong to the planet, abstractedly from the sun, must belong to every galvanic process, or to such a body. The planet is a Whole included in itself, and thus is galvanism. The latter acts only in a closed chain, or only by its own body or its materiality forming one circle that returns into itself. The three elements are mutually self-excited and moved, and that indeed from internal causes, though not apart from external conditions. Thus galvanism is like an individual planet.

B. Primary Organism.

882. An individual (total, self-included) body, excited and moved by itself, is called Organism. Organism is what individual planet is. The metatype of the planet is organism; or a planet upon the planet is organism. The planet is not itself an organism, because it is not individual or galvanic in every point.

883. The self-excitation of the individualized elements, is called life.

884. Galvanism is the principle of life. There is no other vital force than the galvanic polarity. The heterogeneity of the three terrestrial elements in a circumscribed individual body is the vital force. The galvanic process is one with the vital process.

885. Organism is galvanism residing in a thoroughly homogeneous mass. The galvanic column is no organism, because it only admits the galvanic process just as the planet does, in individual places. A body only, which is zinc-pole, silver-pole and moist pulp at every conceivable point, is an organism. A galvanic pile, pounded into atoms must become alive. In this manner nature brings forth organic bodies.

886. Electrism has a basis; it is the air. Magnetism has a basis; it is the metal. Chemism has a basis; it is the salt. So has galvanism a basis; it is the organic mass.

887. Accordingly, what would be organic, must be galvanic; what would be alive, must be galvanic. Life is not different from organism, nor also from galvanism. For life is verily the vital process. But the vital process is an organic, galvanic process. Galvanism lies at the basis of all the processes of the organic world. They are either modifications of it, or only its combinations with other and still higher actions. A living thing, which is not galvanic, is a nonentity.

888. With galvanism consequently the first step has been made out of the inorganic into the organic kingdom. Every aught of nature, which has hitherto originated, is inorganic. These, however, were mere individualities. The character of the Inorganic consists consequently in something being a Singular, a moiety, or a metatype of a Singular; the character of the Organic in its being the metatype of a whole or round number. Organic things are internal self-exciting numbers; the inorganic things are fractions.

889. Every fraction is dead. No moiety can attain to life, for it does not receive its complement. What is simply fluid, cannot be organic, because it is not the totality of the planet. What is simply solid, cannot be organic. It is only a third of the organism. Every organism is produced according to the laws of galvanism, according to the law of the triplicity.

890. As the terrestrial magnetism is indeed only one, but includes an infinity of magnets, which are rendered manifest in the progress of the earth's life; so also in the great galvanism of the earth an infinite number of subordinate galvanic triplicities reside inclosed, which become gradually detached, and, instead of the universal galvanism, represent an infinity of individual galvanisms. The universal galvanism cannot exist, without establishing itself as an infinity of individual galvanisms. As magnetism is only associated with the net of metallic veins, so is the absolute only, with the universality of its finite positions. The number of organisms is infinite, both in coexistence as also in consecutive existence.

891. An organism is an individual in the rigid sense of the word, because it is ruined, so soon as one of its three members parts from the rest. In this sense only are there properly speaking organic individuals.

892. If we do not confine indivisibility to what is mechanical, but extend it also to the chemical; individuals may be likewise granted to the mineral kingdom. The minerals are chemical individuals; for by separation they are likewise annihilated as such, and moreover the relation of mixture of chemical bodies is not one of an arbitrary kind. The gray ores are a definite mixture of sulphur and antimony, and are thereby individuals. The silver, lead, and copper, that are accidentally mixed in this compound, do not at all alter the individuality, and by no means prove a capacity residing in the matters for mixture in all conceivable numbers. Such a mixture would be a medley only. In plants and animals casual component parts occur also frequently. Thus the individuality of the ruby-silver appears to consist in the definite mixture of sulphur and arsenic, with the addition perhaps of antimony. The silver is only mingled with it, and therefore present in all numbers. The same holds good of the bi-sulphurets of iron, and the glance-ores. (Ed. 1st, 1810.)

Creation of the Organic.

893. It has been demonstrated from the genesis of the Organic, that its essence consists in the universality of the planetary processes. Every organic individual has essentially three processes in itself, which must be regarded as its fundamental processes, whereof no one can ever be wanting. Seeing, that if this be the case, the body is only a chemical or magnetic, a crystallized carcase.

894. The first three planetary processes, namely, the earth-process, water-process, and air-process, or the forming, chemicalizing, and electrifying or oxydizing processes, are also the first three vital processes.

895. It has been shown, that with every new process and with every new combination of processes, the materials also of the same were altered, ennobled, rendered more composite, and thereupon also more decomposible. Herein also nature advances consecutively and creates new materials for the organic world.

896. In the metamorphosis of the earths, when the chemism was added to the process of formation, not only the alkalinity and acidity issued forth in the calcareous earth and the salts, but the pure Earthy also became free from fixity, and manifested itself as carbon in the carbonic acid.

897. The last product of an antecedent stage is always the basis of that which is subsequent. The fundamental matter of the organic world is consequently the carbon.

a. ELEMENTARY BODY--PRIMARY MUCUS.

898. If in this carbon the three processes of the planet, namely, the formative or its special, the chemicalizing or fluidizing, and the electrifying or oxydizing, process, concentrate themselves, and are present with all their energy in every atom of the organic body; so must the mass of carbon be at the same time solid, fluid, and aerial, oxydizable in every spot, and thus also soft. Now a carbon mixed identically with water and air is Mucus.

899. Mucus is oxydized, hydrated carbon; or expressed in purely philosophical language, mucus is the universality of the minerals and elements, or the synthesis of earth, salt, Inflammable, and ore in water and air.

900. Every Organic has issued out of mucus, is naught but mucus under different forms. Every Organic is again soluble into mucus; by which naught else is meant, than that the formed mucus becomes one devoid of form.

901. The primary mucus, out of which every thing organic has been created, is the sea-mucus.

902. Mucus belongs originally and essentially to the sea, and has not been mixed with the latter through the dissolution in it of putrefying substances.

903. The sea-mucus has originated in the progress of planetary development, like the calcareous earth has with the carbon and like the sea-salt. As little as this could have entered the sea originally through solution of rock-salt; so little could the mucus through the perishing of animals and plants, for none of these were yet present, but could be first developed, only with the production of this mucus.

904. The sea-mucus was originally generated through the influence of light and by the denudation of the crude masses, especially of the earths and salts, which was thereby effected; while with the metals and Inflammables ranging opposite to these, the carbon thus became free, and betook itself as carbonic acid to the water and air. Thus also has salt been produced.

905. The sea-mucus, as well as the salt, is still produced by the light. Everything takes place through the differentialization, or by the absolution of fixed poles on the earth-element. Light shines upon the water, and it is salted. Light shines upon the salted sea, and it lives.

906. All life is from the sea, none from the continent.

907. All mucus is endowed with life.

908. The whole sea is alive. It is a fluctuating, ever self-elevating and ever self-depressing organism.

909. Where the sea-organism by self-elevation succeeds in attaining unto form, there issues forth from it a higher organism. Love arose out of the sea-foam.

910. The primary mucus was and is still generated in those very parts of the sea where the water is in contact with earth and air, and thus upon the shores.

911. The first creation of the Organic took place, where the first mountain summits projected out of the water; and thus indeed without doubt in India, if the Himalaya be the highest mountain.

912. The first organic forms, whether plants or animals, emerged from the shallow parts of the sea.

913. Man also is a child of the warm and shallow parts of the sea in the neighbourhood of the land.

914. It is possible, that Man has only originated on one spot, and that indeed the highest mountain in India. It is even possible, that only one favorable moment was granted, in which Men could arise. A definite mixture of water, definite blood-heat, and definite influence of light must concur to his production; and this has probably been the case only in a certain spot and at a certain time.

915. The first men were the littoral and mountainous inhabitants of warmer countries, and found therefore at once reptiles, fishes, fruit, and game for food.

CHANGE.

916. The number of individual organisms is not persistent. For they are verily only products of a ceaseless polarization or a constant evocation of poles in the great galvanism, positions of the general galvanism in time. Thus, as the poles change, so also do the organic individuals. The kingdom of organisms is an iron bar, in which the magnetic poles originate and vanish or change, according as the polarizing magnet is removed. Organisms change, because they are numbers, thoughts of God.

917. The process of change in organic individuals is that of their destruction.

918. But this destruction is as nothing for nature. There originate again in the same moment other organisms in other situations. The process that destroys the poles is only one that effects their change.

919. The world-organism only is eternal, and devoid of change, with the exception of that which is within its poles. It can itself change with no other, because it is only one.

920. No individual organism is eternal, because it is only a changing pole of the world-organism.

921. There is no constancy in the individualities. Change only is persistent.

922. The world only is persistent. Nothing in it is constant. Were individuals not to perish, but live for ever, the world must then die; for the life of the world, like every life, consists only in the change of poles. Individuals could in no way therefore continue alive, if the world were to remain alive, because this is only possible through change of the individuals, which are its organs; nor could they, were the world to die, because the totality of individuals is the world itself.

923. Death is no annihilation, but only a change. One individual emerges out of another. Death is only a transition to another life, not unto death.

924. This transition from one life to another takes place through the primary condition of the Organic, or the mucus.

925. If new individuals originate, they could not therefore originate directly from others; but they must be redissolved into mucus. Every generation is a new creation.

b. FORM--GLOBE.

926. The organism is a metatype of the planet and must also have the corresponding form. It is the Sphere. This results also from the combination of the three actions, which being in equiponderance could only produce the globe.

927. The sphere must commence with the idea of the point. For the idea of the sphere is the idea of the centre, which is a point. The point, however, is not different from the sphere. It is only the infinitely small or minute sphere.

928. The primary mucus is globular in form. The primary mucus does not swell into a single sphere, but it divides into infinitely numerous spheres. For were it only one sphere, it would be the planet itself. But it is an individual, or only one sphere in the great sphere. The idea of the great sphere consists however of an infinity of small spheres.

929. The primary mucus consists of an infinity of points. This admits of being proved by its mode of origin. It is formed on the limit between water and earth, consequently in a line. This line, however, becomes constantly dissevered by disquietude, and divides therefore necessarily into infinitely numerous points.

930. The primary Organic is a mucous point.

931. The organic world commences not merely with one point, but with infinitely numerous points. Where earth, water, and air are found in one spot, there also is an organic point.

932. The organic points originate upon the surface of the earth, not in it, and not in the air. For only between earth and air do all three elements enter into collision.

PRIMARY VESICLE.

933. Through the oxydation of the air an opposition of the component parts, or of the Fluid and Solid, issues forth in the organic point, and these mutually conditionate each other. The Fluid and Solid cannot, however, be otherwise conditioned, seeing that the former is the Contained, the latter the Containing. The Solid is only a precipitate from the Fluid wrought by the influence of the air. The air, however, is externally related to the mucus-point. The Solid can therefore originate nowhere else than between the Fluid and the air. It consequently surrounds in accordance with its genesis the Fluid. The physical cause thereof is naturally the oxydation of mucus upon its periphery. A globe, the middle of which is fluid, but the periphery solid, is called a bladder or cyst.

934. The first organic points are vesicles. The organic world has for its basis an infinity of vesicles. (Ed. 1st, 1813. §. 922.)

INFUSORIA.

935. The mucous primary vesicle may in a philosophical sense be aptly called infusorium, like as we designate the primary condition of the embryo, by the word vitellus. Now are we making use of definite expressions.

936. Everywhere, where the three elements cooperate, are infusoria present--thus upon the sea-shore, the tide-mark or strand, and shallow watery places.

937. The infusorium is a galvanic point, a galvanic vesicle, a galvanic column or chain.

938. In every infusorium there is triplicity of the poles, or properly speaking, of the processes. Each one maintains itself by the nutritive, digestive, and respiratory process, or what amounts to the same, the infusorial globule of mucus assumes a figure, its peculiar fluidity is formed in its interior, and it becomes oxydized. As is well known, no infusorium can live without moisture, and none if the access of air having been prevented, or the water boiled, it is freed from the air and the Earthy.

939. If the organic fundamental substance consist of infusoria, so must the whole organic world originate from infusoria. Plants and animals can only be metamorphoses of infusoria.

940. This being granted, so also must all organizations consist of infusoria, and during their destruction dissolve into the same. Every plant, every animal is converted by maceration into a mucous mass; this putrefies, and the moisture is stocked with infusoria.

941. Putrefaction is nothing else than a division of organisms into infusoria, a reduction of the higher to the primary, life.

942. Organisms are a synthesis of infusoria. Their generation is none other than an accumulation of infinitely numerous mucous points, infusoria. In these the organisms have not forsooth been at once wholly and perfectly depicted as on the smallest scale, nor contained in a state of preformation; but they are only infusorial vesicles, that by different combinations assume different forms, and grow up into higher organisms.

THEORY OF GENERATION.

943. The theory of generation is in this sense a synthetical and epigenetic, not an analytic.

944. The theory of preformation contradicts the laws of nature's development.

945. Generation is a successive formation, both in relation to the quantity as well as the quality, and the specific organs. It having been preposited, that an organism has several organic systems, so must these range according to their importance, and like the systems of nature, behind each other, and be also developed in this order. As the whole of nature has been a successive fixation of æther, so is the organic world a successive fixation of infusorial mucus-vesicles. The mucus is the æther, the chaos for the organic world. The semen of all animals consists also of infusoria; the same may be said of the vitellus. The pollen of flowers consists in like manner of microscopic vesicles with globules, which have a life of their own and move themselves in water. Many confervæ indeed divide evidently into a multitude of living, self-moving globules, which, after they have swam about for some time, again unite to form a stem of conferva.

946. Every generation consequently commences à priori or from the beginning. The organic substance must again be dissolved into the original chaos, if any thing new should reoriginate.

947. Out of an organic menstruum only can a new organism proceed, but not one organism out of the other. A finished or perfect organism cannot gradually transform itself into another.

948. The generative juices, or semen and vitellus, are none other than the total organism reduced to the primary menstruum.

949. Physically regarded also every individual originates only from the Absolute, but no one out of the other. The history of generation is a retrogression into the Absolute of the Organic, or the organic chaos--mucus, and a new evocation from the same.

950. This development from mucus is only applicable however to the generation of the perfect organisms, but not to the origin of the organic body, or the infusorial mass. The former originate only from an organic mass that has been already formed; but the infusorial mass, as constituting the organic primary bodies, cannot have originated in the same way. It does and must originate directly from the Inorganic. For whence can the organic matter have otherwise proceeded?

951. The infusorial mucus-mass originated, as has been already remarked, at the moment when the earth's metamorphosis was at an end; at the moment, when the planet succeeded in so bringing together and identifying all the elementary processes, that they were all together or at one and the same time in every point.

952. Hence the organic primary body originated also by synthesis, not by analysis, if regard be paid to its factors. But do we consider this substance as first emerging into view, when the coarse, abundant, isolated materials, such as earth, metals, Inflammables, and salts had separated themselves from it; that this organic primary body then remained behind as it were for the first time: it has then originated through analysis, or was preformed; but so preformed as are also the metals, and as is everything. It need scarcely be observed, that this last separation from out the Earthy is the carbon, the dissolution of the earths into atoms, and thus again into points or globules susceptible of form.

953. Everything is preformed in æther, like as every Mathematic is preformed in zero, every Active in God; yet for that very reason nothing individual is preformed therein; but it originates first through fixation of poles on the substance. This is the true meaning of the original generation of the Organic.

954. This origin of the organic primary bodies I designate Generatio originaria, Creation.

955. But infusorial vesicles can also originate by mere division of larger organic carcases, and these can again originate as well through the combination of these secondary as of the primitive vesicles, or as it were by coagulation only, such being the case indeed in the intestinal worms also. I nominate this generation, Generatio æquivoca.

956. All generation is Generatio æquivoca; whether imparted by sexes or not. For the generative juices of the sexual organs themselves are naught else than organic primary mass, and have originated by division.

957. There are only two kinds of generation in the world. The creation proper and the propagation that is sequent thereupon, or the Generatio originaria and secundaria.

958. No organism has been consequently created of larger size than an infusorial point. No organism is, nor has one ever been, created, which is not microscopic.

959. Whatever is larger, has not been created, but developed.

960. Man has not been created, but developed. So the Bible itself teaches us. God did not make man out of nothing; but took an elemental body then existing, an earth-clod or carbon; moulded it into form, thus making use of water; and breathed into it life, namely air, whereby galvanism, or the vital process arose.

961. The original origin of organization has been imparted by the co-operating influence of heat and light. By the heat, because without this no galvanic and no chemical process is possible; further, because heat is the totality of æther, the moved æther, the ætherial air, and thus the menstruum of all action. But the heat is not sufficient to animate the three terrestrial elements, because it imparts only the possibility of procedure and of action; while it does not differentialize, nor posit tension, but maintains everything in identity, fluidity. In the heat alone every thing must become fluid and finally decompose. Unto heat therefore the accession is yet necessary of the Cosmic-differencing, or the light. The light inspires the body prepared by heat with life, antagonism, polarity.

962. The æther imparts the substance, the heat the form, the light the life. (Oken first started this opinion in his work, 'Die Zeugung,' Frankfurt, Wesche, 1805.)

c. Processes of the Organic.

963. The life of the organic body is not a single but a threefold action, consisting of the actions of the three terrestrial elements, which become the three fundamental processes of the body, or of life, and in which three processes galvanism consists.

1. EARTH-PROCESS, NUTRITIVE PROCESS.

964. The magnetic earth-process is virtually the formative; and in organic bodies is called the nutrient process.

965. The process of nutrition is the principal process in the organic world. Its product or its basis is the fundamental mass of the body itself. As crystal and the process of crystallization are related to each other, so are the body and the process of nutrition.

966. The process of nutrition is the sustaining, and proper fundamental process of the organism.

967. It is present entire and indivisible in every part of the body. Whencesoever it is ablated or withdrawn, there is death.

968. It operates according to the laws of crystallization.

969. Its very forms are crystals modified by the organic mass or, what amounts to the same, by the other processes combined therewith. The organic body is an accumulation of an infinity of (organic) crystals (cells).

970. In the planetary process of formation, which is a process of crystallization, the organism is continually comprehended. It is the planetary body ever becoming; the latter is an organic body, which has ceased to become.

2. WATER-PROCESS, DIGESTIVE PROCESS.

971. Another action, that helps to constitute the organic body, is the chemism, which is not only the process of liquefaction, but the process also of the formation or creation of new organic matter. It is known to us under the name of Digestive process.

972. The digestive process elevates the Inorganic up to the organic mass, like the chemism has converted the Earthy into carbonate of lime and finally into muriatic natron. The digestive process is the process of the formation of mucus. Regarded philosophically the nutritive juice (or chyle) is naught else than mucus. This is also correct in a physiological point of view.

973. The digestive process is the second organic process, in so far as it has been fashioned after the type of the water; but the first, in so far as every Organic has originated out of water.

974. As forming only the mucus it is not directly distributed in every part of the body like the nutritive process, which is the body or planet itself. But it interposes, or is mediate, everywhere.

975. As the water of the planet is related to the continent or earth's nucleus, so are the digestive matters or the mucus of nutrition to the body. The Earthy, however, is the principal mass of the planet, upon which the others have been supported. So is the nutritive body the principal mass, upon which the digestive body has been supported.

976. No organism is conceivable without a digestive process.

3. AIR PROCESS, RESPIRATORY PROCESS.

977. The action of the air finally settles down also in mucus. It is that which sustains the constant heterogeneity of the organic factors, the electrical tension. The electrical tension has, however, oxydation for its result. The organic process of electricity is thus at the same time a process of oxydation. It is called Respiratory process.

978. Without respiratory process, no organism is conceivable. By its influence difference has been induced in the chyle, and by this difference only does the latter become decomposible or serviceable for the process of nutrition.

979. The respiratory process is also present not immediately in every part of the body, but only mediately. It is the atmosphere of the body.

980. The mutation, which the juices undergo through the process of respiration, is none other than an emergence from their state of indifference. Thereby each point of the juice becomes polar towards every other; all are mutually attracted, all repelled, whereby a decisive vortication originates.

981. As every globule of sap or mucus is indifferent, it has thus naturally an affinity for air. The air itself is comprehended, like the water and the earth, in the organism. And thus it may with full force be said; that the organism is elevated by respiration to the element air, by digestion to the element water, by nutrition to the element earth. So that respiratory process = air-process, digestive process = water-process, and nutritive process = earth-process.

982. The first three organic processes are consequently true synotypes of the planetary processes--are planet-forming processes in miniature in individuals. The fundamental organism has thus been shown to be in its apparent processes a synotype or likeness of the planet; in other words, a microscopic planet.

983. These three processes constitute the galvanic process. Making use of the expressions applied to the inorganic kingdom, we found the organism to be a combination of magnetism, chemism, and electrism; while in organic parlance it is a nutritive process, maintained by respiration and digestion. The processus nutritorius, digestivus, respiratorius, together constituting galvanism.

4. MOTION.

984. Motion is no peculiar or self-persistent process, but the necessary manifestation of galvanism. Motion has been established with the three organic fundamental processes.

985. Every motion depends upon the galvanic process. Taken in a strict sense, there is no process of motion, but motion only. For motion is verily but the phenomenon of galvanism. The process of motion is synonymous with the galvanic process.

986. The galvanic process is a process of motion effected in circles, in its own factors, in its planet, but not from without; it is consequently an actual vital process.

987. As the process of motion is the phenomenon common to all three organic fundamental processes, so is the whole organism characterized by it. The essence of the Organic depends consequently upon its automatic or self-motion.

988. Self-motion is the only, but essential and ultimate, distinction between the Organic and Inorganic. (Ed. 1st, 1810. § 904.) All other distinctions that have been advanced do not suffice; because they do not comprehend the totality of the organism, nor the three fundamental processes in one phenomenon, but only individual attributes.

989. A circumscribed, closed mass, which moves itself, is an organism. The perpetuum mobile is only the organism.

990. Every Inorganic moves not itself, but is only moved by external influences; because every Inorganic is only a part of a whole.

991. The organic motion is present and possible in every point of a body. A mass that is automatic, or thoroughly moved by itself, is an organism.

992. The Inorganic consists in motion having vanished from it, and in being simply mass. But the Organic consists exactly in this alone, namely, that the Massive has disappeared, or that the mass is in constant motion. The Organic becomes destroyed, so soon as motion disappears in it; the Inorganic is destroyed, so soon as motion enters it. Motion is therefore the soul, whereby the Organic is elevated above the Inorganic.

2. ORGANOGNOSY.

Division of the Organism.

PLANETARY AND COSMIC ORGANISM.

993. Hitherto we have regarded the organism merely in a general point of view; namely, as regards the substance, form, and processes, which must indiscriminately occur in every organism. We have seen that it is composed of at least three elements, the earth, water and air. There is still, however, one combination that is possible and therefore also actual, namely, with the æther or the fire.

994. The organic world has two stages in its development. Upon each stage, however, it is the totality or synotype of nature, yet is different in each.

995. The organism represents the whole solar system; but this divides into two stages. The lowest of these is the Planetary, or totality of the Earthy, Aqueous and Aerial; the higher is the Solar or Cosmic, namely, the totality of earth, water, air and fire. Thus there is a tri-elementary and a quadri-elementary totality. As the first is already an organism, so much the more too must be the second. Thus there must be one organism, which comprehends indeed all systems in itself, but with the preponderance of the Planetary; and one with the preponderance of the Solar.

996. In the planetary organism the æther-systems will be either wanting, or only indicated as mere projections; they are there only, in so far as the planet itself is not without light. In the solar organism, however, the planetary systems are subordinate to the æther processes; the former are only there, because the sun cannot be without planets. In the planetary organism the æther-system has only been taken up into the Terrestrial; but in the Solar the Terrestrial has been taken up into the æther.

997. In the planetary organism all the processes launch out into production or alterations of the matters; it is a chemical organism; in the solar organism there are processes, which neither change, nor produce matters, it may be therefore styled light organism.

998. The chemical organism is associated with the earth, the spiritual with the water and air; the former must therefore consist principally of carbon, the latter of the combination of oxygen with hydrogen, and thus of nitrogen.

999. The carbon-organism must moreover in accordance with its import be associated with the Inflammables and metals, and through these with the silicious earth.

1000. The nitrogen-organism on the contrary with the salts and calcareous earths; thus we have silicious organisms and calcareous organisms; Inflammable organisms and salt organisms. From this it is already clear, that the planetary or primary organism is not general, nor indefinite, but the plant; for no General or Indefinite has existence. The solar or quadri-elementary organism admits in like manner of being recognized as animal. This is the philosophical deduction. But there is also a physiological, which conducts to the same result.

1001. The mucus-vesicle can feasibly pass into two kinds of condition only. It either remains in the water, or is cast upon the shore, or in the mud. In the last case it continues to lie, and is only supplied with light, and oxydized by the air upon the upper side; in the first case, on the contrary, it rolls about constantly in the water, and is alternately illumed and oxydized upon all sides. The first vesicle thus obtains a single axis from above downwards, between light and darkness; the second on the contrary gains a multitude of axes from without inwards, where it is alone dark and deoxydized. The first is thus devoid of any middle point, and finds its centre of gravity only in the middle of the earth, while the latter acquires its centre of gravity in its Interior, and this renders the Interior polar towards all points of the circumference. The plant is only one axis, or from having no middle point, is properly only one radius, which has its centre in the centre of the earth; the animal is an infinity of axes or radii, which concur or converge in the creature itself; the plant is an inverted cone, the animal an infinity of cones or a globe.

1002. Thus the planetary organism originates, if the primary vesicle having been taken out of the water is given up to the earth, to immobility and to darkness. But the light-organism arises, if the primary vesicle continue in water, or in the Moveable and Diaphanous. Here then in their genesis an essential difference is declared between the two organic worlds. Planetary organism originates, if the vesicle develops itself apart from the water, in which case it is withdrawn on one side from the light; but the light-organism originates if it remains in water itself, where it can be supplied on all sides with light. The essence of both is expressed by the names darkness-organism and light-organism.

1003. The basis of both kingdoms is therefore exactly similar; the vesicle and the mucus lie at the foundation of both. It depends solely upon the surrounding element, whether out of one and the same mass this or that organism should arise, or rather upon the active influence of the light, this being conditioned only by the elements. Not a word can accordingly be spoken about preformation. In darkness-organism the water-vesicle has been placed between earth and air, and thus fettered to the earth; in light-organism, however, the vesicle has been placed in the water and so freed from the earth.

1004. The planetary organism has, in accordance with its situation and import, been bound to the earth. It must originate like the metal in the earth, in the darkness and, as it were, in a vein. But it is at the same time a light-product; it must rise from out of the earth into the air and towards the light. It is a mucus, living metallic vein, which elevates itself from out the earth into the air.

1005. This organism, which originates in the darkness of the earth, and grows therefrom into the air so as to meet the light, is plant.

1006. The solar-organism is, in accordance with its import, void of connexion with the earth; like a planet it revolves freely about the earth, and everywhere receives its image or likeness in the influence of all four elements.

1007. The organism, which, free from the earth, has originated in water, or properly speaking, in the transparency, is animal.

1008. The vegetable and animal are the only organic, kingdoms. In both, nature has exhausted herself, and has in the last kingdom, as in a mirror, been wholly reflected. They are together planet and sun, or thus solar system. But since the animal comprehends all elements in itself, so it contains also the plant, and is therefore for itself vegetable and animal kingdom, or the whole solar-system.

1009. The plant hath no free system of motion, because motion is wanting to it; bound to the elements, by these it is determined. The element of motion, the æther, lies apart from it. It has only motion, if and while the elements act upon, or solicit it, thereunto.

1010. It moves itself only by an external or foreign stimulus. If no foreign stimulus be present, it does not move itself. A root grows, moves itself towards one spot, not because it there seeks for moisture, but because it is affected by the moisture which is there found. Were the moisture not to act upon it, it would wither.

1011. The animal has independent motion. For it has indeed taken up the centre, the earth-and the light-system which is the principle of motion, into itself.

1012. Thus the animal moves itself independently of external stimuli. The animal can move itself from want of stimulus. It moves itself to seek for, and thus from want of, nourishment, which consequently does not act upon it; the plant cannot, however, move itself owing to want of food, but only die.

1013. This is the essential and only conclusive distinction between animal and plant. All others that have been advanced are not sufficient.

Processes of the Cosmic Organism.

ÆTHER PROCESSES.

1014. The primary or planetary organism cannot be the last product of nature's development: for it is only indeed the metatype of the three terrestrial elements, and consequently not of the totality of nature. The mucus-organism ascends to a higher stage, since it superadds to its three elements the primary element, or ascends itself to primary elements. It becomes an ætherial globe of mucus.

1015. Hitherto there were merely three processes in the organism; to these consequently the fourth is added, which is the æther-process. It may be called the fire-process.

1016. With the fire-process the development of the organic world has been carried to the highest pitch and therewith closed.

1017. The highest organism is a quadri-elementary individual, or a quadri-elementary mucus.

1018. The four elements are, however, the universe. The higher organism is consequently not merely a synotype of the planet, but of it and the sun, or of the whole universe. The higher organism is an universe in miniature; in the profoundest, truest sense of the word is it small world, microcosm.

1019. The planetary, terrestrial organisms are related to the solar or cosmic, as the planet is to solar-system.

1020. The cosmic organism has besides the systems of nutrition, digestion, and respiration, those of the æther in itself, and thus of the gravity, light and heat. These are immaterial, spiritual processes, which produce no more matters.

1. Process of Gravity.

1021. The organ of gravity is that of quiescence or rest, the organ constituting the basis of the organic body, or rather of the other æther-organs, the centralization.

1022. It imparts form to the higher organism.

1023. The quiescent, sustaining, form-imparting system is the rigid earth-system, and appears as the osseous system.

2. Process of Heat.

1024. As the heat is the motion of the æther, so is there a system of motion in the organism.

1025. The system, which has no other function to perform than to move, is the muscular system.

1026. The osseous system is related to the muscular system as mass to motion, as Passive to Active. The former maintains the form, the latter changes the same exactly like gravitation and heat.

3. Process of Light.

1027. The light-system must be related to all other spiritual systems and the three fundamental systems of the organism, or to the simply organic systems as light is to matter, being thus polarizing or dominant.

1028. Now the domination of light consists in the sustenance of polarity in all matter. The air itself is preserved in its duplicity only by light. All the points of the organism are polarized by the light-system. The light-system acts consequently through the whole body.

1029. The light-system is not capable of producing matter, like the terrestrial systems. This is self-evident.

1030. It does not polarize by effecting chemical changes. If nevertheless these are present, they are thus only results, occurring while the terrestrial processes are set in action by the process of light.

1031. Light polarizes the Material by mere fixation or discharging of poles, and thus in a spiritual manner. So also does the light-system of the organism. It governs the organism not by mechanical power, not by mass, but by a spiritual breath or aura.

1032. The organic light-system is the Animative of the organism. In it the spirit exercises its power over the mucous mass. It is the nervous system.

LIFE OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM.

1033. The light-polarity can bring about no other tension in the mass than that which is peculiar to it, and thus the galvanic tension, whose highest and purest phenomenon is motion. The light-system principally causes motion in the mass, like as in æther.

1034. The nervous system has, however, a life also in itself, or the internal light-polarity that is without any relation to the organic mass. This action of the nerves is called sensibility, and its phenomenon, feeling or sensation. The system of sensation is the nervous system as sun in itself; in the motor-system it is as sun in a centre of planets.

1035. The organism, like the elementary nature, is completed by four systems.

1. By the Nutrient, 2. " Digestive, 3. " Respiring, and 4. " Motive, unto which the nerves, muscles, and bones belong.

1036. It is impossible for more than these to be developed in an organism; impossible, for any thing else but what is in nature to originate therein; impossible, that any thing new be born by it. Everything in nature is only repetition of an Antecedent or something that has gone before. How could the organism be aught else, how aught else than the focus of the four elements!

SECOND KINGDOM.

VEGETABLE KINGDOM.

1037. The Vegetable Kingdom is the individual development of the three planetary elements.

I.--PHYTOGENY.

1038. Phytogeny represents the developmental history of individual plants, or, properly speaking, the idea of the plant.

1039. To the plant belong all the definitions that have been hitherto deduced. It is an organism fettered to the earth, is developed only apart from water, only in the dark, in the earth; is associated with the metal, with the carbon; is a magnetic needle that has been attracted out of the earth into the air towards the light. Seeds germinate better if they have been protected beforehand from the access of light; the radicle sinks, indeed, into the earth, because it obeys the gravity, the quiescence or rest; but it is therein maintained, because it is there humid and dark. This is a reason that has not yet been connoted, for the plant having been fettered to the earth. There are indeed plants which also take root in water, but the water is still darker than the air. The root has, in this respect, completely the character of the metal, that is a child of darkness.

1040. Consisting for the greatest part of carbon, plants are associated with the pit-coals, through these pass over into the carbon of the clay-slate rocks; finally, through the black-lead unto the iron. In like manner, through their hydrogenous import, they pass over into the inflammable asphalts, and through these unto sulphur. Metal and sulphur have, in the Geogeny, announced themselves as the precursors, or harbingers, of the vegetable world. In this respect, also, can the vegetable kingdom be regarded as the mineral kingdom, that, having continued to grow, has become alive. The ore, which becomes organic, becomes carbon or plant.

PARTS OF THE PLANT.

1041. The character of each development consists in the separation of the Indifferent or Chaotic into its ideas or actions, i. e. the development of every system is first completed, when it is divided into as many substantial systems as it numbers factors, or has processes in itself.

1042. Although the plant is only essentially a planetary-organism, it must yet be developed unto an æther- or light-organism; and it therefore divides into planetary- and solar-or light-organs.

1043. The planetary organs are those that have the earth-, water-, and air-process above them, and which are made known in the root, the stalk and foliage, which together constitute the vegetable stem.

1044. The light-organs begin to be stirring in the blossom, and are divulged as sexual organs. They are a repetition of the trunk.

1045. The vegetable body divides therefore into two great principal parts, which are synotypes of each other, into trunk and blossom or inflorescence. If we regard the vegetable trunk empirically; it is then divisible into three stages, whereof each consists of the organs of the three fundamental processes, which seek to separate from each other.

a. The first stage is that of the three tissues namely of the parenchyma, medulla or pith; of the cells, ducts, and tracheæ or spiral vessels.

b. The second stage is that of the shaft or main axis, where these three have separated concentrically into cortex or bark, liber, and wood, constituting the anatomical systems or sheaths.

c. The third stage is that of the caudex proper or the trunk, in which the three tissues have separated in the direction of the longitudinal axis into root, stalk or stem, and leaves, these making up the organs proper or members. The inflorescence divides into two stages, into flower and fruit.

d. The fourth stage or that of the flower repeats root, stalk and leaves, in seeds, pistil and in the corolla.

e. The fifth stage or that of the fruit is a further repetition of these three parts of the flower in the nut, plum and berry, unto which, as synthesis, comes the apple.

A. Vegetable-trunk.

1046. The vegetable-trunk is the development of the three fundamental processes up to their complete separation or substantial representation. It divides itself into the tissues or the pith (parenchyma), into the shaft and into the trunk.

1047. The plant is a galvanic water-vesicle, and as such earth, water and air. Upon this vesicle it is, however, the earth-element that chiefly acts. While the earth seeks to encroach upon the vesicle, the magnetic process becomes active therein, and it enters into opposition with the air. The vesicle becomes now determined by two elements, by the earth and by the air; it stands itself in the category of the water.

1048. The plant may be characterized as organic water which is polarized upon two sides, towards the earth and the air. The vegetable vesicle must therefore maintain two poles. While it would represent in itself the magnetic pole, it endeavours to identify itself, to obey gravity and merge into the darkness towards the mediate point of the earth; but that it may remain a galvanic pole, it becomes excited by the air, strives to become a Different and to attain the light.

1049. The vegetable vesicle receives two opposed extremities, an identical earth-and a dyadic air-extremity; and thus the plant must be regarded as the organism, which manifests a constant endeavour, upon the one side to become earth, on the other air, upon the one side identical metal, on the other duplex air.

1050. The plant is a radius, that towards the centre becomes identical, towards the periphery divides or starts asunder. The plant is not therefore an entire circle or globe, but only a section of such, a cone, whose apex has been turned towards the centre of the earth, or would become earth-centre. It can therefore have no middle-point. It will on the contrary demonstrate that the animal is the totality of radii, is consequently diameter, and has therefore a centre of its own, or is entire globe. As the whole earth is surrounded by plants, and all their roots turn towards the centre; the whole vegetable kingdom only forms a sphere, composed of infinitely numerous cones. On the contrary every individual animal forms a sphere for itself alone, and is therefore worth as much as all plants taken together. Animals are entire heavenly bodies, satellites or moons, which circulate independently about the earth; all plants, on the contrary, taken together are only equivalent to one heavenly body. An animal is an infinity of plants.

1051. In so far as an organism strives unto identity or to gravity, it seeks to produce the Metallic, the carbon, the Alkaline. The indifferent and alkaline character appears in the earth-extremity of the plant. Mucus and acid bodies are evidenced for the most part in the root. In so far as the organism strives unto duplicity, it will produce the salt, the acid and the Inflammable. Acids and electric bodies are manifested in the air-extremity of the plant.

1052. The two vegetable extremities are accordingly related to each other as alkali and acid, and as carbon and hydrogen. In the air the water is divided into oxygen and hydrogen, acids and oils; in the earth it hardens into earths and carbon.

1053. The earth-end or the alkaline extremity of the plant is the root; the air-end, or the acid and oily, is the entire stem-fabric, or body. The plant has first of all two cardinal organs, viz. root and stem-fabric. Both together represent the water divided into earth- and air-mucus. The root is the central extremity of the plant, and is therefore prolonged or runs out into magnetic points; the stem-fabric is the peripheric and therefore expands into branches and electric surfaces.

1054. But besides the air, the light also operates upon the plant and stimulates it to grow aloft and produce a light-organ. This light-organ can thus originate only upon the apex or summit. It is the flower. The flower can therefore stand nowhere else than on the summit or end of the plant. The light however acts upon many points of the upper surface of the vegetable trunk and elongates the same. One plant can therefore support numerous flowers, but all of these must stand upon an extremity. Wherever therefore a flower may happen to stand, that spot must be regarded as a summit or end. There is thus also, according to the physiological view of the matter, a light-organ in the plant, which is its animal pre-affection. The chief antagonism in the plant is in this respect therefore between trunk and inflorescence the former is related to the latter as plant to animal. Were the plant to attain unto animal functions; they could thus only take place in the flower.

I. Tissues.

1055. The tissues are the unseparated organs of the three fundamental processes, the earth-, water-, and air-process.

1. WATER-ORGAN, CELLULAR TISSUE.

1056. If a mucus-vesicle lie upon the ground, it thus continues indifferent upon the lower or dark side, and is only affected by the gravity and the water; the upper side, on the contrary, by the differencing air and light. It is consequently prolonged into the earth and into the air. It must pass over from the round into a linear form. The elongation is not a mere protraction of the vesicle, but an apposition of new vesicles. For it happens through polarization, and thus by infinite repetition of the primary vesicle. The plant is thus a body of infinitely numerous vesicles.

1057. In so far as the plant is a multiplication of the primary vesicle, it consists of Cellular tissue. The anatomy of plants informs us, that there is nothing originally in the plant but cellular tissue, and that other forms first emerge or make their appearance in the sequel.

1058. The cellular tissue indicates the Indifferent in the plant, for it is only an accumulation of the indifferent primary vesicles. In so far as the plant consists thereof, is it indifference--water-plant.

1059. The cellular tissue is only oxydized, desiccated mucus. Chemistry has proved, that the wood is only oxydized mucus.

1060. The cellular tissue being the water organized and saturated with earth, or the organized mucus, has consequently the chemical function in itself of solution, homogeneous production, or formation of mucus. As therefore the plant originates, so does it enlarge. It originates as vesicle, and its growth is a constant origination of vesicles; from the Indifferent, which is the water. The sap contained in the cells consists of water and starch-granules, which constantly circulate therein in a circle.

1061. The fundamental form of the cells is the rhomboidal-dodecahedron (Kieser's Phytotomie); for around a globe only 6 others of equal size can be placed, whereby its 6 lateral surfaces are pressed in, which during the induration impart to it the form of a six-sided column. Above and below these 7 globes only 3 others admit of being placed, whereby 3 point-converging surfaces originate, which thus complete the middle globe as rhomboidal-dodecahedron.

2. EARTH-ORGAN, VASCULAR TISSUE.

1062. So long as the vesicles or cells lie as globes upon each other, triangular interspaces are found between them, which stand in conjunction with each other on all sides. As water is found in these interspaces, it is plain that they do not entirely disappear with the transformation of the cells into rhomboidal-dodecahedra. These spaces are called intercellular passages or sap-tubes, Vessels. In many plants, such as those which contain a milky juice, particular sap-tubes run through a part of these intercellular passages, and are probably formed by condensation of the sap. Both are therefore in a physiological respect of one kind. At bottom also the blood-vessels of animals are naught else but passages in felted cellular tissue.

1063. As the principal polarity of plants has been directed upwards, and the cells therefore been protracted lengthwise; so also the chief direction of the vessels is parallel with the axis of the plant.

1064. The vegetable sap ascends in these tubes, which must be therefore viewed indeed as constituting the earth-or nutritive organ.

3. AIR-ORGAN, TRACHEAL TISSUE.

1065. The plant is not merely earth-and water-organism, but also air-organism; and there must therefore be developed in it an anatomical system, which coincides with the process of air.

1066. Besides the cells and tubes naught else is found in vegetable tissue but spiral vessels; what are called scalariform tubes, annular vessels, dotted ducts, vermiform or strangulated vessels, are no peculiar formations in themselves, but only different conditions of the spiral vessels.

1067. The spiral vessels are the air-system of the plant, and therefore rightly deserve the name of Tracheæ. They exhibit the structure of the air-tubes in insects, and contain, according to the most authentic observations, air, and not sap, except in the period of adolescence, as occurs in the animal kingdom.

1068. The spiral vessels consist of one or several filaments spirally contorted, and held together by a delicate tubular-shaped membrane.

1069. They must be regarded as elongated cells, upon whose parietes the starch-granules have been placed in serial juxtaposition with each other, so as to form spirally-twisted filaments, as is to be plainly seen in many cells and also in Confervæ. This spiral condition originates without doubt from the spiral-shaped motion of the granules in cell-sap.

1070. The ultimate cause of this spiral motion, as well as the position of the parts, appears to reside in the rotation of the sun.

1071. Upon this also depends probably the winding of the stem of plants, with the spiral-shaped position of the leaves and branches, as probably even the contortions of the snail's shell and of the hairs upon the crown of the head.

1072. The production of the spiral form originates from the antagonism of the light with the matter. The number of spiral vessels is therefore less in those parts that are beneath, than in those above, the earth, or less in the root than the stem. The more indeed an organ has been exposed to the air, by so much the more do the spiral vessels preponderate, as e. g. in the leaves.

1073. An organ must necessarily be nobler in character, the more spiral vessels it contains. The plant also that, with more spiral vessels, exhibits them particularly arranged, must take a higher rank. The lowest plants, as the mushrooms, lichens and mosses, consist therefore entirely of cellular tissue; in the ferns therefore only a single bundle of spiral vessels makes its appearance. When plants become nobler, several fasciculi of spiral vessels originate; and in tracing this feature we ascend from the ferns to the grasses and lilies, up to the lower Dicotyledons. In the higher Dicotyledons the packets of the tracheæ increase for the first time to such a degree, that they form a closed circle, the fibrous ring or zone of wood.

1074. The tracheæ extend from one end of the plant to the other; many are wont to terminate only in nodes, while these are to be regarded as arrested branches. The air can therefore penetrate through the spiral vessels from the leaves even to the apices of the roots.

II. Anatomical Systems--Sheaths.

1075. These originate by vagination and separation of the tissues in the transverse direction, and prevail throughout the whole plant. The idea of the whole vegetable structure is extremely simple. Originally the plant is a vesicle in water, or cellular tissue in the seed; root and stalk also consist in their main bulk or proportion of cellular tissue, which is called parenchyma. Therein the three planetary processes reside inclosed. Such a plant is still in the recognizable state of the primary organism. In the sequel, however, through the influence of light, the polarity between light and darkness issues forth in the parenchyma, the cellular tissue obtains a linear direction, and becomes elongated into spiral vessels. The spiral vessels form one or several fasciculi, which emerge out of the parenchyma, by which they, and each packet individually, are circularly surrounded. The cellular tissue is as it were the soil, in which the fasciculi of spiral vessels are rooted as proprietary plants and out of which they grow.

1076. The effort of the three vegetable processes, to separate their organs from, and perfect them independently of, each other, is in incessant operation, both from without inwards, as well as from above downwards, because in both cases is light there, darkness here, dryness there, humidity here. The cellular tissue, that has finally become independent in the transverse direction or from without inwards, is called bark, the self-substantial tubular tissue is called liber, the non-dependent tracheal tissue, wood.

1. TRACHEAL-SYSTEM, WOOD.

1077. With increased influence of light the tracheal fasciculi also increase, and form a circle of columns in the parenchyma around the centre of the plant. Between the column, externally and internally to the same, is the parenchyma. The more, however, the columns accumulate, by so much the more does it diminish, and whereas the columns previously stood singly in the parenchyma, the appearance is now as if narrow plates only of parenchyma traversed between the columns from without inwards. Finally the columns predominate to such an extent and approximate so closely, that the plates almost disappear. They are now called insertions of cellular tissue, or medullary rays. As the tracheæ convey air, and have thus been more exposed to the process of oxydation, they generally harden sooner than in other parts.

1078. Around the fasciculi of spiral vessels the cellular tissue also strives to elongate, and begins at the same time to harden. Such extended cells, in which the light has almost disappeared, are called fibres. Indurated tracheæ and fibres are called Wood. The wood is always in the vicinity of the spiral vessels. It is a production synchronous with the latter.

1079. Only, where spiral vessels are, can genuine wood originate; but it is not everywhere, where they are found, that woody fibres must be also present, although the cells extend around all bundles of spiral vessels. If the degree of oxydation of the cells be slight, they do not harden, but continue herbaceous in texture. The parenchyma has now been separated by a circle of fibrous columns into an external and internal, or peripheric and central. The central parenchyma becomes void of sap and spongy, because the plant imbibing its nutriment on the surface, and the air and the light operating thereupon, the processes conduct it thither. This withered parenchyma is called pith, which in accordance with its origin merits no physiological consideration, nor is worthy and susceptible of any philosophical construction.

2. TUBULAR SYSTEM, LIBER.

1080. As the plant draws in its nourishment from without, so is the main proportion of the sap necessarily present in the periphery of the spiral vessels. The elongated cells in the neighbourhood of the spiral vessels, and which principally contain sap, are called Liber.

1081. Liber is necessarily present around every packet of spiral vessels, and thus with fasciculi everywhere dispersed throughout the stem. The liber is only situated beneath the bark, when the number of the spiro-vascular fasciculi is so great, that they form a closed circle in the parenchyma; it is only beneath the bark, in so far as it accompanies the spiral vessels, but can only surround the latter from without. As it is only the woody plants that have been usually examined, the false idea has thus originated of the liber having, as it were from its very essence, to be beneath the bark.

1082. In the liber is the main seat of vegetable activity. For it is soft cellular tissue with open intercellular passages, wherein the sap can move.

1083. Now as every fascicle of spiral fibres is surrounded by liber, such a fascicle must be regarded as a whole plant. A plant consists accordingly of as many plants, as it has or can have tracheal fasciculi. Every plant is a trunk of infinitely numerous plants; for every one can contain infinitely numerous tracheal fascicles. One plant is a whole vegetable world. (Ed. 1st, 1810. § 1065.)

3. CELLULAR-SYSTEM, BARK.

1084. No spiral vessels lie upon the surface of the plant, for where they originate, there the liber forms around them, and this is consequently the External. The surface of plants is therefore necessarily environed by liber, notwithstanding the greater influence of the light. The cellular tissue upon the surface of plants is, however, less rich in sap than the liber around the tracheal fasciculi, because it is too rapidly evaporated and dried up by the immediate contact of the air, light and heat. The surface of the plant is too strongly oxydized by the air, and therefore the cells harden. The sap also decomposes too rapidly and becomes rigid, so that an irregular formation only can proceed from it. The external, more inactive, or irregularly wood-converted layer of cells, is the Bark.

1085. The plant has thus likewise three anatomical systems, which are nothing new, but only the repetition or rather vagination of the three tissues; alburnum and cambium are only transitional, not special formations.

III. Organs of the Vegetable Trunk.--Members.

1086. Organs are separated parts of the body, and combinations of single tissues and systems, and are consequently a Whole in Singulars. There are, however, no uniform combinations; but one or the other system asserts its preponderance and imparts the character.

1087. In conformity with the developmental progress of the whole of nature, namely, that of always separating further its chaotically mingled parts, individualizing and yet forming them with the others into a whole, vegetation cannot continue stationary with the partition into bark, liber and wood, seeing that they are always circumscribed and form a body in common; but they must also sever this body itself into as many members as it has constituent parts. This severance makes its appearance in the longitudinal axis, because in this direction the antagonisms of air and light with water and earth are more powerful.

1088. Through the separation of the vegetable trunk three members only can originate; one with the preponderance of cells or of bark, one with that of vessels or of liber, and one with that of the tracheæ or of wood. The cellular tissue has been posited as vegetable trunk in the root, the vascular tissue as a special member is stalk, the tracheal tissue leaf. In this manner the trunk of the plant divides into three great divisions; more are not possible.

1089. Now the root is the perfected water-organ, because it is always fixed in water; the leaf is the perfected air-organ, because it moves in the air; the stalk is the perfected earth-organ, because it removes the mass out of water and air. Root is a heap of cells; leaf a plane of tracheæ; stalk a bundle of vessels.

1. WATER-ORGAN--ROOT.

1090. By the two polar systems, the earth-and air-system, the cellular and tracheal system, is the development of the plant confirmed. Thereby is it in the next place a twofold organism. By the first system it has been turned towards the planet and immersed in earth and water, by the second it has been turned towards the sun and immersed in the air. The root and the fabric of the stem, or root and stem simply, have now obtained their truest significance. Each is the whole plant, each the whole organism; in the root this is only in its original purity, but in the stem it is upon a higher stage. Root is stem in water and earth; stem is root in air and light.

1091. The root has accordingly more cellular tissue, fewer tracheæ; in the stem this condition is reversed. The root resembles young plants, or such as still rank upon a lower stage, and have but few columns of tracheæ. The root has therefore no marrow or pith. It may be said that it should have no pith, because it is usually thinner than the stem and richer in sap; but it has only the latter character, from consisting for the most part merely of cellular tissue. Root is the vegetable trunk with preponderating cellular tissue. In consequence of the antagonism between root and stem, wherein even their difference consists, the one strives to produce the Chemical, the watery earth or the mucus, but the other the Electrical, the combustible air-bodies.

1092. The root, as producing mucus or infusoria, has therefore in itself the organic process of putrefaction, in so far as the origin of mucus and infusoria is a result of the putridity. It corresponds to imbibition and digestion. To this is referrible the mouldy, and as it were fetid, condition of the root. Through the process of decomposition, which it evokes in its neighbourhood, it kills its nutriment, takes possession of it, and thus originates completely, as does every first organism, out of putrefaction, out of infusoria. To the essence of the root belong therefore not merely food, but the favouring relations of decomposition, as earth and water, whereby the access of the air, as necessary to every galvanism, has not been suppressed.

1093. The earth is not merely a mechanical station for the plant, in order to give it the perpendicular direction, but it is necessary for polar excitation, whereby the decomposition is imparted. A plant placed upright in pure water, although with the roots, necessarily perishes. Darkness is at the same time the lurking-place of putrefaction, as being that which only plays its part in localities where the polarizing and dissevering influence of light is wanting.

1094. The root always passes perpendicular into the earth, on account of its greater weight due to repletion with water. In all zones therefore the root stands perpendicular to the horizon, and thus the whole plant, although this is somewhat inclined towards the sun.

1095. The developmental stages of the root pass probably parallel to the parts of the vegetable stem.

a. In respect to the tissue, there are thus cellular roots, as is probably the case in the fungi, and with the fibrils of all roots; tubular or vascular roots as in the mosses, tracheal roots in the rest.

b. In respect to the systems the bulbs are the cortical or bark-roots; the tubers the liber-roots; the fibres the woody-roots.

c. In respect to the members of the trunk, the turnip is perhaps the genuine root, the tap-root the stalk-root, the so-called aerial roots, the leaf-roots.

2. EARTH-ORGAN.--STALK.

1096. The stalk is the idea of the whole plant, posited under the import of the organ of nutrition, of the vessels. The structure of the stalk is therefore accordant with that of the root. The anatomical systems are alike in both, bark, liber and tracheæ being in the same envelope.

1097. In the stalk, however, the opposition of tissues and systems emerges more strongly, and therefore they all become individualized also to a higher degree. The spiral vessels become more freed from the cellular tissue; the bark is more distinctly divided from the liber; this again from the wood, and in its centre the cellular tissue dries up into pith. As, however, the stalk is the first product of the light-influence, the tracheal system cannot attain as yet entire freedom. The cells have nevertheless been extended, and the intercellular passages are formed into regular tubes. The Stalk is the trunk of the plant with a preponderating system of tubes.

1098. This separation of the tissues and systems, with the endeavour upon the part of each to become individually perfect and isolated from the other, is effected by the air and the light. As root imbibes the mucous or slimy water, and sustains the chemical process in the plant, so does the stalk set the water in motion, since it exposes it to the air and light, whereby the chemical earth-process becomes separated into different saps and elemental bodies.

1099. Through the influence of the air, light and heat upon the stalk, as well as by its antagonism with the root, its elongation is determined. The greater amount of energy of the aerial polarity is in the higher regions; it is thus more excited by these than by the lower, and the bud being lighter grows more rapidly in the upper parts, and obtains an elongated form. The excitation is stronger also upon the side exposed to the light. It grows also more strongly in that direction, and thus the stalk stands indeed upwards, but somewhat inclined from the perpendicular line towards the sun.

1100. The perpendicular direction of the stalk is, however, as mechanically determined by gravity as the root. Paradoxical as this assertion may appear, it is still correct; for if we think of a moist globe, which is superiorly affected by air, light and heat, the upper aqueous or mucous parts are thus lighter, and necessarily ascend upwards through the pressure of the heavy or unheated parts, just as the air-bubbles in beer ascend to the surface. The light it is true can draw them somewhat sideways, chiefly because this side is more heated, more decomposed, and also undergoes a greater amount of evaporation; but the proper cause invariably resides in the ascent of the light parts between the heavy or immoveable. The stalk therefore grows upwards also in the darkness, and then indeed quite perpendicularly, because it has not been diverted by light. Were the light merely the Dirigent, it could not be comprehended, why towards the poles trees still stand tolerably perpendicular, and do not lie completely upon the earth. Were, however, the air that which determines the direction, plants could not thus have been inclined towards the sun, nor could we comprehend why the flowers and also the leaves obey the sun's course. Finally, were neither air nor light the imparters of direction, then the plant could shoot in no other direction than quite perpendicularly upwards, as is done too for the most part by the fungi.

1101. The winding of the stalk appears to originate from the rotation of the sun. The next cause is probably the greater heating and decomposition that occurs upon one side. In accordance with this assumption the plants upon the northern hemisphere of the earth must wind spirally upwards from left to right, or from morning towards evening, if our gaze be directed towards the meridian, but inversely upon the southern hemisphere. But this is not the case. May we therefore conjecture that plants, twisted contrary to rule, have been transported from their native soil?

1102. The kinds of stalk follow also, without doubt, the direction of developmental stages of the vegetable trunk. There are therefore cellular stalks in the fungi, vascular stalks in the mosses, tracheal stalks in the ferns. A bark-stalk is the culm, a liber-stalk the scape, a wood-stalk probably the trunk of a palm. A root-stalk is the rhizoma, a perfect-stalk the stem, a leaf-stalk being probably the shrub.

Ramification.

1103. The differencing, severing character of air and light must never be lost from our thoughts, nor also that at a height this character manifests itself more powerfully than on the surface of the earth, where the stem abandons its androgynous position in relation to the root. Through the constant process of differencing the tracheal fascicles of the plant may finally become so independent that they no longer stand in need of the others, and do not merely represent a particular plant, but are perfected also as such.

1104. This dispersion of the tracheal fasciculi will not easily take place upon the earth's surface, on account of its lesser degree of aerial polarity, but at a certain height. If several stalks emerge from the root, the bush or shrub originates, but if only one, the tree. If the subdivision first commence at a certain distance from the earth, then do Branches originate.

1105. The formation of branches demonstrates in part a great store of tracheal fasciculi, and part by an easy differential capacity in the plant. Both come to the same thing.

1106. Plants devoid of branches are similar or analogous to roots.

1107. The branches again ramify from the same cause by which the stem ramifies. A branch or twig must be regarded as an entire fascicle of tracheæ, which forms superiorly a closed vesicle or bud, that raises the bark, bursts it open into scales and then opens itself. The opening of the external tracheal tubes or vesicle becomes a leaf; a twig can therefore occupy no other position than in the sheath or angle of a leaf. Every succeeding leaf upon the twig is in the same manner a ruptured vesicle of tracheæ. As many leaves therefore originate as there are tracheal zones present.

1108. Every branch is an entire plant. All the tissues and systems are found in it. Tracheæ free themselves from the stalk, pass towards the circumference, break through the bark and carry with them the liber, whose external layer again becomes bark. The branch is only an elongated bud. The stalk is the soil or the root of the branches. Branches, that have been cut off and stuck in the earth, grow. There is nothing contradictory, in the tracheal fascicles of the branch growing downwards into the stalk. A branched tree is a complete wood.

1109. From the same cause, or by the influence of water on different situations in the earth, the root has branches. But as this influence is weaker than that of air and light, so the number, density, and length of the roots is less.

1110. The polarization of the tracheal fascicles into branches takes place all around the stalk in one situation. The influence is equal upon all sides. The idea of the formation of branches is the star. All branches have a radiate position around the stalk--all form a verticillum or whorl.

1111. Every other position of branches is only an alteration of the verticillate arrangement.

1112. In most plants the arrangement of the branches admits of being reduced to the spiral line. This position is only the verticil drawn out.

1113. This drawing out takes place through the continued growth of the stalk, in which the bundles of tracheæ, doubtless by the varied operation of light, develop themselves in order, become individualized, and issue from the stalk as branches.

1114. The crucial position of the branches depends upon the same growth of the stalk, but one in which transverse polarities are present. The irregular or dispersed position is most probably the last completion of the spiriform.

1115. The spiriform arrangement stands in relation with the formation of the tracheæ.

1116. The branches of the root observe no such regularity, partly on account of weaker polarity, partly on account of the obstacles placed in their way, at one time by the impenetrable earth, at another by want of water.

1117. The more the stem is differenced, so much the higher is it developed. Thus the richer in number the branches, by so much the more perfect is the stem. The stelliform branches belong to the first development. The plants, that have this arrangement, stand lower in the scale. To this the crucial appears to succeed, as a mediate position between the former and that which follows. The spiriform ranks higher. In it the stem is manifestly differenced more multilaterally. The dispersed arrangement appears to be the highest, because in it the greatest freedom prevails, because the poles have acted on every part of the plant, because they are everywhere in the air and in light. Plants with dispersed branches are organized air; without branches they are organized water as well as earth. Those plants only which have circles of tracheæ or rings of wood, as e. g. the Dicotyledons, ramify; these alone are, properly speaking, a conjunction by growth of many plants, and one that is truly persistent, or that bears fruit several times. The Monocotyledons being devoid of woody rings, do not, or but very rarely, ramify. Most of them therefore die off after they have once produced fruit. The ramification is a multiplication of the plant, in which the buds continue to stand upon the old stem.

Formation of Nodes.

1118. The formation of nodes, as in the grasses, is an attempt at differentialization, that has not, however, attained to perfection. A node is a branch-whorl which has continued to adhere to the stalk. Therefore the tracheæ also terminate in the circumference of the node.

1119. The formation of nodes consequently ranks directly under the stelliform formation of branches. Taken in a strict sense the formation of nodes occurs only in plants with sheathing leaves or in Monocotyledons.

3. AIR-ORGAN, FOLIAGE.

1120. If in the progressive separation of the tissues the tracheæ finally obtain the preponderance, so that they issue forth free from the envelope of cellular tissue, the leaves, or Foliage, then originate.

1121. The ribs of the leaf are the fascicles of tracheæ that have become free, and are still only connected together laterally by a thin layer of cellular tissue.

1122. The leaves can be regarded as gigantic and unrolled spiral vessels, and these again as microscopic and involuted leaves.

1123. As through the root the water-process enters the plant, and through the stalk the earth-process, so does the air-process through the leaves.

1124. It is probably the stomata through which the air is conducted into the tracheæ; the connexion, however, has not yet been proved.

Gemmæ or Buds.

1125. With the formation of branches there is at the same time a diminution of the cellular tissue, and an increase of the tracheæ. Entirely new spiral vessels commence in the branches, and are not continued or prolonged into the stalk. The further indeed the extent of the ramification, by so much less is the quantity of cellular tissue, and by so much greater the number of the tracheæ. It comes at last to this, that the tracheal fascicles, which were from all sides surrounded by dense cellular tissue, are only then loosely connected by a thin layer of such substance. This ramuscule is still therefore only a hollow stalk, consisting of fascicles of tracheæ disposed in circles, and so united by a thin cellular integument or membrane, that the whole forms a vesicle.

1126. This vesicle is a Bud. A bud is at bottom none other than the end of a twig that has become hollow.

1127. Several buds are usually involved in each other, i. e. many vesicles of tracheal rings have been encased in each other. They issue gradually forth and become shoots or buds. Buds are bulbs at the end of the branches.

Leaves.

1128. If the bud or the external vesicle ruptures, while the cellular substance becomes consumed at the apex or between two or more tracheal fascicles, it is then manifested as a leaf or Leaves.

1129. Then the second vesicle grows forth, becomes petiolated, ruptures and becomes leaf or leaves. In this manner a twig is formed, surrounded in a spiral manner by leaves.

1130. The younger leaves have been originally inclosed in the older, as in their sheaths.

1131. Every perfect leaf, i. e. every leaf-vesicle, must be regarded as the terminal extremity of an entire twig, from or out of the angle of which a new twig grows forth, that again as a bud ruptures, and from which again a twig grows forth.

1132. All leaves therefore range directly opposite to each other. A branch with many leaves is a system of branches, which grow out of each other, like the articular pieces of the grass-culm or straw.

1133. A leaf is a whole plant with all its tissues and systems; with cells, ducts, tracheæ; bark, liber, wood, stalk and branches. The leaf is a tree of special form, a tree, whose branches or tracheal fascicles all lie in one plane and are held together by parenchyma. It is the bodily expression of the position of the tracheal circle in the stem, only ruptured and to the greatest degree attenuated.

1134. In the division of the ribs of the leaf the internal arrangement of the woody fasciculi in the stem has been placed before our eyes, as by the scalpel of an anatomist.

1135. From the arrangement of the ribs of the leaf the structure of the whole plant can be recognized and its character determined. The leaf is the table of contents or index of the stem.

1136. Plants, which have no tracheæ, have also no leaf-ribs--Mosses.

1137. Plants, which have only isolated or non-ramifying fascicles of tracheæ, have parallel leaf-ribs that do not ramify--Monocotyledons.

1138. Plants, which have a circle of tracheæ, or rings of wood, have leaves with ramified ribs--reticular leaves or true foliage--Dicotyledons.

1139. The stronger indeed the ramification of the leaf-ribs, by so much the higher is the perfection of the leaf. The lowest leaf is that devoid of ribs, the higher that with parallel ribs, the highest being the reticular-veined leaf.

1140. The number and forms of the leaves that proceed from a bud, depend partly upon the number of tracheal fascicles, which pass out of the ramule into the leaf, partly upon the form of the leaf-bud.

1141. If the bud be simply ruptured at its apex or only between two fascicles of tracheæ, there then originates the spathiform leaf.

1142. If the cellular substance between several tracheal fascicles be consumed by the severing action of light and by the air, then the bud divides into several leaves.

1143. The fundamental form of the leaf is the oviform, because the bud is to be thought of as being round. Through the elongation or compression of the bud, lanciform, cordiform leaves, &c. originate. Besides it appears, that the leaf-buds, at least those of the reticular-veined leaves, burst in a circinate manner, like the ferns, and unroll themselves. Therefore the leaves are unilateral and clasp the stem inferiorly; or the petiole displays its spathiform origin. In this case the leaf is not a part of a hollow globe, but the entire globe, that has ruptured in the transverse direction at the extremity of the petiole. Such is the case at least in the demispathiform leaves of the Umbelliferous plants.

1144. The primary position of the leaves like that of the branches is thus verticillate, yet always, however, under the idea of one being encased within the other. The leaves are here only the ultimate branches.

1145. If the leaves upon the ramules issue from each other, then this happens in the same manner as with the branches.

1146. The verticillate position of the leaves is therefore the lowest, next succeeds the crucial, then the spiriform, and lastly the scattered.

1147. The spathose leaves are only to be regarded as a single bud, and therefore differ from the whorl, in so far as we regard this as the development of several leaves, that have not, however, been extruded from each other.

1148. Divided leaves originate through a higher operation of light. In them the formation of ribs preponderates, and therefore they rank higher than the undivided.

1149. From this cause the pinnate leaves are the highest.

1150. From the same cause the radical must be worse developed than the ramular leaves. They are usually non-pinnated, undivided, because they have more cellular substance in their composition than the upper leaves. In the leaf-system, consequently, the whole idea of the plant has been recontained; on the earth resides the chemical character, as is evidenced by cellular, dense and misshapen leaves; above in the air, on the contrary, the leaves are more delicate and are divided--indicating an electric character.

1151. The division and pinnation of leaves can only progress according to the odd numbers, 3, 5, 7, because the midrib determines the odd leaflet.

1152. Leaflets occurring in pairs, or equally pinnated, are arrests of development.

1153. The even number or the symmetrical form is unnatural in the vegetable kingdom.

1154. The leaves are, like the young bark, and thus the whole trunk of the plant, green, because the vegetable kingdom represents the lower totality of the earth, the planet, whose synthesis is the water.

1155. From the same cause, the chief colour of the animal kingdom is red, the colour of fire. Thus, plant is to animal, as green is to red.

1156. The division of leaves passes also parallel to the stages of rank in plants. Cellular leaves are the scales of mosses and ferns; vascular leaves, the long riband-like leaves of Monocotyledons; tracheal leaves the reticular leaf of Dicotyledons. The cortical leaf is the sheath; the liber leaf is probably the fat leaf; the wood leaf the acicular leaf. The radical leaf is the undivided reticular leaf; the stalk-leaf the free or ragged reticular leaf; the perfect leaf the pinnate. The bracteal leaves repeat all forms in the thyrsus, since they are floral leaves.

1157. The accessory leaves or stipules are none other than the remnant of the sheath-formation, out of which all the leaves, and therefore the wings of the leaf-petioles or phyllodia, have issued forth.

1158. The thyrsus has also its series of leaves; the scale-like or radical leaf is involucre and bractea; the vascular or spathe-leaf is calyx; the tracheal or reticular leaf is corolla.

1159. The vegetable trunk, namely, root, stalk, and leaf, is a perfect organism, which can exercise all the functions which belong to its individual life. If it therefore produces anything, that can be nothing new, but only itself repeated. This repetition of itself is called propagation. The organs of propagation are thus none other than a repetition of the organs of the vegetable trunk. The plant thereby steps forth out of its individuality into the province of the genus.

B. Æther Organs.

THYRSUS OR FLOWER.

1160. Hitherto we have regarded the plant as simply a planetary organism, namely, as a trunk with water-, earth-, and air-organ. But the primary vesicle does not lie wholly in the dark, but is illuminated upon its apex by the sun. Every operation, however, produces its like; thus in the plant a light-organ must also be developed. As the light evokes heat in the æther, so also does it evoke a heat-organ in the plant. As the heavenly bodies corevolve in æther by means of light and motion, or the gravitation condenses the æther into matter, so also must an organ of gravity originate also in the plant. These organs are not, however, predominant in the plant, because it is essentially planet or vegetable trunk. They can be therefore nothing else than the parts of the trunk itself with the properties of the æther or fire. They are thus a repetition of the trunk, wherein, in place of the material processes of growth, those of the light, heat, and gravity occur. The light-organ excites the heat-organ by polarization unto motion and thereby originates the organ of gravity.

1161. The process in which through polar tension the trunk has been reproduced, as the Whole in miniature, is called sexual process. The æther-organs are thus sexual organs. These sexual organs can only be a leaf-formation, because the last development of the stem is the leaf. The leaf-formations which, by means of polar tension, reproduce the trunk, are the Flower. The light-organ is the corolla. The heat-organ is the pistil. The organ of gravity the seed. The pollen upon the stigma sets the pistil in a state of tension with the trunk, whereby the sap, out of which the seed attains to perfection, ascends. Without this tension the pistil would not have had strength sufficient to perfect the seed. It would wither ere the latter had obtained sufficient nourishment.

1162. The development of the flower takes place through differentialization, individualization, or complete separation of the trunk-organs. The trunk indeed summons up all power in the leaves, to separate the three vegetable tissues and represent each as a particular organ; only in this formation it does not wholly succeed; for in a leaf the ribs or tracheal fascicles are still held together by cellular tissue. In the first place with the perfect separation of the tissues or, properly speaking, with the ex-organization of each of them unto an independent Whole, the limit of the vegetation is attained and the growth completed. This was the course of the whole of nature; in every system she has proceeded to individual consummation of the factors, to their liberation from chaos; and the developments of the systems were concluded, so soon as all factors became independent, or so soon as every factor had itself become an entire nature. Such was the case in the genesis of elements, and such in the metamorphosis of the earth-element into earths, salts, Inflammables, metals.

1163. This complete severance and individualization can no longer be effected by the air, but must be achieved by the light. The air is itself not the wholly differencing element, but derives its potency only from the light. All ultimate separation and individualization is reserved for the light.

1164. Root and stem are the water-and earth-plant, the leaf is the air-plant, the flower is the light-or rather fire-plant.

1165. In the flower the problem has been solved, of producing an entire plant simply by the light without earth, water, and air, or as it were in a merely spiritual manner.

1166. The plant is a flower that has been posited under three ideas, under the idea of earth, water, and air. As in æther or fire all the elements are dissolved; so are all the elements of the plant in the flower.

1167. The flower is truly, not merely in idea, the whole plant with all systems and formations, posited under a single idea, under that of the æther, namely, of the gravity, light and heat, or the fire.

1168. The flower as the æther-organ of the plant is not so independent as an animal, but subordinated to the planetary systems, being only a separation of the parts of the trunk, not a new formation, as in the animal kingdom.

1169. The flower as the highest formative consummation of the plant, or as the highest vegetable organ, is the extremity of the ramules. (Ed. 1st. 1810. § 1176.)

1170. Although the flower is a repetition of the whole plant, namely, of the root, stalk, and leaf; it can still only be a direct transmutation of the leaf. For every Superior proceeds from that which is immediately subjacent. The light-organ can only be developed out of the air-organ, not out of the water-organ. The transition from the water-organ into the light-organ is necessarily indicated through the aerial form. Preparations are necessary, gradual dismemberments must precede, before the isolated consummation can result. The air purifies the organs, in order that they may become participant of light.

1171. The flower is the totality of the leaves of a ramule placed upon the extremity of the latter. For a flower is the whole plant, and is the Ultimate of the plant.

1172. The flower is a terminal leaf-bud. A leaf-bud, after whose rupture the ramule cannot grow any more.

1173. The flower necessarily stands in a whorl-shaped manner, because it is the end of the branch; it is the terminal whorl of the plant.

1174. With the flower the ramule or the plant dies off, partly because it is the extremity, partly because wholly separated tissues cannot live. In the flower therefore the plant reverts to its origin. It is a ramule, whose buds have continued stationary.

1175. The idea of the vesicle lies at the basis of the flower. It is an entire vegetable vesicle, a leaf-bud that has not been drawn asunder. The flower is the last vesicle into which the stalk swells out.

1176. The flower-vesicle agrees with the leaf-vesicle. The form of the flower must pass parallel to the form of the leaves. This has reference principally to the position and number of parts.

Division.

1177. The flower is the synthesis of the entire plant with complete analysis of the organs. Flower, pistil, and seed are the leaves, stalk, and root separated, and yet all combined to form a common organ. This flower regarded in its analysis is the flower proper; in its dissolution it is called fruit.

1178. The flower-vesicle is according to its essence a threefold vesicle. In it the leaf-system or the air-plant has been represented, but in like manner and of necessity also the earth-and water-plant, or the vesicles in which stalk and root have been taken up into the kingdom of light. Thus there is the leaf-, stalk-, and root-flower.

1179. The leaf-flower is in the periphery, the stalk- and root-flower in the centre of the vesicle. For the former is the metatype or copy of the leaves, the latter of the stalk and the root.

1180. The leaf-flower is the highest and the very first to be developed. It is that, which chiefly corresponds to light; the trunk-flower is, however, the lowest, the last developed, because it is only the trunk that has been prolonged with difficulty to form a flower. It is the child of the heat and gravity.

1181. It may be also said that the leaf-flower is the electrical, the stem-flower, however, the chemical. In the latter the chemical process must still act visibly, it must still be produced mucus; in the former, however, this must disappear and resolve itself into purely electrical bodies.

1182. The flower consists of three leaf-buds. The leaf-bud is the corolla or blossom. The stalk-bud the pistil. The root-bud the seed.

1183. The corolla is the external whorl of leaves, is first developed, has the form of a leaf, is a vesicle, secretes in itself electrical, inflammable bodies, and is directed towards the sun.

1184. The difference between corolla and pistil is that of the two principal tissues, the tracheal and cellular tissue. By the light the tracheal fasciculi become finally separated from the cellular substance, evolved to a higher degree as the child or product of light, and planted outwardly. The corolla is the tracheal circle, which has forcibly gained its freedom.

1185. The pistil is the vascular substance that has become freely evolved, yet to the highest stage; in a similar relation likewise does the seed stand to the cellular substance. In the fruit therefore the flower again reverts to the primary condition of the plant.

1186. The flower and pistil are therefore those very organs which have been most antagonized in the plant. They are in the highest state of polar tension, and stand opposite each other like electrism and chemism, or as light and matter. This antagonism in the Organic is called sex.

1. FLORAL ENVELOPES.

1187. The blossom is the leaf-formation, in which the separation of the principal tissues is completely attained, where the tracheal fascicles entirely separate from the cellular substance, and become a leaf with free ribs. The cellular substance becomes the corolla-petal, the rib the stamen.

1188. The blossom passes through the three stages of leaf-varieties before it attains its completion, and divides therefore into three whorls, which correspond to the root-leaves, stalk-, and ramular or perfect leaves. The radical or squamose leaf appears in its repetition as involucrum or spatha. The stalk or vascular leaf as calyx. The perfect or tracheal leaf as corolla.

a. Involucrum.

1189. As the root puts forth numerous branches, so the involucrum or spatha frequently incloses many blossoms that constitute the thyrsus or synthetic form of inflorescence.

1190. The thyrsus or dense panicle is the whole ramage or branch-fabric repeated in the involucrum; it is therefore just as manifold as the former.

1191. The inflorescence is still as complex as the arrangement of the branches, because with every flower the ramule dies off or ceases to grow, whereby very numerous and strange relations are brought to light.

1192. The involucrum corresponds to the scale-leaves or bracts, and is therefore as a rule polypetalous. The involucral leaves stand upon a lower stage of development, are for the most part only squamose or spathiform, rarely divided or pinnate.

1193. The involucral leaves necessarily stand, as being the radical leaves of the flower, at the bottom of the peduncles or flower-stalks; each flower-stalk therefore has usually an involucral or bracteal leaf also.

b. Calyx.

1194. The repetition of the cauline or spathe-leaf in the flower is the Calyx. It does not stand therefore at the base of the peduncle, but towards its summit, and is the external bud of the blossom; it is mostly spathiform, rarely or but slightly cloven, and very rarely polysepalous; it is generally green like the leaves. Although the calyx is no essential organ in itself, still it is rarely wanting and is often itself the supporter of the corolla and stamina.

1195. As the calyx is more incomplete than the corolla, so it has usually but three lobes, and if it has five, then they are frequently placed irregularly.

1196. The developmental stages of the calyx are also three. Corresponding to the scale-like leaf or bract, it is only squamiform, as in the catkins of the hazel and fir-cones; corresponding to the spathe-leaf, it is tubular or unisepalous; corresponding to the reticular leaf, it is multisepalous, and mostly deciduous.

1197. The tubular calyx exhibits likewise three stages of development. At first it is scale-like, confluent with the ovary or epigynous--ovarial corollæ. It is next spathe-like, simply connected with the corolla or perigynous--calycine corollæ. Lastly, it resembles the reticular-veined leaf, being free from both the above organs, or hypogynous--pedunculate corollæ.

c. Corolla.

1198. From the character of the corolla or crown as being a ramular leaf all its properties admit of being deduced. It is the upper leaf-bud, inasmuch as the ramular leaves stand above those of the stalk. It is, on this account too, the internal, inasmuch as the lower leaves admit within them the upper.

1199. The corolla is homologous with the whole mass of the petiolated or ramular leaves. Thus their arrangement, form, and number taken together are not worth more than the characters of the corolla, nor are they worth less, because they are relations of deeper organs.

1200. The corolla stands also in a whorl, because it is the totality of leaves.

1201. The laws of the leaf-formation are also the laws of the corolla-formation. The corolla will therefore represent at one time a greater, at another a less, ramified leaf-system.

1202. The corolla is the last verticil in the series of leaf-whorls; for it represents the last leaf-form, and must fade, because the tissues have completely separated from each other, namely, the tracheæ as stamina, from the cells that constitute corolla leaflets or petals. No part can carry on life by or for itself.

1203. The parts of the corolla range in an alternating manner with those of the calyx, because they are the next supra-consecutive bud.

1204. In accordance with the three stages of the leaf-formation the corolla is also resolvable into three forms. The scale-or root-leaf returns in the several squamiform micropetals of what have been called the Apetalous plants; it corresponds to the involucrum--squamoid corolla. The spathe-or stalk-leaf appears in the tubular-shaped or Monopetalous corolla. It is a leaf-bud, which has only ruptured at the apex, like most calyces, unto which it corresponds--spathoid corolla. Lastly, in the polypetalous corolla the reticular or petiolated leaf appears upon its highest stage--reticular or phylloid corolla. The rank of the leaves consequently determines also that of corollæ.

1205. Although we regard the corolla as a whorl of leaves, namely, as several leaf-buds approximated, a yet clearer insight into its numbers and positional relations is attained, by viewing it only as the lobes of a single leaf.

1206. If we regard the petals of a polypetalous corolla in the import or light of pinnate leaflets, the legitimate regularity of their numerical relations, and the so-called irregularity of their arrangement is easily explained. The papilionaceous corollæ have been manifestly constructed according to the plan of the pinnate leaf; the vexillum or vane corresponds to the odd leaflet, the alæ or wings to the two anterior, the carina or keel to the two posterior pinnate leaflets; and hence their consecutive ratio of decrease in respect to size.

1207. All irregular corollæ admit of being referred to the papilionaceous form. One petal is always found, which separates from the others, is either larger or smaller, or entirely ablated, and consequently corresponds to the odd pinnate leaflet or vane.

1208. The irregular monopetalous or tubular corollæ admit also of being referred to the papilionaceous form. They need only be regarded as a confluence of petals. The labiate corollæ are one of the same character; but, on the contrary, the lower lip is trifid, the upper, and thus the keel, bifid. Here the papilionaceous corolla stands, properly speaking, reversed.

NUMERICAL LAW.

1209. The number of petals in the corolla ranges parallel with the mode of development of the pinnate leaves. But at first the odd terminal leaf necessarily originates, because a leaf must have several pairs of ribs, before it splits in a ptiloidal or pinnate manner. The primary number of petals is therefore one. This number is found in those plants called apetalous, where the small lateral petals are abortive, and frequently the terminal petal itself, as in the catkin, where only the calyx has been left remaining.

1210. The normal ratio, in which the numbers of the petals progress, is the odd or uneven. For a leaf is to be regarded as a single fascicle of fibres with cellular substance. This packet of fibres grows straight out. It is solicited by the light to give off bundles of fibres; there is thus no existing cause, why it should only give off such upon one, and not upon the other, side of the bundle. At the first division therefore it must be an odd leaflet, which is the principal bundle of fibres, while two even pinnate leaflets take their origin upon its sides.

1211. The second number of petals is therefore three; for this is the first number in which a pinnate leaf can appear. This number is much more frequently met with than the former, because all division of a terminal bud necessarily strives after the representation of the whorl. Under this head come most Monocotyledons, as grasses, rushes, lilies.

1212. Of the three petals of a corolla all three are not of equal import, two only are alike as being lateral pinnate leaflets; the third, however, is present as the odd or uneven leaflet.

1213. Upon this inequality of import depends the irregularity of many ternary corollæ, e. g. of the Orchideæ, Apiaceæ, and even many Irides and lilies.

1214. If the trinity or ternary division depend upon the pinnated leaf, so must also the next number depend thereupon.

1215. The third prevalent number in the vegetable world is the quinary. The quinary division originates, when to the two pinnate leaflets two others are superadded. The pentapetalous corolla is also an odd pinnate leaf in a whorl-shaped position with four pinnate leaflets.

1216. The pentapetalous is naturally higher in rank than the tripetalous, and this than the monopetalous, corolla.

1217. In the former four petals are of equal rank, but the fifth or odd petal differs from them. This difference is shown in its position, size, form, design, and colouring. The odd leaf is usually larger, of a rounded form, having more ribs and other spots or markings.

1218. It appears as if, with this second liberation of fibrous fascicles from the main bundle, the differentialization were closed. For most corollæ are only quinarily divided, or admit at least of being referred back to that number.

1219. It is readily comprehended why there are only three breaks present in the number of petals, that these are denoted by one, three, and five, and that they rarely ascend to seven, nine, and so on. For the posterior pinnate leaflets are wont also to abort or be arrested in the leaves.

1220. There can be no plant with originally two corolla-lobes or petals; for the fibrous bundle does not thus divide itself; one main fasciculus is always left. The cause why the principal bundle does not divide into two equal fasciculi resides in the very nature or essence of the stalk. The idea of the stalk operates throughout the whole plant. The odd or uneven leaflet is only the last expansion of the stalk. The even leaflets are its branches.

1221. For the same reason there can be no originally quaternary corolla.

1222. There can be none that is originally sexanary.

1223. But an originally septenary corolla is conceivable, if forsooth the energy of light is still in a condition to separate two bundles of fibres. How rarely this occurs is well known, and thus it still continues doubtful whether this form is not to be explained by an arrest of development.

1224. Nature can produce no originally octo-, deka-, or dodeka-petalous, &c. corolla.

1225. Corollæ with originally nine, eleven, and more numbers are not impossible. The last seem only to exist.

1226. All corollas having even numbered petals, originate through arrest of the odd leaflet.

1227. The number two originates most usually and in the simplest manner from the arrest of the number three. If it originates from the quinary quantity, two pinnate leaflets are then coarrested.

1228. The aberration is recognized either from the position of the lobes or petals that have been left remaining, or from comparison of the number in other parts, in the calyx and capsule.

1229. The quaternary corolla is a quinary without the uneven leaflet.

1230. The hexapetalous is a doubling of the tripetalous, corolla. There are two whorls of petals, provided the calyx has not become corolla-like in character. Both cases are demonstrable through the alternating arrangement of the parts.

1231. The number eight is a doubled four.

1232. Nine is indeed in most instances a product of three multiplied by three.

1233. The number ten is a doubled five.

1234. In every number of petals the law of unequal development consequently prevails.

1235. The original arrangement of the parts of the corolla is bilateral, and therefore symmetrical. In the papilionaceous corollæ this originally symmetrical arrangement is most perfectly maintained. They repeat the position of their pinnate leaves.

1236. This symmetrical arrangement is shown even in many tubular, as in the labiate and personate, corollæ. The trifid lower lip is the standard and wings; the bifid upper lip, on the contrary, the keel.

1237. The small liguliform petal of the lettuce's corolla is a tubular corolla entirely slit up; it is therefore mostly quinque-dentate.

1238. Corollæ which have only a single petal (the tubular-shaped corollæ should not be styled monopetalous, but those which actually have a single petal to the corolla) are indeed to be regarded for the most part as an odd leaflet; yet still much variety appears to take place in these developmental arrests. Thus here no division of the fibrous bundle was attained, or the lateral leaflets have wholly disappeared.

1239. In many this one leaflet also is arrested, and the corolla is wholly wanting. Such a corolla is to be viewed as a stem with radical, but without ramular leaves.

1240. It is not a matter of indifference whether the single involucre that is left remaining be called calyx or corolla; the distinction between both is philosophically correct, though at the same time also it may be frequently difficult to determine. Colour and relation to the stamina and fruit determine much; but respect must be also paid to the whole idea of the plant, whether it has radical leaves or not, whether the leaf-ribs do or do not ramify. Alternating stamina afford evidence of its being the corolla.

COLORATION.

1241. As the colour ranges parallel with the import or quality of the matter, or since the matter and colour are of one and the same kind, so also must this hold good of the colour of the light-flower.

1242. As the corolla only, and not the calyx, is the proper light-organ, so also will it only obey the light in the coloration.

1243. The corolla can no longer be coloured green, for it is no longer a leaf. Now that which obtains another signification, which passes over into another element, must, with the function, lay aside also the old colour. The corolla is besides the perishing, fading leaf; as this begins to turn yellow or red in the autumn, so does the corolla immediately at its origin. It is a born autumnal leaf.

1244. The whole plant must be regarded as a green synthetic colour; the corolla as the analysis of the Green.

1245. The first division of the Green is Yellow and Blue. These two colours are the first which make their appearance in the corolla.

1246. Yellow is the earth-colour, corresponds to the root, and consequently indicates the lowest colour. Yellow corollæ are less developed than those which are otherwise coloured. The corollæ of spring flowers are therefore yellow; so likewise is the middle of the corolla, as is specially exemplified in the disk of the Syngenesious plants.

1247. Blue is the second colour of corollæ in the scale of dignity, or rank. Blue is displayed on the better developed corolla, and is frequently the colour in the rays of the Syngenesiæ. Blue belongs to the temperate zones.

1248. If Yellow and Blue be the divided Green of the leaves, the complementary colour to that of the corollæ must thus remain in the trunk. The trunks of plants having blue corollæ should therefore be yellow; those with yellow corollæ should furnish blue colouring matters, like the Woad.

1249. Red is the third corolla-colour, the true light-colour, in the which properly all corollæ have been immersed; and if they exhibit any other colours, these should be viewed only as instances of aberration from Red. The Reds are the splendid colours, which develop themselves in the middle of summer; in flaming red mantles are the flowers of the torrid zone veiled.

1250. Finally, the form triumphs over the colour. The light has in Red done everything which it could do for colour, having allured as it were all the colours out of the plant; it now, on the contrary, bestows its attention upon the form and delicacy of the substance. The white colour makes its appearance in antithesis to the red, and is mostly associated with very delicate structure.

1251. The cells of the red corollæ are replete with starch-granules, but those of the white are quite empty. The yellow and blue corollæ range in the middle. Red is a superabundance, White a deficiency, of nutriment. The most noble and beautiful corollæ, as well as the lowest also, may therefore be white. White and red are the general colours for all families of plants, but yellow and blue are special colours. In general the trunk is green, the corolla white, the seed black. The mediate stages are red, yellow, and blue.

STAMEN-FILAMENTS.

1252. At length we come to the last work achieved by the light in the corolla, or to complete separation of the systems or tissues. If ever bundles of fibres may entirely separate from the cellular substance, this is possible only in the corolla, as being the final light-organ. Separation must, however, be attained: for thus far do the claims of light extend. But no development remains stationary before it has corresponded with the operations of the developing agent.

1253. In the corolla, as being the highest kind of leaf, the ribs, as the fibrous fascicles, must finally separate themselves from the leaf-substance as cellular tissue. The corolla is a double organ.

1254. In conformity with the whole structure of the plant, the ribs are placed internally, the membranes externally.

1255. The leaf-ribs, isolated and perfected as a particular organ, are the Stamen-filaments.

1256. The leaf-membranes, or probably the phyllodia, isolated and evolved into a particular organ, are the corolla-petals. These compose in the strongest sense the corolla. The filaments consist for the greatest part of spiral fibres, and the corolla-petals of the finest cellular tissue, which may be almost designated as granular. This then would be the rational import of the corolla and its stamen-filaments. Both are of similar production; they exhibit like substance, colour, and delicacy, with cotemporaneous development and cotemporaneous death.

1257. Not only are the ribs of the corolla, but those also of the calyx, liberated to become filaments. There are calyx-and corolla-filaments.

1258. As ribs, the filaments must stand in the middle of their petals, i. e. opposite to them.

1259. Filaments, which alternate with the parts of the corolla, are consequently calyx-filaments; such as alternate with the lobes of the calyx, or stand opposite to the petals of the corolla, are corolla-filaments.

1260. Most filaments, and consequently the calycine, are alternating in their arrangement. Most corollæ therefore have no longer strength sufficient to produce filaments.

1261. Flowers provided with opposite and alternating filaments have consequently two circles of them, as is the case in many Pinks. With the determination of the number of filaments the race has been therefore specified.

1262. The number of filaments stands in relation to the parts of the corolla; therefore three and five are the prevailing numbers.

1263. There is no absolute number in the filaments, but only one of relation. Corollæ with three petals have invariably also three filaments, and those with five of the former, the same number too of the latter.

1264. The number of filaments is always the simple or multiple of the parts of the corolla. Three calyx-or corolla-parts have 3 × 1 or 3 × n, filaments. 6 is not 6, but 3 × 2; 9 is 3 × 3; 10 is 5 × 2; 20 is 5 × 4; or 5 × 3 + 5 × 1, and so on.

1265. The filaments do not simply follow the number, but also the conjunction, position and arrest, of the corolla. They are epigynous, peri-or hypogynous.

1266. In irregular corollæ the filaments are usually abortive; as in those of the orchideous, labiate and papilionaceous plants.

1267. The arrest of the filaments usually stands in inverse relation with the corolla. In the case of a larger-sized petal the filament is small, and, on the contrary, larger in opposite parts of the corolla.

ANTHERS.

1268. The corolla obtains its last function in the production of the highest electrical bodies, which it exhales as sweet odours. Ætherial oils ascend out of the corolla into the air.

1269. The filament, as a leaf-rib that has become free, is a moribund ramuscular extremity, which still strives, according to the law of pinnation, to produce three buds, whereof, however, the terminal one is in general arrested, and the two lateral scarce attain unto apertion.

1270. The two lateral buds of the filaments are the Anthers. They mostly open in a spathose manner, because they have not strength enough to develop themselves as perfect gemmæ or buds.

1271. The anthers are to be regarded as follicles, which mostly rupture upon the dorsal or external aspect.

1272. The starch-flour, which forms the precipitate termed albumen in the seed, here obtains in the light-organ electrical properties, and is called pollen.

1273. The pollen has a light-function in the plant.

1274. The function of the pollen must be differencing, thus vivifying and secernent.

1275. The principal antagonism of the pollen is with the pistil, upon which it must therefore act in a properly differencing manner. The pollen does not hang, like the seed, by a stalk or pedicle to the wall of the anther, but is exudated from it like chemical bodies. It is nevertheless a vesicle, like all organic parts. This vesicle consists of two membranes, and contains yet smaller vesicles, which are called fovilla or pollen-viscus. When the pollen comes into contact with the moist surface of the stigma, its external membrane ruptures, and the internal with its contained fovilla protruding in the form of a tube, penetrates the style in many instances down to the seed, whereby the germ first becomes developed or self-subsistent.

2. PISTIL OR OVARY.

1276. If the corolla be the light-flower, the stalk-flower is heat-flower.

1277. The stalk-flower, as being a repetition of the stem, must be developed later than the leaf-flower. It consequently stands superiorly upon, and so far within, this. The corolla is related to the stalk-flower like circumference to centre.

1278. The stalk repeated in the flower is the Ovarium, germen or pistillum. It is frequently converted into wood in the nut and becomes hardened into stone.

1279. Nevertheless, the pistil like the corolla is a leaf-formation, because everything that originates subsequently to, can be none other than, the leaf. It is a leaf-bud under the idea of the stalk. The pistil is thus a leaf-whorl like the corolla, and one which is subject to the same fatalities, only with this difference, that its leaves are wont to open first after it has withered, and consequently through physical forces.

1280. Every leaf that has been closed in a vesicular or tubular form is a follicle or carpel. There are therefore uni-, bi-, and tri-locular ovaria, &c. The loculi or cells of the ovarium are none other than closed carpels. As many therefore as there are of the former, so many are there of the latter, and vice versâ. The septa or partition-walls are none other than the involuted edges of the closed and confluent carpels.

1281. Uni-locular ovaria consist therefore only of one leaf. The legume is only a compressed carpel.

1282. Every carpel or every cell has its raphé or suture directed inwards or along the axis of the flower. For the leaves are always so conjoined that the two halves of the upper or inner side stand counter to each other.

1283. All other sutures are adventitious and, by their mode of dehiscence, determine those parts of the ovarium which are called valves. These sutures are either dorsal or on the back of the carpel, e. g. capsula loculicida; conjunctive, where two carpels abut against each other, e. g. capsula septicida; or finally, between both by the side of the dorsal suture, so that the valve springing up resembles a shutter, as in many siliquæ or pods.

1284. The columella of the ovary is none other than the internal edge of the carpels from which the leaf-wall has been freed.

1285. Each carpel-leaf is to be regarded as the common petiole of a pinnate leaf, upon whose lateral petioles the seeds depend. The seeds always hang therefore upon the inner angle of the cells.

1286. As the parts of the corolla alternate with the calyx, so do the carpels or cells of the ovary with the corolla; they stand therefore opposite the parts of the calyx or are situated in front of them.

1287. The parts of the ovary follow also the uneven series of numbers, one, three, five. The number two is usually found in irregular, e. g. the labiate, corollæ.

1288. If few cells be present as parts of the flower, the carpels are then to be regarded as arrested. In the personate corollæ three are arrested, but in the papilionaceous, four. The legumen is only a fifth part of the ovarium.

1289. The development of the carpels stands usually in an inverse relation to the size of the parts of the corolla. Thus the legume is situated between the two insignificant petals of the keel, opposite to the large vexillum; in the Personatæ a carpel is situated in the fissure of the upper lip; upon the lower lip, consisting of three lobes, only one carpel is situated, which consequently supplies the place of four, and is therefore also larger.

1290. The stages of leaf-formation are also displayed in the matured state of the ovarium. The radical or scale-leaf is repeated in the cariopsis; as in the grasses, orachs, nettles, and such like plants.

1291. The spathe-leaf becomes a siliqua, or hollow capsule, in which forsooth the septa are arrested, and the seeds stand upon the conjoined edges of the carpels, upon their walls, or also upon a mediate replum and placenta, as in the proper Siliquose plants with the poppies, Resedæ, Primulæ and pinks.

1292. The reticular-leaf is perfected into a capsule, where the carpels are so confluent with each other, that they form septa and bear the seeds upon the internal angle or upon the axis, as in the Rues. If these carpels separate, then polycarpal plants, as the Ranunculaceæ, Malvaceæ, Magnoliaceæ, originate. In these the median columella is the elongated floral peduncle. If they separate, without leaving a median columella between them; they are then simply called follicles, as in the larkspur and celandine. If this capsule be compressed flat; it is called legumen, as in the beans.

1293. The cariopsis generally contains one and that a large seed; the siliqua or hollow capsule is many-or small-seeded; the follicle few-or moderately-seeded; the capsule many-and also few-seeded.

1294. In the cariopsis the seed is attached to the base or apex; in the follicle in a row upon the inner suture; in the siliqua upon the carpellar edges, or their walls, and on a meso-replum or frame; in the capsule upon the inner angle or on a middle axis or column. Seed-bearing alæ to the columella are only the carpellar edges prolonged into the loculi or cells.

STYLE.

1295. What the stamen-filament is for the petal of the corolla, that is the style for the ovarial petal or the carpel, viz. the rib that has become free. As, however, the leaf-formation in the ovary is generally imperfect, so also is the separation of the tissues or systems. The style is not therefore freed at once from its root, but projects only above the leaf-substance.

1296. But as the singular circumstance occurs in the ovary that the midrib is arrested while only the marginal ribs shoot out, so is the style the elongation and coalescence of the two marginal ribs. Every stigma is therefore biacuminate.

1297. There must always be as many styles as the ovary has carpels or cells. If only one style appear, in this case it is then made up of several mid-ribs. In most instances the number of styles is recognized in the number of the stigmata.

1298. As being the rib of the ovary the style is the last ramuscular extremity of the stalk, which is resolved into mucus upon the stigma.

1299. Stamen-filament is related to style, as leaf to stalk, thus as air to earth, as Differencing to Differencizable, as electrism to chemism or rather nutrition. This is the lower comparison; in a true sense they are related as light to heat.

1300. The light is the Active, the heat the Passive; light the Moving, heat the Moveable; light the Vitalizing, heat the Inactive, or that which becomes vitalized; light the spirit, heat the matter--male and female principle. Thus are corolla and pistil related to each other.

3. SEED.

1301. The root repeats itself in the interior of the ovary under the æther-form. The root ascends out of the earth to become an organ of gravity.

1302. After the leaves have been made independent in the corolla, and the stalk in the pistil, the root also separates and appears as a free organ, as Seed.

1303. The seeds are necessarily in the interior of the ovary; for the cellular organ can first appear, after the leaf-and stalk-buds have opened as corolla and ovarium. The blossom is a bulb, the external testa or covering of which is the leaf-, the mediate the stalk-, and lastly, the internal the root-vesicle. The stalk is adherent to the leaves, the root to the stalk; so also the seeds to the ovary, and this to the corolla.

1304. The seeds are developed in the ovary under the same relations in which the root is developed in the earth, namely, in the dark.

1305. The darkness does not allow the chemical body to attain unto difference; therefore the sap within the capsule must, instead of separating itself into spiral vessels and leaf-substance, continue to remain there undivided and without form, i. e. in the condition of simple granules, or germs of future cells.

1306. The seeds, like the root, are a mass of cells; like it they contain an accumulation of mucus, but of course more highly-formed, being separated into flour, starch, acid matter, oil, and such like substances.

1307. These seminal substances are deposited upon the alkaline, in opposition to the acid, side of the ovary; just as the root also represents the alkaline factor in reference to the stalk, in which appears the formation of acids.

1308. The seeds are the pinnate leaflets of the ovarian leaves, which continue in the condition of buds. They stand therefore as unclosed vesicles upon both edges of the carpel, as is particularly distinct in the legumens.

1309. As both edges are similar to each other, so there can be no ovary that has fewer than two seeds. In all one-seeded ovaries therefore one seed has been arrested, a fact that admits too of being demonstrated in the majority of cases.

1310. Every seed is placed at the extremity of a lateral rib of the carpel. These lateral ribs are called seed-bearers or placentæ. If such lateral ribs terminate before reaching the edge of the carpel, then the seeds stand upon the juncture or wall of the carpel. This does not, however, occur frequently, but only in the Siliquosæ, poppies, and some others. The elongated lateral rib, whereupon the seed hangs, is called umbilical cord. It is no peculiar organ, but only the seed-petiole.

1311. The direction of the seeds is possible in five ways, either upright and horizontal, transverse, or rising obliquely upwards and downwards in relation to the axis of the ovary.

1312. Every perfect seed (of Dicotyledons) is none other than a pentifoliar, involuted, pinnate leaf. The shell of the seed is the leaf-spathe or phyllodium, the two seed-lobes are the two posterior pinnate leaflets, while the germinal leaflets, or plumula, are the two anterior pinnate leaflets, together with the odd leaflet. The seed-rib or vascular cord (raphe) is continued into the seed-rootlet or radicle, and this into the petiole of the cotyledons.

1313. Every seed-coat must consist of three integuments; for every leaf consists of the lower and upper membrane, and of the interjacent parenchyma, in which the vessels are dispersed. The external leaf-membrane forms the most hard and coloured covering of the seed (testa), the internal the brown seed-tunic or pellicula; between the two lies the brown fibrous tissue, or desiccated parenchyma with the vessels.

1314. The hilum is the basis of the bud or of the seed-leaf; the seed-hole or micropyle is on the apex of the involuted bud, or rather of the phyllodium, in which the germ lies rolled up.

1315. Umbilicus and micropyle are united with each other by means of seed or leaf-rib (raphe). Both rarely stand opposite to each other, so as that the one should be below, the other above; but the apex of the leaf is usually so involuted that it again reaches the bottom of the leaf, whereby umbilicus and micropyle come into close and mutual approximation, as in the beans. The seed-petiole elongates itself into the seed-rib; this is continued upon the back of the phyllodium or testa, bends round, and returns again to the umbilicus, so as to describe a complete circle. The shell of the seed has consequently the form of the young fern or fern-capsule.

1316. The radicle is the continuation of the seed-rib, which is, however, dismembered itself, moves off, and thereby causes the micropyle to be, or, properly speaking, only renders it, free. The testa or seed-shell is consequently a phyllodium thrown over the germ, but the micropyle is the upper opening of the bud.

1317. The germ of the seed or embryo, namely, radicle, cotyledons and plumule, is therefore only the quinary pinnate leaf without the spathe or testa.

1318. Thus the whole seed, shell and embryo, completely resembles a pinnate leaf with a phyllodium, as we see it in the umbellate plants, only it must be thought of as one so involuted, that the fine leaves adhere reversed in the phyllodium. Seeds may consequently change into leaves. A seed has therefore been formed also in all its parts like a papilionaceous corolla. This resemblance speaks moreover retrogressively, for the petals of the papilionaceous corolla being viewed only as a single leaf-bud. Seeds may therefore change also into corollæ. All parts of the seed are thus an unity, a single pinnate leaf, and it is consequently impossible for them to have been patched up out of what has been called the seed-ovum, namely, the testa and embryo, which would come from some other source or out of the pollen.

1319. The seed is the whole plant in miniature: the root being portrayed in the umbilical cord, and radical leaf in the phyllodium; stalk in the radicle; caudal leaves in the seed-lobes; ramuscule in the cotyledonal petiole; ramular leaves in the cotyledons. Seeds may thus change into an entire plant. The seed is consequently nothing new in the plant, but the repetition of the same under the relations and forms of the root.

1320. It is plain that the seeds must always change into the same plant; for they are indeed nothing else but this. The identity ensuing upon propagation is accordingly nothing singular and incomprehensible; it would be so were it otherwise. With the seed the plant has but reverted again to its primary condition, to the galvanic, mucous vesicle, out of which in a secondary manner the young plant is developed like as is the first plant out of the primary vesicle.

1321. The radicle is not therefore root itself, but only emits rootlets.

1322. The germ or the radicle must observe different positions towards the umbilicus, according as the seed-leaf or the testa has been more or less involuted, and according as the germ is removed from the micropyle.

1323. The albumen or perisperm is no particular organ, but only the deposit from the sap, which the inner wall of the testa secretes. The albumen stands in no organic connexion with the parts of the seed. That therefore which has become connate with the kernel or nucleus cannot be albumen.

1324. The arillus can be none other than bud-seeds of the testa, because it is placed under the phyllodium. It corresponds to the floral involucrum or bracteal scales.

1325. As the seeds are none other than leaves that have remained stationary in the condition of root, so must they pass through the three leaf-stages. There can be therefore only three principal differences in the seed-formation.

1326. The seeds of plants with reticular leaves consist of several leaves arranged symmetrically or in pairs. They have necessarily two seed-lobes--Dicotyledones.

1327. The seeds of plants with spathose leaves consist too only of the latter, i. e. the seed-leaves remain encased in each other. They have consequently only one seed-lobe, which also incloses only one plumule--Monocotyledones.

1328. This seed-lobe is a phylloidal leaf, whose parenchyma has been superabundantly filled with farinaceous matter or flour.

1329. That which is named vitellus can be none other than the succeeding counter-leaf.

1330. What in the Monocotyledons, at least in most of them, and in the grasses, is called albumen, is not so, but only the flour of the seed-lobe.

1331. The germination of these seeds is nothing else than an elongating of the spathiform seed-lobe into a culm, from the bottom of which radicles spring forth, as out of a bulb. A monocotyledonous seed is in its structure none other than a small bulb with undivided coverings.

1332. Lastly, the third form of seeds makes its appearance in those plants which have only scale-like leaves. The seed-lobe is wanting in them, and they elongate themselves directly into the plumule or little stalk--Acotyledones.

1333. They are devoid of the distinction of testa and embryo, because, on account of the deficiency of genuine leaf-formation, they are none other than the first. For the embryo is only a small leaf. They therefore include only albumen or germinal powder, as it is correctly named.

1334. Here belong not merely fungi, fuci, lichens and mosses, but also the ferns, as being those which have only cells or squamoid leaves. For the frond with the spiral vessels does not rank in the category of leaf, but of stalk.

FRUIT.

1335. The fruit is the coalescence or blending of the three parts of the flower, or the seed, ovarium and corolla. In the flower the individual perfection of every part of the trunk was completely attained; the leaves being separated quite freely from the stalk became corolla; the stalk separated from the leaves and root became pistil; lastly, the root separated from all, became the seed. In this manner indeed each organ attained its ratio of perfection; the perfection, however, of the Whole does not alone consist in the perfection of the several parts for themselves, but in the union or combination of these individual perfections. The vegetable trunk, as being a Partial, has been represented in the parts of the flower, but as a Whole, in the fruit.

1336. The fruit is therefore the last and most perfect consummation of the plant, or the whole vegetable trunk repeated as unity.

1337. In the fruit not merely the sum of all vegetable forms is united, but also that of all vegetable matters. It is the whole vegetable body repeated mathematically, physically and chemically.

1338. The fruit therefore is also that part of the plant in which all vegetable bodies have been concentrated into flesh. Now, as the highest vegetable bodies pass over into the next, and consequently into the animal kingdom, and are therefore palatable as food, so is the fruit also in essence the sarcocarp. For this is the directly edible part of the plant, that e. g. which does not need being cooked.

1339. The nutritious substance of the fruit can be none other than a highly elevated and analysed kind of mucus, such as starch and gum, sugar and acids. Flour is that which resembles the root, sugar the stalk, acids the foliage; therefore flour is in the seed, sugar in the pistil, and acid in the calyx.

1340. There can be only three kinds of fruit, that constantly accord with the preponderance of the three parts of the flower, as seed-fruit, pistil-and corolla-fruit.

1341. The fruit that has the preponderance of the seed, or where the edible substance resides in the seed, and the ovary itself has become seed-shaped, is the Nut. The nut is the cariopsis that has become sarcocarp; it is therefore one-seeded--farinaceous sarcocarp.

1342. In the ovarian fruit the ovarium has become demi nut-like, half corolla-like or fleshy, as in the Plum. It is the carpel that has become sarcocarp--acid sarcocarp.

1343. The fruit, in which the whole ovarium together with the calyx is edible, is the corolla-fruit, the Berry. Only those perfectly soft fruits are true berries which are inclosed by the calyx, as being forsooth a part of the blossom. The berry is the siliqua or hollow capsule that has become sarcocarp. Therefore it has numerous and small seeds--saccharine sarcocarp.

1344. Finally, these fruits combine to form a common fruit, which represents the proper synthesis of all parts of the blossom, or in which seed, ovarium and flower, along with the calyx, have become sarcocarp. This is the Apple, a syncarpus. The apple is the calyx become sarcocarp, and as it usually incloses several carpels, it is therefore polycarpal and contains few seeds. It consists of seed, ovarium and calyx, which have become flesh. The apple, as being an unopen calyx-fruit, may probably be regarded as the fruit of the trunk. It furnishes properly drink and food, is the fruit against thirst and hunger--the universal, alimentary sarcocarp. The apple contains all the bodies that have been named, viz. flour, acids and sugar. It is thus chemically also the synthetic fruit, which may be converted into the whole animal flesh, and thus become a true medium of nutrition. The nut is only garbage, the plum and berry, cherry and grape, only drinks or delicacies.

1345. Other vegetable substances, which range lower in chemical development, as mucus, bitter and colouring matters, with resins, are associated for the greatest part in root, stalk and leaves.

FRUIT OF THE FLOWERLESS PLANTS.

1346. The flowerless or asexual plants can have no genuine seed or no embryo. For the genuine seed is the repetition of the blossom under the idea of root. (Ed. 1st, 1810. § 1564.)

1347. That which has been called germinal powder is no seed or germ, but only albumen or perisperm. It has no seed-petiole, has only been exuded out of what has been called the wall of the capsule, and exhibits in its composition no seed-lobes. (Ed. 1st. § 1586.)

1348. What is termed capsule in the Acotyledones is none other than the seed-shell, whereupon it follows of itself, that the so-called seeds can have no umbilical cords or seed-petioles. (Ed. 1st; 1810. § 1573.)

1349. The capsules of ferns are involuted like most dicotyledonous seeds. The ring corresponds to the seed-rib or raphe, the fissure to the seed-aperture or micropyle. The involuted fern-capsule is a repetition of the involuted fern-frond. The little heaps of capsules or sori are consequently not pollen, but a nest of seeds surrounded by an indusium or veil, which, probably, corresponds to the ovary.

1350. The capsule of mosses is an antetype of monocotyledonous seeds; it is a spathe-leaf with the lateral suture; it springs up in a tubular manner similar to grass-leaves, that free themselves from the nodes of the culm.

1351. The hollow columella, which likewise contains germinal powder, is an internal spathe, which corresponds to the germinal leaf of grasses.

1352. The oral teeth are the dissevered parallel strips of vessels in the culm and leaf of the Monocotyledons.

1353. The urn-supporting pedicel is the seed-petiole or umbilical cord.

1354. The calyptra probably corresponds to the arillus and thus to the bud-scales; or possibly to the indusium of the ferns, and thus to the ovary.

1355. The leaf-roses would consequently be the involucral leaves of the moss-stalk; the moss-stalk itself a peduncle or flower-stalk; so that in the upper involucral leaves rudiments might indeed appear of stamina.

1356. In the lichens and fuci the whole trunk is none other than seed-shell.

1357. In the fungi, the antetype of the Acotyledons, it may be almost said that the whole stem is nothing else but albumen, the external layers of which only cling together in a membranaceous manner, and represent a kind of seed-shell. The fungus is an albumen-body, which has coagulated out of vegetable juices. In the fungus, seed, seed-vessel, ovary, blossom, foliage and trunk have become blended into one.

1358. In a perfect blossom the albumen is therefore the repetition of a fungus; the acotyledonous seed that of lichen; the monocotyledonous seed-vessel that of a moss; the dicotyledonous, however, is the repeated fern. It may be also said that the albumen were fungus; the germ, lichen; the seed-vessel, moss; the ovary perhaps, a fern, namely, its indusium.

II.--PHYTO-PHYSIOLOGY.

1359. The life of the plant consists in the co-operation of its functions. The representation of these functions is the vegetable physiology or the theory of vegetation.

1360. Vegetation depends first of all upon the two principal antagonisms of the plant, or those between the tracheal and cellular systems, or between the stem-and rootsystems, sun and planet, air and water with earth, light and matter, electrism and chemism.

1361. The functions divide into those of the æther-organs--blossom, and the planetary organs--stem.

I.--FUNCTIONS OF THE TRUNK.

1362. The functions of the trunk are those of the tissues, systems and members; thus first of the cells, vessels or ducts and tracheæ; secondly, of the bark, liber and wood; lastly, of the root, stalk and foliage.

1. Facts.

1363. The phenomena to be regarded in plants bear relation to their constituent parts, and the changes or preliminary incidents which they undergo.

A. Constituent Parts.

The chemical constituent parts of vegetables are inorganic and organic.

a. INORGANIC BODIES.

Elements.

1364. The plant contains all the primitive bodies; carbon, oxygen, hydrogen and nitrogen. The carbon forms the principal mass, and almost alone constitutes its solid parts. The nitrogen is only present in small quantity, being, as it were, a trace only of the future animal kingdom.

1365. In the plant all the elements are also active, as the æther, which, through the gravitation of the root, strives towards the middle point or centre of the earth. The light, which imparts the general polarity and decomposition, as well as produces colours. The latter appear to reside in the starch-flour. The heat, that sustains the indifference, promotes the evaporation and the course of the sap, as also protects the plant from being killed by frost or cold. The air that penetrates through the spiral vessels to all parts, and is also met with occasionally in the hollow stalks, the interstices and cells of the pith and cuticle. It imparts the process of oxydation. The water is the proper mother of the plant, being the medium by which the nutrition is imparted. It contains in a state of absorption some hydrogen and nitrogen, a larger amount of oxygen, and abundance of carbonic acid; besides different salts, mucus, sugar, and acids. The earth, as element, bestows upon the plant a firm station, so that the water-and air-organs continue separate from each other.

Minerals or Earths.

1367. The plant is also a totality in reference to the earths. It contains all the mineral classes, and from each of these indeed the principal or fundamental minerals. It can therefore only thrive in a soil which represents the whole mineral kingdom. Among the earths the siliceous earth is very frequently found in plants, and especially in the graminaceous kinds. This, having been dissolved in the earth by potash and the rich supply even of carbonic acid, appears to be absorbed or imbibed by the plant. The argillaceous earth is scarcely met with in the plant itself; but from imbibing and storing up water for the consumption of the plant, it is without doubt its best and most necessary soil. The talcose earth is rarely found contained in plants; it, however, keeps the soil slacker, by dividing into laminæ, and being present for the most part as mica in sand. The calcareous earth is a more essential constituent part of plants, and is found therein in tolerable quantity, usually combined with phosphoric or carbonic acid. Of the salts, all plants contain a fair proportion of common salt and potash, combined too with carbonic acid; soda with saccharic or oxalic acid; probably also ammonia. Of the acids, carbonic acid appears to be alone contained in a free state in vegetable sap; the other elemental and mineral acids are united to alkalies, talcose and calcareous earths. As regards the Inflammables, almost the whole plant consists of carbon, but contains also some sulphur. The metals are represented by iron, which occurs in all plants.

b. ORGANIC VEGETABLE BODIES.

1368. These must be regarded as the repetition of the inorganic bodies. The alcohol, which does not indeed occur ready formed in the plant, but is developed out of the sugar, certainly corresponds to the æther. The ætherial or volatile oils, and the balsams and resins that are thence formed, correspond with the air. The mucus, gelatine, albumen, and sugar correspond to water; the wood, gum, starch and vegetable mould, to the earth. Of the organic salts, plants contain tannin, with azetic, benzoic, mucic, gelatic, saccharic, tartaric, citric, malic, oxalic, tannic, oleic, isatic, and hydrocyanic acids. The alkaline bodies are pungent, bitter, stupefying, and saponaceous; the fixed or greasy oils, the wax and the vegetable butters, are to be regarded as organic Inflammables; the colouring matters, as the organic ores.

1369. These bodies intermixed form the compound vegetable matters. What has been called vegetable sap is for plants, what the blood is for animals. It consists for the greatest part of water and mucus, starch, sugar, acids, and salts. It passes over into vinous and then into acetous fermentation. The starch-granules appear to form in the cells.

1370. To the secreted saps belong the coloured milky juices present in particular vessels, and consisting for the most part of water with resins, as in the celandine and spurge. The particular saps, especially those of the fruits, are very composite, consisting for the most part either of mucus, sugar and acids, or occasionally of gelatine and albumen. Solid compound matters are almost universally made up of flour, which consists principally of starch and gum; or they are furthermore mucus in the roots and seeds. The excreted or separated matters, which no longer interpose in the vegetable process, are the etherial oils, resins, fixed oils, colouring matters, poisonous substances, gum, tannin, nectar-juices, and even water.

B. Preliminary Events.

a. WROUGHT BY EXTERNAL INFLUENCE.

1371. The influence of the elements produces different phenomena in the plant. I have felt constantly more inclined to consider, that not merely the descent of the root, but even the ascent of the stalk was simply to be viewed as a mechanical event, or one forsooth effected by gravity. The roots obey under all circumstances the gravity and would grow as far as the centre of the earth, were they to meet with no impediment; and there they would follow the revolution of the earth, and consequently become spirally convoluted upon themselves. It is almost beyond doubt that the water, which sinks downwards and, as it were like that in stalactites, invariably rigidifies or hardens at the radical capillaries, is heavier in the root. The cause of this greater weight depends upon the mucus not being decomposed.

1372. The straight ascent of the stalk also depends upon nothing else than gravity. The upper drops of mucus become lighter by means of greater heat and by decomposition in light and air, and they are therefore compressed by the heavier in the upward direction. It is always such a small drop upon the summit, which hardens into its uppermost cell. The stalk, therefore, grows upwards through the same forces and in the same manner, as the air-bubbles ascend in a glass of beer. The cause of their becoming lighter resides certainly in the vital process, which nevertheless effects in this respect nothing else than the extension or increase; but yet the cause of the ascent is naught else than the gravity.

1373. The light likewise acts upon the direction of plants and especially that of their leaves; not simply from its promoting growth by elevation of temperature and by decomposition, but obviously in a mechanical manner also; for not only do the branches of plants in a green-house grow towards the window, but most leaves turn themselves the whole day in obedience to the course of the sun. This turning must, nevertheless, have one and the same kind of cause with the growing towards light; it also is only a conatus or effort unto growth. The upper leaf-cells, being illuminated by the sun, become lighter, and are therefore directed at once, like the apices of the branches, toward the influence of light. The cells that stand perpendicularly upon the surface of the leaf are to be regarded as branches conjoined by growth.

1374. The sleep of plants depends also upon the same influence of the light. The upper leaf-cells sleep during the night, while the lower cells, especially those of the petiole, fill and consequently bend the latter upwards. The sleep of the flower must have the same cause. As likewise the alternating motion of many leaves, as in the Mimosæ.

1375. The motion also performed by the staminal filaments towards the pistil must finally depend upon this unequal replenishment of the external and internal cells.

1376. The coloration of the parts of plants is a result of the decomposition of the starch-granules in the cells by the agency of light.

1377. The operation of the heat is more intelligible than any other. That which is to move and separate itself, must have a certain degree of extension, or must be fluid, namely, aquiform. In a cold temperature the upper saps, not becoming warmer than the lower, are consequently not lighter, and on that account also do not ascend upwards. The mortal freezing of trees descends from above downwards. In other respects plants have, like animals, a self-inherent, though very feeble, process of heat. Germination proves this, in cases where many seeds lie upon each other.

1378. The air acts also mechanically and physically upon plants, by causing motion of the solid parts and by promoting evaporation. Electricity is without doubt active in the spring of the year, and evokes the antagonism between the fabric of the stem and root.

1379. The physical operation of water consists indeed, for the greatest part, in its preserving the solid parts in a supple or pliant state. Its principal office is, however, to convey nourishment to the plant.

1380. The earths act beneficially only upon plants, if they have been all mixed with each other. Mineral salts occurring in moderate quantity in the soil promote growth; alkalies and acids are injurious thereunto. The same holds good of Inflammables and metallic limes.

b. BY INTERNAL ACTIVITY.

1381. That the plant imbibes water, and this indeed in great quantity, by its whole surface is a well-ascertained fact; but it has been by no means equally determined whether it obtains its nourishment simply through the water, or directly also from the air, e. g. the carbon, as well as the nitrogen, from the carbonic acid. The principal imbibition, however, takes place through the root; but experiments that have been made upon this subject leave it doubtful, whether in this case it is simply mucus, extract from the humus or vegetable mould, or simply carbonic acid that has been absorbed.

1382. It is moreover a fact that the green parts of plants exposed to direct sun-light consume or take in carbonic acid, and develop or give out oxygen; on the contrary, during the night, and even in cloudy or gloomy days, they absorb oxygen and exhale or develop carbonic acid. Now, as there are far more gloomy or at least cloudy than clear days, it thus becomes evident that far more oxygen has been taken up, than separated, from the air. During germination oxygen gas is consumed and, on the other hand, carbonic acid developed.

1383. The saps ascend upwards, and chiefly indeed, in the liber; on its passage different substances forming from it, which appear especially in the fruit in greatest proportion and variety.

2. Processes.

1384. The tissues of plants form three formations, which must be similar in their functions, and can only exhibit subordinate differences. The cell-formation is displayed in the cellular tissue, in the bark and root. The vascular formation in the vascular tissue, in the liber and stalk. The tracheal formation in the tracheal tissue, the wood and the leaves. There can accordingly be only three principal functions in the vegetable stem, and of these each will display minor differences.

A. Cellular Processes.

a. ROOT-PROCESS--ABSORPTION.

1385. As the root is the cellular organ proper, so in it principally resides the water-process or the commencement of chemical elaboration and analysis. Now the chemism in an organic body is called digestion.

1386. The root is the mouth or pharynx of the plant, and is therefore principally concerned with absorption. Its process is therefore the formation of mucus, or as it were of salivation. The root cannot, however, create mucus, as it was created at the conclusion of the earth-metamorphosis in the sea; it can absorb it or in the highest degree compound it out of the constituent parts.

1387. The process of the formation of mucus is a process of putrefaction; the function of the root consists accordingly in supporting a constant process of putrefaction. The soil in which the root stands must contain substances susceptible of, and the conditions necessary to, putrefaction. These substances are organic matters and water; the conditions heat and access of air. Such a soil is called humus or mould. In a pure, dry earth, no root can thrive.

1388. Carbon, from its being the earthy body, is the principal one in the formation of mucus, and the basis also of the vegetable bodies. A root can develop itself, if it stand only in a soil such as the calcareous, which contains carbon and water. The calcareous soil is as it were an original mould. It is probable that the calcareous earth is constantly decomposed by the root and its carbon absorbed. The calcareous earth is again neutralized by the carbonic acid of the water and air.

1389. There can be no doubt that the root also abstracts carbon from these elements, and converts it into mucus, or probably separates it from carbonic acid. The mucus approximates the animal nature, so that the root in its constituent parts, in its smell, and even in its structure, exhibits animal properties; animal substances therefore are also the best nutritive media of plants.

1390. That which putrefies most easily is the best manure.

1391. Through the process of putrefaction many kinds of antagonisms and attractions, by which the absorption takes place through the root-filaments, are aroused.

1392. The root has not merely one orifice for absorbing, but it imbibes upon the whole surface, from its being still immersed in the chemical menstruum. The integument of animals does the same.

b. BARK-PROCESS--EVAPORATION.

1393. The bark, as an organ of cellular tissue, which is placed wholly in the outward direction, must principally exercise the process of absorption and evaporation. Now, as there are two kinds of bark, a root-and a stalk-bark, or a water-and air-bark, so upon the former will the business of absorption chiefly devolve, on the latter that of evaporation.

1394. As the bark of the stalk possesses stomata, which are wanting in that of the root, so is this a probable reason for these apertures being organs of evaporation. This opinion is corroborated also by aquatic leaves being without stomata, while they occur in the leaves exposed to air.

1395. Meanwhile the stalk is of a twofold character; it is only the root that has ascended into the air. As an aerial root it absorbs. Without doubt the stalk absorbs the same as the root, namely, moisture from the air and carbonic acid. Experiments prove it.

c. CELL-PROCESS--DIGESTION.

1396. The cells are the crystallized drops of mucus, the fundamental mass of the vegetable and consequently the water, which converts itself into the Earthy, or wherein the Solid has been elaborated and precipitated. They construct the Solid that has been absorbed into new cells. But the Solid can only assume other forms by means of water. The solution, however, with mixture of bodies and formation into globules is digestion. The cells are thus the stomachs of which the plant has millions like mouths.

1397. The bodies absorbed must move in the cells; for chemical solution and mixture, being itself nothing else than separation and union of atoms, is consequently motion. In a single cell the motion must be upon all sides, because the atoms are attracted and repelled from all points of the cell-wall. In cells, however, which are united with others and therefore subjected to longitudinal polarity, this motion must be performed in accordance with the axis of the cells.

1398. This motion proceeds to and fro, because the extremities of the cells have different polarities, and therefore repel the same atoms, which they have before attracted. In the cells the mucus appears to be converted into starch-granules.

B. Vascular Processes.

a. Vessel-process--Conveyance of Sap.

1399. The vessels or intercellular passages conduct the sap, or the water of the plant. Their function is therefore the continued conveyance of the sap that has been absorbed from the root, and rendered solid or consistent by the evaporation going on in the bark and elaborated by the cells.

1400. The vessels of plants are notwithstanding to be compared with the lymphatic vessels of animals, in so far also as these are distributed throughout the whole body, and convey the sap simply in one direction not in a circle.

1401. As the passages between all the cells are in all directions, so the vegetable saps or fluids flow in all directions, and not to one centre as in the animal. Plants have no heart. The sap pursues a tolerably rapid course in the vessels. A fading or drooping cabbage, two feet in length, can gradually become erect in a few minutes after being put to soak in water. In other respects the course of the sap in the vessels may be seen in many plants under the microscope.

b. Liber-process--Mixture of Sap.

1402. In the liber, as being the mass of intercellular passages, the sap contained in the vessels principally accumulates, as in the thoracic duct of animals; in it the matters have not been simply conveyed and dissolved, but also mixed and converted into true vegetable sap, into blood.

1403. The tubes of the liber are those by which the chemical life is sustained.

c. Stalk-process--Secretion.

1404. The stalk is the root planted in air, and consequently its process is the differenced process of putrefaction, in which the mucus becomes further evolved.

1405. The analysis chiefly occurs in the stalk; the mucus, or rather the starch, becoming converted into sugar and acids.

1406. Sugar is the mucus of the stalk, and is found in every vegetable sap, especially that of such plants as are characterized by the systems of the stalk, and have not yet attained the formation of the reticular leaf, as the Monocotyledones, e. g. the grasses.

1407. The sugar originates from a process of fermentation; the process of the stalk must consequently be regarded as a vital process of fermentation.

1408. The process of fermentation is that of putrefaction carried on in the air, or the polar process of fermentation. Both processes consequently observe a polar relation towards each other.

1409. The sugar-process passes over finally into acidification.

1410. The Inflammables, as the ætherial oils, balsams, and resins, are formed in the antagonism of the sugar or of the acids. Here also belong most of the peculiar vegetable matters, as the milky saps, colouring matters, medicinally active bodies, poisons, and the alkaloids.

C. Tracheal-processes.

a. Leaf-process--Inspiration.

1411. In the foliage the woody rings have issued freely into the air, in order that they may offer their whole surface to its influence, and thus become electrified and oxydized.

1412. The leaf is the free, external organ of respiration to the plant; it is its lung. Through the leaf the air, and chiefly its oxygen, is transferred into the plant, just as it is through the lungs into the animal.

1413. The leaves take in oxygen gas; this is their essential function, and not that of exhaling it.

1414. The leaves only exhale oxygen gas when exposed to light. The development of oxygen in the plant is accordingly a light-and not an air-process. In consequence of this the leaves give out oxygen gas only during the day, but during the night and even upon gloomy days, where not the light but only the air is active, they take in oxygen and give out carbonic acid.

1415. The light develops the oxygen gas out of the plant in a perfectly inorganic manner, like as from every water, that can be set in a process of tension. Rumford has developed by simple glass tubes oxygen gas out of water. The oxygen gas of plants is therefore a result only of the decomposition of water in an inorganic manner by the agency of light, or virtually the separation only of the oxygen that is clinging to the water.

1416. Through the process of respiration in the plant carbonic acid has been formed and excreted. For the mucus becomes oxydized, and thereby the process also of fermentation, the product of which is carbonic acid, is promoted.

1417. The respiratory process of the leaves is the perfected process of fermentation in the stalk, in which finally, namely, in the fruit-saps, the separation of both the products of fermentation, the vinous and acetic, is prepared.

1418. Just as acids and sugar originate in the stalk, so in the foliage does their electrical antagonism, or the ætherial oils and perfumes. Sweet scents or perfumes are properties of the air, and therefore originate also with the aerial process. This is retrospectively a proof that the leaf-process is the respiratory process.

1419. Through the leaves, with which the whole surface of the earth is covered, the planet respires, and thereby the surface of the earth principally obtains its electricity.

1420. Vegetation must therefore effect an important change in the earth's electricity. The earth must be differently polarized after, to what it was before, the fall of the leaf.

1421. Thereby the northern hemisphere is differently polarized to the southern, because the latter has less soil than the former.

b. Wood-process--Nutrition.

1422. As most of the spiral vessels are collected together in the body of wood, and finally in the leaves issue forth quite free and naked into the air, so must the wood conduct for the most part air into the plant. The polarization of the other systems, of the liber and the bark, must therefore proceed from the body of wood.

1423. The greatest amount of induration must originate in the body of the spiral vessel, because in it the process of oxydation takes place in the most active manner. From the same cause the process of nutrition must also be supported by it in the most powerful manner. The wood is the chief seat of nutrition.

c. Tracheal-process--Oxydation.

1424. The structure of the spiral vessels, their resemblance to the tracheæ or air-tubes of insects, their distribution throughout the whole trunk, the air they contain which is found decidedly free in the plant, leave no doubt that the tracheæ are air-conveying organs, and consequently have, like the arteries in animals, the process of respiration directly intrusted to them.

1425. Now through the process of respiration the general polarity, and consequently the cause or fundamental principle of all life, enters the plant.

1426. The tracheæ penetrate or traverse the whole plant from the apex of the root to that of the flower. Their operation must therefore also extend through the whole plant.

1427. The tracheal system must also govern the plant by polarity, and thus in an immaterial manner.

1428. This polarity acts simply in the direction of the plant's longitude, not transversely, like the material fundamental processes.

1429. The tracheæ impart in a spiritual manner the antagonism between the root and fabric of the stem.

1430. As the tracheæ are, or constitute, the highest system of the plant, so must it be them upon which the light principally acts. The material processes of plants are kept in activity by the antagonism of light.

1431. By this only are the instantaneous changes, which follow upon the influence of light or section of the spiral vessels, to be explained. Upon this, therefore, depends the instantaneous elevation of the processes under the influence of a ray of light, and their depression, if only a cloud pass in front of and obscure the sun; hence too does the plant die, so to speak, upon the very spot, if the spiral fibres within the liber be cut through, but the latter left uninjured.

1432. The liber no longer conveys any sap to the divided tracheæ, solely because it has lost the condition to be affected by the light-polarity. On the contrary, a plant does not die so soon, if the liber be cut through, but the spiral vessels preserved. The spiral fibres conditionate consequently the motion and the excitation of the organic processes.

1433. The spiral fibres are therefore, apart even from their function of respiration, or rather because this is the highest vegetable function, that for the plant, which the nerves are for the animal.

1434. The tracheæ of plants do not ramify like the nerves of animals; but if they divide, they separate only as fascicles, which have been liberated from their origin. The tracheæ commence too directly in the mass of cells, wherever that may happen to be, and thus become what governs an organ, exactly like the animal nerves. Their analogy is greatest with the sympathetic nerves. The tracheæ, just as in the animal kingdom, are the mediators, not the founders, of vegetable life.

1435. The principle of motion must reside in the tracheæ, provided that higher, and not merely chemical movements, occur in the plant.

1436. These movements must and can only exist in those organs which consist almost entirely of spiral vessels, and thus only in the highest organs.

1437. Such are the leaves and the corollæ. Is it wished to compare the corolla, apart from its sexual relation, with an organ in animals, it can only be contrasted with the highest nervous organ. The corolla is the brain of plants, that which corresponds to light, but which here remains stationary upon the sexual stage. It may be said that what is sex in the plant, becomes brain in the animal, or the brain is only the animal sex.

1438. The most general function of the brain is, however, feeling or touch combined with motion. If the corolla could attain to a sensorial function, it would be to that of touch.

1439. It is conducted thereto; but at the instant, when it is indulged in feeling the mental capacity of the animal, it sinks down exhausted and dies. It is punished for the risk that has been run in wishing to attain unto self-cognition.

1440. Motion and touch are revealed only in the highest organs of the plant, or in the stamina. The filament moves upon the pistil and touches it with the pollen, which at that instant, however, is scattered in small particles, and leaves behind the filament in a withered state.

1441. The motion performed by the filaments appears to be a simple operation of the irritability in the tracheæ that have become soft, without undergoing chemical decomposition, but probably by sudden influx of sap, induced by the tension of air in the spiral vessels.

1442. In the highest, or the pinnate, leaves, movements, which are probably a result of the tracheal irritability, also occur, but are devoid the object of coming into contact with, or of touching, anything. The sensitive plants, as Hedysarum gyrans, move their leaves, not from any intrinsic determination upon their part, but in accordance with an antecedent stimulus, and thus not voluntarily, but probably through the influence merely of polar tension. The movements of leaves are convulsions of plants, although too an afflux of sap be caused or induced by the stimulus.

SAP-MOTION.

Galvanic Process.

1443. The motion of the sap is imparted through the antagonism of the respiratory and digestive processes. For these two processes are the combination of the Chemical with the Electric, which is the galvanism.

1444. The galvanic poles attract and repel the fluidity; thus the vegetable sap is attracted by the root and by the stalk. But the differencing or the oxygen pole is the stronger of the two. The determining principle of the movement of the sap resides consequently in the stalk, and the chief direction of the sap-motion tends upwards.

1445. At times, when the air-polarity is elevated, the sap also ascends more rapidly. As in summer, upon clear warm days. It ascends slowly upon gloomy and chill days. That in this also light and heat are playing their parts, is self-intelligible. Thereby the upper particles of sap become lighter and ascend, being pressed upwards by the lower and colder particles. As they are nevertheless by no means changed, this is a proof that, during the time so employed, polar forces also act upon them.

1446. But the root has also the endeavour to attract the sap; but as its pole is feebler in character, the stalk draws the sap from the ultimate extremities of the root into itself. If accordingly the polarity of the air becomes weaker, while the plant is losing its leaves or the organs of polarization; so is it easy to imagine why the motion of the sap becomes slower. As, however, the aerial polarity is always stronger than that of the earth, the sap must thus in winter also take the same, or upward, direction.

1447. A fall or descent of the sap can therefore never take place abstractedly forsooth from the root, in which it sinks by its own gravity. How a part of a plant, e. g. a twig, could continue alive, were the sap to have fallen or receded from it, is not to be conceived. It does not follow from what has been just stated, that movements of sap should not take place in all directions, and consequently too downwards; they must indeed occur rather than otherwise, and that indeed upon all sides; only the principal track or course of the sap must always pass in the direction upwards.

1448. The movement of the sap consists simply in an ascent and impulsion of its particles upon all sides, but without any circulation. A circulation would only be possible if the plant were an organism disengaged from the elements; but as the earth and air belong to its organization; it thus necessarily oscillates between both, and its movements also can only be oscillations of a similar intervening character.

1449. There are consequently no arteries and veins, and still less a heart in plants, as some have striven to make out.

1450. The vessels of plants are most properly to be compared with the lymphatic vessels of animals, the fluid or sap of which also tends from all parts towards one summit, namely, the lungs, while still at times retrogressive movements also seem to occur.

1451. The vegetable sap does not move in a straight line upwards, but in all directions, to the right and left, in a zigzag manner, and so on. This is proved by two incisions being made in a branch opposite to each other. The motion of the sap in the plant is more an impulsion of the sap toward all sides, with a predominance in the direction upwards, than a rapid current as in the blood. If we reflect that the motion of the sap when seen under the microscope and then magnified several hundred times, still only resembles a gentle rippling of small drops, it thus becomes clear that the true current or flow occurs only in a very tardy manner. Wherever therefore in the plant the process of differencialization may be brought into play, there the sap is impelled.

1452. Through the polarization of the sap the cells also become polar towards each other, and then even the cell-walls, whereby the cellular sap with its mucous granules is kept in constant motion. The theory of the motion of sap has not consequently been based upon the theory of capillary tubules; nor is heat alone the cause of its ascent; nor the empty space, which originates superiorly by evaporation; nor electricity in an inorganic sense.

II. FUNCTIONS OF THE FLORAL-ORGANS.

1453. These functions correspond to those of the light, heat, and gravity in the corolla, pistil and seed. The corolla irradiates, the pistil gives out heat, the seed sinks like the earth towards the centre.

1. Function of the Corolla.

FERTILIZATION.

1454. As in the vegetable trunk the principle function has been the antagonism between the aerial and the terrestriaqueous plant, so must the same function be repeated in the corresponding organs of the blossom. It oscillates in the principal antagonism between the corolla and pistil, which is the antagonism of leaf and stem, that of electrism and chemism, of light and body, of spirit and matter.

1455. The pollen electrifies, animates, or inspirits the ovarium, by which means it becomes stimulated to the development of seeds. Without this animating influence the seed had not been developed.

1456. This relation, whereby through the balance of an antagonism, a whole organism has been evoked into life, is called the sexual relation.

1457. The sex is consequently the antagonism between spirit and matter, light and mass, æther and the terrestrial elements, sun and planet, between electrism and chemism, that has been represented in an organism as totality. In sex consequently the primary antagonism of the world, or that of spirit and matter, centre and periphery, has been organically represented.

1458. The sex has hence from the beginning been established and prophesied; manifests itself also under diverse forms in the Organic, but becomes first individualized in an organic body. This is the lofty sense or signification of the sexual relation, that in it the Spiritual and Material pair together, and thereby sprout forth or germinate into a whole world. In sex the mystery of creation lies concealed.

1459. What is producing the fruit is called the female, that which awakes production, the male.

1460. Mascularity is the spirit of the world, feminality the matter which becomes animated by the former; mascularity is the light of the word, which illuminates the feminality, and it is pregnant; mascularity is the electricity of the world, which arouses the female chemism unto galvanic circulation. By the male the female becomes animated; before this it is dead and devoid the differentialization, which is necessary to every action.

1461. Impregnation is a simple act of light upon the matter, an irradiation, as it was termed, with such an exalted appreciation of its significance, by the ancients. The male imparts nothing in impregnation but the solar ray, or fluid nervous mass, in its semen, which awakes, animates, and inspirits the quiescent female. The female supplies or furnishes all the Material or, as in the plant, the fruit. In other respects it is not to be understood, as if no material whatever had been imparted by the male, but only that it is not the matter as such, which the male gives the female, that becomes fruit; but that the tension which resides in male semen, evokes at the same time, as by a process of contagion or fermentation, a similar tension in the female.

1462. The process of tension resides originally in the male, because he is related or akin to the light; but the female first obtains the light through the male.

1463. Impregnation is an excitation by the electrical, of the slumbering chemical, process. The pregnancy is consequently an uninterrupted chemical process.

1464. The female is the first and lies deeper in the developmental history of the planet (but not in the creation), just as the digestive process is prior or antecedent to the respiratory.

1465. In the truest sense is feminality co-ordinated with the digestive, the mascularity with the respiratory, system. The female is (organically considered) abdomen, the male, thorax. Pregnancy is a sexual process of digestion, impregnation a sexual process of respiration. In impregnation the female respires the male, whereby it receives into itself a thoracic function, becomes itself male, i. e. is then capable of producing something out of itself. Now, the female produces a fruit, which is synonymous with both principles.

1466. The semen is the fruit of the male. The male is always pregnant, and that indeed by virtue of his own power. This power is deficient in the female, which does not possess the light in itself, but only the elemental bodies that are ready and susceptible of form.

1467. The anthers are the male organs, the pollen is the semen. The pistils are the female organs, the seed-granules are properly speaking, the germ.

1468. The pollen is a most highly differenced, electrical product; the seed-granule a wholly indifferent, and tranquil mucous mass. The pollen falls upon the stigma of the pistil, and irradiation has taken place; the material fruit-capsule gains thereby so much polarity, that saps enough ascend, in order to develop the germless seed-vesicles.

1469. It is quite unnecessary for the pollen, with its sap or gas, to be materially conveyed through the style to the seed. It is only requisite for the style to be excited, dualized, electrified, and then it has life enough of its own. But it does not follow, because it is unnecessary for the sap of the floral dust or pollen to reach the seed-granules, that it cannot or ought not to reach thereunto. In many plants the pollen-tube does actually reach there and penetrate through the micropyle. In many styles it is still held as impossible, for the pollen-tube to penetrate through them to the seeds. The pollen-sap indeed simply evokes on the apex of the seed (upon the summit of the lorical rib, through whose liberation the micropyle originates) the vital process, which, without this stimulus, would perish. Thereby a new cell is secreted, from whence the germ is developed.

IRRITABILITY--MOTION.

1470. In impregnation the heaven is married to the earth; for then the spirit descends, and does not esteem itself too highly to become flesh. Impregnation is the highest immaterial action of the plant.

1471. If, therefore, the irritability of the plant at any time, or but once only, makes its appearance independently, it must be in the sexual organs, and in the moments of impregnation. Impregnation ensues, when the two mundane principles of the plant, light and matter, have attained, as corolla and fruit, to the highest pitch of perfection; then the tension of the spiral vessels ranks so high, that they exercise their function independently of what is terrestrial in the plant, move themselves in the male filaments, touch the female organ, and die in this their highest effort.

1472. Thus has it only been conceded to the plant to be, in the instant of impregnation, an animal and enjoy animal passion.

2. Function of the Ovarium.

1473. The ovary, by its own power, is in a condition to draw towards it the chemical saps from out the stem, and as it were by its own heat to thrust new buds from its leaf-ribs, namely, the seed-pellicles or testæ. It has not, however, strength sufficient to put forth also the leaf-work, namely, the embryo, upon the apex of the seed-shell. It requires for this purpose the stimulus of the floral pollen. If the plant is very rich in sap, the ovary is so likewise, and converts itself into fruit or sarcocarp. As a rule, therefore, trees only bear a crop of fruit. If also the impregnation is less perfect, the force of the sap continues to remain inherent in the ovarian leaves; they become rich in sap, fleshy, and likewise fruity in character; trees, therefore, with imperfect or separated blossoms, as the Amentaceæ, Urticaceæ, Euphorbiaceæ, Papilionaceæ, Terebinthaceæ, and Rosaceæ, usually bring forth a crop of fruit.

1474. A stronger degree of refinement appears in these fruit-saps than in the saps of the stem, because corolla and seeds range closer to each other. They are therefore more varied and richer in substance. The fruit-substances range usually upon the side of the water or the salts, while those of the seed range upon the side of the earth or the Inflammables. The substances of the seed are flour and oil, those of the fruit sugar and acids; the former supplies food, the latter drink.

1475. Seed and ovary stand therefore in antagonism, like earth and water.

3. Function of the Seed.

GERMINATION.

1476. The seed is the plant contracted upon its centre, it is the heavy mineral mass, which can only undergo changes by the operation of the other elements, like as it arrived only at completion by the operation of the floral pollen. This acts upon it when within the dry ovary, like the water and oxygen in the dry earth. These changes are its development or germination.

1477. All the planetary elements belong to germination, and to growth the Cosmical also with all its actions. To germination belongs earth, water, and air; to growth, light, heat, and gravity; with all the four mineral classes also, such as earth, salt, Inflammable, and metal. The plant contains silicious and calcareous earth, salts, coal with sulphur, and lastly, iron.

1478. Germination is the disjunctive emergence wrought by means of moisture, heat and oxydation in the processes of decomposition and fermentation. No seed germinates in irrespirable kinds of air.

1479. The cotyledons or seed-lobes are the synthesis of the two processes; they are at once root and leaf, therefore resolvable into mucus, and may yet become green.

1480. In germination the elemental bodies of the root-and stalk-polarity directly emerge; the mucus or the flour separates into alcaline gum, that seeks the darkness, and into acid sugar, which elevates itself into the illuminated air.

GROWTH.

1481. Growth is none other than continued germination. The sap being polarized by the air becomes of necessity decomposed. One part evaporates as carbonic acid and water, the other coagulates into oxydized mucus or into cell-walls.

1482. Growth proceeds directly from the process of digestion and respiration, while its polar organs constantly remove further from each other.

1483. Properly speaking the digestive and respiratory processes are none other than growth, since both separate from each other. That, which originates between them, is the process of nutrition, the vascular system.

1484. Growth oscillates between the process of decomposition and that of fermentation; it is an uninterrupted fermentation.

FALL OF THE LEAF.

1485. If every pole of the plant has been perfected in an isolated manner, it has thus become identical with the air, and the aerial process ceases.

1486. With the cessation of the aerial process, the respiratory organ must also die off or perish.

1487. The decadence, or falling off, of the leaves is the result of the tension having been abrogated between them and the stem; it is a death by suffocation.

1488. The fall of the leaf therefore occurs in the autumn, or after the fruit is matured.

DURATION OF LIFE.

1489. The age of a plant is included between the the limits of the sap's impulse, and that which has been called its fall or descent.

1490. The actual fall of the sap is the death of the plant.

1491. If with the cessation of the influence of light, the polarity ceases entirely in the plant; it is then one year old or an annual. Every part of it dies off.

1492. In biennial plants the aerial polarity indeed disappears, but the polarity of the root remains. Flower, leaf, and stalk die.

1493. Perennial plants, also, do not entirely lose the stem-polarity, but only while they develop a new plant about the old. Flower and leaf only perish, while the water-and earth-organs remain alive.

1494. The old liber dies with every maturation of the fruit, because there the difference attains solution. But a new life develops itself in the parenchyma of the plant, and forms new liber or, properly speaking, a new plant about the old.

1495. Persistent plants consist of numerous plants, which gradually grow round about each other.

1496. In accordance with the idea of the plant, each one perishes with the maturation of the fruit.

1497. On account of the addition of the new plant about the old, the plant has also been confined to no definite magnitude and to no definite number in its mode of ramification.

1498. Indefiniteness in form, size and number, is the character of the plant, although a law lies at the basis of all this. The animal has a definite size, because several animals do not grow around each other.

III.--PHYTOLOGY.

1499. Hitherto the organs of the plant have been considered in a general point of view or as to their idea in time; to this now follows the development of the plant in a special sense, or its representation in space.

1500. The vegetable tissues, systems, and organs have only by degrees been disengaged from each other and independently perfected. The independent or self-substantial development of the organs constitutes definite or individual plants.

1501. A plant, in which all the organs are present, separately or self-substantially developed and yet combined, is without doubt the highest in point of rank.

1502. Before it attains to this separation, nature can only produce lower forms, in which fewer organs have attained to independence. These forms constitute the diversity of plants and their plurality, for nature establishes every principal form as a finished organization.

1503. There are as many plants different from each other as there are organs, namely, tissues, anatomical systems and members.

1504. The sum of all plants is called the vegetable kingdom; this is the self-substantial representation of all vegetable organs. (Ed. 1st, 1810, p. 123.)

1505. The vegetable kingdom is consequently the expression of the vegetable idea, or of the perfect plant represented in the multiplicity of individuals; it is the plant disintegrated, or anatomised, by nature herself.

1506. Were we therefore acquainted with all vegetable organs, we should know their rank and developmental series; and thus also recognize the character, rank, and developmental series of the plants themselves, or their divisions. There can be no doubt that the lowest organs, e. g. the tissues, have been first developed and independently perfected as plants; later on they separate into anatomical systems and finally into members, whereby perfect plants must originate. The division or classification of the vegetable kingdom is consequently that of the vegetable organs. The Systematic of plants is a copy of that of their organs, or a plastic representation of the philosophical vegetable anatomy. With this every thing has been granted, which is requisite for the building or erection of the vegetable system. All principles, together with the methods, rest in the proposition that has been expressed.

1507. The artificial systems of plants are related to the vegetable kingdom, as the lexicon or dictionary is to language. Those systems which have hitherto been termed natural, but which should properly be called methodical, are related to the vegetable kingdom, as the ordinary grammar is to a language. The vegetable system must, however, be related to the vegetable kingdom, as the philosophical or genetic grammar is to language. This only agrees with the essence of the language, or is natural. The vegetable system is necessarily a philosophical or genetic one, that alone being truly or legitimately natural. (This system was first propounded by Oken, in the Ed. 1st of the Naturphilosophie, 1810; further developed in Dietrich's Garten Journal, 1813; carried out in his Naturgeschichte fur Schülen, 1821, and in his Lehrbuch der Nat. Gesch. Botanik. Weimar, 1825.) The artificial system collects the materials for the edifice, but leaves them to lie without order and in confusion; the methodical or what has been called the natural system separates these materials and arranges them in homogeneous groups; the genetic, philosophical or truly natural, system, again mixes them amongst each other, but thereby actually erects the edifice. All three systems are therefore necessary and good, and no one of them merits being despised by the other; it is only when one of them imagines that it is the other, or can render the others unnecessary, that it trespasses from out its circle, and deserves reproach. Thus for Floras, whose ultimate object is to find out rapidly the names of plants upon botanical excursions, as also for the labelling of specimens in botanic gardens, the artificial system is the best; for the description, however, of foreign plants the methodical; but for insight into the whole vegetable world the philosophical or natural system. Would we compare Floras with each other, the latter system must certainly come into play; but then the matter to be dealt with is not about an excursion-book.

VEGETABLE SYSTEM.

1508. Taken in a strict sense all the diversity of vegetable structure of vegetables has reference first of all to the difference in the tissues; these being either unseparated, or separated, into special systems and members. At first the tissues lie confusedly, or without order, amongst themselves. They then separate in a concentric and tubular form into systems, that are encased within each other, like the bark, liber, and wood, which form the shaft. Furthermore they separate into members, and appear one above the other, as root, stalk, and foliage, which collectively may be called the stem; these are repeated as seed, pistil, and corolla, which together are called flower, and combined, fruit, namely, nut, plum, berry and apple. I designate by the term stock or trunk all the parts as far as the blossom; and this together with the fruit I name thyrsus. The vegetable stock, whose tissues have not yet separated into members, I style, from want of a better word, thallus. As we divide political kingdoms into provinces and circles, so also may these titles be suitably applied here. It is evident, that the plants which simply consist of tissues and have as yet no sheaths and members, are the Acotyledones; those, however, provided with sheaths, but devoid of true roots, stalk, and foliage, Monocotyledones; those with true foliage or reticular-veined leaves are, on the contrary, Dicotyledones. The natural system of vegetables stands accordingly in the following manner.

A.--STOCK-PLANTS.

Province I. HISTOPHYTA, OR TISSUE-PLANTS--Acotyledones. Class 1. Cell-plants. 2. Duct- 3. Trachea-

II. THECOPHYTA, OR SHEATH-PLANTS--Monocotyledones.

4. Bark-plants. 5. Liber- 6. Wood-

III. ARTHROPHYTA, OR MEMBER-PLANTS--Dicotyledones.

Circle 1. Axis-plants--Tubulifloræ. 7. Root-plants. 8. Stalk- 9. Leaf-

B.--BLOSSOM-PLANTS.

Circle 2. Flower-plants--Thalamopetalæ. 10. Seed-plants. 11. Ovarium- 12. Corolla-

Circle 3. Fruit-plants--Calycopetalæ. 13. Nut-plants. 14. Plum- 15. Berry- 16. Apple-

1509. A slight glance at the above table shows us the procedure of Nature. The higher she ascends, the more and more she separates, and thereby increases, the organs. There may therefore be plants which have only a single organ or tissue, as well as others, which possess all.

1510. There cannot, however, be any plant which could simply possess the higher without the lower organs. Higher organized plants are not such therefore, by virtue of their having some one organ more perfectly developed, or separated into several parts; but through this, that they actually possess several different organs. The higher grade of organization depends accordingly not upon the perfection of the Singular, but the number of the Different. The Perfected consists in the multiplicity combined to constitute unity, but by no means in the simply homogeneous multitude of the parts. Numerous stamina may render a corolla higher, but not on that account the whole plant; many digits may make a hand nobler, but not on that account, the animal. But with many digits also that hand is nobler, in which the digits are dissimilar.

First Province.

HISTOPHYTA--ACOTYLEDONES.

Devoid of, or without true spiral-vessels, leaves, corollæ, and pistil.

The vegetable kingdom ascends, in accordance with the five main positions of the organs, by five stages; these are again separable into larger groups, which may be called asexual and sexual plants.

1511. The tissues are a something internal, being, as it were, the viscera of plants or their parenchyma, which does not meet the light, and can therefore have no light-organs, which are developed only out of the foliage or leaves. The anatomical systems and organs are tissues that have become external, have attained to air and light, and are hence developed into air-and light-organs. Now, the light-organs are sexual organs. The Tissue-plants can therefore have no sexual organs; and plants divide accordingly into asexual and sexual plants. The asexual are female plants, and are consequently the first or lowest. Thus there can be thus no sexual or male plants, without the female being found that belong to them.

1512. Male or androgynous plants are only possible, if spiral vessels or tracheæ be present. They first, however, originate when the tracheæ become external, or form a circle in the stalk, i. e. are accessible by light; as in the Mono-and Dicotyledones.

1513. The asexual plants are not cryptogamic, but agamic. They do not perform self-impregnation clandestinely, but not at all; for they do not attain light-difference, and consequently not male organs. Analogues of stamina may make their appearance in the mosses, but they invariably fail to attain the development of pollen. What have been called male parts in other cryptogamia, do not merit consideration. Such projections or prefigurations are besides to be found everywhere.

1514. The asexual plants are simply formations of the tissues, of the galvanic vesicle, and are thus of a female nature. They are nothing more than a great utricle full of small vesicles, which by desiccation subdivide into germinal dust or sporules, each granule whereof attracts other mucous vesicles out of the moisture, in order to form again a large utricle.

1515. The asexuals cease in the process of vegetation, where the other plants begin. With the rupture of the gemmal-or bud-vesicle in the higher plants a new world for the first time emerges into view, such as stem, leaves, blossom, and then the ultimate bud ruptures for the first time as the pericarp, and scatters its higher organized germinal powder as true seeds.

1516. An asexual plant is one, which, without all the intermediate organs of the stem, at once represents the capsule or ovary. It consists only of the beginning and end of the plant.

1517. The higher plants differ from the lower by the interposition of new organs between the two terminal organs, namely, the primary vesicle and the true seed. It may be said, that the asexual plant is naught but seed, and that the seed of the higher plants is a fungus upon a leafy peduncle, a fungus more highly organized by light.

1518. The asexual plants have no true root, stalk, and leaf; they have not even a true bark, liber, and wood, in so far as these first make their appearance through separation. Tracheæ are first exhibited in the higher ferns, and then only as constituting a single string, which occupies the middle of the plant, and consequently forms no circle or zone.

1519. As again the true seed is a leaf-formation, and possesses therefore cotyledons or seed-lobes, such seeds must be wanting in the asexual plants; they are therefore Acotyledones. From the same cause, however, the germinal leaves or plumula must be also wanting; they are therefore germless, or anembryonic.

1520. The farinaceous or granular matter, lying next to the germ when within the shell of the true seeds, is called the albumen or perisperm; the seeds of the asexual plants are therefore nothing else but albumen. They are therefore devoid of the funiculus or, what has been called, umbilical cord.

1521. The involucre, wherein, in true seeds, the germ and albumen are found, is the seed-coat or testa; consequently what has been called the capsule of the asexual plants (of mosses and ferns) corresponds simply to this spermoderm or seed-covering, and is no true ovarium. The capsules of mosses and ferns are therefore seeds full of albuminous dust.

1522. If any of these be regarded as a capsule, it can be the calyptra of the mosses. This, too, is probably nothing else than the external testa; the proper capsule being its internal coat.

1523. The indusium of ferns incloses several capsules as they have been called, or properly seeds, and might therefore, if considered alone, be compared with an ovarium, but it is probably none other than the covering corresponding to the perichoetium that surrounds the base of the setæ in mosses. The sorus is an accumulation of seeds with pulverulent albumen contained in a membranaceous covering, the indusium.

1524. The life of the asexual plants consists simply in the galvanic process. They are the primary organisms, planted in air.

1525. As being simply galvanic process, they would require but little light and air; they therefore seek the darkness, like the roots, and thrive also in a corrupt atmosphere, in caves, mines, cellars, and such like situations. They can from the same cause thrive only in moisture, in water, upon marshy meadow lands, after rain, copious dew, and so on.

1526. They are devoid the process of fermentation, as being that which is imparted by the oxydation of air, and they therefore yield neither sugar nor acids. They are simply the organized process of putrefaction; their ultimate product is therefore germinal powder, infusorial matter. Their remaining secretions are alkaline bodies; to which belong the pungent, fetid, and nauseous excretions, as the hydrogen gas and ammonia of the fungi, the mucus of the fuci, the carbonate of lime in the lichens, the cell-threads of the mosses, the fetid principle of ferns.

1527. Very few of these plants require the course of a summer in order to perfect or complete the vital course; a single ray of light of one day's, aye, of one hour's duration, is sufficient with most of them to evoke the feeble difference, to rouse the swell of the sap, and precipitate the infusorial powder.

1528. Automatic movements, as in the leaves and stamina of the higher plants, scarcely occur in them, or at most in the ferns, from their possessing spiral vessels. They divide, according to the tissues, into three classes, into Cell-, Vessel-, and Trachea-plants.

CLASS I.

Cell-plants--Fungi.

Here belong those plants which consist simply of cellular tissue, having no sap-tubes and tracheæ. Such plants, too, possess no regular or hexagonal cellular tissue.

1529. The cellular tissue, in which there is only a single active process, cannot essentially alter its primary form. It is therefore an accumulation of round or cylindrical mucus-vesicles.

1530. Mucus-vesicles, in which the air-process is not as yet active, cannot be coloured green; but must have the colour of the earth.

1531. Plants, composed of amorphous and earth-coloured cellular tissue, are Fungi. The fungi are simply clusters of mucus-vesicles joined together in a more or less regular manner, their union being effected in dark, hollow and wet situations.

1532. They may therefore originate wherever mucous juices are evolved by the potential agency of a higher organization, and thus by putrefaction. The fungi originate by æquivocal generation. They are the anal-organizations of the higher plants and animals; the corrupted and luxuriating juices.

1533. Nevertheless the fungus is propagated by division of its vesicles, which again, in accordance with their peculiar laws of polarity, attract mucus-vesicles, and thus obtain the form of the earlier or parent fungus. This is only a more regulated kind of æquivocal generation.

1534. The origin of the fungi may therefore happen in a twofold manner, namely, by formation from other juices, and by that of their own, which is called propagation. Still at bottom both are one in kind.

1535. Their granules or vesicles are seeds, properly sporules, which are self-developed without male polarization.

DIVISION.

1536. The fungi pass moreover through stages of development, which range parallel to the vegetable classes; since it is impossible for any other organs to originate in them but such as belong to the idea of the plant. The lowest fungus can therefore change only, by endeavouring to develop in itself ducts, tracheæ, roots, and such like parts.

1537. There are accordingly as many developmental stages of the fungi as there are vegetable classes. These divisions are called families.

1538. The vegetable families range parallel to the classes. This law must hold good of all the classes. There are therefore in each class 16 families. An association of families upon each stage may be called an order.

1539. At first the fungus is none other than a mucus-vesicle or a small cluster of vesicles, e. g. an uredo or mildew. Such a vesicle next becomes longitudinally extended, and includes within itself other vesicles or granules, e. g. mould. These mould-filaments or threads unite again so as to form a common mass, which is surrounded by an external membrane, and is then called puff-ball. The pulverulent granules, which were irregularly accumulated in the puff-balls, unite at length in a regular manner to constitute a trunk of varied form, as in the ascomycetes, e. g. sphæriæ. Finally, the mould-filaments with their sporules are regularly collected together in an investing membrane, which, like a puff-ball, is supported upon a stipes or stem, e. g. the sarcomycetes or agarics. There are therefore 5 developmental stages of the fungi, which correspond to those of the classes; viz. the parenchyma, shaft, stem, flower, and fruit; and constitute orders.

1540. Each order is resolvable again into three divisions or families, which correspond to the organs. Thus there are in each class 16 tribes or families, which obviously range parallel to the vegetable organs or classes. (Vid. Tab. B.)

1541. A tribe or family is consequently the representation of a vegetable organ within a class.

1542. The genera obey the same law; for essential differences are only conceivable through the presence of different organs.

1543. Species is in the animal kingdom that which copulates without necessity and compulsion. The same definition is applicable to plants. The species range, without doubt, according to the diversities in the individual organs themselves, which admit of a great multitude of combinations, the number of which is not as yet to be determined.

1544. The component parts of the fungi are either perfectly indifferent, mucous or gelatinoid matter; or they are of an alcaline nature, being acrid, poisonous, and such like. Their odour is usually dead, disagreeable, and loathsome, or analogous to their essential process of decomposition.

CLASS II.

Vessel-or Duct-plants--Mosses.

1545. The intercellular passages or succigerent vessels of plants make their first appearance in a state of perfection, when, the cells being extended lengthways, have become hexagonal and are placed in regular juxtaposition. In these plants therefore we meet with regular cellular tissue, but still without spiral vessels or tracheæ.

1546. As the vessels or ducts constitute the fundamental tissue of the liber, while this is the principal system of the stalk; so now does the stem begin to be manifested and separated from the fruit. The seeds are no longer therefore distributed in the present class throughout the whole trunk, but developed in a special involucrum or theca, which corresponds to the puff-ball, or to the pileus of the higher organized fungi.

1547. Plants with vessels, and consequently a cauliform formation, have at once also the commencement of a bark, and next the green colour. The vascular are the first green plants, and differ chiefly through that character from the fungi. They are the Fucacæ or Sea-wracks.

1548. They have the colour of the water, because the course of the sap corresponds to the aqueous process; they are aquatic, just as the brown fungi are terrestrial, plants. Their component parts are aqueous, indifferent, mucous, and filose. Their habitation is the water itself or bogs. If they occupy dry situations, they live only when it rains.

1549. They likewise pass through the five stages of vegetation, and form therefore five orders.

1550. Order 1. The lowest or Tissue-mosses, corresponding to the Uredines; are again naught but cells or mucous pellicles, but, from growing in water, and being consequently exposed to light and a stronger oxydation, they are green--Tremellini.

1551. They multiply by subdivision, since new vesicles or granules are developed in their interior, which become separated, and subsist or continue to grow for themselves. They therefore originate also by æquivocal generation, but by such an one as constantly occurs in water and light.

1552. The second order, or the Vascular mosses corresponds to the sheaths, or to the Hyphomycetes. They are long filaments replete with granules, growing in water, and therefore green--Confervaceæ. These plants begin to ramify, and either increase by this means or by effusion of granular matter.

1553. The third order, that of the Tracheal mosses, corresponds to the stem, or to the Gasteromycetes. A membranous trunk originates in water, which in certain places secretes the seeds in special vesicles or cysts--Fucales or connate Confervæ. The fuci have at once the form of a stalk with root and leaves, because they correspond to these three organs of the axis.

1554. The fourth order, the Floral mosses, endeavours to obtain the blossom, and therefore elevates itself out of the water, but loses on that account the trunk-like character, and exhibits for the most part only membranous expansions, upon which seeds are secreted, which being usually of a beautiful colour, thus assume the appearance of corollæ--Lichenales. The lichens are fuci in dry situations. They correspond to the Pyrenomycetes or Sphæriaceæ.

1555. As the variegated colours appear in the blossom, so do they also in the lichens; but here they are for the first time chemically developed, distributed throughout the whole substance, and concealed. Most lichens yield colouring matters.

1556. As the stem is, in accordance with their signification, wanting to the lichens, they thus require a foreign trunk for their nutrition. They are therefore developed for the most part upon other plants, and principally upon the bark.

1557. Lastly, the fifth order, Fruit-mosses, originates through the development of a self-substantial fruit upon a cauliform stem--the Mosses proper.

1558. As these are the highest plants of this class, and those that directly precede the tracheal formation, so the bark already resolves itself into individual leaves, which are, however, still destitute of spiral vessels.

1559. What have been called the seeds or sporules are accumulated in a capsule-like fruit upon the summit of the stalk. This fruit corresponds to the pileated fungus, and therefore springs up in an opercular manner like the latter.

1560. But this capsule is only a spermoderm, which incloses albuminous granules that have no proper germ or seed-lobes; they are plants with seed-vessels or pyxidia, upon an open-leaved stalk.

1561. They divide likewise into sixteen families. (Vid. Tab. B.)

CLASS III.

Trachea-plants--Ferns.

1562. At first a fascicle only of spiral vessels can originate, which is necessarily surrounded by cellular tissue, and therefore lies in the middle of the plant. Such plants are the Filices or ferns.

1563. As the spiral vessels are the antetype of the leaves, so does the trunk here obtain the form of the leaf, without itself producing true leaves. For, in the ferns, the fruits lie upon the back of the apparent leaf, which can only be the trunk.

1564. The fruits, being further removed from the fungi, no longer spring up in an opercular, but in a valvular, manner like the higher capsules.

1565. Green plants with imperfect spiral vessels and blossoms, and also with naked seeds devoid of true capsules, belong to the class of Ferns.

1566. I therefore place in this class the Coniferæ or trees with acicular foliage, because they have no ovarium, but naked seeds; and besides these, some other plants, though doubtfully, on account of their very abortive blossoms, as the Naiadaceæ. There are therefore Tracheal plants without and with stamina. The first portray the stock or trunk, the second, the thyrsus or blossom; they live mostly in dry situations, and produce resins or fetid matters.

1567. First order. Parenchymatous ferns--Aquatic ferns. I here place the aquatic ferns, because, as water-plants, they occupy a lower situation, because they support the fruits upon a radical trunk, and finally, because these fruit-vesicles have two kinds of contents, all of which seems to remind us of the fuci and lichens; they correspond to the Tremellini.

1568. Second order. Sheath-ferns--Club-ferns. Here commence the land ferns, and those kinds indeed whose so-called capsules open in a valvular manner, just as in the liverworts; or almost after the fashion of a pyxidium by an orifice, somewhat as in the mosses; the trunk is provided with squamose leaves or lobes, e. g. Lycopodiaceæ and Osmundaceæ; they correspond to the Confervaceæ.

1569. Third order. Stem-ferns--Annular or Ring-ferns. Here we meet with phylloidal involuted capsules or seeds upon the back of a stem that is likewise leaf-like; e. g. the typical or true ferns.

1570. They have rudiments of roots and a stem, together with foliage, because they are the prototypes of these three organs.

1571. The ring of their capsules corresponds to the midrib of the leaf. In the preceding order the capsule was only an upsprung stalk; but it is here an upsprung and unfolded leaf, the prototype of the bud-development.

1572. The fern-capsules, namely, the true seeds, are an accumulation of leaf-buds at the extremity of the fascicle of spiral vessels. The indusium is the upraised epidermis, which opens in a spathose manner; it consequently stands in the signification perhaps of the floral spathe or involucrum. They correspond to the Fuci.

1573. Fourth order. Floral ferns--Fluviales. If the tracheal plants be exalted unto the flower, male organs cannot fail in at once beginning to develop. I place therefore in this order the Naiadaceæ with very arrested blossoms, and simply stamina without calyx and corolla. The spiral vessels are rather doubtful.

1574. Fifth order. Fruit ferns--Coniferæ. Tree with imperfectly-formed spiral vessels, stamina without corollæ, seeds without ovarium; thus agreeing with the Cryptogamia even to the stamina; they form likewise sixteen families. (Vid. Tab. B.)

SEXUAL PLANTS.

1575. So soon as the three tissues separate completely from each other into bark, liber, and wood, while the tracheæ are arranged circularly into several clusters or groups, does the antagonism of these organs also make its appearance, and exhibit itself as sex in the floral organs.

1576. This separation can only be attained through the influence of the air and light, whereby the sexual organs are conditionated. These plants have therefore the several organs of the trunk and blossom.

1577. Anthers can be wanting to none of the following plants. Now, the anthers are leaf-buds; the leaf-formation must be therefore developed also in their antagonism, or in the seed. The leaves of the seed, however, are called seed-lobes; consequently all seeds of sexual plants have seed-lobes or cotyledons.

1578. Now the perfect seed is the whole plant in miniature with root, stalk, and leaf. This formation is, however, only possible where there is a sex, or where the vegetable tissues have emerged self-substantially from each other.

1579. But the anthers are buds upon a floral rib; consequently all sexual plants must have a part of the blossom, which ranks in the signification of leaf, and thus either the calyx or, with this also, the corolla.

1580. All sexual plants must have a shaft or scape, in which its three parts, bark, liber, and wood, are to be distinguished; even so must the three parts of the stem, the root, stalk, and leaf, have the parts of the blossom which correspond to them, viz. seed, ovarium, and calyx or corolla.

1581. The sexual plants next divide into Stock-and Blossom-plants, the former of these parting into Shaft-and Stem-plants.

Second Province.

SHAFT-PLANTS--MONOCOTYLEDONES.

1582. In the Shaft-plants the invaginate character is predominant, the wood being surrounded by liber, and this by bark; they are therefore tubular in form--tubular plants.

1583. The cellular tissue preponderates in them, and the tracheal fascicles form therefore no closed circle, but are dispersed; scattered fasciculi cannot, however, ramify but only pursue a straight course and form streaks--striated plants.

1584. Ramification is wanting unto these plants, partly on account of their tubular form, partly on account of the smaller quantity of tracheal fascicles--aramose plants. A vegetable stem without branches is called shaft or scape; thus they are shaft-plants.

1585. The blossoms do not stand upon ramules, but upon the stem itself; thus, if ever ramification originates, it can first occur in the floral peduncles.

1586. As they are deficient in branches, so also are they in buds--agemmal or budless plants.

1587. The tendency to produce branches forms nodes, which are only imperfect ramal zones--nodose plants.

1588. Where the formation of branches is wanting, the minor ramification of ribs must be also wanting in the leaves; they are parallel-ribbed.

1589. The leaf is only a ruptured and expanded tube or spathe, which surrounds the shaft--spathose plants.

1590. Where branches are wanting, there can be also no petiolated leaves; they have therefore only radical leaves, from the midst of which the shaft or scape sprouts forth, only as a floral-peduncle--radical-leaved plants.

1591. If all these leaves be still sheathed or encased within each other, they are called bulbs--bulbose plants.

1592. Since the corolla is the repetition of the leaves, so also must its structure resemble theirs--spathose corollæ.

1593. But as there are here only radical leaves, so also is the corolla only a radical leaf-corolla. In the blossom, however, the radical leaf has become spathe, the cauline leaf, calyx, the ramuscular leaf, corolla. Such blossoms consist therefore either of a spathe only, as in the Aroideæ, or of a calyx--calycine plants.

1594. The stamina originate from the calyx. In calycine flowers therefore all the stamina must range opposite to the corolla-petals. These plants have only opposite, no alternate stamina. It has been generally assumed that the Monocotyledones have no true corollæ, but only coloured calyces. Philosophy agrees with this opinion; but adds thereunto that the corollæ of the Monocotyledones may be also merely spathes or involucra.

1595. The separation of the bud-formation here takes place for the first time in the blossom, namely, in the stamina. The number of the floral parts must be limited to three; for this is the first number, in which the leaf-ribs may divide. Corollæ, stamina, and capsules are ternary--trinity-plants.

1596. As the seed is only an undeveloped leaf-bud, so in it only can the number of the leaf be found. Since, however, the leaf does not ramify in the present group of plants, but is only a single spathose leaf; so also does the seed consist only of one such leaf or of one seed-lobe--Monocotyledones. The wheat-seed or grain is none other than a grass-leaf with a short spathe and very dense, highly farinaceous, lamellæ. In germinating a new leaf emerges from the short spathe; it is the germinal leaf.

1597. Thus plants having a tubular stem, and such kind of foliage, corollæ and seeds, are Monocotyledones.

1598. The chemical bodies are more diversified in these than in the remaining members of the vegetable kingdom. In the roots, as in the tubers of the Orchideæ we meet with distinct mucilage; in the bulbs with alkalies or acrid matter; and with sugar, as being a feeble conversion of the starch in the stalk. The mucilage of the root becomes, when repeated in the seed, flour. Oily matters or acids seldom occur, and fleshy fruits scarcely ever.

1599. The ovary is almost throughout this region of plants either a single spathose leaf or caryopsis; or three spathe-leaves are united together, which thus, as follicles or carpels, usually burst open upon the internal edge.

DIVISION.

1600. If we now proceed to survey the Monocotyledons, in the order just set before us, we shall recognize among them three typical groups, to which the others are allied; they are the Gramineæ, Liliaceæ, and Palmaceæ.

1601. The Grasses obviously rank the lowest as well in respect of their root, stalk, and foliage, as also of their stunted blossoms, ovarium, and seeds.

1602. To them succeed the Lilies, which have a well-marked root, a more perfect, though still always herbaceous, stalk, and a few spathoid, more numerously ribbed leaves; lastly, their corollæ, ovaria, and seeds are perfect; but still they invariably have no genuine fruits.

1603. Finally, the Palms are elevated above all by their stem being rich in tracheæ and wooded, as also by the perfection of their fruit. Scientifically, the scapose or shaft-plants must also resolve themselves into three classes; into Bark-, Liber-, and Wood-plants.

CLASS IV.

Bark-plants--Gramineæ.

1604. In these plants the whole stalk must have assumed the form of the cortex or bark, and consequently be hollow--tubular, or culmaceous plants.

1605. A mere bark cannot ramify. But the tendency unto ramification is manifested as nodes--nodose plants.

1606. The leaf which still represents the bark, is only imperfectly slit up, and therefore still forms a tube. Such leaves are called tubular or spathe-leaves proper.

1607. Such tubular leaves being only half slit up can only shoot forth gradually from each other, and that indeed in such a manner that they stand actually by twos, encased in, or opposite to, each other.

1608. Since the blossom is, as it were, an impression, or copy of the leaves, so will it here also consist only of spathiform, involucral, or calycine leaves, and only of two, one of which, though opposite to, is surrounded by the other. Such floral parts are called glumes--glumaceous plants. If four glumes are present, then the external pair of them corresponds to the involucrum or spatha, the internal to the calyx.

1609. The corolla-petals are of necessity arrested in plants such as these, where no true leaf is as yet developed; frequently two only are left persistent as pellicles or lodiculæ.

1610. This is still more the case with the ovary and seed; in each only one leaf attains development, and the seed has entirely coalesced with the ovarium. This kind of fruit is called caryopsis.

1611. Nodose plants with hollow scape or shaft, tubular leaves, glumose blossoms, and cariopsidal fruits are Grasses.

DIVISION.

1612. The Bark-plants pass moreover, together with their subdivisions, through the five stages of vegetable organs, and they will therefore produce also a more perfect stalk, leaves, and flowers. The whole calyx will, however, never be coloured or corolla-like in its character. Cortical plants are thus herbaceous plants with hollow stalk, and with an arrested or green calyx, without sarcose or fleshy fruit.

1613. Those, which have simply glumose flowers, are without doubt the lowest in rank, as corresponding to the tissues and stock, but not yet to the flower.

1614. These again divide into two great groups, whereof the one includes plants with simply uni-seminal cariopsides, the other, on the contrary, capsules containing a free seed--Grasses and Reed-grasses. The grasses which have a cariopsis or grain-fruit reascend by two stages; the most inferior in rank do not attain to a ramification, but the flowers stand crowded together in spikes; the others, on the contrary, are pedunculated and ramify in panicles.

1615. Among the higher kinds instead of glumes there are regular flowers, of which, however, the calyx is still glumose or at least green. The cariopsis is converted into a multilocular capsule, as in the Restiaceæ, Commelineæ, &c.

1616. The first order, or the Parenchymatous grasses, have glumose flowers with a cariopsis for fruit, borne upon culms or nodose straws, and do not attain to any ramification--spicate grasses. In their seeds we meet with the greatest amount of starch developed, though doubtless at the cost of the trunk.

1617. The second order of Spathose grasses are similar, and support ramified flowers--paniculate grasses. In this division occur grasses of a dendroidal character, and having occasionally fruit-like ovaria, as in the bamboos.

1618. The third order consists of the Cauline grasses. Here the leaves at once separate completely from the shaft, which is therefore free from nodes. Nut-like capsules, though still inclosed in glumes, also make their appearance--reed-grasses.

1619. The fourth order, Floral grasses. The leaves are still only radical; the shaft is anodal; the flowers are separated into green calyx and coloured corolla, with three or six stamina, and mostly with a trilocular capsule--Junceæ, to which the Commelinaceæ are allied.

1620. The fifth order, Carpal grasses. Hollow anodal shafts, with scarcely spathiform, mostly broad leaves, the ribs of which begin to ramify; with similar calyces and corollæ, and numerous capsules--Seeroseæ, to which the Alismaceæ and Hydrocharideæ are related.

1621. The highest kind of fruit attained by this class is nut-like, never fleshy in character. The stalk is nowhere woody as in some grasses. The grasses divide, as do all other orders of plants, into sixteen families. (Vid. Tab. B.)

CLASS V.

Liber-plants--Liliaceæ.

1622. The substance of the stalk is soft and succulent; its structure devoid of nodes; the leaves are tolerably free and ribbed; calyx and corolla coloured, both being perfectly formed and invariably tripartite, as is likewise the capsule, which has many seeds upon its inner angle. These plants are the Lilies. In the present class all parts have been developed in conformity to the liber, are rich in sap, and have become dense and fleshy.

1623. The roots are mostly tubers or bulbs, containing a superior kind of mucilage, or aromatic principles. The shaft is not hollow but, though herbaceous, filled up; the leaves are elevated upon the stalk. One division of these plants has irregular corollæ with stunted stamina and capsules, the latter containing mostly dust-like seeds, as in the Orchideæ and aromatic plants.

1624. The other division has regular 2 × 3ary corollæ, with, perfect glume-capsules and middling-sized seeds, as the Irideæ and Liliaceæ proper.

1625. The first order, Parenchymatose lilies. The corollæ are irregular, bilabiate, and stand upon the calyx and a membranous sexlocular capsule with very small seeds; are divided according to the pollen--e. g. pulverulent Orchideæ.

1626. The second order, Sheath-lilies. Characters similar to those of the preceding order, but the pollen is agglomerated into waxy granules--granular orchideæ.

1627. The third order, Stem-lilies. The corollæ are likewise bilabiate and situated above the calyx, but the ovarium contains few seeds, and the capsule is mostly nut-like--aromatic plants, such as the Scitamineæ and Musaceæ.

1628. The fourth order Floral-lilies, have regular blossoms, separated into calyx and corolla, placed above the capsule, and mostly furnished with three stamina. Here belong the Hypoxideæ, Hæmodoraceæ and Irideæ.

1629. The fifth order, Fruit-lilies. The leaves have not yet completely separated from each other, but still form bulbs; the corollæ are regular, have six stamina, and are placed beneath the capsule, as in the true lilies. To this order belong the Colchicaceæ, Aloinæ and Liliaceæ. Their bulbs contain mostly acrid matters. They divide into sixteen families. (Vid. Tab. B.)

CLASS VI.

Wood-plants--Palmaceæ.

Plants with woody shaft and with fruits, mostly enclosed in spadices.

1630. The desiccation of the cells and fibres is promoted by the increased process of oxydation. Where therefore the tracheæ attain the preponderance, there the conversion into wood originates.

1631. The stalks of these plants are not hollow, but have a dense interior, because the fasciculi of tracheæ lie within the liber, and there increase.

1632. The main bulk of the stalk will consist of tracheæ.

1633. As the tracheæ are longitudinal organs, and the other tissues also extend lengthways, so does the stalk or stem in these plants predominate over the other parts.

1634. In this class the most perfect leaves as regards their present stage are developed; for they are only expansions of the tracheæ, which are here present in superabundance. As regards the form also, these leaves must rank higher than those of the preceding class; the spathe is shorter, the leaf itself usually broad, many-ribbed, and frequently pinnate. The leaves are also perfect as to position, being no longer mere radical leaves, but situated upon the stalk, even on its apical extremity.

1635. The ramification gradually emerges into view, where forsooth its occurrence is possible in the shaft-plants, or in the inflorescence. It is always multiple in character, mostly spadici-, muscari-, and paniculiform.

1636. As regards the blossom the ovarium is most perfectly evolved, because it is developed out of the stalk; it is ternary and becomes elevated into a fruit with few seeds.

1637. The corollæ are frequently stunted, yet regular and 2 × 3ary, though insignificant on account of the preponderance in size of the fruit.

1638. In this class we meet with the first true or genuine fruits; because in it for the first time the three anatomical systems are completely separated.

1639. Plants having a ligneous stalk, free and many-ribbed leaves, ramified inflorescence and ternary fleshy fruits, are the Palmaceæ. The Palmaceæ have a woody, very hollow stem, with many-ribbed, divided, and often pinnate leaves; a muscariform inflorescence lodged in spathes, sexanary corollæ with nuts, berries, or drupes. With the palms are associated the Typhaceæ, Aroideæ, Piperales, Pandanales, Dioscoreæ, Smilaceæ, Asparagi, Convallariæ, and Bromeliæ; for their stalks are mostly woody, the leaves broad, and placed upon the stalk, the corollæ stunted, while, on the contrary, the ovarium is carpoidal or fruit-like. The five orders may be disposed as follows:

1640. Order I. Palmaceæ parenchymatosæ. Cynomoridæ, Typhaceæ, Aroideæ.

1641. Order II. P. thecales. Saurureæ, Piperaceæ, Pandanaceæ.

1642. Order III. P. axonales. Dioscoreæ, Smilaceæ, Parideæ.

1643. Order IV. P. florales. Asparagoideæ, Convallariæ, Bromeliæ.

1644. Order V. P. carpales. Palms.

1645. The plants of the first order are very imperfect herbs with spadices. Those of the second have mostly a ligneous, nodose stalk, with one-seeded fruits in spadices, without corollæ. The third have separated corollæ disposed in an open form of inflorescence. The fourth have perfect sexanary corollæ, with a frequently woody stalk and ternary, many-seeded berries. The fifth order consists of trees having large leaves, muscariform spadices, and perfect fruits, nuts, plums, and berries, ternary and one-seeded. They divide into sixteen families. (Vid. Tab. B.)

Third Province.

RETICULAR-LEAVED PLANTS--DICOTYLEDONES.

1646. With the separation of the stock or trunk into root, stalk and leaf, the latter organ attains its perfection; it becomes a reticular leaf--the plants possessing it being called reticular.

1647. The retinerved or reticular leaf is, however, only the result of a modified organization in the stalk, and indicates a ramification or foliiform arrangement of the tracheæ in the stem. The foliiform arrangement of the tracheæ in the stalk is their circular disposition. These plants have woody zones. Through this zone or ring of wood first originates the perfect separation into wood, liber and bark, whereof each formerly occupied the whole stalk or stem.

1648. The stalk is no longer a shaft or scape, but it divides into branches and twigs--ramular plants.

1649. The reticular-veined are ramular leaves, and are no longer therefore spathiform but petiolated--petiolated leaves. It is only at the root that spathose leaves may occur, and this only in the plants of the inferior classes.

1650. With the disappearance of the spathose leaves, and the appearance of the ramules, the nodes and bulbs also disappear.

1651. The blossoms stand no longer upon a radical peduncle or stipes, but upon ramules; in other words, upon a plant, which again stands upon another plant, namely, the stalk.

1652. As all the higher separations of leaves here occur, so also does the flower obtain its higher amount of separation; it becomes quinary--pentaschematose plants. The ovarium passes through all numerical conditions, being 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and polycarpellar. In like manner all the forms of ovaria and fruits occur in the present class, such as caryopsis, follicle, legumen, siliqua, capsule, nut, plum, berry and apple.

1653. As the seed is a leaf-formation, so must it resemble the reticular leaf. But reticular leaves are not spathes or simple tubes, but ramified or separated ribs. The seed has therefore several leaves, and two indeed for the first time, which are called seed-lobes. These plants are therefore styled Dicotyledones.

DIVISION.

1654. The Dicotyledones are, in the first place, empirically divisible into apetalous, monopetalous and polypetalous, or into plants with calycine, tubular and petalous corollæ.

1655. It might be believed that the Apetalæ were, without further trouble, the lowest in point of rank; but, when closely considered, they appear as Polypetalæ with stunted corolla-petals, and are obviously allied to the Rosaceæ. Moreover, they all bear nuts, a fact which occurs in no other class, and they must be therefore placed among the fruit-bearing plants. Since, however, they are epigynous and perigynous, so must the other polypetalous Perigynæ enter into proximity with them, and in like manner forsooth come among the Fruit-plants.

1656. Thus the Dicotyledones separate into the Monopetalæ, hypogynous Polypetalæ, and perigynous Polypetalæ, along with the Apetalæ. Viewed in a scientific light, they separate according to the principal members of the plant into three districts, Axis-, Flower-, and Fruit-plants.

FIRST CIRCLE.

Stem-plants--Monopetalæ.

1657. The Monopetalæ or Tubulifloræ are the lowest in rank, and must therefore take the place here assigned them. They are still spathose corollæ. Among them are found for the most part only cariopsides and membranous capsules, rarely fruits. They are usually, too, merely herbs, rarely bushes, and still more rarely trees.

1658. They divide into Epigynes, Peri-and Hypogynes, of which the former are the lowest, the latter the highest; for in that which is left similar the coalition is an inferior sign.

1659. Their essential or typical character does not, however, reside in the blossom, but in the trunk, and that indeed in the root, stalk, and foliage. The question therefore may now be asked, whether in the Epigynes the root, in the Perigynes the stalk, and in the Hypogynes the foliage, be the principal organ.

CLASS VII.

Root-plants.

1660. That the Tubulifloræ with superior blossoms and fleshy root are radical plants, admits of being easily demonstrated. The preponderance of the root is evident from its size, its quantity of contained sap, or special chemical ingredients. A root that is rich in sap, and much denser than the stalk, is called a turnip. These plants are thus turnip-plants.

1661. Among the Monopetalæ, however, there are napiform roots only in the Epigynes, namely, the Syngenesia or salad-plants, and among some Perigynes, namely, the Campanuleæ, as well as the Cucurbitaceæ. The Syngenesia are consequently the radical plants. The roots of the Scorzoneræ, Pastinaceæ, Cichoraceæ, and Tussilago or coltsfoot, &c., belong to this class.

1662. That the Scabiosæ and Valerianeæ are directly related to the Syngenesia is likewise indicated by their roots. Unto these succeed in point of structure the Campanulaceæ and the Cucurbitaceæ, which have frequently, too, napiform or turnip-shaped roots.

1663. The number of the Syngenesia is so great that they fill up all the orders of the trunk. In accordance with their whole structure they are obviously the lowest, the stalk being for the most part herbaceous and placed within a circle of radical leaves, but being itself provided with few, imperfect, and scarcely ever pinnate leaves; they have moreover numerous stunted blossoms that are connate with the single or solitary seed, and crowded together, like spadices, grass-spikes, or the fungal pilei, upon a carpoclinium or receptacle.

1664. They are a repetition of the fungi and grasses; of the former in their fleshy root and inflorescence, of the latter likewise in the inflorescence and in the spathoidal root-leaves; above all, in the single large seed, confluent with the ovarium and calyx. The principle of their division must, where it is possible, and for obvious reasons, be drawn from the organs of the trunk.

1665. First order. Radicariæ parenchymatosæ.--Syngenesia, having radical leaves and uniform florets, tubular or wholly stunted ligular florets--Cichoraceæ and Thistles.

1666. Second order. P. vaginatæ.--Syngenesia, with opposite leaves and different kinds of florets, such as radiated, partly lingual and partly tubular corollæ--Sunflowers, Silphieæ.

1667. Third order. R. axonales.--Syngenesia, with alternate leaves and diversified florets--Anthemideæ, Senecionidæ, Astereæ.

1668. Fourth order. R. florales.--Here the ovarium is no longer dense and confluent with the calyx, and it begins to become trilocular--Scabiosæ, Valerianeæ, and Campanulæ.

1669. Fifth order. R. fructuariæ.--Here a perfect fruit is developed, which is connate with the calyx--Asarideæ, Passifloreæ, and Cucurbitaceæ. They have apple-like 3-5 ry fruits, and many of them have napiform roots, e. g. the Gichtrüben. They divide into sixteen families. (Vid. Tab. B.)

CLASS VIII.

Stalk-plants.

1670. Plants with a predominating development of stalk, leaves narrow, mostly opposite, quaternary corollæ upon the calyx, ovarium multilocular, and containing few seeds.

1671. Here everything, both root and leaf, must be stalk-like in character; the stalk is therefore woody, the root fibrous, the foliage twig-like or narrow, like needles.

1672. This structure is chiefly found in the Heaths and Stellatæ. The stalk is mostly woody; the foliage either aciculiform or leathery in texture, and never pinnated. The leaves are either arranged in whorls or opposite, a position which indicates a lower grade of development. Moreover, they are related to the plants of the preceding class; they are either Epigynous or Perigynous. The corolla and ovarium follow the opposite position of the leaves; the former being quadripartite, the latter bi-and quaternary. Most of them grow in hot countries upon dry ground, and their virtues reside in the stalk, e. g. the Peruvian bark.

1673. The Stellatæ or Rubiaceæ are without doubt the lowest, because they are epigynous and have a quadri-petalous corolla, with a binary and frequently only follicular ovarium.

1674. First order. Cauliariæ parenchymatosæ. The Stellatæ proper along with the Coffeaceæ, all of them being two-seeded.

1675. Second order. C. vaginatæ. The Rubiaceæ with bilocular many-seeded capsules--Rondeletiæ and Cinchoneæ.

1676. Third order. C. axonales. Rubiaceæ with fruits--Guettardidæ, Hameliæ, Gardeniæ.

1677. Fourth order. C. florales. Quadripetalar Perigynæ, with similar capsules or berries--Epacrideæ, Vacciniaceæ, Ericaceæ.

1678. Fifth order, C. fructuariæ. Quaternary Perigynes with fruits--Myrobalaneæ, Olacineæ, Diospyroideæ and Sapoteæ. (For the arrangement of their families vid. Tab. B.)

CLASS IX.

Leaf-plants.

1679. Herbs having broad leaves, quinary hypogynous corollæ, and bilocular capsule. Here the whole stem has become leaf; all the parts are soft; they are herbs in the propermost sense of the word.

1680. Here belong the hypogynous Monopetalæ: Primulaceæ, Personatæ, Solaneæ, Gentianeæ, Asclepiadæ, Cariceæ, Asperifoliæ, Sambuceæ. The roots are fibrous; the stalk herbaceous, being wholly covered, and that indeed with large leaves; calyx and corolla quinquepartite, frequently bilabiate; the germen a bilocular membranous capsule, which seldom becomes fleshy, and contains few seeds. It is these plants which serve chiefly as food for cattle, and whose whole trunk is officinally known under the name of herbage; relations which express the leafy character.

1681. First order, Foliariæ parenchymatosæ. Herbs with bilocular capsules, in which there are many seeds placed upon a median cone. The capsule dehisces, while both carpels separate from each other--Primulaceæ, Scrophulariæ, Solaneæ.

1682. Second order, F. vaginatæ. For the most part herbaceous, their many-seeded carpels springing open at the dorsal suture--Orobanchaceæ, Rhinanthaceæ, and Bignoniaceæ.

1683. Third order, F. axonales. Regular quinary corollæ with seeds borne upon the margins of the two carpellar valves--Gentianaceæ, Asclepiadaceæ, Jasmineæ.

1684. Fourth order, F. florales. Few seeds in one capsule; the pistil becomes nut-like or trilocular--Labiatæ, Polemoniaceæ, Convolvulaceæ.

1685. Fifth order, F. fructuariæ. Herbs and shrubs with fruits; as nuts, plums and berries. For their sixteen families (vid. Tab. B.)

B. BLOSSOM-PLANTS.

1686. Flowers polypetalous.

SECOND CIRCLE.

Flower-plants.

1687. Calyx, corolla, stamina and ovarium perfectly separated from each other--Pedunculate corollæ, Stielblumen or Hypogynes. The blossom must be here developed in the most perfect manner; i. e. all its parts must be complete and separated from each other. This is the case only in the hypogynous Polypetalæ.

1688. The lowest organized kinds must, from being a repetition of them, remind us of the grasses and Syngenesia. They are therefore polycarpellar or multi-ovarial.--Ranunculaceæ, Malvaceæ, Magnoliaceæ.

1689. Unto these are allied those plants whose ovaria consist of several carpels, but that are connate with each other, and mutually separate for the first time with their maturation or decay, as in the Rutaceæ, Polygaleæ, Malvaceæ, Aurantiacæ, Platanaceæ, Malpighieæ, Sapindeæ.

1690. The highest are characterized by coalition of the carpels into a single ovarium with stunted dissepiments, and by corollæ that are well developed and distinguished for colour, delicacy, and magnitude--Carnations, Violets, Cistaceæ, Siliquosæ, Poppies, Gamboge-trees.

CLASS X.

Seed-plants.

1691. Plants having a preponderance of seed, that draws after it all the floral parts.

1692. The ovaria have become seed-like, have separated from each other, and inclose for the most part only a single seed.

1693. As in the grasses and Syngenesia many flowers are collected into a spike or upon a receptacle, so here are many carpels in a single corolla--Ranunculaceæ, Geraniaceæ, Tiliaceæ, Malvaceæ, Magnoliaceæ.

1694. The stamina are usually of indefinite number, and mostly connate.

1695. All forms of stalks are here met with; such as herbs, bushes, shrubs, and trees. All forms also of leaves; spathose leaves, petiolated leaves, simple and divided, yet rarely pinnated.

1696. The component parts are usually mucilage, as in the roots of the Syngenesia.

1697. They divide into two great groups, into the quinary and sexanary. Since among the quinary, herbaceous stalks with nodes and spathe-leaves, but capsules only, occur; they must be arranged in the lowest rank. The sexanary bear fruits.

1698. First order, Seminariæ parenchymatosæ. Herbs with nodes and spathose leaves, together with numerous, mostly one-seeded, carpels, attached in an irregular manner to a median columella--Ranunculaceæ and Geraniaceæ.

1699. Second order, S. vaginatæ. Trees having many-seeded carpels, coalesced like the style, Theaceæ, Tiliaceæ, Elæocarpaceæ.

1700. Third order, S. axonales. Bushes and shrubs with free, mostly simple, leaves, ovaria, mostly one-seeded, and arranged in a circle around the mediate axis or columella; anthers bilocular--Hermanniaceæ, Dombeyaceæ, Sterculiaceæ, and Büttneriaceæ.

1701. Fourth order, S. florales. For the most part trees, having frequently divided leaves and similar ovaria, yet mostly many-seeded and connate--Malvaceæ and Bombaceæ.

1702. Fifth order, S. fructuariæ. Corollæ mostly sexanary, ovaria in a circle without a columella--Magnoliaceæ, Menispermaceæ, Dilleniaceæ, Anonaceæ. They divide into sixteen families. (Vid. Tab. B.)

CLASS XI.

Ovarium-plants.

1703. Hypogynous Polypetalæ with perfect multilocular ovarium--Polygaleæ, Melieæ, Aurantiaceæ, Platanaceæ, Malpighieæ, Sapindeæ.

1704. While in the preceding class the number of the carpels was usually indeterminate; it is here limited to three and five. In the one, they usually stood around a middle columella or axis, in the other, they form a true capsule with perfect partition-walls or septa, and a single style. The number of the seeds is moderate, i. e. there are more than one, but they are easily counted. They are therefore of mediate size, having no kernels, as is the case in the nuts, but also no granules, as in the berries or poppy capsules. In the preceding class the fruits were rare; here they occur frequently in the upper orders. The number of the floral parts is, throughout the present class, five, that of the stamina five or ten, and they are seldom coalesced; the stalk also passes through all the stages of development from that of the herb through the shrub into the tree. The leaves are seldom spathe-like, but frequently coriaceous and aciculate, as in their predecessors the Heaths; many are pinnated.

1705. First order, Capsulariæ parenchymatosæ--Rutaceæ. Herbs and shrubs frequently provided with aciculate and coriaceous leaves; corollæ regular with ten stamina; ovarium consisting of five carpels, which separate when ripe, and contain few seeds--Rutaceæ, Diosmaceæ.

1706. Second order, C. vaginatæ. Shrubs and trees with similar corollæ and ovaria, which are nevertheless frequently separated and fleshy--Quassiaceæ, Ochnaceæ.

1707. Third order, C. axonales. Mostly shrubs and trees with irregular corollæ and bilocular ovarium--Polygalaceæ, Vochysieæ, Pittosporeæ.

1708. Fourth order, C. florales. Trees with a woody or berry-like ovarium, having several cells--Cedreleæ, Melieæ, Aurantiaceæ.

1709. Fifth order, C. fructuariæ. Trees; flowers quinary, ovarium mostly ternary, becoming a winged or fleshy fruit. (Their sixteen families probably pursue the order indicated at Tab. B.)

CLASS XII.

Corolla-plants.

1710. Corollæ stipaceous, having free stamina; ovaria with stunted septa, and numerous marginal seeds--Carnations, Violets, Cistaceæ, Siliquosæ, Papaveraceæ, Guttiferæ.

1711. The stalk passes through all the stages of formation, from the nodose herb unto the shrub and tree. The leaves occur likewise under all forms, modes, division, and arrangement. The plants of this class are found in all climates, and yield etherial or volatile and fatty oil with resins. They divide first of all into quinary and quaternary; the former being mostly herbs with a hollow capsule; the latter herbs, shrubs, and trees, with siliquæ or berries.

1712. Their strength or virtue resides in the flower, which, is therefore of large size, beautifully coloured, sweet-scented, is frequently appreciated and adopted as an ornament. On the contrary, the ovarium and seed are stunted. The former is a siliqua or hollow capsule, which therefore supports the numerous smaller seeds on the septum.

1713. First order, Corollariæ parenchymatosæ. Nodose herbs with spathose leaves, quinary corollæ, and ten stamina; many seeds upon a columellar or median placenta situated within a hollow capsule--Portulaceæ, Carnations.

1714. Second order, C. vaginatæ. Herbs, shrubs, and trees, with similar but mostly multi-staminal corollæ, and seeds on the capsular septa--Droseraceæ, Hypericineæ, Violaceæ, Cistaceæ, and Bixeæ.

1715. Third order, C. axonales. Herbs with quaternary corollæ and a siliqua--Siliquosæ.

1716. Fourth order, C. florales. Bushes and shrubs with quaternary corollæ and numerous stamina; ovarium a siliqua or multi-valvular hollow capsule--Capparidæ, Berberideæ, Papaveraceæ.

1717. Fifth order, C. fructuariæ. Trees with quaternary and quinary corollæ, numerous stamina, and a fruit--Guttiferæ. They divide into the usual sixteen families. (Vid. Tab. B.)

THIRD CIRCLE.

Fruit-plants--Apetalæ, Perigynes.

1718. Stunted calycine corollæ, with nuts, plums, berries, or apples.

1719. They are perigynous Polypetalæ, and include the Apetalæ and Diclines.

1720. The nut consists of a large seed, connate with the woody ovarium, and frequently with the calyx.

1721. The plum is a legumen, between the coats of which fleshy matter has accumulated, and whose internal tunic or endocarp has become woody. The berry is a many-seeded hollow capsule, which, as well as the calyx, has become soft and succulent.

1722. The apple is an ovarium surrounded by a fleshy calyx.

CLASS XIII.

Nut-plants--Apetalæ, Diclines.

1723. Ovarium woody, and inclosing only one seed. Here belong the Apetalous and Diclinous Exogens.

1724. These plants repeat the fungi, grasses and Syngenesia, and have therefore imperfect corollæ, the calyx of which has alone remained, and usually closely surrounds the nut.

1725. The stalk is indeed usually woody; yet is still found to be also herbaceous and nodose with spathiform leaves. The leaves are simple, frequently needle-shaped or else arrested. The principal ingredients are starch, as in the Gramineæ and Syngenesia.

1726. The inflorescence is mostly amentaceous, as in the Agarics, Grasses and Syngenesia.

1727. They divide into androgynous and dioecious plants.

1728. First order, Nucariæ parenchymatosæ. Hermaphrodite herbs with nodes and spathose leaves, calyx green, superior, and quinquepartite with five opposite stamina; nut mostly triangular and utricular.

1729. Second order, N. vaginatæ. Form of vegetation pretty nearly as in preceding order, but the calyx is corolla-like, and the stamina mostly alternate--Phytolacceæ, Illecebreæ.

1730. Third order, N. axonales. Hermaphrodite, calyx corolla-like, superior and wholly quaternary; herbs and shrubs bearing nuts and plums--Nyctagineæ, Daphneæ, and Santalaceæ.

1731. Fourth order, N. florales. Trees, calyx corolla-like but inferior; capsules, plums and berries--Proteaceæ.

1732. Fifth order, N. fructuariæ. Diclines; herbs, shrubs and trees without corollæ, but with nuts or plums. (Their sixteen families stand in the order exhibited at Tab. B.)

CLASS XIV.

Plum-plants--Papilionaceæ.

1733. Polypetalous calycine corollæ, with a drupe or its fundamental form, the legumen. Here belong the papilionaceous plants, Rhamnaceæ and Terebinthaceæ.

1734. The stalk is frequently herbaceous with nodes; but mostly fruticose and arborescent.

1735. The leaves here attain their highest development, and are mostly pinnated, sometimes endowed with the power of independent motion.

1736. The corollæ are mostly irregular, quinary, arranged like pinnate leaves, with ten, rarely more, connate and free stamina.

1737. The ovarium is a single carpel, owing to the four others being arrested; it is usually compressed and bivalved, with few seeds; it is a legumen, frequently converted into a fleshy fruit.

1738. The Papilionaceæ are so rich in number that they include all the orders of the trunk, and even transcend or exceed its limits; their allied families are the Rhamnaceæ and Terebinthaceæ with fleshy fruits.

1739. First order, Drupariæ parenchymatosæ. Papilionaceæ with herbaceous, nodose stalk and pinnated leaves; corolla-petals and single stamen free; seed-lobes thin--Hedysareæ, Astragaleæ, Glycineæ.

1740. Second order, D. vaginatæ. Herbs and shrubs with ternary or tendrilless leaves; the corolla-petals or stamina frequently confluent--Trifoliaceæ, Genisteæ, Galegeæ.

1741. Third order, D. axonales. Bushes, shrubs, or trees, frequently training with pinnate leaves and tendrils; calyx large, seed-lobes thick--Vicieæ, Beans, Dalbergiæ.

1742. Fourth order, D. florales. Shrubs and trees, with tolerably regular flowers and separated stamina; legumens with frequently transverse septa, embryo straight--Geoffroyæ, Swartzieæ, Detarium, Mimosæ, and Cassiæ.

1743. Fifth order, D. fructuariæ. Regular flowers with separate stamina and multilocular plums--Stackhouseæ, Empetreæ, Celastrineæ, Rhamneæ, and Terebintheæ. (For their sixteen families vid. Tab. B.)

CLASS XV.

Berry-plants--Umbelliferæ, &c.

1744. Ovarial and calycine corolla with a single perfectly soft fruit or berry, on which are five corolla-petals, with a moderate number of stamina. This fruit is wholly edible, and has only one or two styles; stalk and leaves pass through all the stages of formation.

1745. They divide first of all into two groups, having few or many stamina; of these the fruit of one is dry, of the other fleshy. The dry fruits are also perfectly edible, as the Caraway-seeds.

1746. First order, Baccariæ parenchymatosæ. Epigynous; nodose herbs with two seeds in the calyx; only five stamina--Umbellatæ.

1747. Second order, B. vaginatæ. Mostly shrubs with quinary corollæ and bi-or quinquelocular berries--Mistletoes, Elders, Araliaceæ, Vines.

1748. Third order, B. axonales. Bushes and shrubs with quaternary corollæ, only one style and one multilocular many-seeded capsule--Epilobeæ, Salicariæ.

1749. Fourth order, B. florales. Mostly shrubs with quinary corollæ and manifold stamina; capsule or berry multilocular--Melastomaceæ.

1750. Fifth order, B. fructuariæ. Trees with many, frequently fasciculated, stamina; fruit multilocular and many-seeded--Myrtaceæ. These plants likewise divide into sixteen families. (Vid. Tab. B.)

CLASS XVI.

Apple-plants--Rosaceæ.

1751. The fruit is an apple, i. e. several carpels, containing but few seeds, adhere in one calyx, upon which there are five corolla-petals, with four to six times as many stamina. Herbs, shrubs, and trees with different kinds of leaves are here met with; the corollæ are mostly small and perigynous, the style separated, and thus polycarpal. Perigynous Polycarpæ. They grow, dispersed over the whole earth, in dry situations; several of them yield edible fruits, and are pretty generally cultivated.

1752. The apples are without doubt the most perfect fruit, as well in reference to their structure as their chemical ingredients. The apple consists of all the parts of the blossom: seed, capsule, and fleshy calyx, and is besides polycarpellar, i. e. composed of separate carpels. Its edible substance or flesh is not simply a sweet-meat, but a true aliment, which admits of being eaten after it has been kept fresh for a year, of being dried, exported, or cooked as a kitchen vegetable; in cases of exigency too it occurs in such abundance that the whole human race might live upon it, which cannot be said of any other fruit. The apple quenches at the same time the thirst, and thus supplies also the place of drink. All the other fruits are either a dainty relish only against thirst, or a simple amylaceous medium of nutrition. However, most of the plants belonging to this class produce only dry capsules and calyces.

1753. They divide into two groups, having few or many stamina.

First order, Pomariæ parenchymatosæ. Herbs with few stamina and five or more carpels, as the Crassulaceæ and Mesembryanthemaceæ.

Second order, P. vaginatæ. Shrubs with few stamina, only two to three carpels and few seeds.--Tamaricaceæ, Bruniaceæ.

VEGETABLE SYSTEM Table B +==========================================================================+ | FIRST PROVINCE. | | | | HISTOPHYTA--ACOTYLEDONES. | +--------------------------------------------------------------------------+ | | +====================+=================+==================+================+ | | | | | | | CLASS I. | CLASS II. | CLASS III. | | | | | | | ORGANS. | Cellulares. | Vasculares. | Tracheales. | | | Fungi. | Mosses. | Ferns. | | | | | | | ORD. I. Parenchyma.| Roste. | Schleim-Moose. | Wasser-Farren. | | | | | | | F. 1. Cells. | Entophyta. | Diatomaceæ. | Marsileaceæ. | | 2. Ducts. | Epiphyta. | Nostochineæ. | Pilulariæ. | | 3. Tracheæ. | Tuberculariæ. | Batrachospermeæ.| Equisetaceæ. | | | | | | | O. II. Sheaths. | Schimmel. | Wasserfäden. | Kugelfarren. | | | | | | | F. 4. Bark. | Mucorini. | Confervaceæ. | Lycopodiaceæ. | | 5. Liber. | Mucedines. | Ulvaceæ. | Ophioglosseæ. | | 6. Wood. | Byssaceæ. | Leptomiteæ. | Danæaceæ. | | | | | | | O. III. Axis. | Balgpilze. | Fuci. | Ringfarren. | | | | | | | F. 7. Root. | Trichodermaceæ.| Cerameæ. | Parkereæ. | | 8. Stalk. | Trichiaceæ. | Floridæ. | Cyatheæ. | | 9. Leaves. | Lycopodineæ. | Fucoideæ. | Polypodiaceæ. | | | | | | | O. IV. Blossom. | Kernpilze. | Lichens. | Fluvialen. | | | | | | | F. 10. Seed. | Cytisporeæ. | Coniothalameæ. | Naiadeæ. | | 11. Ovarium. | Phacidiaceæ. | Gasterothalameæ.| Podostemeæ. | | 12. Corolla. | Sphæriaceæ. | Hymenothalameæ. | Ceratophylleæ.| | | | | | | O. V. Fruit. | Fleischpilze. | Mosses. | Nadelholz. | | | | | | | F. 13. Nut. | Tremellini. | Marchantiaceæ. | Abieteæ. | | 14. Plum. | Cupulati. | Ricciaceæ. | Taxaceæ. | | 15. Berry. | Clavati. | Jungermanniaceæ.| Cupresseæ. | | 16. Apple. | Pileati. | Bryaceæ. | Cycadeæ. | +--------------------+-----------------+------------------+----------------+

+====================+=====================================================+ | | SECOND PROVINCE. | | | | | | THECOPHYTA--MONOCOTYLEDONES. | +--------------------+-----------------------------------------------------+ | | | +====================+==================+===================+==============+ | | | | | | | CLASS IV. | CLASS V. | CLASS VI. | | | | | | | ORGANS. | Corticales. | Liber-plants. | Wood-plants.| | | Gramineæ. | Liliaceæ. | Palmaceæ. | | | | | | | ORD. I. Parenchyma.| Spiked Grasses. | Staub-Orchiden. | Rohrkolben. | | | | | | | F. 1. Cells. | Secale. | Neottiæ. | Cynomoria. | | 2. Ducts. | Phleum. | Arethuseæ. | Typhaceæ. | | 3. Tracheæ. | Festuca. | Ophrydeæ. | Aroideæ. | | | | | | | O. II. Sheaths. | Panicled Grasses.| Granular Orchideæ.| Piperaceæ. | | | | | | | F. 4. Bark. | Bulrushes. | Malaxides. | Saurureæ. | | 5. Liber. | Milium. | Epidendra. | Piperaceæ. | | 6. Wood. | Arundinaceæ. | Vanillæ. | Pandanac | | | | | | | O. III. Axis. | Reed-Grasses. | Aromatic plants. | Sassaparillæ.| | | | | | | F. 7. Root. | Sedges. | Amomeæ. | Dioscoreæ. | | 8. Stalk. | Junceæ. | Canneæ. | Smilaceæ. | | 9. Leaves. | Ruscus. | Musaceæ. | Parideæ. | | | | | | | O. IV. Blossom. | Juncineæ. | Schwerdel. | Asparagoidæ. | | | | | | | F. 10. Seed. | Restiaceæ. | Hæmodoraceæ. | Asparagoidæ.| | 11. Ovarium. | Serpeæ. | Irideæ. | Convallariæ.| | 12. Corolla. | Commelyneæ. | Narcissi. | Bromeliæ. | | | | | | | O. V. Fruit. | Seeroseæ. | Liliaceæ. | Palms. | | | | | | | F. 13. Nut. | Alismaceæ. | Colchicaceæ. | Calamariæ. | | 14. Plum. | Hydrocharideæ. | Asphodeleæ. | Cocoeæ. | | 15. Berry. | Hydropeltideæ. | Alliaceæ. | Phoeniceæ.| | 16. Apple. | Nymphæacæ. | Tulipaceæ. | Borasseæ. | +--------------------+------------------+-------------------+--------------+

VEGETABLE SYSTEM. [TABLE B, p. 316.]

+=====================================================+ | | | THIRD PROVINCE. ARTHROPHYTA--DICOTYLEDONES. | | | +-----------------------------------------------------+ | CIRCLE I. Stem-plants--Monopetalæ. | +==================+================+=================+ | | | | | CLASS VII. | CLASS VIII. | CLASS IX. | | | | | | Root-plants. | Stalk-plants. | Leaf-plants. | | Epigynæ. | Perigynæ. | Hypogynæ. | | | | | | Root-leaved. | Stellatæ. | Personatæ. | | | | | | Cichoraceæ. | Galiaceæ. | Primulaceæ. | | Carduraceæ. | Spermacocidæ. | Scrophulariæ. | | Mutisiæ. | Coffeaceæ. | Solanaceæ. | | | | | | Opposite-leaved. | Cinchonaceæ. | Bignoniaceæ. | | | | | | Eupatorium? | Hedyotidæ. | Orobancheæ. | | Helianthus. | Rondeletiæ. | Rhinantheæ. | | Silphieæ. | Cinchoneæ. | Bignoniæ. | | | | | | Alternifoliar. | Hameliaceæ. | Contortæ. | | | | | | Senecionidæ. | Guettardidæ. | Gentianeæ. | | Astereæ. | Hameliæ. | Asclepiadeæ. | | Vernoniæ. | Gardeniæ. | Jasmineæ. | | | | | | Aggregatæ. | Ericaceæ. | Tetraspermeæ. | | | | | | Scabiosæ. | Epacrideæ. | Labiatæ. | | Lobeliæ. | Myrtilli. | Polemoniaceæ. | | Campanulæ. | Heaths. | Convolvulaceæ. | | | | | | Sicuonoidæ. | Diospyraceæ. | Pyrenaceæ. | | | | | | Asaridæ. | Myrobalaneæ. | Asperifoliæ. | | Loaseæ. | Olacineæ. | Verbenaceæ. | | Passifloreæ. | Diospyros. | Sambuceæ. | | Cucurbitaceæ. | Sapotæ. | Myrsineæ. | +------------------+----------------+-----------------+

+===================================================+ | | | THIRD PROVINCE. ARTHROPHYTA--DICOTYLEDONES. | | | +---------------------------------------------------+ | CIRCLE II. Flower-plants--Hypogynous Polypetalæ.| +===============+=================+=================+ | | | | | CLASS X. | CLASS XI. | CLASS XII. | | | | | | Seed-plants. | Ovarium-plants. | Corolla-plants. | | Polycarpæ. | Capsuliferæ. | Siliquosæ. | | | | | | Ranunculaceæ. | Rutaceæ. | Caryophyllaceæ. | | | | | | Ranunculi. | Ruteæ. | Portulaceæ. | | Helleboreæ. | Diosmeæ. | Spergula. | | Geraniaceæ. | Zygophylleæ. | Carnations. | | | | | | Tiliaceæ. | Ochnaceæ. | Violaceæ. | | | | | | Theaceæ. | Xanthoxyleæ. | Droseraceæ. | | Lime-trees. | Ochneæ. | Violets. | | Elæocarpeæ. | Quassieæ. | Cistaceæ. | | | | | | Sterculiaceæ. | Polygalaceæ. | Cruciferæ. | | | | | | Hermanneæ. | Polygaleæ. | Radishes. | | Dombeyaceæ. | Vochysieæ. | Cresses. | | Sterculeæ. | Pittosporeæ. | Cabbages. | | | | | | Malvaceæ. | Meliaceæ. | Papaveraceæ. | | | | | | Malveæ. | Cedreleæ. | Capers. | | Hibisceæ. | Melieæ. | Berberideæ. | | Bombaceæ. | Aurantiaceæ. | Poppies. | | | | | | Magnoliaceæ. | Malpighiaceæ. | Guttiferæ. | | | | | | Magnolieæ. | Platanaceæ. | Dipterocarpeæ. | | Menispermeæ. | Malpighieæ. | Calophylleæ. | | Dilleneæ. | Hippocrateæ. | Marcgraviaceæ. | | Anoneæ. | Sapindeæ. | Garcinieæ. | +---------------+-----------------+-----------------+

+===================================================================+ | | | THIRD PROVINCE. ARTHROPHYTA--DICOTYLEDONES. | | | +-------------------------------------------------------------------+ | CIRCLE III. Fruit-plants--Apetalæ and perigynous Polypetalæ.| +==============+===============+================+===================+ | | | | | | CLASS XIII. | CLASS XIV. | CLASS XV. | CLASS XVI. | | | | | | | Nut-plants. | Plum-plants. | Berry-plants. | Apple-plants. | | Nucariæ. | Drupaceæ. | Baccariæ. | Pomaceæ. | | | | | | | Oleraceæ. | Astragalaceæ. | Umbellatæ. | Sempervivæ. | | | | | | | Sclerantheæ.| Hedysareæ. | Saniculidæ. | Galacineæ. | | Atriplices. | Astragaleæ. | Carrots. | Crassulaceæ. | | Amaranths. | Glycineæ. | Caraways. | Mesembryanthemeæ.| | | | | | | Polygonaceæ. | Trifoliaceæ. | Caprifoliaceæ. | Tamariscineæ. | | | | | | | Plantains. | Trifolieæ. | Mistletoes. | Tamarisks. | | Phytolacceæ.| Genisteæ. | Sambuceæ. | Buniaceæ. | | Illecebreæ. | Galegeæ. | Vines. | Hamamelideæ. | | | | | | | Thymelaceæ. | Phaseolaceæ. | Lythraceæ. | Saxifrageæ. | | | | | | | Nyctagineæ. | Vetches. | Trapeæ. | Saxifrages. | | Daphnoideæ. | Dalbergieæ. | Epilobeæ. | Cunoniaceæ. | | Santalaceæ. | Sophoreæ. | Salicariæ. | Lilacs. | | | | | | | Lauraceæ. | Mimosaceæ. | Melastomaceæ. | Rosaceæ. | | | | | | | Proteaceæ. | Detarieæ. | Rhexieæ. | Potentillæ. | | Aquilarineæ.| Mimoseæ. | Melastomeæ. | Neuradeæ. | | Laurels. | Cassieæ. | Grossularieæ. | Sanguisorbeæ. | | | | | | | Diclinisten. | Terebinthaceæ.| Myrtaceæ. | Fruit-trees. | | | | | | | Amentaceæ. | Empetreæ. | Lecythideæ. | Pomegranates. | | Nettles. | Celastrineæ. | Barringtonieæ.| Plums. | | Artocarpeæ. | Rhamneæ. | Leptospermeæ. | Medlars. | | Euphorbicæ. | Terebintheæ. | Myrteæ. | Apples. | +--------------+---------------+----------------+-------------------+

Third order, P. axonales. Herbs, shrubs, and trees, with similar blossoms, but many seeds.--Saxifrageæ, Cunoniaceæ, Hortensiæ and Lilacs.

Fourth order, P. florales. Herbs and shrubs, with many stamina and follicles.--Rosaceæ.

Fifth order, P. fructuariæ. Trees with multistaminal-corollæ and fleshy fruits.--Monimieæ, Pomegranates, Plums, Medlars, Apples. (For their sixteen families vid. Tab. B.)

1754. In order to prove that each class of vegetables commences from below, and that all ascend in a parallel series beside each other, it is requisite only to place them in a tabular form. Further details upon this subject are to be found in my earlier works upon Natural History. The adjoining Table may here suffice. I place the families according to my "Lehrbuch der Naturgeschichte," although I am very well aware that all do not stand in the right place. That indeed no one will expect.

THIRD KINGDOM.

ANIMAL KINGDOM.

1755. The animal kingdom is the individual development of all four elements.

ZOOSOPHY,

1756. Is the development of the animal kingdom in consciousness. The repetition of the animal creation is spiritually divisible into Anatomy (Zoogeny), Physiology (Zoonomy), and Zoology.

I.--ZOOGENY.

1757. Zoogeny represents the idea of the animal or the developmental history of the individual animal.

IRRITABILITY OF THE BLOSSOM.

1758. The Highest to which the vegetable kingdom could attain was the blossom; and of this the sexual parts are the completion. At the instant when the sex originated, the vegetable functions became of a nobler character; for the sexual organs are only the inferior organs refined or purified by light. The electrical and chemical process of the vegetable body are again represented, but in a spiritual manner, in the blossom. The functions of the fruit were none other than those of the elevated chemism; they were only the nobler processes of digestion and nutrition. As their purest expression of life, and that which has been produced simply by their co-operation, is the motion which resides in cellular tissue, so also was it this only, which obtained a preponderance in the fruit, and that indeed at the cost of the material processes. The germen obtained a kind of motion; yet this appears to be still imparted by material processes. In the corolla, however, this expression of life attained to completion. It is no longer simple nutrition or accumulation of sap that moves the stamina upon the female stigma, but a purely polar act; the Immaterial, the Spiritual produces the phenomena of life. These movements of copulation are by no means a coalescence, are not a nutritive act, nor the result of mechanical decissation, as is the case in many capsules; but true elevated vital actions. The parts reassume after the motion their first or original position, a feat which is performed by no capsule upon its dehiscence. Of these movements, those of the leaves in the sensitive plants, e. g. Hedysarum gyrans, are the antetypes or prefigurations. There consequently originates with the highest development of the light-organs in the plant, a motion independent of the material processes, and of the terrestrial elements.

1759. A motion, that is liberated from the terrestrial elements, is free from their mechanism; it simply obeys the nature of the æther, which is of a spiritual, or voluntary, kind.

1760. The essence of volition or free-will does not reside, in a physical sense, in the consciousness of the action, but in the autocrasy; or in the ability to perform an action, without external or terrestrial influence. The æther-actions have originated from special polarity. Independent movements must therefore be such as have been produced simply by polarity, apart from material intrusion.

1761. The ability or power upon the part of organic bodies to apprehend polar excitation, to move themselves simply by its means, and again to restore themselves to their former state, without regard being paid to a material process, I call Irritability. That organ is irritable which can move itself without any other object than that of automacy or self-motion.

1762. Irritability belongs to the plant, but is only of that kind where the perception cannot express itself otherwise than by direct motion. In the sexual parts and probably in the highest leaf-formation, the plant is elevated to irritability; unto motion through simple perception, unto motion without design, to motion from mere lust or desire. The highest spiritual operation, of which the plant is capable, is irritability. But as everything which has attained its Highest, stands at the end of its development, so also has the plant terminated, when it has once exercised its power of irritability through copulation.

SEXUAL MOTION.

1763. All the irritable motion of the vegetable may be confined or reduced to the movements of the stamen-filaments, the other movements being merely precursors of these. What, therefore, the stamina would achieve by their motion, that the irritability does in a general point of view. The motion of the stamina is directed merely upon the stigma, in order to impart the male pollen to the female body; and thus, simply to evoke the spiritual tension, which resides originally in the male semen, as in light-æther from the dead mass, but that originally dwells in the female seed as in the dark mass of earth.

1764. Now, since the stigma bears simply relation to the contents of the ovary, and conveys everything to this, and thus, to a female utricle, which is the middle of the plant, or its body proper; so in the motion of the male organs, the conatus or effort upon their part to introduce an elemental matter, or rather its spirit into this utricle, or this body, is rendered manifest or revealed. The highest Spiritual of the plant is accordingly not a mere motion in the general sense; but one that is definite and wholly special--a motion of Ingestion. The direction or design of the first independent motion is therefore Ingestion; this again not being of a general, but a wholly definite import, namely, an ingestion of the male organ into the female.

1765. The Male is, however, characterized by its self-substantial polarity, and by its self-intrinsic life; the Female by the want of polarity, by a heterodependent life. The act of ingestion thus depends upon polarization, upon evocation and maintenance of an independent life. The fruit is vivified by impregnation, ay, for the first time then obtains life; the female becomes self-active through the vital spirit received from the male; the body is kept alive by, and only by, ingestion. The act of ingestion is the act that tends unto the self-substantial, independent life.

1766. The blossom dies, so soon as, by ingestion, it has attained this independent life. If we assume that it could not die, but retain the life that was momentarily won for several instants; then this would happen only by repetition of the first act, whereby it had obtained in an instant a self-substantial life; and thus by repetition of the ingestion. By ceaseless ingestion only can the blossom gain a lasting, self-substantial life of motion.

1767. But such a blossom, when self-dependently subsisting, could not continue in further union with the vegetable stock or trunk, for this is no longer requisite for its life's support; through the first act of vivification, through the once sprinkled pollen, it virtually becomes detached and falls as fruit to the ground; as a fruit certainly, or as a female body, unto which is wanting the continued excitation produced by the male coition. A fruit thus detached or fallen off, and retaining the male filaments, which ceaselessly exercise the function of ingestion, will be of necessity engaged in constant motion; will be a blossom, that incessantly practises copulation.

1768. As in this blossom the motion of ingestion is that alone which sustains it, and nothing more can flow to it from a stem; so also will this blossom be occupied in constant motion; and it consequently comes to pass that the action, which broke forth at the last and instantaneously in the plant, being thus the highest or most individualized, is here the first, inferior, and most general action, or one that lies at the foundation of all other processes. The free blossom is naught but movement of ingestion.

1769. The blossom, however, concentrates in itself all the lower vegetable processes, is itself naught but the aggregate of such processes repeated in the body of the light; thus the blossom, having been set free, is a vesicle of ingestion endowed with all terrestrial functions.

ANIMAL FORMATION.

1770. The vegetable blossom loses its definition as plant, so soon as it has acquired self-substantial life; it loses its definition, because as blossom, it simply lives in light, while the plant must half dwell in darkness; it loses it, because the copulating motion can be frequently self-repeated.

1771. The self-moveable or automatic blossom has consequently passed over into a new kingdom, or into one whose very definition is the self-substantial motion.

1772. A blossom, which, when separated from the stem, maintains by its own motion the galvanic process or the life within itself, and gets its process of polarization, not from a body lying external to or coherent with it (as is the vegetable stem); but only from itself--such blossom is an Animal. An animal is blossom without stem or a flower, which of itself produces its stem, this being the reverse of what takes place in the plant. The essence of the animal consists in the maintenance through its own motion of the galvanic vital process. It has been already shown above, in speaking "quoad" the distinction of the organic essences, that the exclusive or only valid difference between plant and animal, was motion arising in the latter apart from any external stimulus. We have now been brought by quite another route to the same result.

1773. If the animal is the floral vesicle living from or by itself, it can no longer lie fettered like the plant between two elements; it must be nominally free from the chains of darkness, and thus from the earth. No animal is so joined by growth with the earth, that like as in a plant this should be a co-operating pole in its processes. No animal must co-exist in two elements like the plant, but it has all elements in itself, like the blossom includes all vegetable parts. It may be said that the plant has been immersed in the earth, water, and air; these three elements having, on the contrary, been immersed in the animal. The animal is in respect to them the continent, the planet; they, however, are the continent in respect to the plant. Thus the relations to the world are completely reversed in both.

1774. An animal is a floral vesicle freely separated from the earth, and living alone through its own motion in the water and air. And here it is not locomotion that is treated of, since this by no means belongs to the animal's essence. Yet on this account the poor oyster was formerly adduced as an argument against this animal character, but unjustly; for would a man frozen up in an ice-block lose his character as an animal? The oyster opens its shell and shuts it too, as well as the crocodile opens and shuts its jaws.

ANIMAL SIGNIFICATION.

We will now proceed to knit or associate with this genetic or physiological, the physio-philosophical mode of development.

1775. Every Organic originates from a mucus-point. If this mucus-point occur in the darkness, it thus becomes a terrestrial organism, a plant; if it enter into the light, which is only possible in the water and in air, it thus becomes a solar organism, independent of the planet, self-moving around itself like the sun, an animal.

1776. An animal is a light-mucus-vesicle, a plant, so far as the root is concerned, a darkness-mucus-vesicle; but it works its way unto air and light, and becomes a light-mucus-vesicle in the blossom.

1777. A free blossom is consequently to be philosophically regarded as equivalent to the primary mucus-vesicle, which has at once developed itself in the water. Now, such an aqueo-mucus-vesicle is directly that which the blossom can first become through a series of developments, and by divestures of the Dark.

1778. The plant is an animal retarded by the darkness; the animal is a plant blooming directly through the light, and devoid of root.

1779. The animal has been posited as a light-or æther-Total upon the planet; the vegetable as a planetary Total in light.

1780. The animal is a whole solar system, the plant only a planet. The animal is therefore a whole universe, the plant only its half; the former is microcosm, the latter microplanet.

ANIMAL PLACE.

1781. No animal can become developed beneath the earth, or where it is absolutely dark and dry. None simply or solely in air. Water is the origin or source of all animals.

1782. They have originated upon the sea-shore, but not in the midst of the sea, nor in that of the land. The deluge cast up the first men. They were littoral inhabitants, and without doubt carnivorous, as savages still are. For whence could they have obtained also fruits, cabbage, and turnips?

SENSATION.

1783. In so far as the animal vesicle is a whole solar system, to it, the characters that transcend the plant, such as motion, belong.

1784. But motion is not that alone which is displayed in the floral cyst when it has become solar; but with it there is yet something higher bestowed.

1785. Like light or sun the vesicle has the principle of its polarization or determination in itself; and it is certainly itself which moves its organs in conformity with this self-determination; but it is withal in antagonism towards the elements, like the sun is towards the planets. Through this antagonism the sun is destined unto the development of light. Although the light is its own product, still it perceives the object toward which the æther-polarity is directed. This perception of the direction, whither motion should act by means of the central polarity, is in the animal called Sensation.

1786. Sensation is the relation of the Central to the Peripheric, of the sun to the planet; motion is the relation of the periphery to the centre, of the planet to the sun. The Animal emerges into being from the alternating play of the supremest antagonism in the heavenly bodies, the Vegetable from that of the terrestrial antagonisms.

1787. Emission of light is discharging or unloading of the sun achieved by the influence of the planets; sensation is unloading of the animal by objects, by the world, and by its own organs.

1788. Sensation is therefore a positing of want in the animal. Through sensation nothing comes into, but rather something passes out of us.

1789. The animal vesicle is a sentient or feeling blossom.

SEXUAL ANIMAL.

1790. As the essence of the blossom consists in the sex, so indeed is the blossom none other than the sexual system; thus it may be said that the animal vesicle is none other than a sentient Sexual cyst. This discovery is of the highest importance for the whole of zoosophy.

1791. Two fundamental properties are originally combined in the animal, at the very instant when an animal can exist. There is never one without the other, never simply sensation, but also motion; but the latter is not simply this, but is at once also a movement of copulation. The animal is a sentient genital.

1792. Both fundamental properties are however subordinated to each other. The basis of the animal organism is the sexual system; with this the animal commences; what is further developed in addition thereunto, is only higher completion. But what it, as sexual system, does, it does only through sensation.

1793. It is natural that the animal has not been concluded with the sentient sexual system; but that the terrestrial processes also are developed like as in the plant, and perfected indeed more individually than in the latter. The main distinction is, however, this; that these processes have preceded in the plant, and the sexual system grown out of them; in the animal, on the other hand, the sexual system is the foundation, the root, out of which these processes grow forth. The first and simplest animal vesicle is a sexual cyst, a matrix or womb.

SENSITIVE ANIMAL.

1794. The animal is a twofold representation of the organization, being at one time the planetary, and at one time the solar. There is a planetary animal and a solar animal in the higher organism. The planetary animal is the plant in the animal, the galvanic animal; the solar animal is the sentient, the light-or æther-animal.

1795. The highest completion of the vegetable animal is in the blossom. There is thus a sexual or Sex's animal and a sensitive or Sensation's animal.

1796. The completed animal consists of two animals, because it is at once planet and sun, plant and animal.

1797. The vegetable and the sensitive animal have been formed parallel to each other, yet in such a manner that the former being the lowest, contains only the dispositions unto the highest. There are consequently vegetative and animal organs, which take a parallel range. The animal grows upon a vegetable body. It may be aptly said, that the root of the plant becomes the mouth or head of the animal, the stem the trunk or visceral body, the blossom the sexual parts. The three parts therefore of the animal body, and the antagonism therefore of the head with the sexual parts, unite through the medium of the vegetable stem, or the visceral body.

ANIMAL ANATOMY.

1798. The parts of the animal body divide, as in the plant, into tissues, anatomical systems, and into organs proper or members. The tissues are the constituent parts of the systems, these of the organs, and all collectively, or associated, of the body.

I. Animal Tissues.

1799. These are the mathematical primary forms, whereof the animal body consists, and divide into the animal and vegetative fundamental forms.

A. ANIMAL FUNDAMENTAL FORMS.

1800. As animality is the representation of the three conditions of æther, and thus of the gravity, with light and heat or motion, so are three tissues to be met with, which correspond to these three forms. The light emerges from the centre; the gravity occupies the whole mass; the motion oscillates between the two. The organic light-mass will therefore, as sun, occupy the centre, the gravity-mass, like the planets, the periphery, the motion-mass, like the heat, the radii between the two. The primary form is, however, the primary vesicle. If, therefore, new tissues appear in the animal, they can thus be only metamorphoses of the vesicle. The vesicle, can only resolve itself into three forms; either its contents become self-substantial--Point; or in like manner the envelope--Line; or, finally, both become an uniform mass--Globe.

1. Point-tissue.

1801. We take up or commence the study of the animal substance, with the condition under which it has originated, that of a vesicle or sensitive blossom. The vegetable texture attained a form which was prescribed by the light. Now, as the animal vesicle is, in the first place, nothing else but a Sentient, so must the texture of the original animal vesicle be commensurate with this property.

1802. The highest perfection of the blossom was, however, resolution of the texture into the original form of vesicles or granules, a retroconduction of the organic mass to the primary condition, yet under the signification of light. The Highest of the blossom was an organized and designedly-prepared granular texture--pollen.

1803. Now a substance which absolves itself from the terrestrial forms, and would assume the form of the æther, and thus of that which is most discrete, can represent no other form than that of the point. The whole æther is an infinity of non-coherent atoms. This atomic formation, when metatyped or copied in a terrestrial mass, can be none other than a granular substance.

1804. The fundamental substance of the animal is point-substance; but, since the essence of the animal consists in its being a sensitive substance, so must it belong to the latter's essence, that it be atomic or punctiform. The point-texture is equivalent to the sensitive mass.

1805. It might be believed, that as the animal is a floral vesicle, the cystic or cell-form must also lie at its foundation; only, there is another relation beyond that which occurs in the plant. This animal cyst is an already organized cyst, an organ, no longer a component part of an anatomical system; this cystic form cannot, therefore, enter into the texture of the animal mass; yet meanwhile, as is natural, the sensitive mass admits of being reduced, but only as organic in a general sense, to the vesicular form. The lowest animals, such as the Infusoria, Polyps, Acalephæ, or sea-nettles, in short, all Protozoa or mucous animals consist of this point-substance, and are wholly sensitive mass.

Nervous Mass.

1806. The sensitive mass is called in higher animals, Nervous mass. The nervous texture is a conjoined series of mucus-granules, which have become albuminous in character. The nervous mass is the least organized; it has selected the primary forms, which have been preconstructed in æther, or the densely fluid solar matter. The Dominant of the terrestrial organs can have also no other form, than such as agrees with the Dominant or governing primary mass of the planetary system; or it can have none other, because at the instant when it exists, it is sentient. At the first instant of the origin of organic matter, it can, however, originate only as infinitely numerous points; at the termination of the plant, this mass would be displayed as a light-organ; being thus engendered as such, it must forsake the vegetable forms, and assume the universal form-susceptive primary form, which is the form of the point. The floral mass, the delicate petals of the corolla, the stamina and the pollen are to be deemed the first onset or advance that is made to nervous mass. The cellular tissue becomes delicate and gradually resolves itself into granules.

1807. Granular or point-mass is, however, an accumulation of centres. The nervous mass is therefore, in accordance with the conception of the Organic, a repeated, multiplied centre. The nervous mass has therefore a light-function, i. e. the gentlest polarization in the organism. Nervous mass is light-mass.

1808. The animal substance has commenced with the nervous mass; thus with that which is the highest, and which physiologists have deemed to be the ultimate mass. The origin of the animal is from the nerves, and all anatomical systems are only free evolutions or separations from the nervous mass. The animal is naught but nerve. What it is further or in addition, is obtained elsewhere, or is a metamorphosis of nerves. The mucus of the Infusoria, Polyps, and Acalephæ is nervous substance upon the lowest stage or degree, where the other substances that are therein involved and merged, have not as yet been perfected in an isolated manner.

1809. The nervous mass indicates the absolute Indifferent in an animal, and consequently that which is polarizable by the gentlest aura or breath.

Division of the Nervous Mass.

1810. The nervous mass behaves itself also in its production like the solar mass. As from this the planets have through antagonism on the periphery, emancipated themselves, so from the nervous mass have the anatomical systems, which are subservient unto lower purposes.

1811. The development of the animal organs is a constant division of the nervous mass, whereby it becomes more and more divested of their coarse coverings, and traverses the same like radiating æther, illuminant, heating, and moving æther. It is a positing of the centre in the periphery.

1812. When also the other systems have been formed out of the identical nervous mass, still the whole animal body is naught but nervous mass, only, in a crude or inert condition. There is, consequently, no point upon the body, on which the nervous phenomena are absolutely wanting, or where they may not appear under certain relations.

1813. What remains behind of the nervous mass, has now the form of filaments or rays, which are projected from one centre, the brain, to all parts of the periphery.

1814. The nerves being individualized, and withdrawn from the coarser mass, stand in need of no actio in distans, or no nervous atmosphere (although for other reasons such a one may exist), in order that every part of the body should have sensibility or feel; for every substance is verily but an aberrant nervous substance, in which the original spirit is still inherent or abides.

1815. Each part of the body has consequently irritability, and each one has the capacity for sensation; and that, indeed, through and in itself, or not borrowed from, what have been called, nerves; as it is indeed only the coarse nervous envelope of the more delicate nerves.

1816. Yet, meanwhile it is certain, that nothing feels but the nervous mass, because every thing, which feels, does, and hath the power to do so, only in so far as it has been nervous mass. Precisely as all metals are only magnetic in so far as they are metamorphosed iron, which is the primary metal.

1817. Certain formations or textures must, on that account, have different sensations, because they have deviated more or less remotely from the primary texture; without in this any regard being paid to the number of nerves running to such systems.

1818. The transformation of the nervous mass upon the periphery is chiefly imparted by oxydation, because here the oxygen of the water exerts a direct influence. The transformation does not, however, simply occur upon the periphery, but also internally, and that indeed in a beamy or radial direction. The external parts will be harder, the internal or radial continue soft, but be more solid than the nervous mass itself.

2. Globe-tissue.

1819. The nervous tissue alone cannot constitute the animal substance concerned in all functions, but it must with further development pass over into another. As the æther-mass cannot concentrate itself into the sun without, from the antagonism with the refraction of light, condensing into planets, so also a central mass cannot subsist in an animal, without converting itself on the periphery into one that is planetary or terrestrial.

1820. The antagonistic mass, originating in a peripheral relation in the nervous mass, will surround the residue of the latter like a cyst or cyst, just like the planetary masses, or the colours, have primordially surrounded the sun as great hollow globes. The aggregate and purer nervous mass becomes thus directly the central mass of the animal--the brain.

1821. The limitary mass originates through oxygenation. Thus the colours originate; they are an oxygenated light. Thus has every terrestrial mass originated through combustion. The planets are suns that have undergone combustion; the limitary mass is nervous mass similarly treated and deoxydized.

1822. As having been already subjected to combustion, it therefore becomes polarizable, and consequently susceptible of sensation in the least degree. The limitary mass must be rigid or fixed; for it has indeed originated through fixation of the poles, or through the strongest oxydation. The limitary mass is the most rigid in the whole animal; for it is the primary antagonism with the nervous mass, the ultimate planetary matter, which is characterized by immoveability of the atoms.

1823. The limitary mass must be typical of the earth-element, this being the most rigid, and the end of the oxydation. The limitary mass is the animal earth-mass, just as the median mass is the animal æther- or fire-mass.

1824. The texture of the animal earth-mass must be that of a crystal, but of a round globular crystal; for it is organic mass, and can consequently have been only deposited as vesicle; it is, however, earthy mass, so that the whole vesicle must be, with all its contents, rigidified. Now, the rigidified substance of a vesicle is a globe--the texture of the mass which is opposed to that of the nerves is consequently the globular form.

Osseous Mass.

1825. The rigidified limitary mass, which exhibits histologically dense globes, consists of earthy substance, and surrounds the nervous mass, is osseous mass. The osseous or bony texture is a solid globe or rigidified vesicle, being thus ambitus or boundary, as well as complexus or contents.

1826. Bone can only originate through oxydation of the animal mucous or nervous mass, whereby it is converted into a vesicular form. These vesicles are, however, by virtue of the highest oxydation, which must necessarily enter into antagonism with the highest central organ, converted wholly and thoroughly into rigid substance or earth, which is the maximum of the oxydation or fixation of æther.

1827. The osseous mass, as the organic earth-mass, corresponds to the gravity. It is the materiality in a general point of view in the Organic, and consequently the Inert.

1828. Osseous or limitary organs will become more rigid in the air than in water. The air-breathing animals must have more perfect bones or harder limitary organs.

1829. Bones are therefore either wanting completely in the aquatic animals, or they are mucus scarcely oxydized, in other words, cartilage; or finally, almost entirely rough carbonated earth, in the corals and shells.

1830. This theory is most beautifully proved in the corals. Internally they consist of granular substance, like the polyps, or of sentient nervous mass; externally they are simply earth or globular form, which is the rudest antagonism presented to the likewise rude central mass.

1831. Bone essentially surrounds the nervous mass. The skull environs and incloses the brain, the vertebræ the spinal cord, the ribs, the visceral nerves the snail's shell all the soft parts of that animal, the coral stem its polyp-tube, the horny coat the insect.

1832. The purest and highest antagonisms in an animal are nerve and bone, and as such they are demonstrated on every occasion. The nerve is that which is soft, powerless, changeable, sentient, governing, and motion-imparting; the bone, what is hard, strong, unchangeable, non-sentient, governed, and becoming moved; the one properly speaking the spiritually vitalizing, the other the spiritually dead, or self-subsistent simply in a mineral point of view. The bone is the obedient planet of the nerve.

1833. Point-and globe-form are consequently, as regards the tissue of the substance, the first two forms of the animal body.

1834. What develops itself apart from nerve and bone in the animal, must either range between or below both; it must participate of both forms, or be only their incompletion.

3. Fibrous Tissue.

1835. The nervous and osseous substance could not range opposite to each other, without a transition or a something interposing; as little as could æther and Terrestrial, or sun and planet, between which the moved æther or the heat oscillates, and conditionates the planetary motion.

1836. Between the soft point-form of the nerve and the hard globe-form of the bone, a semi-oxydation stands midway, just as the air stands between the æther and the earth. As this is the medium element, wherein the light is refracted into colours, and thereby warms and moves the planet, so must this median animal formation be the element, through which the nerve imparts its motion to the bones.

1837. This organ stands, like the air, upon the middle rate of oxydation; the oxygen becomes alternately united with it and set free; which is neither possible in the point-form, as being that which incessantly liberates oxygen, nor in the globe-form, as being that which always holds or retains the oxygen in union with it.

1838. This tissue must consist of firm or solid nervous granules, which have been serially co-arranged in lines or radii. Such organic lines are called Fibres.

1839. The fibrous is the third original tissue, which appears in the animal organization.

1840. The nerve acts upon the fibres as upon the bone, or as a Central upon a Peripheric, as the light upon the air.

1841. Thereby the soft fibre is polarized; the poles are mutually attracted and repelled, and motion of the fibres originates, their extremities approximating or withdrawing by virtue of the polarity. Contractile fibres are called sarcose or fleshy fibres.

Flesh.

1842. The flesh is the median formation between nerve and bone. It is half nervous mass, therefore sentient, half bone, therefore moving.

1843. The essence of the motion resides in the muscle, not in the nerve. Such is the cause of motion, the muscle being the self-moving, the bone that which is moved.

1844. The flesh must surround the bone, as the air or water surrounds the earth.

1845. The flesh is a terrestrial substance, just as the bone is; the nerve is a cosmical substance, and on that account the mediator of everything.

B. VEGETABLE TISSUES.

4. Cellular Tissue.

1846. There are three, and only three constituent forms essential to the animal substance, the point, the globe, and the line; equivalent to centre, periphery, and radius.

1847. Out of these three all other forms, of whatever kind, are developed, through degradation unto vegetable structure. This form can be none other than the Cell-form. In the animal there are therefore four fundamental forms, while in the vegetable only one occurs.

1848. The cellular form may be also called the water in the animal, the globe-form the earth, the fibrous the air, the point-form the fire. Thus is the animal even in its tissues a whole universe, for it cannot otherwise be thought of.

1849. The cellular substance is the last division of the point-substance, because the nervous granule becomes hollow. A true cellular tissue first makes its appearance therefore in the higher animals.

1850. Bone, flesh and nerve are the highest organs of the animal; the viscera, which mostly consist of cellular tissue, will indicate the Vegetative in the animal. Proper animal organs can only present the above-mentioned triplicity. What is not bone, flesh or nerve, is not animal, but vegetable.

1851. Nerve, flesh and bone are mutually excited, and are independent of the cellular tissue. They are moreover the animal in the animal, the thoroughly Free and Voluntary.

1852. These three substances have therefore nothing to do with the three terrestrial processes; they do not digest, respire, nourish nor transport about the galvanic sap, but live for themselves or to their own satisfaction.

1853. The origination of the three inferior substances out of the nervous mass, is perfectly similar to the original creative process of the three terrestrial elements from the æther. The animal organism is a second world-creation, for in the organic æther an organic air, earth and water, have been produced, or it has itself become these through fixation of the poles. This capacity for resemblance between the organic and inorganic elements is marvellous; but yet there would be more to wonder at, ay, it would be thoroughly incomprehensible, if the organic elements had been created according to some other type.

1854. When once the nervous mass has become separated from the three other masses, each then commences to be self-substantially perfected, and become a particular organ, though it is still under the supremacy of the primary mass.

1855. The principal mass which constitutes the animal body, after complete separation of the chaotic nervous mass, is without doubt the fundamental mass of everything organic; being the mucus or cellular mass, in which the other elements have only been included like veins of ore. It is the cellular mass therefore which we will first consider in its process of formative evolution.

1856. As cellular mass it must be the seat of the galvanic process, and thus of the life proper. In the cellular mass consequently the three vegetative processes, or the three terrestrial elementary processes, must be firmly established; as there digestion, respiration and nutrition are.

1857. With these three processes, the three superior elementary forms, which are peculiar to the animal, as nerves, bones, and muscles, will have nothing to do, excepting in so far as they govern them. As in the plant, so also in an animal, the terrestrial processes are only the appurtenance of the cellular tissue.

1858. In cellular tissue is therefore the seat of life. But the vegetative mass simply lives that it may live, while the animal lives, in order to combine the universe with the life. The animal elements live only in order to feel and move, in order to act freely like the world; the vegetative only, that they may subsist as planet. The latter are an image of the planet, the former of the world; the one deal with matter, the other with spirit.

Integument.

1859. The cellular tissue does not continue a mere parenchyma in the animal as in the plant, but it obtains a definite anatomical form.

1860. The animal cellular tissue has issued forth from its highest formation in the plant, or out of the blossom, which is a great bladder or cyst composed of primary vesicles. It is the secondary cystic form, wherein the animal cellular tissue appears, when it becomes an anatomical system.

1861. The animal cellular tissue forms therefore everywhere large bladders or cysts, whose walls consist of primary vesicles, or of the vegetable cellular tissue. Cyst-walls are teguments.

1862. The cellular system in the animal is Tegumentary system.

1863. The idea of the integument is the wall of a cyst. There is no tegument apart from the meaning of circumscription, inclusion, and limitation. There is no flat integument, or one that could be designed after the idea of the plane. Every tegument is periphery, just as there is nowhere a surface in the universe, which could have been produced according to the level or plane.

1864. All terrestrial processes, as digestion, respiration, and nutrition, are consequently tegumentary processes. All these organs must be tegumentary organs. Intestine, vessel, lung, in a word all viscera are naught but tegument.

1865. The vegetable tissue becomes in the animal, tegumentary tissue. The tegumentary formation is the vegetable in an animal--the parenchyma, the Visceral.

1866. The lowest distinction between animal and plant resides accordingly in this, that the vegetable tissue consists of actual vesicles, which form everywhere closely compressed masses; the animal cellular tissue on the contrary of granules, which inclose a hollow space. The animal body is a hollow globe of vesicles, the vegetable body one full of vesicles. (Ed. 1st, 1810, § 1870.)

1867. Every animal cyst is necessarily composed of the element of the vesicles, and is then for the first time an organ. The vegetable bladders are, however, single vesicles, and as such are already an organ. In the plant therefore the cellular tissue is upon the lowest stage, being only an aggregate devoid of secondary form; in the animal along with its aggregation a secondary form has been imparted. In this the higher character of the animal is at once demonstrated.

1868. The above is certainly a distinction between the two organisms, but it is not the essential one; for with it, what is animal has been by no means expressed; this being first imparted in the three cosmic elemental forms, which manifest themselves through sensation and motion, and then admit of being recognized as an animal. The corolla is also a cyst, but without being an animal; because, to this animal-like tegumentary formation, the proper animal elements are still wanting.

1869. Now as the tegument is none other than the form, under which the cellular tissue exists in the animal, we must regard it as an elemental form, which has stepped into the place of the cellular. The tegumentary form constitutes the fourth form, and is none other than the primo-vesicular form elevated to a higher rank, by being composed of cell-granules, which have been formerly nerve-granules.

1870. The animal body must consist of nerve, muscle, bone, and tegument, and of no other fundamental form; in other words, of point, line, globe, and cyst.

II. Anatomical Systems.

1871. All anatomical systems are developments and separations of the four tissues, which are prolonged as sheaths through the whole body, like as in the plant are the bark, liber and wood.

1872. They are divisible next of all into two great parties, into the terrestrial and cosmical, or vegetative and animal.

A. VEGETATIVE SYSTEMS.

1873. The vegetable systems can only be different developments of the tegument. They accord with the galvanic factors. Any further derivation of them is unnecessary. The tegumental development must be represented as the systems of digestion, respiration, and nutrition, since from it these have been sufficiently borrowed or derived.

1874. Except these three systems there can be no other tegumental system; and, if such appear to be present, they must be subordinate to these. For there cannot be subsequently any more than there was fundamentally or at bottom.

1875. In the animal, however, the galvanic processes do not remain entangled in one mass, as in the plant. But they are even characterized as animal by their individual liberation from the whole mass. In the plant digestion or absorption, and nutrition or the course of the sap, were in one kind of mass or one kind of cellular tissue, all three processes (together with respiration) being in a tolerably confused condition.

1876. The animal appears in its dignity by separation of these processes, and by the perfection of each individually, or "per se."

1877. As all life consists only in the constant conversion of what is inorganic into the Organic, so is the process of digestion or absorption necessarily the first in animals.

1. INTESTINAL SYSTEM.

1878. The chemical process of the galvanism is conversion of the Inorganic into mucus, and thus an assumption of this matter into the organic body. Now as every limit of the body is tegument or cellular tissue, so can this assumption take place everywhere. Adoption of what is external into an organic body is absorption.

1879. Absorption originates from the antagonism of the body with the earth, which is organizable, and thus with the mucus.

1880. We call this slime or mucus, nutritive matter. Wherever such matter can operate upon the body, a corresponding organ of absorption, and thus a cell or integument, will be formed.

1881. The whole body is surrounded by integument; it was originally nothing but integument.

1882. The essence of the integument consists in absorption, or in the intervention of the chemical process.

1883. The integument is the root of the animal.

1884. The animal cellular mass is, however, in conformity with its origin, a bladder or cyst that has been opened by light and air. The integument is a large cyst not closed all round, but open at one end. It is the open floral cyst, which has just become an animal. The original integument is thus Intestine. The intestine is the water-organ.

1885. The integument presents therefore to the external world, or to the nutritive matter, two parietes or walls, an external and an internal.

1886. Both walls are opposed to each other like light and darkness, like air and water. The external is the light-and air-wall, the internal the darkness-and water-wall.

1887. It is consequently only the internal wall that stands in the same relation as the root. The internal is "par excellence" root, and is thus a main organ of absorption.

1888. The external wall comes under the idea of the stem-bark, and in so far only as this has a root-nature in itself, is it likewise absorbent.

1889. As upon the external animal wall the light and air constantly operate--for without light indeed no animal originates--so is this wall more and more removed from the idea of the root, and becomes, by virtue of the influence of light and air, instead of an absorbent organ, an organ rather of decomposition--an evaporation's organ.

1890. As a cyst the internal wall incloses the nutritive matter, which originates from the mucus, and thus from the organic water. The internal wall is therefore constantly immersed in the water, and is consequently in every respect a root.

1891. As the animal is only developed in light, so must the function of the root languish in the external wall, and decay, because it is devoid of the earth, which protects it from or against the light. This deficiency is compensated for in another way, or by the formation of a cavity, into which the media of nutrition enter, and which is dark like the earth.

1892. Internal and external wall stand also opposite to each other, like water and air. The one is the water-, the other the air-wall.

1893. The nutritive matters are not decomposed upon the internal wall by extraneous influences, but they remain identical; ay, they become indifferent, because they enter into darker and warmer water.

1894. On the other hand such nutritive matters are decomposed upon the external wall; and there here therefore gradually originates, instead of the chemicalizing root-process, the polarizing process of air.

1895. In a perfect light-animal it is only the internal wall that is chemicalizing; the external has become oxydizing. The internal is a mucus-wall, but the external, on account of the decomposition of mucus, an oxygen-wall.

Division.

1896. The more an animal has been exposed to the air and light, by so much the greater is the antagonism between its internal and external wall. In aquatic animals the antagonism is at its minimum, because externally and internally there is water; both parietes are therefore mucus-walls. The external wall of the fishes secretes an abundance of mucus, as does that also of the worms, snails, and molluscs.

1897. But an internal wall is still the more mucous of the two, because it is darker and warmer.

1898. At first the animal is content with the antagonism of the walls; especially so long as it remains occluded in dark and deep water, or within other animals. Many intestinal worms, polyps, and even Acalephous animals, are but simple sacs.

1899. When the animal organization, however, ranks upon a higher stage, light, or even air, operates more upon its external wall, but upon its internal, water; thus the antagonism of the two walls is carried out to the utmost degree.

1900. Through the different, ay, opposed processes, the two walls finally adopt another structure. The external becomes denser and harder, on account of the decomposition by light and dessication by air; the internal, however, retains its original structure and consistence. Soft, aqueous, indifferent, and constantly absorbent, it is only a viscous mucus.

1901. In place of an integument of similar tissue throughout, one will originate, whose external tissue is dense and oxydized, but whose internal is loose or spongy, and indifferent. The previously uniform integument will now separate or fall into two distinct layers; into a soft muco-cellular layer, and into a tough coriaceo-cellular layer.

1902. With the last attainable antagonism the layers finally separate; two bladders or cysts, disunited from each other, originate; of these the internal is the mucous, the external the coriaceous cyst.

1903. Now the internal cyst alone is the intestine, the external the cutis or skin.

1904. Intestine and cutis belong to one formation, or to the integument. They pass directly into each other at the mouth and anus. Their structure also is wholly similar.

1905. They are merely distinguished by darkness and light, but more closely by water and air. The intestine is the water-tegument, the skin the air-tegument.

1906. The functions of both are therefore co-related like dissolution is to combustion, along with which the evaporation has been bestowed.

1907. Intestine and skin stand in antagonism with each other.

1908. The first animal, as being sentient integument, is a sac; the first skin is also a sac; an animal around the animal.

2. DERMAL SYSTEM.

a. Branchiæ or Gills.

1909. The external wall, being constantly exposed to the air that is in the water, can adopt no other than the aerial character, and is thus like the leaf of the plant. The skin is the organ of evaporation, and with this of oxydation also.

1910. A self-oxydizing integument is called a Branchia or gill.

1911. The skin is essentially nothing else than a gill; and, if it subsequently appears as anything else, this happens only through a higher state of perfection being attained by its branchial function.

1912. The lowest animals, such as most of the worms, molluscs, and snails, breathe through the external integument; even the gills of fishes are none other than a piece of skin.

1913. Thus gills and intestine would be the first two organs, which are developed out of the tegumentary system by the antagonism of air and water. Through the gills, air, and through the intestine, water enters the body. The gill is the atmosphere of the animal, the intestine is its sea.

b. Tracheæ, or Air-tubes.

1914. As the intestine, and in general every water-tegument is prolonged into mucous tubes or absorbent vessels; so also, with a more vigorous formation, the branchial membrane is drawn out into tubes, in order to conduct the air or oxygen towards the intestinal vessels, just as the intestine conveys through its absorbent ducts the water to the vessels of the skin.

1915. This saccular inversion of the skin constitutes the tegumentary lymphatic vessels, whose original function has been to transport the oxygen, combined with the water, to the intestine. They are the original respiratory vessels, which in the higher animals become, through the pure influence of air, true Air-tubes, like the spiral vessels.

1916. The air-vessels traverse the thickness of the body toward the intestinal membrane, like the mucous vessels do toward the branchial membrane.

1917. Thus an infinite number of air-vessels will and must originate.

1918. The air-tubes are consequently the formation which is properly opposed to the lymphatic vessels. They are for the air or for the skin, what these are for the water or the intestine. Air-vessels are first displayed in insects, then in fishes, reptiles, birds, and Thricozoa or Mammalia.

1919. If the infinitely numerous air-vessels concur to form one stem, they are then called lungs, as in the higher animals.

1920. The pulmonary vesicles are nothing but ramified air-tubes, such as the insect has.

1921. The formation of air-tubes is one of a higher character than that of the gills. For in it, indeed, the function has been separated from all other functions. It is simply destined to convey the air without water.

1922. As they pass into the dark, light does not operate upon them; and they will therefore less promote evaporation than mediate unto combustion.

1923. The anatomical idea of the air-vessels, or of the lung, is a saccular inversion of the skin. The skin is prolonged into, and ramifies towards, the body. The intestine is prolonged through the absorbent vessels, as being also small inversions, toward the lung, and becomes a stem--thoracic duct. Then the thoracic duct finally unites with the lungs through the medium of the heart, which is a new formation.

1924. Everything becomes stem which attains a higher grade, and which approximates the air and light. The stem strives to be a centre, but the ramification devolves upon the periphery; the former upon the Solar or Animal; the latter upon the Planetary or Vegetative.

1925. The nobler therefore a formation, by so much the more single and stemmy is it: such is the case with the trachea of the lungs, such with the lymphatic duct.

3. VASCULAR SYSTEM.

1926. The earth or the nutritive mass acts also upon its formation, and destines the tegument to a peculiar structure. The result of the electric and chemical process, or of the oxydation of the mucus, is precipitation, mass-and earth-formation; it is thus a process of nutrition, since through it the Solid of the body, with even the branchial and intestinal membranes, originates.

1927. The earth-system can only be developed where the two last systems coincide, or where the intestinal and branchial processes enter into mutual contact; in short, where the mucus is oxydized, and thereby separated into what is aerial and rigid.

1928. This spot is only in the middle between the two. The process of precipitation and the formation of elemental matter occurs, consequently, between the two layers of integument, or at present between the two teguments that have become self-substantial, or between intestine and skin.

1929. A new formation must be evolved, whereby the two shall be held together; a formation, whereby the antagonism shall be conducted from one to the other; and thus whereby the mucus shall be conveyed to the skin, but the air to the intestine.

1930. Were intestine and skin entirely separated from each other, each would perish; the former would no longer be oxydized, the latter no longer nourished.

1931. With their separation they must continue to be attached to each other at certain points, and thus undergo eversion at certain points. Thereby tubes originate in the intestine, which pursue their course toward the skin; in this again tubes, which pass to the intestine.

1932. A tube, which receives mucus from the intestine, air from the skin, and includes both within itself, is a long cyst. A cyst, which conducts mucus to the skin and air to the intestine, is a Vessel, a vein.

a. Unclosed Vascular System.

1933. The vessel has, in virtue of its essence, two extremities, an air-extremity, which is polar, and a water-extremity, which is indifferent. Every vessel has been rooted in two systems, in the intestine and skin, and is subservient to both.

1934. The vessel is no longer a something single, like the last-mentioned or preceding cysts, but double. Every vessel hath two poles.

1935. The organization necessarily produces two kinds of vessels. A vessel, which conducts the mucus to the skin, cannot also convey the air to the intestine. There is consequently a mucus-vessel and an air-vessel, or a water-and an air-vessel, an indifferent and a different.

1936. The mucus-vessel is called absorbent, the air-vessel respiratory duct or trachea.

1937. Air-and absorbent vessel stand in antagonism like skin and intestine, like water and air. The air-vessel is the skin or the branchia, which passes to the intestine, the absorbent vessel is the intestine, which passes to the air; the one the intestinal branchia, the other the branchial intestine.

1938. So long as intestine and skin were one in kind, this vascular process was in every situation. With their separation therefore the vascular structure has of necessity originated between two opposed situations. There is no point in the skin and none in the intestine, where there might not be an air-and a water-vessel, a respiratory and absorbent duct.

1939. There are therefore numerous vessels, and consequently a Vascular system.

1940. Air-and water-vessel must abut against each other; because they are polar, because the one leads to this place and the other to that.

1941. The system of water-and air-ducts can form no closed vascular system; for they only grow towards each other, as did formerly intestine and skin.

1942. They would not have originated if both cysts had not separated from each other. These vessels are not therefore to be met with in animals that have no intestine. The transition of the water-into the air-ducts takes place in the higher animals through the union of the thoracic duct with the subclavian vein, which conveys the blood directly to the lungs.

1943. The vascular system is properly the primo-cellular tissue, which occupies the middle, and at whose extremities the two cysts remain approximated, in order that they may continue to live.

1944. The vascular is the original system, since its two extremities already carry in themselves the air-and mucus-process, so that branchia and intestine are only to be viewed as peculiarly perfected conditions of these extremities. I would even have developed the vascular system first of all, had not another course been required to render the subject intelligible.

1945. The first animal cyst is a vessel with two kinds of extremities, whereof, like the plant, one draws its supply from the water, the other from the air; but in the animal this is effected by its own motion.

1946. The branchia is nothing but a vascular tissue in the air, the intestine none other than a vascular tissue in the water. Thus, do I wish that these organs should be understood, and not as mere cystic walls.

1947. Every point therefore in the intestine and skin absorbs, and thus every part is perforated with infinitely numerous holes or pores. Here they absorb air, there water.

1948. Every absorbent point of integument is drawn out as a tube towards the respiratory system, in order to let what it has absorbed become oxydized. These tegumentary prolongations into tubes are the lymphatic vessels.

1949. In all teguments there are necessarily lymphatic vessels, but more of them in the water-than the air-teguments. On that account the lymphatic vessels are much more numerous in the intestine than the skin. They are there called chyliferous, or lacteal vessels.

1950. The lymphatic vessels are the first of all vessels. Many animals, as perhaps the Acalephæ and Distomata, appear to have only this kind of vessel.

1951. Lymphatic vessels are present in the skin, only in so far as it has resigned the respiratory function to special organs.

Meaning of the Unclosed Vascular System.

1952. The action of this unclosed vascular system is wholly similar to the motion of sap and air in the plant, there being only an ascent of the first, and a fall or descent of the last. In the absorbents the sap ascends out of the root (intestine) into the leaves (branchiæ); in the respiratory vessels the air descends from the foliage (skin) to the intestine and the whole body of cells.

1953. This vascular system is therefore the pure remnant of the plant, and has as yet assumed no properly animal character, except that both its sets of vessels or tubes are self-substantial, and ramify, while in the plant they are only intercellular passages or non-ramified spiral vessels.

1954. In insects this system has been most perfectly evolved; there the air-tubes, being well parcelled out, are in great number, and run directly to the intestine and dorsal vessel, which is, as it were, only the trunk of the lymphatic vessels, or the chyliferous duct.

1955. Now, such a vascular system, merely oscillating, as it were, between intestine and skin, can be but persistent in animals, which express only the vegetable type of organization. If other significations be introduced, so also will this vascular system be otherwise evolved.

1956. The unclosed vascular system will be present along with an energetic antagonism between skin and intestine; with an antagonism that is almost suppressed, there will be none. There are then only cells, or there is only point-substance, as in the Infusoria, polyps, and Acalephæ or sea-nettles.

1957. The dermal vessels exist only in the air-insects, because in them nothing but air and water are engaged in conflict. Externally there is desiccated horn, internally mucous water.

1958. A perfectly unclosed vascular system appears to be developed only in animals which respire air. At least there are only genuine air-tubes and lymphatic vessels in such as breathe air; e. g., in the Mammalia, birds, reptiles and fishes, the latter set of vessels being probably not present in insects.

1959. Through the predominance of the air-process, as in insects, the mucus that is conveyed to it becomes so rapidly decomposed, that no more remains behind, for which a new vessel would be necessary.

1960. The galvanic process is at every instant annulled, and only renovated by a new afflux or supply. Here the galvanism does not subsist in itself as a peculiar and independent system.

b. Closed Vascular System.

1961. The unclosed vascular system is not yet self-substantial, because it is a cæcal eversion of the intestine or inversion of the skin, being itself only a ramified intestine and skin. Every system, however, attains its perfection, by being rendered independent of its origin. Thus the leaf is the spiral vessel that has become free, the root the cellular tissue in a like condition, the blossom the liberated vegetable trunk. The vascular system will therefore aspire also to the achievement of its blossom.

1962. If the decomposition that is effected by an inferior amount of polarization, does not happen rapidly enough, for what has flowed thither, to disappear, during its afflux, by evaporation or precipitation; the rest of the mucus which has obtained the air-polarity, is now repelled by the respiratory vessels, because both have become synonymous.

1963. The oxydized superfluous mucus is at once, however, attracted by the intestine, because they are not synonymous. There consequently originates a vessel in the mass of mucus or parenchyma, that has been secreted between the intestine and skin, which begins in the respiratory membrane and terminates in the intestine.

1964. This vessel will commence at the end of the absorbents, or at a point, where it devolves upon the respiratory vessels, to take up their contents, namely the oxygen, together with the nutritive substance, and convey them to the intestine. The mucus, which previously stagnated and moved but slowly from one spot to another, is now again carried back by another vessel without interruption to the intestine.

1965. The vessel which conveys oxydized mucus from the respiratory to the intestinal system, is called artery.

1966. On the intestine, however, this polar mucus is again reduced to ordinary mucus. It has now become synonymous with the intestine, is repelled from it and attracted by the branchial membrane.

1967. One and the same fluid or sap is consequently brought back from the branchia to the intestine, and from thence again to the branchia. This last vessel is called vein.

a. Arteries.

1968. The artery is, according to its signification, an air-vessel, which is prolonged or elongated as far as the intestine. Essentially, the artery conveys nothing but air, though this is effected by means of a medium or vehicle, which is the undecomposed mucus (blood). It is an air-tube, that has been self-substantially dismembered from the skin, in order to become a special independent air-tube, or such as is commensurate with animal nature.

1969. In the artery the external integument has been repeated in the nutritive system, and hence the galvanism has become of a continuous character.

1970. The artery must therefore be the highest vessel, the most total of all terrestrial processes. For it is the air-duct united with the intestinal vessel. It contains mucus, which carries the properties of both poles of the body in itself; there is oxydized mucus.

1971. The artery contains the whole body, lung and intestine, in short, the whole animal, (whereas it was previously dispersed in two vessels,) in a fluid state within itself. From the artery therefore nutrition will directly take place; from it the animal will be formed.

1972. The air or respiratory vessels may be viewed as arteries carried to the very extreme. In the lung the arterial system has attained its highest purity, the oxygen only, without the indifferent substance, being contained therein. The trachea is the roughest artery--Arteria aspera.

1973. The arterial system, in accordance with its signification, makes its first appearance in water, because the aquatic mode of respiration is less energetic, and thus the mucus is more feebly decomposed. The Mollusca, snails, and many worms have a perfect arterial system. The branchiæ do not, like respiratory tubes, pass into the body, as in insects; but there are vessels which take up the oxygen and convey it into the body.

1974. As lung and absorbent belong to the pure air or the pure water, so do artery and vein to the water combined with the air. The two former are therefore present only where aerial respiration occurs, and the two latter where water merely is respired.

1975. The last system is only present in animals, in so far as they are aquatic in their habits.

1976. Insects, as being purely aerial animals, have therefore arteries and veins only so long as they are in the larva or worm-like condition, and as flies or perfect insects may continue to live without them. On the contrary, the purely aquatic animals appear enabled to live without true respiratory and absorbent vessels. It in fact appears, that lymphatic as well as respiratory vessels are wanting in the molluscs, snails, and worms, since the water directly bathes or washes the arteries.

1977. Animals with both systems of vessels, the unclosed and closed, must be more perfect in structure, and must at once combine worm and insect in themselves. They are insects from having absorbent and respiratory vessels, but worms as having arteries and veins.

b. Veins.

1978. The veins are developed as mucus-vessels at the intestinal extremities of the arteries, which absorb the arterial mucus (blood), after it has deposited its air on the tegumentary substance, just as the lymphatic vessels absorb their fluid from the intestine or any other part of the body.

1979. As the artery is a respiratory vessel that has become self-substantial, so is the vein a similarly conditioned, and dismembered lymphatic vessel. In the one it is the lung, in the other the intestine, that has become the free vascular system. But in the proper vascular system both lung and intestine are repeated, the former as artery, the latter as vein.

1980. These arterio-lymphatic vessels (veins) necessarily convey their arterial mucus or blood into the stem of the original lymphatic system, or the thoracic duct. For every Indifferent must be brought toward the respiratory organ.

1981. The tegumentary lymphatic vessels (absorbents) consequently unite with the arterio-lymphatic vessels (veins), before arriving at the respiratory organ, and pursue their course thither in common, where they pass over into the air-vessels. The usual notion or idea is, that the lymphatic vessels, from conveying their fluid into the veins, should be subordinated to the latter. But the true philosophical view, is of reverse import, although the veins are larger than the thoracic duct. In the investigation of such relations, recourse can by no means be had to quantity or size, but to the importance of the quality or contents.

1982. The veins are, properly speaking, subordinated to the lymphatic vessels, just as the arteries are to the tracheæ, or air-tubes, and the former therefore pass over into the lymphatic vessels.

c. Circulation.

1983. Through the veins, as arterio-lymphatic ducts, the vascular system has become a closed system in itself, because, on account of the polarity, the vein unites at both extremities directly with the artery. It is a continuation of the artery, like the air-duct is of the skin, and the lymphatic vessel of the intestine. Thereby a Circulation of the arteriose mucus or blood originates.

1984. In its essence the circulation is a combination of the intestinal with the branchial system into one anatomical system.

1985. The circulation is therefore a higher formation, since through it the vascular system repeats in itself the totality of the vegetable organism.

1986. On that account the circulation is the vital process proper.

1987. But for that reason also, the circulation is impossible in the plant, since it is devoid of arteries and veins.

1988. It makes its appearance in the aquatic animals, for they have, generally speaking, vessels. Molluscs, snails, worms, and crabs already possess a circulation; it is wanting, on the contrary, in those animals that are without intestine, and ceases in insects, when, or in whom, the air-vessels obtain the preponderance.

1989. In circulation the galvanism is restricted. In the skin, intestine, air-and lymphatic vessel there is also galvanism, but distributed upon organs that are remote and subservient to different purposes.

d. Blood.

1990. The blood signifies the earth in the animal, combined with water and air.

1991. The blood is the proper nutritive matter for the animal.

1992. The blood is earth, which carries all terrestrial elements in itself, such as the air through the medium of the gills, the water through that of the intestine, and is consequently a complete planet.

1993. The blood is a fluid planet.

1994. The blood is the fluid body.

1995. The body is the fixed or rigid blood. Blood and body are wholly equivalent, have the same elements in themselves; only here the latter are stationary, there they course along. Both consist of mucus or gelatine, albumen and fibrine.

1996. The blood is half combusted mucus, the body mucus, that has been wholly subjected to combustion.

1997. After the vascular system has attained its own circulation, or to the closed galvanism, no higher development of the tegumentary formation is any longer conceivable; as little as after the blossom anything more could originate.

1998. After all three elements are united into one point, into one system, as is the case in the circulation, where the venous blood represents the water, the arterial blood the earth and air, no new system can further originate in the vegetative body.

4. SEXUAL SYSTEM.

1999. In so far as the animal adopts into itself, or is rather based upon, the whole plant, the blossom or Sex is also developed in it. The vegetable sex consists of seed, capsule, and corolla.

2000. The seed is the first part of the blossom which is put forth in the plant. The most inferior or asexual plants have only seeds devoid of capsule and corolla, and produced without the concurrence of female and male parts. The blossom in the animal is therefore in the beginning also nothing but seeds or ova. Thus these animals are asexual. Such as the Infusoria, whose body directly divides into new animals, like the fungi.

2001. The second floral organ is the capsule, which contains on its borders or dissepiments the seeds, and on its apex the stigma, or the opening of the cyst.

2002. So also in the succeeding forms of animal life the animal capsule or uterus originates. The orifice corresponding to the stigma is the mouth of the womb; the seeds upon the septum become ovary.

2003. The lowest animals, as the Polyps, are fundamentally none other than such an uterine system. The polyp's mouth is the os uteri; the sac formed by the polyp's body is the uterus, in which ova-cysts or ovaries develop, that open into the margins of the month.

2004. In such animals the uterus and intestine, as likewise the mouth and uterine orifice are fundamentally one organ; nutritive matter and ova are also one in kind. External tegument as branchial organ is at the same time also a tegument of the uterus.

2005. The higher animals are distinguished from the lower by separation of all these intricate and, as it were, coalesced organs.

2006. Digestion, respiration and nutrition, growth and propagation, are originally of one kind. But with further development come the male parts also, which belong to the category of the organs.

Parallelism of the Animal and Vegetable Body.

All vegetative systems of the animal body being now developed, the attempt to co-ordinate them with those of the plant admits of being made.

2007. What the sexual parts correspond to in plants, needs no exposition.

2008. And just as little that the lung is the parallel organ to the leaves or foliage. The relation of the other organs is, on the contrary, difficult; the striking resemblance, however, of the sexual parts and the lungs to the same systems in plants, is ground sufficient for assuming also the parallelism of the other organs.

2009. If the root be compared with the intestine, then the stalk, as being the medium of the vascular system, must be regarded as heart.

2010. The bark will correspond to the skin, the liber to the veins, the wood as a tracheal body to the arteries.

2011. The vegetable tissue will be transformed into the lowest organs of the animal; the cells into the mucous tissue, the intercellular passages into the lacteal vessels, the tracheæ, or spiral vessels, into the lowest kind of respiratory tubes or the cutaneo-lymphatic vessels. We have accordingly the following parallel series:

A. Tissues.

1. Cells Mucous tissue. 2. Ducts Absorbents. 3. Tracheæ Cutaneo-absorbents.

B. Systems.

4. Bark Skin. 5. Liber Veins. 6. Wood Arteries.

C. Members.

7. Root Intestine. 8. Stalk Heart. 9. Foliage Lung.

D. Sexual parts.

10. Seed Ovum. 11. Ovary Uterus. 12. Corolla Testes.

B. ANIMAL SYSTEMS.

2012. As in the blossom the light allows the whole vegetable trunk to be once more developed, though with coloured signs or marks of distinction, so also is the animal body taken up into the sense of light, and the vegetative systems are elevated unto light-or rather æther-systems.

2013. A new animal originates upon the old animal and is equivalent to it. Every perfect animal is twofold in its nature, being a planetary and solar animal, a vegetative and animal being.

2014. Three animal systems must be developed out of the three vegetative, an earth-, water-, and air-system, each being refined or purified through the agency of light, and forming the bones, muscles, and nerves, which correspond to the gravity or materiality, the heat or motion, and the light or tension.

2015. Everything that is higher in its nature can only be developed out of that which is its direct antecedent, like the blossom from the leaf. Now the artery is the ultimate Vegetative. In this therefore, must the elements of the osseous, muscular and nervous systems reside. Now, the artery consists, of four parts, of the cellular, fibrous, dense serous coat, and of the blood. The cellular coat or tunic is the remnant of the whole tegumentary formation. The fibrous tunic is the embryo of the muscular system. The serous tunic is the embryo of the osseous system; for in old age it attains to ossification, bony lamellæ being deposited around it. The blood is the embryo of the nervous system. It is only requisite for it to coagulate, and it is then nervous mass. Nervous globules are blood-globules quiescent, or in a state of rest. Accordingly, in the artery, the whole body has been actually prefigurated or typified.

2016. Every animal system necessarily exists under a duplex character, being once in the service of the vegetative systems and once for itself; or it exists as trunk and as blossom. There is, therefore, a vegetative and animal nervous system, and, under such binary conditions, osseous and muscular systems likewise.

2017. All three systems are offsets from the arteries, and therefore their constant companions. The animal systems are called flesh.

1. NERVOUS SYSTEM.

2018. The nervous mass is coagulated blood. The nervous system is thus a higher arterial system. The highest arteries, however, are the air-tubes. The nerves therefore run parallel with the tracheal systems.

2019. What the tracheæ are for the vegetative body, namely, the vitalizing and motor principle, such are the nerves for both the animal and vegetative body.

2020. The nerves are distributed like the tracheæ of plants, in individual threads or filaments, which run near to each other arranged in a fascicular manner, and then mutually separate.

2021. The nervous filaments everywhere accompany the arteries, and, as far as their ultimate ramifications, like the tracheæ of insects pass to all parts of the body.

2022. The nervous mass has been separated into an arteriose and venous mass, the former being the cineritious or gray substance, the latter the medullary or white. The nervous system is therefore an entire blood-system, with two poles; it is therefore alive and active for itself, or independent of other systems.

2023. Both nervous masses are in a state of constant tension against each other, and consequently in constant tension with the whole body.

2024. The nerves are filaments that, upon the separation of the parts of the body, have remained behind, just like the arteries are tubes individualized in the general parenchyma, throughout which the sap was previously dispersed as in the vegetable trunk. The first individualization necessarily takes place at the oral extremity. The first nerve is a ring surrounding the pharynx or gullet. Thus, if the body consists of several consecutive rings or cysts, as in the Worms, each ring will or can have its nervous ring, which inferiorly gives off nerves to the vegetative organs, and superiorly to the animal, if these be present. Such a point for giving off nerves is called a ganglion; since also every ganglion sends off nerves to join other ganglia; so both below and above a nervous cord or string will originate in the longitudinal direction. The nerves, which have been left behind in the vegetative parts, form the vegetative nervous system; those that remain in the animal parts, the animal system.

a. Vegetative Nervous System.

2025. The vegetative nervous system is the nervous mass that has remained behind, after the greatest part of it has become converted into tegumentary formations. Now, as these tegumentary formations, being surrounded in the higher animals by flesh, were thus viscera, so may the vegetative nerves be called also Visceral or Splanchnic nerves.

2026. These visceral nerves govern the vessels, the intestine, and lung; with the sexual parts also, yet in their case in combination with the animal nerves, because the sexual parts are at one and the same time organs of vegetative and animal life.

2027. These visceral nerves everywhere accompany the vessels, and are therefore like these distributed in a cystic manner between intestine and skin. They form a large cyst which concentrically surrounds the intestine.

2028. They do not, however, like the intestine, form any closed cyst, but only a cystimorphous net, like the vessels.

2029. The two nervous masses are in them separated from each other, like as the branchiæ have been distributed along the whole body and separated from the intestine. The gray or branchoid substance has separated itself from the white medullary substance into individual ganglia, or as it were into individual nervous branchiæ. The medullary substance has also retained its connexion though only in a ramular manner, and not uninterruptedly like an integument. It is called plexus.

2030. The ganglia and the plexuses stand in mutual opposition, like the branchiæ and intestine, like artery and vein, like blood and lymphatic vessels. The ganglia oxydize, polarize; they are the active. The plexuses suffer, digest, and are the recipient.

2031. The visceral nerves, like the viscera, act for themselves, being unconcerned for the animal systems.

2032. The visceral nerves have a vegetable sensation for themselves, a sense of touch, such as the blossom might have in the instant of the pollenization.

2033. As all formations have become symmetrical through and in accordance with the vascular system, so does the vegetative nervous system separate into two parallel stems which accompany the arterial trunk. They are called intercostal nerves. These ramify and form plexuses that accord with the visceral organs, which they govern.

b. Animal Nervous System.

2034. The animal nervous system is the repetition of the vegetative, and is combined therewith to constitute an unity. The nervous cyst that was previously dissevered in a reticular manner, becomes a closed tube, which is placed upon the light-exposed side of the other animal systems, and thus upon the vertebral column. This closed nervous tube is called the myelon, or spinal cord.

2035. The spinal cord is worth as much as all the visceral nerves taken together; it is the felted system of intercostal nerves; and is, properly speaking, none other than the posterior double cord of ganglia. It consists therefore also of ganglia and plexuses, but both have coalesced, on account of the increase of the mass and its endeavour towards the attainment of union.

2036. The ganglia form a tube, which is inclosed by the tubes of the plexuses. The ganglion-tube is the gray, the plexus-tube the medullary substance.

2037. If the gray substance appear to reside within the medulla, this is the result only of involution or a folding in. The parietes of the spinal marrow stand therefore in everlasting tension with each other, like ganglia and plexuses, and like arteries and veins.

2038. The spinal marrow is the content of the bones and muscles, like the intercostal nerves or the visceral cord are the contents of the abdominal cavity, and as the blood is that of the internal and fibrous coat of the arteries. Bones and muscles are the animal parietes of the nerves, as the two vascular membranes are the vegetative walls of the blood. The skin, as branchia, incloses all, like the cellular membrane does the vessels.

2039. As the intercostal ganglia give off plexus-forming ramules; so does the spinal marrow; there are the spinal nerves. The spinal marrow is, first of all therefore, the coalescence of the two intercostal nerves.

2040. These spinal nerves are, however, animal plexuses, which partly encroach upon the visceral nerves, and partly pass to the animal systems.

2041. There are therefore two kinds of spinal nerves, vegetative and animal, and as many of them as there are divisions in the viscera and in the animal systems.

2042. The nerves pass off symmetrically from the spinal cord, because the nervous mass belongs to the symmetrical osseous system. They form therefore rings both anteriorly and posteriorly.

2043. The nervous system does not consist of individual cysts, like its two animal teguments, or bone and flesh. It is at one time the type or image of the vascular trunk and its ramifications; at another the indifferent æther-mass, which does not crystallize; it is lastly the organic primary mass that has remained persistent, and must thus be coherent in texture. It is the blood continually streaming from the animal divisions of the heart.

2044. The whole animal nervous system is a tegumentary cyst with tubes passing off from it symmetrically in the form of rings.

2045. The spinal cord cannot be the highest. It has only the lowest signification, in so far as it stands in the service of the viscera and the sense of touch, and thus follows the position and arrangement of the bones. Thus the spinal cord is first of all an osseo-nervous mass.

2046. The nerves, as running for the most part forwards, are musculo-nervous mass; those running backwards or outwards are tegumentary or sensitive nerves. This signification furnishes us, also with the physiological function of these two divisions of nerves. The nerves are homologous with the flexors, the spinal cord with the extensors; the nerves with the air, the medulla with the earth; the former with the arteries, the latter with the veins; the nerves are thus what is more active, the medulla that which is more inert.

2047. On that account the nerves only are in intercourse with the world, while the medulla broods within itself. Consequently, both these nerve-formations are not as yet the pure self-substantial nervous blossom, which no longer imitates flesh and bone, but only itself.

Brain.

2048. The highest point attained by the lower systems are the orifices of the viscera, the mouth and the nose. The mouth is the first animal sign, which the plant gives off in the blossom from itself. The Noblest lies therefore at the anterior extremity of the animal, or in man in the direction upwards.

2049. It consequently occupies the middle point, or one that is between the anterior flesh and the posterior bones, and at the same time the spot, from which all vital processes emerge, or the mouth.

2050. The oral nervous mass is the Brain. It forms originally the posterior ganglia of the pharyngeal ring.

2051. The situation of the brain is essentially in front of or above the body, in opposition to the sexual parts, which are the lower totality.

2052. It is, however, above and behind; for it is originally situated posteriorly. The brain can therefore originate only, when the posterior medulla inclines from above forwards, making a curve in the latter direction; the brain is a spinal cord that has been bent from above forwards.

2053. The more the spinal cord is curved forwards, so much the nobler is it. This is self-evident.

2054. The brain is a spinal cord which makes the transit from the signification of bone to that of flesh.

2055. In the brain therefore the tendency must principally reside, to give off nerves, and perfect them into self-substantial nervous organs.

2056. In man the brain with its nerves curves round like a crosier, and that more perfectly than in any other animal. The spinal cord therefore in the highest formation of the brain returns again parallel to the direction, in which it has ascended.

2057. In the brain there is of necessity the greatest quantity of nervous mass. The brain is the nervous trunk, as the liver is probably the vascular trunk.

2058. In the brain the cystic formation has been most purely represented; as e. g. in the cerebral cavities or ventricles. The brain is the stomach of the nervous system or its lungs.

2059. The brain consists essentially of two substances, of one accommodated to the flesh, and one to the bones, or of one arteriose, and the other venous. The former is the gray or cortical, the latter the white or medullary substance. The cortex is the lung of the brain, the medulla the liver or the intestine.

2060. The bark or cortex is the polarizing, active, oxydizing; the medulla the patient or suffering.

2061. This nervous pulmonary substance is continued along the spinal cord and even along the nerves, there as veritable gray substance, here as the vascular membrane of the nervous mass.

Head.

2062. The brain, as being a system that has been separated superiorly from the other systems, determines the Head. The head is only there in so far as a brain is there.

2063. Head and trunk are antagonistically disposed, as Animal and Vegetable, or still more exactly, like nerve and bony flesh are to the viscera.

2064. The head is naught but a nervous organ.

2065. The concomitants of the nervous mass follow the brain, but, instead of the medulla having been previously subordinated to, or at least co-ordinated with, these, it is they that are thus related to the brain. The bones of the brain are the brain-case or cranium, the flesh of the brain, the face or countenance. On the head, bones and flesh have been disposed in the strictest manner according to their dignity or worth. Posteriorly there is almost pure bone, in front almost pure muscle.

2066. The cranium can be none other than the vertebral column continued around the brain. It consists of three vertebræ, the face of one. This will become clear in what follows.

2067. If the bones of the head are the repetition of those of the trunk, so also must the flesh of the head be a repetition of that of the trunk. Pectoral and abdominal muscles are ennobled in the muscles of the face.

2068. The face must have been principally formed by the orifice of the intestine--the mouth, and by the opening of the lungs--the nose, and by the apex of the vascular system--the members which are repeated as jaws. The month is the stomach in the head, the nose the lung, the jaws the arms and feet.

2069. The salivary glands are the liver in the head, as the mouth is its stomach. The liver that was originally also symmetric in form has become wholly symmetric in the higher organized head and forms two glands. The salivary ducts are the hepatic or biliary ducts.

2070. The tongue is the pharynx elongated upon the anterior side, because in front there is more flesh. The tongue is the extremity of the intestine converted into muscle.

2071. The nose includes pectoral muscles, the mouth arthric muscles or those of the limbs.

2072. If pectoral and abdominal muscles are repeated in the face, so also must the anterior bones, ribs, and limbs be repeated. It will be shown, in treating of the organs, that the nose is a vertebra, the jaws members, and their muscles those of the limbs. The head is the whole trunk with all its systems. The brain is the spinal marrow, the skull the vertebral column, the mouth intestine and abdomen, the nose lung and thorax, the jaws are members.

Senses.

2073. The perfect animal again consists of two animals, the spiritual or solar, and the terrestrial or planetary. The animal nervous system does not continue to remain simply in the service of the other systems, but seeks also to gradually render itself self-substantial or independent. Now, the operation of the nervous system for itself is sensation. The parts of the nervous system having become self-substantial, will be therefore pure organs of sensation. Yet as the nervous system cannot emancipate itself from the other systems, so will its highest development be attained only in combination with the highest development of the other systems. There are therefore as many stages of the self-substantial nervous development, as there are special anatomical systems.

2074. Sensation must be modified according to the processes performed by those systems, with which the nervous system combines. These systems are, however specifically distinct from each other. Sensations that are specifically distinct are sensorial sensations. Organs of sense are accordingly the combination of the highest part of an anatomical system with the nervous system. Sensorial sensations are different processes of the anatomical systems perceived in the nervous system.

2075. The first combination of the nerves with the vascular system that has become free, or with the integument, is the sense of feeling--vascular sense. The intestinal system emancipated and combined with the nerves, is the tongue--gustatory sense--intestinal sense. The lung upon its highest evolution with the nervous system is the nose--olfactory sense--pulmonic sense. These are thus the sensorial organs of the vegetative systems--senses of vegetative life.

2076. There are indeed three animal senses; but as the osseous and muscular system form in their conjoined operation but one system or the motor system--there can be therefore only 2 animal senses. The osseo-muscular or motor sense is the ear. If the nervous system becomes wholly self-substantial, the nervous sense thus originates, or the eye, in which the brain itself has been planted outwardly, and acts independently of all other systems.

2077. The vessels form the general system, and therefore the tegumentary sense surrounds the whole body. Its brain is the spinal cord.

2078. The four remaining senses are perfections of individual systems at their perfect extremity, and thus in the proximity of the mouth and the brain. They together form the head. The jaws and the tongue obtain their nerves from the medulla oblongata, and this is therefore the brain of the gustatory sense. The brain for the nose is the gray cerebral substance, because the olfactory nerves are its elongations. The ears obtain their nerves from the cerebellum, which is consequently the auditory brain. The eyes are developments of the great brain or cerebrum--optic brain. Such is the rationale and signification of the divisions of the brain.

2. OSSEOUS SYSTEM.

2079. The nervous mass consists of indifferent, deoxydized blood-globules. If these be peroxydized, then the highest oxyd of the planet is deposited in them, namely, the earth, and that indeed which was the last remnant in the order of their production, or the calcareous earth.

2080. Vesicles or cells replete with calcareous earth are globes. The osseous texture consists therefore of globes; is only a dense cellular tissue, and thus ranks nearest to the vegetable structure. The basis of the bones is at first a cellular gelatine, which, with increased oxydation, is converted into cartilage. Finally, calcareous earth is deposited in this cartilage.

2081. In the lower organized animals, who breathe for the most part by means of branchiæ, the acid combined with the calcareous earth is an inorganic, or the carbonic acid, i. e. oxygen combined with carbon, or the earthy Inflammable; in higher animals it is an organic acid or phosphoric acid, i. e. oxygen combined with phosphorus, or the aerial Inflammable. Phosphoric acid may be regarded as peroxydized gelatine, as acid of gelatine. The bone is therefore earth, salt and Inflammable.

2082. The first appearance of the osseous mass is in the oxydizing organs. It is formed from the dense or internal coat of the arteries, since in old age bony lamellæ are deposited upon this. In the hearts also of many animals bones are formed.

2083. The first regular formation of bones is exhibited in the trachea or air-tube, which has been directly exposed to the oxydizing process of the air. These first forms of the bones are rings.

2084. The antetype of the bone is, however, the intestine, as the air-vessels are the antetype of the nerves. The bone is a tube, an ossified intestine.

2085. There are two osseous systems, a vegetative and an animal; the one surrounds the tegumentary systems, as, e. g. the scales of Fishes and Reptiles, horny rings of Insects; the other the nervous systems.

a. Vegetative Osseous System.

2086. The vegetative osseous system is divisible into dermal, tracheal, intestinal, and vascular bones.

2087. The dermal bones are tegumentary rings, which surround the whole body, and are tracheal rings in so far as the skin is originally a respiratory organ. Such are the rings of the body in Insects, the shells of the Gasteropods and Molluscs, with scales and scutes in general.

2088. The tracheal bones are the branchial arches and tracheal rings.

2089. The intestinal or splanchnic bones are tubes environing the intestine, as in the corals, or imperfect annular segments, which at one time are found in the stomach, as in the Mollusca, at another in the pharynx, as in the Worms, Snails, Sea-urchins, and Holothuriæ; constituting what are called pharyngeal maxillæ. The branchial organs are fundamentally also none other than pharyngeal rings. The lingual and palatal bones, with the intermaxillary bones, belong also to the same category.

2090. The vascular bones are displayed in the hearts of many animals. The three last divisions may be called visceral or splanchnic bones; and then we have tegumentary, splanchnic, and nerve-bones.

b. Animal Osseous System.

2091. The animal or nervo-osseous system must separate from the vegetative system of bones, and be placed upon the side exposed to the light. The side of the inferior animal that is exposed to the light, or averted from the earth, is the upper surface, dorsal region or back.

2092. The back holds the same relation to the ventral side as light does to the darkness, as sun to the earth; therefore the dorsal side is of a dark, the ventral of a faint or pale colour.

2093. Back and belly are related polarwise to each other.

2094. Through the medium of the bones the distinction between back and belly has been definitely established in the animal, and, as a consequence thereof, the distinction also of right from left. Before a formation of bone exists, the animal is for the most part a round cylinder.

2095. The osseous system can in itself be only symmetrically constructed.

2096. The osseous is the only symmetrical system in an animal. The other organs are so only in so far as they follow the arrangement of the osseous system.

2097. The animal osseous system is, from its being a repetition of the intestinal canal, a tube. This tube is surrounded, like the trachea, by rings, between which the tegumentary tube suffers constrictions.

2098. The back is a series of numerous bony rings.

2099. These bony rings are the bodies of the vertebræ.

2100. The vertebræ have originated through polar repetition, through the muscular cysts.

2101. In addition to the series of vertebræ on the back, a vertebral column is formed moreover along the ventral surface, and without doubt there only where the air-organ, the branchia or lung, is situated. This inferior vertebral column is the breast-bone or sternum.

2102. All the systems, even those that are of a subordinate character in the animal, follow the direction of the main vertebral column. The intestine, as well as the vessels, are placed in accordance with it. Thus the principal trunks of the vessels take their rise along the vertebral column, the other vessels being given off from them in this situation, like the lymphatics from the intestine.

2103. The vascular ramules which surround the intestine and the skin, run out from a main stem, and are directed in a symmetric manner downwards and upwards (in the horizontal body of animals), or towards the belly and back.

2104. If new bony rings originate, they must also take these directions. They accompany the vessels that run in a circle, as the vertebral column accompanies the vascular trunks. These annularly-disposed bony twigs or apophyses constitute in the direction downwards the ribs, in that upwards the vertebral arches. Anterior and posterior to the vertebral column there consequently originates a long canal formed by the bony rings. In the anterior canal lie the galvanic or vegetative organs, in the posterior or upper, the organs of light must be situated "par excellence." The former of these canals is called the thoracic and abdominal cavity, the latter the vertebral canal. The vertebral canal is not the bony or medullary cavity itself, but it has been formed by several bony cysts in the same manner as the thoracic cavity. It consists of the body and the two arches. These are thus posterior (superior) ribs. The vertebral canal has the same signification as the thoracic cavity has; it is only a posterior thoracic cavity. It therefore contains, like the anterior canal, viscera dissimilar in kind to bone; the one including the spinal cord, the other vessels, intestine, and lung.

2105. The bony cysts that have originated through constriction do not all harden into calcareous matter, but they remain as alternating membranous cysts. Between the rings there are permanent cysts. The membranous cysts form the joint, or articular capsule. An articular capsule is a bone which has remained soft.

2106. This change in the ossific process takes place through the attachment of muscles, concerning which we shall treat in the sequel.

2107. The whole osseous system is consequently a symmetrical arrangement of several polar cysts and rings.

2108. The vertebra is not a single ring, but is at once a tolerably compound osseous system. The whole osseous system is nothing but a vertebra repeated.

2109. The number of the vertebræ necessarily conforms to that of the pairs of nerves or ganglia of the spinal cord; for they are indeed only the periphery or envelope of the latter. The number of nerves is, however, adapted to that of the organs, which they have to take care of.

2110. Now, the nervous organs are the senses. There are consequently as many divisions of vertebræ as there are senses. Thus there are vertebræ appertaining respectively to the senses of touch, taste, smell, hearing, and sight. Now as the four latter senses make up the head, but that of touch or feeling is distributed over the whole body, and superintended by the spinal nerves, the vertebræ thus divide into two principal sections, into vertebræ of the head and trunk. The number of cephalic vertebræ is 4; namely, nasal, ocular, lingual, and auditory vertebræ.

2111. To a perfect vertebra belong at least five pieces, namely, the body, in front the two ribs, behind the two arches or spinous processes; every vertebra of the head consists therefore of five pieces also. In those vertebræ which are removed from the respiratory organ, the ribs are smaller, as in the ventral ribs, and anchylosed with the body, as in the cervical vertebræ, where they are represented by the perforated transverse processes, and in the lumbar vertebræ they disappear entirely.

2112. The formation of the cervical vertebræ, where the ribs have been impacted or interposed between the body and spinous processes, is continued into the cranial vertebræ. These are only expanded cervical vertebræ. At the base of the skull four vertebral bodies lie in a series one behind the other; the body of the occipital bone, the two bodies of the sphenoid, and the vomer. Upon the sides of each of these bodies are situated alar processes, which correspond to the transverse processes of the cervical vertebræ, or to the ribs; e. g. the articular heads or condyles of the occipital bone, the alæ majores and minores of the sphenoids, and the two sides or lateral surfaces of the vomer. Behind these are placed the two broad cranial bones, which correspond to the spinous processes; as the occipital ridge or crest, the parietal, frontal and nasal bones. The occipital vertebra consists of the body, the two condyles and the occipital crest. The parietal vertebra consists of the body of the posterior sphenoid, the alæ majores, and the parietal bones. The frontal vertebra consists of the body of the anterior sphenoid, the orbitar wings or alæ, and the two frontal bones. The nasal vertebra consists of the vomer, the ethmoid and the two nasal bones. The occipital vertebra is the auditory vertebra; it incloses the auditory bones and the cerebellum, which gives off the nerves of hearing. The parietal vertebra is the lingual vertebra; the maxillary and lingual nerves passing through its alæ majores. The frontal vertebra is that belonging to the eye; through the orbitar plates or wings the optic nerves pursue their course, and it environs the cerebrum, from which these nerves originate. The nasal vertebra contains the olfactory nerves.

2113. Each cranial sense has thus only one vertebra, and the skull will consequently be formed of four vertebræ, whereof three appertain to the cranium, one unto the face. (See Oken's Ueber die Bedeutung der Schädelknochen, 1807.--Isis, 1817, S. 1204.)

2114. Several vertebræ are, however, found for the sense of feeling or touch, because it includes all the organs of the trunk. There must be therefore as many vertebræ in the trunk as there are particular organs placed therein. Of these there are three, the respiratory, digestive, and sexual system, or thorax, abdomen, and pelvis. To the thorax belong the neck, the arms, and the entire set of ribs. 5 vertebræ must appertain to the arms, because they have 5 digits and 5 nerves. But the ribs, and consequently also the digits, are determined by branchial vessels, are only repeated branchial arches, whose number in almost the entire class of fishes is 5. There are therefore also 5 thoracic or pulmonic vertebræ. Since the larynx consists of the 5 original branchial arches, and lies in front of the neck; so must the 5 superior cervical vertebræ stand in the signification of branchial vertebræ. The odontoid process of the second vertebra must be regarded, from its being separated from it in the foetus, as a particular cervical vertebra. Accordingly, in the Thricozoa there are eight cervical vertebræ. The 3 inferior cervical, and the 2 upper costal or rib-vertebræ, give off through their interspaces the nerves of the arms, and are consequently the brachial vertebræ. The 3-7th rib are thus appended to the 5 proper thoracic vertebræ, which stand in the signification of the pulmonary vertebræ. To these succeed the 5 short ribs which belong to the abdomen; their vertebræ are thus intestinal vertebræ. The succeeding vertebræ belong to the sexual system, and are indeed the 5 lumbar or pedal vertebræ, because they furnish the pedal or foot-nerves, the 5 sacral vertebræ being the proper sexual vertebræ. The coccygeal or caudal vertebræ correspond to the cervical vertebræ, and are present for the sake of the sexual branchiæ; usually one and the other is arrested. Thus there are,--

3×5 Respiratory vertebræ. 3×5 Sexual vertebræ. 1×5 Digestive vertebræ.

The number of the sensitive vertebræ is consequently 7×5=35, which are distributed into three groups, in accordance with the principal cavities of the body, whereof the 2 terminal groups consist of 15, but the abdominal group, which combines or unites them, only of 5. The body is accordingly not merely laterally, but also in length, a perfectly symmetrical structure, which has been parcelled out in the following manner into its five stockworks, stories or floors:

I. Dermal vertebra. A. Sexual vertebræ. a. Coccygeal vertebræ 5, b. Sexual vertebræ 5, c. Pedal vertebræ 5.

B. Abdominal vertebræ 5.

C. Thoracic vertebræ. a. Pulmonary vertebræ 5, b. Brachial vertebræ 5, c. Cervical vertebræ 5.

II. Auditory vertebra 1. III. Lingual vertebra 1. IV. Optic vertebra 1. V. Nasal vertebra 1.

This regularity is found too only in the human skeleton. The animals are irregular men. (Vide Oken's Zahlengesetz in den Wirbeln. Isis, 1829, S. 306.)

Cavities of the Trunk.

2115. The osseous system forms the trunk or body, because it follows the vascular system; the two other galvanic systems, the dermal and intestinal systems, form the large portions of the trunk or its cavities; to them is added the sexual cavity or pelvis.

2116. There are thus three truncal cavities, a pulmonary, an intestinal, and a sexual cavity, or thoracic, abdominal, and pelvic cavity.

2117. The osseous system will develop itself most feebly around the abdominal, because it is the indifferent cavity. Therefore there are either no ribs at all, or they are so short that they do not reach to the anterior vertebral column or the sternum. The short or false ribs are, according to their physiological sense, abdominal or splanchnic ribs. The thoracic ribs must be perfectly developed, i. e. abut against both vertebral columns, be entire ribs; the entire or perfect ribs are thoracic or pulmonary ribs. The sexual ribs are arrested on the pedal and coccygeal vertebræ, but on the proper sexual vertebræ, namely, the sacral bone, they are still present as rudiments.

3. MUSCULAR SYSTEM.

2118. As the intestinal system reappears in what is animal under the condition of a vertebral column, so also does the aggregate of the vascular system ascend, and the vessels become animal.

2119. The animal vessels are the muscles, or filled-up vessels. The polar process enters the body through the vessels; thereby the tubes obtain two strong poles, and are drawn out lengthways. They are fibres, and consist of a series of strongly oxydized blood-globules.

2120. The fibre is chiefly apparent in those vessels, such as the arteries, in which the influence of air operates more forcibly. Now an artery has, in addition to the external cellular coat, two coats, like the first animal body, or one wall turned towards the mucus, and one towards the air. The internal arterial wall is enteroid, the external dermoid in character; the one being simply granular, the other fibrous membrane. The two membranes separate into two cysts or tubes, which likewise adhere within each other like intestine and skin. The external will become fibre, the internal bone.

2121. There is a vegetative and an animal fibre-or muscle-system. The one is associated with the tegumentary formations, the other with the bones and nerves.

a. Vegetative Muscles.

2122. The muscles of vegetative life are simply fibrous tunics, as in the arteries, and are found in the skin, in the intestine, and in the vessels.

2123. The tegumentary muscles lie under the skin, and are inserted into it, or into the dermo-osteous system, when such an one is present. If the fibrous membrane be strongly developed under the skin, then it receives the name of a Panniculus carnosus.

2124. The intestine has also its fibrous coat, which, upon the stomach, anus, and pharynx, is frequently developed as a panniculus carnosus.

2125. The same holds good of the vessels, especially of the arteries and trachea.

2126. The fibres are either elongated or else annular fibres. The latter obtain the preponderance at the extremities of the tubular formations, as on the pharynx, anus, lips, and eyelids.

2127. We have consequently a dermal, splanchnic, and osseo-muscular system.

b. Animal Muscles.

2128. In the oxydizing part of the vascular system the formation of fibres must be preponderant over that of cells, and thus at the root of the lungs.

2129. The vessel becomes in the lungs a fleshy cavity. The fleshy vessel is the heart.

2130. The heart is a vascular fragment, with a preponderating development of fibrous membrane.

2131. This fibrous membrane is developed at a spot where all vascular systems enter into mutual proximity, such as the respiratory ducts and the intestinal lymphatic vessel, the artery and the vein.

2132. In the union of all the highest galvanism is attained, and then the formation may launch out into what is animal.

2133. The heart is the animal in the plant.

2134. The first heart is an arterial heart. There is originally no venous heart. In the embryo, particularly in that of the bird, this is extremely distinct; the arterial heart also emerges for the first time, and per se, in the lowest animals, in the Molluscs, Snails, and even in the Fishes, although in the latter it is regarded as a venous heart.

2135. The arterial heart is the central, the venous heart the peripheric.

2136. The heart is the prototype of the muscular system. All muscles must be a metatype of the heart.

2137. The muscle is hollow. It is a cyst.

2138. The muscular system is a manifold and serial juxtaposition of fibrous cysts or of hearts. In this respect the muscle has been formed in a corresponding manner to bone. Both are rows of cysts.

2139. But the muscle, as being the external fibrous tunic, is the enveloping or external cyst.

2140. In idea, the muscle can only directly envelop the bones, and not the other parts, for it ranks upon the same grade of development with the bone; it is the arterio-fibrous wall, while the bone is the internal arterial wall.

2141. Bone and flesh stand in antagonism like air and earth. The muscle is that which is polarizing--moving, the bone what is polarized, moved. The muscle is heart, the bone the moved blood. Bone and muscle are related as that which is contained and what is containing. The muscle is the wall of the cyst, the bone, the fluid which has been secreted from it and rigidified.

2142. As therefore the muscle is an individual cyst, a heart, which cannot invest the whole body like a single large cyst, so also must the muscular contents be only a discrete cyst. The uninterrupted character of the bones depends therefore upon that of the muscles, and the latter upon the meaning of the heart.

2143. A physiological rationale of the joints is accordingly afforded in the heart.

2144. A bone is a rigidified, ossified heart; the osseous system is a series of mutually dependent, alternately ossified and non-ossified (arteriose and venous) hearts.

2145. The muscular cyst includes the soft bone, or the joint.

2146. At its two extremities there is preponderance of oxydation, whereby the soft osseous cysts are combusted into hard calcareous earth.

2147. The muscle is a cause of the alternating ossification.

RELATION TO THE OSSEOUS SYSTEM.

2148. As the formation of bone predominates upon the side exposed to the light or the nervous, so does that of muscle upon the shady or vascular side. The abdominal side of the animal is the muscular, just as the dorsal side is the osseous. Upon the thorax, abdomen, on the members which belong to the anterior region of the body, and on the face, the muscular layer is by far the most predominant. Posteriorly, however, or upon the back, it is slightly wanting, and the bones there project.

2149. The back is related to the anterior surface (when regarded in man) as bone is to muscle. What is in front is muscle, what is behind is bone. The anterior side is therefore more active, nobler, more powerful and more spiritual than the posterior. Posteriorly stands the earth inert and rigidified, while in front is the air in ceaseless capacity for, and actually in, motion. The anterior muscular layer is more active and powerful than the posterior.

2150. In every muscular cyst there are two kinds of layers, an anterior and a posterior, or stronger and weaker layer.

2151. The stronger layer is the flexing, the weaker the extending. For the limbs have been necessarily bent forwards. The direction alone of the joints at once resides in the structure, which is even determined by these relations. Such a muscular layer, which mostly consists of several bundles, is termed a muscle.

2152. A muscular cyst consists of flexor and extensor muscles. The individual muscle is therefore only a piece of a cyst, and therefore not in itself hollow. It is only an entire muscular layer of flexors and extensors which is the pattern of the heart. The flexors are the strongest and are placed in front, the extensors lie behind.

2153. In the heart the flexor layers have not yet separated from the extensor layers, because the vegetable flesh has as yet no symmetry in itself.

2154. Flexors and extensors occur in pairs; because the osseous system is in pairs.

2155. There resides in the osseous and in the muscular system no cause for a diversity in the two halves of the body. Thus, if there be a difference, it must only reside in the asymmetrical galvanic systems.

3. Organs.

2156. Organs are parts of an anatomical system, which separating, combine with a part of another system, and thereby obtain a peculiar or special function.

2157. For each system therefore there are as many organs, as there are possible combinations of systems. There are vascular, intestinal, pulmonary, sexual and tegumentary organs, with furthermore, osseous, muscular and nervous organs.

A. VEGETATIVE ORGANS.

1. INTESTINAL ORGANS.

2158. The intestinal or splanchnic system falls first of all into three great divisions, into that of the viscera, the sex and the head; the visceral intestine separates moreover into pulmonic, venous and tegumentary intestine, and this in constant accordance with its combinations and functions.

a. Visceral Intestine.

2159. In the digestive system it is the chemical process that takes precedence. This, however, divides into three moments, into that of solution, separation and formation, or crystallization, which is here absorption. Thus the intestine separates also into a solvent, secernent and absorbent intestine, and that indeed through its combination with the pulmonic, vascular and tegumentary system. The solvent viscus is the stomach, the second or secernent, the duodenum, the third or absorbent, the small intestine (jejunum and ileum).

Pulmonic Intestine.

2160. All solution is accompanied by oxydation. The gastric juice is in its action an acid.

2161. The gastric juice obtains its oxygen from the spleen. The spleen is the stomachic lung. This is attested by its position and close approximation to the stomach; by its black, venous, and deoxydized blood, which in certain diseases has been secreted even in the stomach; by its want of any excretory duct; by its tissue, which resembles that of the oxydized placenta; furthermore by the natural character of this function when contrasted with the unnatural quality of other useless functions that have been assigned to it; and lastly too, by the fact that, without this opinion be admitted, it must remain a superfluous organ, and as regards use, unknown. After a series of years, during which this doctrine has been combated upon all sides, without, however, a single reason, save and except that it was not believed, being advanced by its opponents, I must still persist in the correctness of the above view.

Vascular Intestine.

2162. In the duodenum the analysis of the food takes place through the medium of the bile. It is consequently the biliary intestine or stomach.

2163. The biliary intestine does not stand upon a par with the other intestines, but has an equal rank with the stomach. It is therefore not confined within the mesentery, but can expand itself like the stomach; it has its vessels and nerves. In it the separation of the chyme into chyle and excrementitious matter takes place.

2164. What the spleen is for the stomach, that is the liver for the duodenum; it is the hepatic stomach, and consequently the vascular stomach.

2165. The liver is the ramification of the intestinal canal along with the whole vascular system.

2166. Now, as the analysis is the principal function in the whole process of digestion; so is the liver the chief organ of all digestive organs.

2167. The liver is the centre, the brain of the digestive system, because it is the blossom, the synthesis of the vascular system. From it everything emanates, and upon it everything which concerns digestion, ay, the whole body, retrogressively operates. If the liver suffers or undergoes functional derangement, the whole vascular and tegumentary formation then becomes a liver, as is exemplified in the disease called jaundice.

2168. The bile effects the analysis or separation through its basic or alkaline character, since it combines with the acids of the chyme, and thereby forms the excrementitious matter.

2169. That which mediates between the acid and what is alkaline is the fluid secreted by the pancreatic gland. The pancreatic gland is the ramification of the intestine along with the arterial system.

Tegumental Intestine.

2170. That in the jejunum and ileum or the small intestine proper, and in that alone, absorption and thus the tegumentary function, but nothing else, occurs, is well known. By this absorption the chyle becomes removed from the intestine, so that the excrement alone is left.

b. Sexual Intestine.

2171. The sexual is pre-eminently that which is exsecernent or excretive, since one sex strives to redintegrate itself upon the other, becomes ingestive for the other, but egestive for or in relation to itself. It is therefore an essential property of the sexual parts, that they secrete and excrete.

2172. Every galvanic system, which has been adjoined or appended to the sexual parts, is excretive. They are, taken in a rigid sense, the only system of excretion. The co-operative processes of the sex are those of the vegetative systems, but they take place in the reverse direction. The latter convey inwards, the former outwards. The kidneys are a reversed or evacuating lung, an excrement-forming liver; the urinary cyst is an exspirant, a trachea containing refuse matter; the urethra is a glottis reversed; their diseases are therefore similar. They thus expel products of the individual respiratory system.

2173. And in this is the sexual apparatus distinguished from them, namely, that it expels the products of all systems, the products of the whole organism, or the organism itself. In the semen the whole male body with all its parts transudes, or passes over in a fluid state, into the female parts; in a child, the female together with the male body, passes over--formed or fashioned into the world.

2174. The sexual intestine must therefore be expulsive also. It is that which conducts the intestinal juice and the refuse of the aliment out of the body.

2175. The evacuating or efferent intestine is the large intestine. It is consequently the Sexual intestine.

2176. The large intestine is related to the abdominal or small intestine, exactly like the urinary cyst is to the kidney, and this to the vascular system. The small intestine passes therefore by perforation into the large, not the latter into the former. The small enters by perforating the large intestine, and therein evacuates its alimentary residue, as into a special-cyst, that has nothing to do with the intestinal system. The large intestine is the excrement-cyst, just as that which has been called bladder is the urinary cyst.

2177. The large intestine no longer digests, but only receives what is left from the process of digestion and expels or casts it out.

2178. The large intestine begins with a cæcal extremity, or with an obtuse cyst, and opens into the anus, exactly like the original animal cyst, the polyp. The blind extremity is called cæcum. With this the small intestine communicates by perforating it at an acute angle, and that indeed in a direction which runs towards the obtuse cystiform extremity; so that both intestines lie in mutual juxtaposition like a fork, whereof the pharynx and the rectum are the two prongs, while the cæcum is the handle.

2179. The two intestines are consequently by no means correlated. In the perfect animal there are two intestinal systems thoroughly distinct from each other; two intestines, which belong to two different animals, the sexual and encephalic animal, or the plant and the animal. The genesis of the large intestine and all its relations, which are principally seen in the cæcum and rectum, plead for this philosophical derivation of the two intestines.

2180. The rectum appertains wholly and entirely to the sexual system, and especially to the uterus. It is devoid of mesentery, and supplied by special vessels; it stands in most obvious sympathy with the uterus, with its diseases, and with menstruation. Even hemorrhoids are a sexual disease, a disease of the sexual intestine.

2181. The anus is thus the intestinal mouth of the sexual animal. In the lowest organized animals, the oviducts seminal and urinary ducts together run into it, as into a proper mouth. The anus is a true oral cavity in the fishes, reptiles, and even in the whale.

2182. The pharynx opens into the mouth, and so does the rectum into the anus; the trachea opens into the month, and so does the urethra into the anus; the salivary ducts open into the mouth, and so into the anus do the oviducts, with the spermatic canals in the lower animals. The rectum moreover lies behind the urinary cyst, like the gullet behind the trachea.

2183. The sphincter or occlusor muscles of the anus have been formed like the sphincter muscles of the pharynx. The anus is a mouth without a head, and therefore a mouth without lips, or an pharynx.

Cephalic Intestine.

2184. The union or combination of the intestine with the animal systems, such as the nervous, muscular, and osseous, occurs in the head.

2185. In so far as it combines with bones and muscles, it becomes an organ of motion, and, when with the nerves, an organ of sensation. The animal or sarcal intestine is pharynx and mouth.

2186. The motor organ is an organ of prehension. The organs of prehension are endowed with independent motion, and therefore move towards the food. The first general organs of motion are the members of the body. In the higher animals the thoracic members are at once the prehensible organs. Instead of the aliment being obliged to flow, as unto the plant, in a state of suspension in water, the animal moves itself toward its food.

2187. The members are the first organs of prehension. But these are repeated in the head as jaws and teeth. The teeth are the second organs of prehension, but the first which belong to the cephalic intestine; they are called organs of seizure or prehension.

2188. The organ of digestion is, however, one of a chemical character. It must be therefore repeated as such in the head. This is shown in the salivary glands. The saliva is the animal gastric juice, and is therefore directly solvent in its properties. It is poison.

2189. After and during the operation of the saliva, the aliments in the mouth are subjected to the action of the molar teeth and ground or chewed. These comminuting or crushing organs are only a repetition of the act of prehension, and consequently belong to the prehensile or biting organs.

2190. The mouth is the stomach repeated in the head.

2191. The union of the intestine with the nervous system is the tongue.

2192. The intestine, when repeated in the head's muscular system, is the organ of deglutition, as is seen in the pharynx and oesophagus.

2193. The prehensile and manducatory, venomous, gustatory, and deglutitory organs, are the forms into which the intestinal system divides, when it is repeated in the after-animal, or in the sphere of animal life. The gustatory organ is the nerve-intestine; the prehensile organ the bone-intestine; the organ of deglutition the muscular intestine; while the poison-organ is the proper cephalic intestine, or the stomach.

2. VASCULAR ORGANS.

2194. The vascular system regarded "en masse," or in a general sense, has to participate in the nutrition of the body; so far it takes the place of the cellular tissue, and cannot therefore be developed for itself into any special organs. If, however, certain vessels separate from the general system, and combine with other systems unto the performance of special offices or functions, organs then originate, which, nevertheless, do not, in a rigid point of view, belong to these systems.

2195. There are therefore as many vascular organs as there are possible combinations; thus with the tegument, the lung, the intestine, the sexual parts, and with the systems of animal life.

a. CUTANEO-VASCULAR ORGANS--BRANCHIÆ.

2196. The development of the vessels unto a special organ in the integument are Respiratory organs; or, more properly speaking, the development of the integument to constitute a special organ in combination with the vessels, is a respiratory organ.

2197. In the commencement the branchiæ are only a vascular network upon, and therefore subordinate to, the integument. They pass, however, through all possible stages of development, until they have subjected and converted also the integument into a vascular system; a point which is attained in the formation of the lungs.

2198. The branchial membrane already commences in the earthworm to concentrate itself and dilate, so as to form what have been called the sacculi or pouches; in the leech it is folded inwards, so as to form lateral vesicles or cysts, that prognosticate the air-passages or stigmata of insects; in the Nereids the vessels project upon the back from above the integument as free branchial ramules, a formation, which is again found in the nudibranchiate Gasteropods.

2199. These branchial ramules form at first two rows extending along the whole dorsal region; by degrees, however, the posterior set disappear, and the cervical branchiæ only are left, as antetypes of the gills of fishes.

2200. In the Mollusca the branchial vessels unite to form laminæ upon the ventral sides, and are already surrounded by a kind of thoracic cavity, the mantle, as is exemplified in the tectibranchiate Gasteropods. Here again the branchiæ are either a simple vascular net enveloped in a fold of the mantle, or elongated into filaments disposed like the teeth of a comb, or into laminæ, &c.

2201. The lateral branchiæ of the Nereids usually emit filaments resembling feet, upon the root of which the true branchiæ are then placed. In the Crustacea these filaments harden into actual feet provided with joints. The feet are therefore nothing else than branchial filaments, which have lost their vegetative function.

2202. In many worms the same branchial filaments are converted into hairs or bristles, which are therefore none other than desiccated branchial filaments.

2203. Even the hairs of Mammalia and the feathers of Birds have been left as remnants of the original branchial formation.

2204. Where the branchiæ have assumed the laminated form, they are surrounded by a similarly formed covering or operculum. The shells of the Mollusca are, as regards their signification, none other than branchial opercula, or gill-covers; the same holds good also of the gasteropodal and crustacean shells, and at bottom of every calcareous and horny covering of the body.

2205. To the same category belong also the opercula of Fishes, and even their scales. Fundamentally, the whole epidermis is only a product of respiration or oxydation.

2206. The first saccular or cæcal inversion of the integument, as in the Leeches, Molluscs, and Snails, is at once a predominance of the tegumentary, obtained through the medium of the branchial formation, whereby the skin commences to become a self-substantial organ of respiration.

2207. In the Scorpions the branchiæ are introverted sacs or cysts, into which, however, instead of water, air already enters.

2208. This insaccation is converted in the Spiders into more distinct air-cysts, which finally ramify in the higher insects and become true tracheæ.

2209. Lastly, the respiratory system obtains the upper hand to such an extent, that, together with internal air-tubes, external branchial laminæ are also developed, as in the Molluscs; but in them the tracheæ obtain the preponderance over the blood-vessels, so that these laminæ dry up and become wings or fins.

2210. The wings of Insects are branchial laminæ, converted into air-organs.

2211. The wing-coverings or elytra are branchial opercula, and correspond to the shells of bivalve Mollusca.

2212. Every insect therefore must properly possess four wings and two wing-coverings, of which last, however, rudiments only appear to be left in the nocturnal Lepidoptera.

2213. In the higher organized animals those gills only which are nearer the head are persistent, the posterior or lateral branchiæ being gradually arrested.

2214. These lateral branchiæ remain in Fishes as lateral mucous openings, which constitute the lateral line.

2215. The cervical branchiæ are limited to the number five, which has already begun to be established in the Crustacea; namely, at the origins or roots of the five anterior pairs of feet.

2216. The number five probably derives its origin from the vegetable kingdom, and that indeed from the genesis of the pinnate leaves, so that one kind of numerical law appears to prevail with respect to this organ in both organic kingdoms. It is probably also an imitation of the five organs of sense.

2217. The vessels of the branchiæ of Fishes are accompanied by bony rings, which correspond to the feet of Crustacea.

2218. All Fishes have, with few exceptions, five branchial arches.

2219. When in Fishes the sarcous system begins to produce viscera, then the five branchial foramina pass inwards, and only a single respiratory aperture is left for them in the fleshy body; namely, the external branchial foramen.

2220. In the lower animals water or air passes in and out through the same respiratory aperture, but in Fishes these two courses are preserved distinct; for, except in the Lampreys, the water enters through the mouth, and passes out through the branchial aperture.

2221. Here the attempt is manifested in a still greater degree, to bring the process of respiration wholly under the control of what is animal, this being in the next place, and for the first time attained, when respiratory apertures only are left upon the head.

2222. The respiratory apertures of the head are the nostrils, which are suddenly manifested in Fishes, but are in them simply subservient to the sense of smell, and not as yet to the respiratory act.

2223. All the higher animals have, like fishes, branchial apertures in the neck, only they coalesce and become obliterated at an early period, or so soon as that respiratory process appears, when air passes through the nostrils. In the Salamanders and Frogs these branchial foramina are persistent for a longer time, frequently through the whole period of life; but in Birds and Mammalia they disappear, while they are in the embryo state.

2224. When the branchial apertures close, the vessels separate from the arches, and betake themselves to a glandular body lying in front of them. The thyroid gland is the remnant of the former branchial formation, and is therefore found only in Reptiles, Birds, and Mammalia.

Lungs.

2225. In Fishes the internal organ of respiration is already indicated by a cæcal eversion of the pharynx, which is surrounded by the branchial arches. This membranous cæcal eversion is called the swimming-cyst, which in the higher animals becomes double on account of their symmetry, and is then called lung.

2226. In the Fish the aquatic and aerial process of respiration are present together, the former being external, the latter internal.

2227. The branchial arches having coalesced, are converted in the higher animals into tracheal rings, into the larynx and the posterior cornua of the hyoid bone, if these are present, as in the Reptiles. The larynx is therefore no special organ, but only a remnant of the branchial respiratory apparatus.

2228. The laryngeal vessels are, like the thyroid glands, branchial vessels, and in Fishes, therefore, the branchial vessels do not correspond to the pulmonary vessels, but to those of the trachea. The pulmonic vessels of Fishes are the blood-vessels of the swimming-cyst, which convey blood directly into the heart, whereby this organ obtains the signification of the left or arterial heart.

2229. When the branchial apertures have coalesced, the nose then opens into the mouth or into the trachea, and in this way the nostrils assume the complete character of aerial foramina.

2230. The nose is therefore originally an organ of smell, and then a part of the respiratory system. It is the animal lung.

2231. As the secretion of bone is a product of the more powerful process of oxydation, so do the bony rings multiply beneath the branchial arches or the larynx, and are called tracheal rings. In the feebly respiring Reptiles the trachea is therefore still in a membranous condition, but in Birds and Mammalia, it is surrounded by many rings, or is a repetition of the larynx.

2232. In Birds even a kind of inferior larynx originates, which is provided with muscles and can produce tones.

2233. The ramification of the trachea into two bronchi or branches is constantly progressing, and at length these tubes divide into a great number of vesicles, which together form the lungs. The lung, which was in the commencement a simple saccular inversion of the integument, has now become a self-substantial organ, to which the respiratory vessels have been subordinated. The lung also divides upon each side into five lobes.

b. VASCULAR ORGANS OF THE INTESTINE.

Liver.

2234. The self-substantial development of the vascular, and its separation from the general, system, is most perfectly attained in the Liver.

2235. In the liver, as being the vascular system, which combines with the intestinal canal, the venous system has become independent. The portal vein arises from the intestinal canal, collects into one trunk, and again ramifies in order to unite with the biliary ducts, which are only a ramified saccular eversion of the intestine. This conjunction is represented by the liver.

2236. The liver as being a venous organ stands therefore in opposition to the lung, and produces, instead of oxydes, a basic body, or the bile. The liver, as being the venous system which has become free, is to be regarded as the highest development or blossom of the vascular system.

2237. It is for the vegetative body, what the brain is for the animal; and hence, therefore, the similarity of structure and the sympathy between both organs.

Spleen.

2238. As opposed to the liver, the arterial system also develops itself upon the intestine as a respiratory or branchial organ. These intestinal branchiæ are found in several of the lower organized animals, especially in the Holothuriæ and Aphroditæ.

2239. In the higher animals they are aggregated into a special organ, through which the gastric juice obtains oxygen; this is the spleen. The spleen is the branchia of the stomach; it has therefore no excretory duct and requires none.

2240. Lastly, the salivary glands also in the mouth as well as in the duodenum, the abdomino-salivary glands, and even the odoriferous glands on the rectum, such as the castor-and civet-pouches, are complications of vessels with intestinal ramifications.

C. VASCULAR ORGANS OF THE SEX.

Kidneys.

2241. The vascular organ of the sexual system is the kidneys.

2242. As the urine is chiefly characterized by the urea and thus by a basic principle; it thus corresponds to the bile, and consequently the kidneys directly to the liver or the lung reversed.

2243. But there is also a sexual branchia in those inferior animals which breathe through the anus, such as many aquatic larvæ.

2244. The remnant of this in the higher animals appears to be the allantois, and in the body itself probably what have been called the primordial kidneys.

2245. The combination of the vascular system with the animal systems is the sense of touch.

3. RESPIRATORY ORGANS.

2246. The respiratory organ is a development of the integument.

2247. The perfect organ of respiration is an air-organ or lung; combined with the tegumentary system, it is a water-organ or branchia.

2248. There are dermo-branchiæ or the branchiæ proper, as in the Worms, Molluscs, Snails, and Crabs.

2249. Intestinal branchiæ in the Holothuriæ, constituting in the higher animals a spleen.

2250. The sexual branchiæ are probably the primordial kidneys.

2251. The branchiæ when united with the osseous system are the branchial arches of Fishes, which subsequently separate into larynx and thyroid gland.

2252. The self-substantial development of the integument into the respiratory organ is a lung.

2253. When united with the vascular system or the vegetative systems generally, the integument forms the tracheal system of Insects.

2254. The tracheæ are spiral vessels as in plants.

2255. The respiratory organ, united with the motor system, is the lung proper, which is situated within the thorax, and covered by ribs.

2256. The proper lung divides also, like the intestine, into two parts, into the cystiform, pharyngeal expansion of the larynx, and into the pulmonic substance, which is equivalent to the stomach, and wherein the analysis of the air takes place.

2257. The trachea, and especially the larynx, is moreover an entire thorax, a ribbed skeleton upon a small and membranous scale. In the larynx, the animal thoracic structure, consisting of ribs and muscles, resides prognosticated. The larynx has originated from the coalescence of branchial arches. The ribs are a repetition of the branchial arches.

2258. The diaphragm is a formation, which admits, by no reasoning from its anatomy, but only genetically, of being explained. Originally, the whole body was only an abdomen, upon the external surface of which the branchiæ were appended. A remarkable instance of this is at once afforded by the Snails, and also the Fishes. As the gills were converted into lungs, a special body or the thorax originated for them, which encroached upon the abdomen. Now, the abdominal wall left between these two cavities, was just the diaphragm.

2259. The diaphragm is not a transverse wall or septum. The idea of such a cross-rail gainsays all sound physiology. It has been the abdominal wall.

2260. The union of the lungs with the nervous system is the nose.

2261. The nose is the cephalic thorax; but it has also the thoracic contents, or the very lung repeated in itself.

2262. The multicavernous ethmoid bone is the lung in the nose, the two nostrils being the stigmata or foremost openings of the trachea. The nasal muscles are homologous to the cartilages of the trachea, and especially to those of the larynx.

2263. The velum palati is the diaphragm between nose and mouth, or between the cephalic thorax and the cephalic abdomen.

Coverings.

2264. The animal coverings are desiccated respiratory organs appertaining to the integument.

Capillary Vessels.

2265. The principal function of the vessel is that of secretion, whereby nutrition is imparted. This secretion must take place in the whole body, in so far as it is opposed to the lung. The vessels then pass over into the finest canals, and are called capillary vessels.

2266. The capillary system of vessels is an organ in antagonism to the lung; what enters the latter organ, passes out through the former.

2267. The capillary system of vessels is the property of the tegumentary system. It may almost be said that wherever there is integument, there capillary vessels are present. The most perfect evolution of capillaries is the integument. It is the proper exsecernent, in opposition to the intestine, which is the absorbent organ.

2268. Evaporation is the essential tegumentary process.

2269. The product of the evaporation is mucus.

2270. In the evaporation, however, the mucus becomes analyzed by the influence of the air and light.

Epidermis.

2271. The external mucus exuding from the skin becomes oxydized, the inferior on the contrary reduced; the oxydized becomes vitreous and transparent. It is the Epidermis.

2272. With the maximum of oxydation the epidermis passes over into a vitreous transparent horn, e. g. scales.

2273. The scales, which invest the toes and digits are called claws, and finally become nails. The finger-nail is nothing but a scale, which in this situation has become particularly large and strong.

2274. That which is reduced beneath the vitrified epidermis determines the colour of the skin. With a demi-oxydation it is uncoloured, appears white. Where the integument is thin, the red colour of the blood appears through it; such integument is therefore white upon the whole, but red in individual places.

2275. With the most complete reduction effected by the highest operation of light, its substratum or under-layer becomes black. The mucus passes over into reduced carbon. Beneath the vitreous epidermis there is thus a metallic pigmentary membrane.

Hairs.

2276. Capillary vessels, which simply convey mucus, but are elongated singly above and from out the cutis, are Hairs. The idea of the hair is a capillary vessel, the contents of which are no longer blood, but reduced mucus. It is an indifferent capillary vessel. The hair is hollow and contains an oil, which determines the colour.

2277. In the hairs the nutritive system is prolonged above the body.

2278. The hairs and scales are the general terrestrial system of the body determined by the air.

2279. Thus the earth has sprung up into a plant. Scales and hairs are like true vegetable leaves, which still continue their process in the animal; they can no longer it is true make their respiratory process hold good for the animal process itself, but are at present content with only oxydizing the material of evaporation. It is properly the integument only, not the entire body, which respires through hairs and scales.

2280. The hairs are dried branchial filaments, and therefore continue to occupy in Man, those situations only where in the lower animals branchiæ or tentacula are placed. Around e. g. the mouth, upon the head, under the arms or in the axillæ, and around the sexual apertures.

2281. The feathers are dried ramified branchiæ, pinnate leaves.

2282. The hairs participate in the electric process of the whole body.

2283. What determines the colour in the plant, determines it also in the animal; only in the plant the colour is more coarsely precipitated, and nothing therefore glimmers from the interior of the body, but all is green. In an animal, however, the colouring matter is transparent, and the interior is thus rendered visible.

2284. With the external coverings, such as scales, and lastly with the hairs, all organs of the trunk, in so far as they are derived from what is vegetable, are exhausted. The vegetable animal, as trunk, is completed, and we must now therefore turn to the sexual organs.

4. SEXUAL ORGANS.

2285. The sexual organs are developments of the integument upon a higher grade, and combinations of the same with the animal systems, like as the blossom is a repetition of all vegetative systems.

2286. They range in the middle between the vegetative and the encephalic animal, and are therefore a totality for themselves, or a sexual animal.

2287. There are vegetative and animal sexual parts.

I. Vegetative Sexual Organs.

2288. Are special developments of the intestine, vessels and branchiæ.

a. SEXUAL ORGANS PROPER.

2289. The proper sexual parts are a repetition of the digestive system on its transition to what is animal, or to the organs of sense.

1. Female Organs.

2290. The female parts are a floral capsule, consisting of an ovary or sac, stigma and ova. All higher development takes place, however, through separation of the complicated organs and processes.

2291. The three parts therefore of the gestative sac or matrix separate, each part becoming self-substantially perfected. The orifice elongates into a cervix or neck, which is gradually rendered more distinct from the matrix, and in its highest and self-substantial completion is called oviduct.

2292. The matrix elongates also at its cæcal extremity or fundus, as well as at its open end. The germinal bodies also become self-substantial, separate gradually from the fundus of the matrix, and are then independent ovaria.

2293. As in the highest animal formation they also assume the animal symmetry, while at first they were only single, or manifold, as in the plicated capsules of Star-fishes, and therefore remained stationary at the number two; so is the ovisac prolonged into two long cornua, or trumpet-like tubes, which at the commencement, indeed, still include the ova, as in Insects and Fishes, but are subsequently left entirely free.

2. Male Parts.

2294. The leaf-formation is elevated to the corolla or the male parts in the plant. They are, however, only the repetition of the plant upon a higher stage. Hence in the animal also the male parts will be upon a higher grade of position to the female.

2295. As the stamina surround the ovarian capsule in the plant, so do animal stamina stand around the orifice of the oviduct; as penes.

2296. In the lowest ovisacs the penes are circularly disposed around the orifice; as is exemplified by the tentacles of a Polyp; by degrees, however, they are resolved, for the sake of symmetry, into two, and then project upon the sides of the orifice, as in the Serpents and Lizards. In the higher animals the two penes coalesce into one.

2297. This penis situated at the orifice of the oviduct is the clitoris. The vagina is separated from the clitoris; but in the male organs they both combine or blend with each other, and the vagina becomes the seminal canal or that of the penis.

2298. As the orifice begins to assume a male character, and the external parts to be more forcibly developed in the direction outwards, so, on the other hand, do the internal parts recede the more, and remain simply as ovaria or ovisacs, in which the ova, instead of being formed as such, dissolve into pollen, mucus, or male semen. These ovaria, which now secrete semen instead of vitelline vesicles, are called testes.

2299. The testes originate, while the mucous ova are being reduced to primary mucus, or to infusoria.

2300. What is male originates through an organic process of decomposition or putrefaction of the ova. The semen is an organic product of decomposition.

2301. The semen must contain infusoria. A semen which does not contain infusoria, is ovum-like, or feminine. Except at the time of heat or rut, and thus when the animals have a female character, the semen possesses no infusoria, and is in that case simply albumen.

2302. Semen, which is devoid of infusoria, is incapable of impregnation. How can one wretched female ovum impregnate or fructify another?

2303. As the trumpet-like tubes or oviducts belong to the ovaria, so are they developed with the testes, and now convey semen instead of ova. The female tubes become the vasa deferentia or spermatic ducts, the uterine cornua, the vesiculæ seminales.

2304. Between the vesiculæ seminales and the vagina or the penis the uterus shrivels up into the prostate gland, into which the vasa deferentia open, like the oviducts do into the uterus.

2305. As the matrix is the proper female organ, so will the spermatic ducts seek to combine with the penis, or at least open self-substantially upon the os uteri. The testes open either through the spermatic ducts into the vagina, as in Fishes, Reptiles, and Birds, or into the penis, as in the Gasteropods, Insects, and Mammalia.

2306. Male and female parts are therefore perfectly homologous, the former having a greater development of the external division, the latter of the internal.

2307. The female parts have undertaken the business of vegetation, or that of the viscera, the male that of the animal excitation.

2308. Since the male parts are no new formation, but the female parts themselves, only characterized by internal arrest, and external increase of development, so do male and female parts appear incapable of occurring together in any animal. Perfect hermaphrodites would, accordingly, be impossible; for where testes are, no ovaria could be, because the testes are themselves the ovaria, or the latter only changed.

2309. Hence androgynism would be possible only by one ovarium remaining as such, and the other being converted into a testis.

2310. This development appears only possible when the two halves of the body are unequal. Asymmetrical animals only can be androgynous. In the snails one of the two molluscan shell-valves has been more largely developed than the other, and therefore one half also of the body is greater than the other. On this account many hermaphrodites are found among these animals.

2311. Thus, there ought to be no androgynous animals with at the same time two ovaria and two testes. Nevertheless, this very peculiarity occurs in many of the lower organized animals, e. g. the worms.

2312. Accordingly, the principle of androgynism is in general to be found in the want of symmetry. Symmetrical animals are as a rule dioecious. No hermaphrodite is found among the Insects, Fishes, Reptiles, Birds, and Mammalia.

2313. If such occur, they are formations that have remained persistent at the lower stage of development, or upon the transition of the embryo through the Snail-type of organization; they are thus monstrosities, or malformations.

2314. These malformations also, when occurring in the higher animals, can never possess more than one testicle and one ovarium. The uterus then ranks midway between its condition as such, and that of a prostate gland; the spermatic tube or urethra opens after a female fashion below the root of the penis.

Impregnation.

2315. Since the male sex is related to the female, as corolla to capsule, as leaf to stalk, as air to water, and as light to matter; so is it related also as integument to intestine, as lung to lymphatic vessel, as artery to vein, as nerve to flesh or muscle, as Animal to Vegetative.

2316. Copulation is therefore an irradiation.

2317. Already, in the course of the heavenly bodies, has the highest act of the animal, that of copulation, been preindicated or portrayed. The creation of the universe or world is itself nothing but an act of impregnation. The sex is prognosticated from the beginning, and pursues its course like a holy and conservative bond throughout the whole of nature. He therefore who so much as questions the sex in the organic world, comprehends not the riddle or problem of the universe.

2318. If the female parts have effected a complete transition into the male, so are the sexes necessarily separate and distinct.

2319. Since the male parts are the female that have been more highly developed, so there resides in the latter the constant conatus or effort to convert themselves into the male.

2320. This metamorphosis, or conversion, is, however, no longer possible in the female parts, when already finished or fully formed, but is only attainable in a new attempt being made upon their part, to transform the fluid mass into ova.

2321. Gestation or pregnancy is none other than the propensity of the Female to convert itself into the Male.

2322. The foetus is the male in a female, or the foetus is the male sexual parts in the female.

2323. In idea, every foetus should be male. But, if mascularity be attained with the first production, then the second necessarily subsides into the female. In this manner there of necessity originates an equiponderance in the number of both sexes.

2324. Moreover, if the sexual parts be regarded according to their proper signification in the animal, they are the upper intestinal system, as it has been developed in the mouth, and that indeed in such a manner, that the female parts are the vegetative form or the oral cavity, the male, the animal form, or the tongue with the salivary glands; the former represent the process of deglutition, the latter that of taste.

2325. Into the uterus or into the prostate gland the excretory ducts of the sexual glands, or the spermatic canals and oviducts, pursue a convergent course, like the salivary ducts do into the oral cavity.

2326. The testes, as also the ovaria, are forebodent of the salivary glands. The semen and oviducts are salivary ducts; they open by twos and symmetrically. Semen and ova are secreted like saliva. Semen and ova have also a salivary function, though of this the former is endowed with more than the latter.

2327. The ova correspond, as being an object of the semen, to the object of the saliva, which is the food or aliment. The saliva imparts to the bole or mouthful of food its first animal signification; it renders it for the first time capable of passing over into animal organs; it impregnates the morsel. The semen renders the ovum capable of effecting the transition into an animal; it spits upon the ovum.

2328. Impregnation is a process of smearing with saliva, conception a process of deglutition.

2329. Pregnancy is a process of digestion and formation of blood.

2330. If the internal sexual parts denote the internal visceral parts of the mouth, so must the external parts of the one correspond to the external of the other. The labia pudendi correspond to the lips, and the clitoris to the tongue, which is more perfectly represented in the penis. Both tongue and penis consist of two halves; in cases where the former is fissured or divided, the latter is so also, as in the Serpents and Lizards. In many animals, as the dogs and other Mammalia, there is likewise a bone in the penis, which corresponds to the os hyoides or linguale. The salivary ducts have combined with the penis; or, taken in a more strict sense, it may be said, that in the penis the tongue has coalesced with the oral cavity, so that both form a canal,--that of the penis, into which the salivary ducts (vesiculæ seminales) open.

2331. The sexual passion or venereal desire is a gustatory process of the sexual animal, the copulation being at one and the same time a matter both of taste and deglutition.

3. Germ or Embryo.

2332. In the embryo the whole animal already resides in miniature, as does the plant in its seed.

2333. The embryonic intestine is the vitellus or yelk.

2334. The embryonic integument is the amnion.

2335. The embryonic vascular system is the chorion.

2336. The embryonic sexual system is the allantois. The above propositions can only be perfectly developed in the physiology.

b. VASCULAR ORGANS OF THE SEX.

2337. The hæmatopoietic or blood-preparing vascular system is the lung; the blood-destroying, exsecernent vascular system is the kidneys. The kidneys are the lung reversed. The liver decomposes the venous, the kidneys the arteriose blood.

2338. The kidneys are the individualized vascular system of the sex, as the liver is that for digestion. They accord with the liver in their glandular structure, in the renal pelvis, which is like the gall-cyst, in the ureters that resemble the biliary ducts, and lastly, in the general signification of the urine as a product, wherein the whole organism, the whole blood-system has been excreted, like the bile, in which the venous blood undergoes the same process.

2339. Every disturbance of the digestive function acts in a striking and very direct manner upon the urine. The jaundice is apparent in urine; and what else is diabetes than a malady analogous to diseases of the liver? In urine we recognize what the bile has done with the food; the urine is the fluid nutritive system, and consequently the fluid organism "in toto;" the sexual blood, or sexual bile.

2340. The urine is the purest mirror or reflex of the bodily condition, and hence ourology or the doctrine of urine is of the most universal importance in semeiotics or symptomatic pathology: the ureters correspond to the tracheal branches or bronchi; thus, the urinary cyst to the trachea; the urethra to the larynx.

2341. In many animals the ureters open directly into the cloaca, as in many Fishes, Reptiles.

2342. By degrees the cloaca is retracted towards the ureters, and then originates a cloaca, which is both urethra and urinary cyst, as in Birds.

2343. In the higher animals, where a perfect ourocyst or urinary cyst has been evolved, the urethra opens into the anterior wall of the vagina, in front of which the urinary cyst then lies, in a similar manner to the trachea in front of the pharynx.

2344. In many Fishes the urinary cyst is absent, their pulmonic sac being also but feebly developed and only remaining as an asymmetrical swimming-cyst--the ureters too open directly into the cloaca, just as the swimming-cyst opens into the oesophagus. The pharynx of Fishes, as being surrounded by the branchial arches, is at once pharynx and larynx, like as in many animals cloaca and urinary cyst are of one and the same kind.

2345. In many Reptiles (such as the Tortoises and Frogs) the urinary cyst gives off two cæca or blind sacs, as is the case in the larynx of many apes.

2346. In the Bird the two cul-de-sacs of the urinary cyst are much more developed and have assumed the form of two cæcal intestines, so that they have been actually viewed as such, and their number two been assigned as characteristic of the bird, the other animals meanwhile having only one. The cæca intestinalia of Birds are the lateral and upper extremities of the urinary cyst. The true cæcum of the bird is the vitelline canal or duct, just as in the fishes and all higher organized animals; this being distinctly retained in the aquatic birds.

2347. In the Bird the rectum properly opens into the urinary cyst between the two blind sacs or cæca, and that indeed with a regular vulva, which is a sphincter muscle.

2348. The cloaca of the Bird is an urinary cyst, into which the anus opens.

2349. The orifice of the cloaca is properly that of the urethra; ova and fæces are moistened with urine. In a bird both these egesta are combined.

2350. Like the urethra, so is the trachea membranous in Fishes, and in most Reptiles also.

2351. Urinary cyst and urethra stand in sympathetic relation with the trachea and larynx, and have also similar diseases, such as catarrh, inflammation, &c.

2352. The proper proof, however, of the urinary cyst belonging to the respiratory system resides in its genesis. It proceeds from the allantois, which in Birds is a decided organ of respiration, a branchia.

2353. Out of this urinary cyst issue in the embryo what have been called primordial kidneys, which shrink or dwindle down at a later period, but have entirely the structure of branchiæ.

2354. Here then is a sexuo-respiratory process, which corresponds to the anal respiration, upon a higher stage, of many worms and aquatic larvæ, e. g. Holothuriæ and Libellulæ. This anal respiration is in its signification a sexual respiration.

2355. Even in the acephalous bivalve Mollusca and Snails the respiratory openings are almost always situated in the proximity of the anus; their respiration is still a sexual respiration.

2356. For the first time in Insects it becomes a respiration of the trunk; and for the first time in the higher animals a truly animal, namely, a cephalic respiration.

2357. The urinary system is a double system; it conjoins in itself the two highest galvanic processes, that of secretion and excretion.

2358. Secretion is an hepatic character, excretion a pulmonic character. Secretion belongs to nutrition, excretion to respiration. Excretion is an exspiration, secretion an influx or infusion. Secretion is related to excretion as water is to air, as liver to lung, as basis to oxygen.

2359. Secretion takes place, e. g. of bile and saliva, in so far as the processes of the body, especially those of the digestion, are promoted. Excretion is only effected in so far as that the organs, into which what is secreted enters, may obtain a tracheal signification, i. e. evaporation. All excretory orifices are in a certain sense larynges or tracheal orifices. Thus, this relation between secretion and excretion would have been discovered without recourse to conjecture being had upon our part.

2360. The urine is "par excellence" a double product of this kind. It is secreted in the kidneys for simply one object, like the bile. It is excreted, because it belongs to the sexual system, which is essentially exsecernent.

2361. The object or purpose of the urine has not been subverted in all animals. In Birds, where the urinary cyst and intestine are confluent, the urine enters like the bile into the intestine, at least at a spot where there is intestinal matter, which it renders fluid.

2362. In Insects and Snails it appears to invest as a mucus the ova, and serve for their attachment. The same appears to hold good of the spider's web. What has been called purple juice and ink (in the Cephalopods) ranks probably in the signification of urine.

c. SEXUAL INTESTINE.

2363. The sexual intestine is the colon or large intestine, which, in this respect, belongs to the sexual system, as has been indicated at § 2171.

II. Animal Sexual Organs.

2364. The bones of the sex are the feet with their appurtenances, such as the pelvis with the lumbar, sacral and coccygeal vertebræ. The muscles, as well as the nerves, are self-understood. But of these we will speak in the sequel.

B. ANIMAL ORGANS.

2365. All organs, which are purely animal, are penetrated or traversed by the nervous system, just as the lower systems are by the tegumentary formation. No higher organ is the wholly pure evolution of one system, but the systems ever combine with each other; and this combination, when individually represented, constitutes the organ.

2366. Organ is distinguished from system in not pursuing its course through the whole body, nor consisting simply of one and the same mass, but by its occupying a definite part of the body and being composed of several systems.

2367. Every organ has therefore a special and specific function also.

2368. The systems of animal life divide only into two kinds of organs, into those of sensation and those of motion, into the solar and planetary, or central and peripheric.

a. MOTOR ORGANS.

2369. Bone and muscle are not societies, but only poles of one system. There is therefore no mere bony organ, and no mere muscular organ. Meanwhile we will here regard them in particular or "per se."

1. Osseous Organs.

2370. The first bones were branchial arches or tracheal rings. When the lungs were developed from the branchiæ, the branchial arches were repeated as ribs or pulmonary arches. Lastly, should bones be formed, which are to be wholly in the service of the animal or the nervous system, so also must they be wholly liberated from the vegetative organs, and become self-substantial, i. e. have nothing else to do, but move. Free motor organs can be none other than ribs that have become free.

2371. These free ribs must inclose the respiratory organ or the integument, which has become an organ of animal life; they are the members or limbs. If we think of ribs, whose office is no longer to inclose lungs, which must no longer be subservient to the uninterrupted vital motion of respiration, and which are no longer united by pleura into a closed cyst or sac--will not such simply retain the self-substantial voluntary motion in themselves? will they not abandon the inferior cystic form, and represent the same, though but ideally and voluntarily? will not such a thorax open in front, like the intestine has opened at its nobler extremity?--will not such ribs be members, arms, digits? The members or limbs are the members of the trunk, or ribs that have opened in front; they are the thorax that has opened in front; and hence are nothing new, but only something emancipated or set free. Such ribs can be none other than motor organs; for they were previously nothing else. Then, however, they performed motion in the service of the viscera; at present, where they are absolved from this service, they execute it only in accordance to the will of the head, simply according to its will, for they are verily nothing more than motor ribs. Where, however, or in what region of the body will the ribs attain unto such freedom? Without doubt, in the neighbourhood of the head, and thus at the very spot where the lungs derive one of their extremities. The limbs are therefore cervical ribs.

2372. The arms are a thorax, consisting quite purely of bone and muscle, and represented as isolated or detached from the viscus, or the lung; on this depends their nobility, or, in other words, upon what is vegetative having been wholly left behind.

2373. The arms, when clasped together by the fingers, are a thorax without viscera, without heart and lungs; they are destined to inclose a whole body in the embrace.

2374. By an embrace that which is embraced has been made our viscus; it has been adopted as our animal heart, and as our animal vital organ--or lung. The embrace has an exalted physiological signification, and precisely that which it unconsciously possesses in the state of pure love. Nature always thinks more nobly than we do. We follow blindfold her beautiful regulations, and she rejoices in the sport.

2375. As the fundamental number of the branchiæ is five, so also must the limbs represent five ribs; they split into five digits or fingers. The feet of the Crustacea and Insects generally do not correspond to our feet; but to our fingers. The lower organized animals have only toes, no feet. The five thoracic feet of the crab correspond to our fingers; its five abdominal feet to our toes.

2376. There are three limbs in accordance with the three totalities of the body, truncal, sexual, and cephalic members, or arms, feet, and jaws.

2377. The members of the body or trunk belong to the thorax, because it is the respiratory system. The abdomen has no members; what have been so-called, are in their signification sexual limbs.

2378. Had the animal no sex, it would have no posterior limbs.

2379. As the three lower cervical and the two upper dorsal vertebræ belong to the arms, so also they appear to commence with five ribs, but then to become arrested, and again emerge to perfection in the digits.

2380. The shoulder appears to consist of five ribs, but this does not as yet admit of being clearly pointed out. Meanwhile, it is certain that the scapula, acromion, and coracoid are particular bones, to which may be added the clavicle.

2381. The middle finger is the elongated radius, and is therefore the longest or radial digit. It is that which is persistent, if only one finger has been left, as in the horse. The ring-finger is the ulnar finger. It is that which, along with the former, appears in the bi-ungulate animals; the spurious or dew-claws are the auricular and index-finger; the thumb is the last ramification, is therefore always arrested, and frequently present only as a wart-like excrescence or papilla.

2382. All animals, which have true digits, are furnished with five of them, more or less completely developed. If what has been called the metacarpal bone of the thumb be numbered, which it must, as a digital articulation or phalanx, every finger has thus one carpal bone, and each bone of the fore arm also one.

2383. The sexual members or feet correspond in all their pieces to the arms: the pelvis is the shoulder repeated; and certainly, the iliac bone is equivalent to the scapula, the ischium to the coracoid process, the os pubis to the acromion, the marsupial bone to the clavicle.

Cephalic Members.

2384. Both pairs of limbs are repeated in the head, because in it the whole trunk is repeated; the upper jaw corresponds to the arms, the lower jaw to the feet. Each jaw consists of two members, which are ankylosed in the higher animals at their point of meeting or in front, but in Fishes are partly, and in Insects completely, separated.

2385. Each jaw consists of the same bony divisions as the limbs of the trunk, of scapula, humerus, and fore-arm; or of pelvis, femur, and tibia. This is easily to be demonstrated in Birds, Reptiles, and Fishes.

2386. The digits are repeated in the teeth. The teeth are claws.

2387. There are therefore five kinds of teeth, which correspond to the five digits. The thumb becomes the canine tooth; the index-finger the false molars; the middle finger the laniary molar, the ring-finger the second, and the little finger the third true molar tooth.

2388. The intermaxillary with its incisor teeth belongs, as well as the palatal bones, to the pharynx; and is a visceral or intestinal maxilla.

2389. The lower animals therefore, as the Fishes, have almost nothing but intermaxillary and palatal teeth. They act principally upon the lingual teeth. The reptiles have still palatal teeth, which higher up in the vertebrate series disappear.

Symmetry.

2390. As the cervical ribs have nothing more to inclose, have no longer to respire, but only to move; their symmetrical development is thus undelayed. The symmetry is at first wholly attained by the act of opening or apertion.

2391. The limbs are the most symmetrical organs. They are symmetrical in each smallest part, and these parts again assume a symmetrical arrangement in regard to each other. They are the ideal of symmetry.

2392. They are, however, the free living symmetry. They can create by their motions symmetrical forms. The symmetry consists chiefly in, and has been produced only by, the motion.

2393. The symmetry of the motion is the most exalted, for it is that which is endowed with life. The symmetry of the form is that which is dead.

2394. The symmetry of the form appertains to inorganic nature, the symmetry of the motion is the property of animals.

2395. Dancing and acting are the highest organic symmetrical movements, and also the highest symmetries. They are the symmetry of the motor members, wrought by motion.

2396. Music is a much higher symmetry of motion.

2397. Speech is the highest spiritual symmetry; it is the dance and histrionism of the spirit or mind.

2. Muscular Organs.

2398. The muscles are everywhere attached to the bones, and help to form with them the same set of organs.

2399. The muscles of the larynx are therefore the antetypes of the costal muscles, these of the member-muscles, and the dorsal muscles of the scapular and pelvic muscles.

2400. The muscles of the limbs are found in a state of treble repetition. That the muscles of the arm and leg are of one kind, admits of being demonstrated with tolerable facility. But it is necessary, that in doing this regard be paid to the ligaments.

2401. The ligaments are only stunted muscles. Without bringing them into account, the muscular system does not admit of being explained and understood.

2402. The crural muscles are again found in the lower jaw.

2403. The brachial muscles, on the upper jaw or face.

2404. The movements of the facial muscles correspond to those of the limb-muscles. Upon this depends the interpretation of dumb-show, or the art of physiognomy.

3. Nervous Organs.

2405. Nervous organs are liberations of individual parts of the nervous system, and their endowment with a peculiar function or sensation.

2406. The liberations of the nerves are combinations with the other anatomical systems at the spot where they have attained their highest evolution.

2407. Each system, however, has its peculiar process. Through the reception or adoption of the systems into the nervous system, a peculiar sensation must therefore originate.

2408. Peculiar sensations are sensations of sense.

2409. The combinations of the anatomical systems with the nervous system, whereby the former have been subordinated to the latter, are consequently sensorial organs, or organs of sense.

2410. In the sensorial organs the processes of the several systems attain unto sensation. They are brains of the anatomical systems.

2411. There are as many senses as there are different anatomical systems, and consequently senses belonging to vegetative and animal life.

2412. The number of vegetative systems is 3; the vascular, intestinal, and pulmonary system.

2413. The most complete combination of the vascular with the nervous system is the integument--constituting the tegumentary sense, or sense of feeling.

2414. The most complete combination of the intestinal system with the nerves is the tongue--intestinal or gustatory sense.

2415. The most complete combination of the lungs with the nerves is the nose--pulmonary or olfactory sense.

2416. Among the three animal systems, bones and muscles produce, from their association, only one action--the motion. The most complete and perfect combination of the motor system with the nerves, is in the ear--osseo-muscular or auditory sense.

2417. The nervous system has become a self-substantial organ in the eye--the nervous, or visual sense.

2418. There are therefore only 5 senses; they are none other than repetitions of the anatomical systems in the sensation; they are the highest developments which are possible in the lower systems, being the blossoms or heads of such systems.

2419. These systems are, however, processes of the universe taken up into the organization. In its organs of sense, the processes of the universe are thus felt or perceived. The senses are world-organs, and are therefore placed in contact with the world, or occupy an outward position.

2420. The vascular system is the nutritive system. In it the blood coagulates into the solid parts of the body. The feeling-sense is therefore sensible of the nutrition or rigidifying process of the body. Now, the Solid of the planet is the earth. The sense of feeling perceives therefore opposition--it is an earth-sense.

2421. The function of the intestinal canal is digestion. In taste, the process of digestion is felt. But digestion is a solvent, a hydrapoietic process; in taste the water is therefore felt--it is the water-sense.

2422. Respiration is a process of oxydation. In smell the respiratory process is felt. Oxydation is, however, an air-process--it is air-sense. Thus do the three vegetative senses feel the elements of the planet--are planetary senses.

2423. The animal systems are symbols of the æther, of the gravity with the heat or motion, and of the light.

2424. The motion is only moved matter, and thus a combination of the muscular and osseous system. The ear therefore perceives the motion of the primary matter, or the atomic motion--it is gravity-sense, æther-sense.

2425. The light is the tension-process of the æther; to see, is therefore in an organism to emit light or shine--light-sense.

2426. The signification of the senses is twofold; they are anatomical systems which have become nerves, and on that account also elements that have attained unto sensation.

1. Sense of feeling--vascular, tegumentary, nutritive sense, earth-sense.

2. Gustatory sense--intestinal, digestive sense, water-sense.

3. Olfactory sense--pulmonic, respiratory sense, air-sense.

4. Auditory sense--osseo-muscular, motor sense, æther-sense.

Matter-Sense.

5. Visual sense--nervous, tension-sense, light-sense.

2427. The sensorial organs are not simply combinations of the anatomical systems with the nerves, but also with the bones and muscles. These have been entirely taken up into the signification of the animal body.

2428. Each sense has its own nervous, osseous, and muscular system.

2429. The sense of feeling has its bones and muscles in the limbs.

2430. The sense of taste, its bones in the lingual bone, its muscles in and upon the tongue.

2431. The sense of smell, its bones in the nasal bones, its muscles being frequently very much developed in the snout or proboscis.

2432. The sense of hearing, its bones in the auditory ossicles, its muscles in the auditory conch.

2433. The sense of sight, its bones in a ring surrounding the sclerotic coat and in the eyelids, its muscles in the ocular muscles.

2434. Besides the proper sensorial nerves, each organ of sense is provided with nerves for the motor system and for the vegetative systems, especially those of secretion.

2435. The integument has, besides the nerves of the tactile papillæ, vascular and motor nerves.

2436. The tongue is supplied with nerves of motion and digestion, and has therefore three pairs of nerves.

2437. The nose receives motor and respiratory nerves from the fifth pair.

2438. The ear has likewise three kinds of nerves; the auditory nerves, facial nerves, and a branch from the fifth pair, not to mention those that are distributed to the auditory conch.

2439. The eye has, in addition to its wholly special motor nerves, a number of others, which superintend its vegetative systems, such as the iris and the secretions of the humours.

a. VEGETATIVE SENSES.

1. Vascular Senses.

2440. All senses are only conditionated by the peripheric nervous mass because they are combinations of the nervous mass with the blossoms of the inferior systems.

2441. The most general system of the animal is the vascular system, which is represented externally as integument. The animal was in the commencement nothing but integument, and this again naught but vascular and nervous mass, so that the whole integument was thus an organ of sensation.

2442. Through the integument the animal becomes an individual, or a something distinct from the aggregate of nature. Now as the integument is principally the organ of sensation, so is the primary sensation that act, by which the animal is distinguished from nature. The tegumentary sense is the sense of distinction, of limitation.

2443. Through the act of discriminating, a something foreign or extraneous is granted us. The immediate perception of what is extraneous, is called feeling. Tegumentary sense is sense of feeling.

2444. The feeling-sense is the first in the animal.

2445. It is that which is general in the animal.

2446. The whole animal is naught but a sense of feeling.

2447. Out of the feeling-sense all other senses must be developed, just as all other systems are developed out of the tegumentary formation.

Organs of Touch.

2448. Where, however, the skin has attained to a higher grade of formation, or where it has combined with higher systems, there also will the sense of feeling be supplied by the former.

2449. The combination of the integument with the osseous and muscular system, and with a nervous system of its own, takes place in the limbs. Since the motor members are only a liberated thorax, so no other sense can belong to them but that of feeling, which the thorax previously possessed.

2450. But these sensitive organs are moved, and therefore voluntary organs, digits, or former branchiæ. Moveable or voluntary organs of feeling are called tactile organs. The feeling of the motor members is touch.

2451. The highest feeling necessarily consists in touching, because it has in that become active, while before it was only passive.

2452. In the situation of the sensitive papillæ, the origin of the digits from respiratory organs admits of being still recognized. They are arranged in spiral lines upon the points of the fingers.

2453. The sexual organs belong as tegumentary developments to the sense of feeling. There is no special sexual sense.

2. Intestinal Sense.

2454. Opposite to the general feeling or the integument, the function of the intestine is evolved. In the trunk it is simply busied with its own processes; when it first mounts or ascends into the head, it becomes subordinated to the nervous action.

2455. The combination of the intestine with bones, muscles and peculiar nerves, is presented in the tongue. This is the sensitive organ of the intestine.

2456. The tongue is a feeling-sense in water, just as the skin was that in the air. For it is the blossom of the digestive process. To the tongue therefore belongs the digestive or water-organ of the mouth, which is constituted by the salivary glands.

2457. The sensation of what is fluid in its chemical relations is called taste. Gustation is not a peculiar process, but obviously only the nervous commencement of the digestive process. On that account also the gustatory sense still lies concealed in a cavity. The whole buccal or oral cavity still belongs to the sense of taste.

2458. As in the sense of feeling the motor system still predominates, so does it also in the tongue, as being the second sense, which has been liberated from the plant. The nervous mass is in this sense not preponderant over the muscular and bony mass.

2459. The tongue is still to be regarded as an organ of touch, though one in which the flesh or muscle has gained a mastery over the bones, while in the true tactile organ the bones determine the principal forms and functions. The tongue is a nervous organ in the muscle, the hand is such in the bone.

2460. The hyoid or lingual bone is none other than the first branchial arch, and consists pretty nearly of the same pieces as the arm.

2461. Compound lingual bones, such as occur in many Reptiles, have originated from coalescence of several branchial arches.

2462. Like the limbs, so is the tongue originally a double organ. In most Reptiles it is longitudinally fissured. Such animals have usually also a double penis. In all animals the tongue is divided into two moieties, which are only connate by means of suture. The penis also consists of two connate penes.

2463. As in the tegumentary sense, the nerves could not be peculiar or special in kind, but took their origin from all parts, and particularly from the spinal cord, so also is this the case with the intestinal sense, which is still only an internal tegumentary sense. The lingual nerves proceed from several situations, and that too from the upper part of the spinal cord.

2464. The oral cavity also consists, properly speaking, of mere tactile organs, which have been repeated in the head. Thus, there are tactile organs which are subservient to the gustatory sense, in biting, chewing, and swallowing.

2465. The lips are tactile organs upon the threshold or brink, as it were, of the gustatory sense.

2466. In the oral cavity, however, the glands of the intestinal canal are repeated. The salivary glands secrete fluid, like the pancreatic glands.

2467. The sense of feeling is present in all animals. They are only animals by virtue of it; but the sense of taste appears to be first formed at a later period, after the intestine has separated from the integument; in the animals that have no intestine, its existence is problematical, and even in Fishes and Birds it is but poorly developed.

3. Pulmonic or Lung-sense.

2468. When the respiratory organ is hoisted up into the head, and there becomes an organ of sensation, it passes over into a sense.

2469. That the nose is the thorax, together with its viscera, repeated in the head, has been already remarked. The many convolutions of the turbinated or olfactory bones correspond to the ramifications of the trachea; the nasal cartilages to the tracheal or laryngeal rings; the olfactory membrane to the pulmonic vesicles.

2470. The process of the lungs repeated in the head becomes smell, like that of the intestine became taste. The olfactory sense is the highest blossom of the arteriose vascular system or the branchial net. On this account the olfactory membrane is the most delicate, and the densest tissue of arteries and veins.

2471. The nose is related to the mouth, as the thoracic is to the abdominal cavity; the olfactory membrane to the tongue, as the lung is to the stomach. It is a cephalo-thorax. The nose is not therefore so completely closed as the mouth, but is opened through the two most anterior air-holes or spiracula. The nasal apertures or nostrils are the last persistent remnants of the spiracula, after all those upon the sides of the body have been closed up.

2472. It is the last organ of sense, which has been evolved from the trunk. It is therefore nobler than the two others, and has also a nobler object, the air.

2473. The nerves of the olfactory organ are peculiar to it, and are encephalic nerves. As the sense of smell is the pulmonic or arteriose sense; so also does the arteriose substance of the brain combine with this organ. The olfactory nerves consist of cineritious or gray substance, and are only prolongations thereof.

2474. This is the only phenomenon of the kind met with among all nerves, but it is commensurate with the character or signification of this organ. A sensible pulmonary organ can only have arteriose nerves. As the liver is throughout venous, so is the nose throughout arteriose in quality.

b. ANIMAL SENSES.

2475. It now only remains for us to consider the motor and the sensitive system proper upon their highest stage of development. The motor system, when represented in the nervous system, is a peculiar organ of sensation, as is likewise the nervous system itself upon attaining its highest state of development.

4. Osseo-Muscular Sense.

2476. The lowest condition of the motor system is the limbs, which represent no peculiar sense, but only the sense of feeling refined or set in motion. This motor system ascends into the head, and there no longer exercises its motive powers in prehension, progression, &c., but solely unto sensation. Now, a system, which converts its function into that of sensation, is a sense.

2477. The sensorial organ, which simply through motion, or a resistance presented to that of the atoms, produces sensation, or wherein the motion as such is felt, is the Ear.

2478. The ear is none other than the ultimate development of the bone and muscle, when they are brought under the direct dominion of the nerves.

2479. The auditory ossicles are the limbs subtilized or refined in character. They have joints, are provided with muscles, and move exactly like the limbs. It may be said; that the stapes is the scapula, the incus the humerus, the malleus the fore arm, and the concha with its cartilages, the hand with its digits.

2480. The ear, like the bulk of the limbs, has originated from branchiæ. In Fishes, the auditory ossicles have degenerated into the branchial opercula.

2481. The ear-trumpet (or Eustachian tube), which opens into the mouth, is the internal branchial aperture.

2482. The motor system, however, belongs to the trunk, whose viscera are repeated also in the ear, or in a cavity which has been called its labyrinth. The three semicircular canals appear to correspond to the intestine, the cochlea to the trachea.

2483. The ear has not only a nerve, but likewise a brain, of its own.

2484. The cerebellum is the auditory brain, and from it the acoustic nerves take their rise. For, since the ear is the sense of the whole motor system, and consequently of half the animal, it inevitably follows, that an appropriate or special nervous mass must be developed for it, just as the myelon or spinal chord has been for the trunk. An organ, which is so constantly active, must necessarily have a large nervous mass. The cerebellum is consequently not a brain in the general sense, but one which is wholly individualized. It participates in the motion, which, as sound, is transmitted to the animal.

2485. By its signification as well as by its own brain, the ear gives us to recognize its elevated rank above the other senses.

2486. The ear must stand in relation with the body's limbs.

2487. The ears first make their appearance in animals, associated with a tolerable development of the limbs. With the exception of a few instances, the ears first become apparent in Fishes, being in them at least furnished for the first time with true ossicles and semicircular canals. The ear, like the limbs, with which it constantly maintains a parallel course, is very slowly perfected. In the Fishes which have only fins (as instruments of locomotion) it is wholly concealed within the cranial bones; in the Reptiles it emerges or is more exposed to view; but for the first time in Birds and Mammalia where, generally speaking, the limbs also are first perfected, it attains its completion; in them only is the cochlea fully developed, and an auditory meatus which opens externally.

5. Nervous Sense.

2488. In all lower organs, and even in the senses which have hitherto been commented upon, the nervous system was not the chief, but only the co-ordinate agent. It has only by its conjunction with, assisted in elevating the character of, other systems, so that their material might be converted into spiritual processes. But the nervous is also a self-substantial system, and must therefore attain likewise a free development.

2489. With the highest organs of the nervous system, the relation which has been hitherto maintained, must be reversed. The inferior systems will now be the co-ordinate agents.

2490. The highest nervous organ can only possess that function, which is originally peculiar to the nervous system, i. e. the most delicate polarization, the light-function. There is the Light-sense.

2491. The eye is nothing but a nervous system represented in a state of purest organization, just as the ear was the purest system of motion.

2492. In the eye it is the brain itself, which expands, in order to turn unto or face the light.

2493. As the ear has its own brain, so also has the eye; the cerebrum is the optic brain. (Ed. 1st, 1811. §. 2317.) This is the rationale of our having two brains.

2494. Now the cortical or gray substance has been already diverted from the cerebrum to supply the olfactory sense. Its medullary or white substance remains for the eye. The medullary brain is the optic brain. The medullary is consequently the nobler part of the nervous system.

2495. The brain's medulla is homologous to the light; its exterior or cortical portion is related to the material light, the air.

2496. The eye is only a medullary brain, posited peripherically and in a nervous manner. The brain itself has elongated and become integument.

2497. The visual membrane (or retina) is the cerebral substance cystically expanded. It must be regarded as being originally a closed bladder or cyst. (Ed. 1st, 1811. §. 2321.)

2498. The optic nerve is itself hollow, and unites the cerebral with the orbitar cavity.

2499. The vitreous body, which fills out the cyst of the retina, is the cerebral medulla which has become transparent, or a semi-fluid albuminous mass.

2500. The sclerotic coat of the eye is the continuation of the brain's dura mater.

2501. The vascular or choroid coat of the eye is the continuation of the encephalic pia mater. All parts of the brain have been consequently continued into the eye.

2502. Now, what the brain is for the earthly body, that also must it be for the eye. The eye is not simply brain, but a representation also of the whole body. The brain can, forsooth, be nowhere without its body; if therefore it is elevated into the eye, so also must it take up and elevate the body along with itself.

2503. The eye is an entire body, a whole animal. Again, in the next place, the animal systems, such as limbs, thorax and abdomen, have been most distinctly represented in it. The light is seized, respired, digested, and hence felt by the eye.

2504. As the light represents chaotically the whole of nature, but this material nature enters completely into the animal through the processes of the trunk, so does the light enter it through the eye. The eye is the chaotic representation of all material processes of a body.

2505. The limbs or members of the eye are repeated in the ocular muscles and the sclerotic or bony ring; in many Fishes the eye stands upon a flexible pedicle, as in the Crabs. The ocular muscles move the eye in different directions like a hand.

2506. The sclerotic corresponds to the corium, the cornea to the digital unguis, or finger-nail.

2507. The choroid or vascular coat, is the respiratory system or lung in the eye. The iris corresponds to the larynx, the pupil to the glottis; its expansion and contraction is a respiratory movement.

2508. The choroid coat incloses also an osseous mass, the lens--a vertebral body. The morbid states of the lens are osseous diseases, such as gout.

2509. In the chambers of the eye, water, as being a product of digestion, is constantly secreted.

2510. The orbitar cavity is a mouth with salivary glands--giving vent to tears.

2511. The lachrymal canal is a branchial duct, which opens into the nose, like the Eustachian tubes did from the ear into the mouth.

2512. The eyelids consequently correspond to the lips, and are in like manner fringed with hairs.

2513. As the body has everywhere two halves, and laterally also presents two entire organisms, so also is the formation of the nervous system a double one. Each eye is an entire body.

2514. In the two eyes the halves of the body have completely separated as entire bodies, and each has attained self-substantiality. Each eye is a free animal in the animal body. Each eye is therefore circumscribed by its own integument--is a free animal. It is endowed, like the hand, with omnilateral motion; it has cavities, i. e. its bodily cavities and humours, or inclosed masses--viscera.

2515. An organ, which again repeats in its miniature the whole animal itself, of which it is only a part, must necessarily be the highest point unto which an organism can attain. With the eye the organization, and consequently nature, has been concluded.

2516. The eye is a parasitic animal, of the same kind with the animal upon which it exists.

2517. In a certain sense all sensorial organs are parasitic animals in the animal; only they are not all of the same kind with it. No one of the other senses has e. g. repeated all lower systems in itself, and it is therefore to be regarded only as a subordinate or half-animal, which lives upon that which is more perfect.

Senses of the Sexual Animal.

2518. In essaying to speak concerning the sensorial organs of the sexual animal, we shall only encounter in the latter the emotions of the vegetative senses, and these indeed disposed according to their rank.

2519. The sense of feeling is most perfectly developed in the legs, whereof the pelvis represents the scapula.

2520. The external sexual parts are the analogues of the gustatory sense; the female parts being indeed those of the mouth; the male, which are frequently furnished with bone, of the tongue. The jaws are not repeated in a sexual animal, except in Insects, namely, as the pharyngeal maxillæ.

2521. The analogue of the nose is wholly stunted, and is only left persistent as a trachea or air-tube in the urethra.

2522. In other respects the cavity of the sexual parts is a trunk-cavity "per se," like the thoracic and abdominal; the pelvic cavity contains the viscera of a whole animal.

II.-PHYSIOLOGY.

2523. Physiology is the doctrine or science which treats of the functions of the animal. Like the organology was, so also must the science of the functions be developed. There will be functions of the whole animal, and of the tissues, systems and organs.

A. FUNCTIONS OF THE ANIMAL IN GENERAL.

2524. The first act of the animal is an assimilation to the universe, whereby it also receives or takes up into itself the primary function of the universe. This is the perception of the circumscription and totality in itself, its self-manifestation, the feeling of self. The first action of the animal mass is that of self-sensation. Now, through the self-sensation, self-substantiality has been granted.

2525. The animal is consequently a Whole in Singulars only through the feeling of self.

2526. As the universe is only an analysis of the self-consciousness of God; so also can the development of the animal and the formation of its organs, be none other than an analysis of the self-sensation. All other functions (just as all masses are only a metamorphosed nervous mass) are but differently polarized self-sensations, or these as it were dispersed.

2527. The self-sensation of an individual body is not, however, inclosed within itself, like the primary relation of the universe; because it is not the universe, but only a fraction of it, which has sprouted forth like a bud from the great planetary body. The self-sensation is not therefore a simple feeling of self, but a feeling also of something foreign or extraneous, and thus the animal self-sensation becomes, in reference to Nature, an act of discrimination or discernment.

2528. Now, the animal is distinguished only from Nature by the act of being liberated from it. It is therefore comprehended in a constant liberation or severance. The life of the animal continues only by a constantly renewed and indefatigable severance, by a desertion or falling off from Nature.

2529. In so doing, however, it detaches itself from Nature, as being a part thereof; the severance is therefore a conversion of the nature into an animal. In this consists the reciprocal action of both, viz. that the animal is constantly seeking to assimilate the nature unto itself.

2530. The ability or power to assimilate the nature, is called excitability.

2531. Excitability is the most general phenomenon of the organic mass, and appertains both to plants and animals.

2532. But in the animal excitability, the free self-sensation, within which a free motion is necessarily inherent, is superadded or originates. This excitability unto motion I call irritability.

2533. Thus this irritability belongs only to animals.

2534. Irritability does not depend directly upon motion, but throughout upon sensation. Without sensation no irritability is possible. If the sensation ceases, so also does mobility, or the capacity for motion, cease.

2535. Since irritability originates from the antagonism of the animal with the world; so is it parallel to an antagonism of the heavenly bodies, or to that of sun and planets. The mutual operation of these two heavenly bodies is, however, an interchange of polarity, a polar excitation. The irritability is a polar process; but one which is pure and devoid of material excretions, just as the sun excites the earth without eliciting therein any material change or transition. The animal becomes polarized by the incentive agent or stimulus.

2536. Through the irritability there originates a double polarity in the animal. In the first place one between the world and the animal; in the second, one between the exterior of the animal and its interior. The world-polarity gives the feeling or sensation, the body's polarity the motion.

2537. In the sensation the animal always transcends itself; there is thus only excitability. In the motion the animal abides or remains within itself; but the self-sensation proceeds from both conditions. Accordingly, in self-sensation the world, and the animal within the animal, convene or come together. The animal is itself universe, and it at the same time comprehends the great universe. Now, in both conditions or in both functions has the animal been turned towards the world and also towards itself. In feeling it turns itself towards the world, in order to adopt this spiritually into, or repel this from, itself; in motion it turns itself towards the world, in order to materially adopt or to repel it. In both cases of assumption it turns itself towards itself.

2538. Both these properties belong to the animal body; if individual organs are deficient in them, it happens therefore, from their having superadded or adduced other properties, which are predominant, to the original ones. This is the essence of what is animal in a living body. Thus, if from an animal all the vegetable systems could be subtracted, it would do nothing but feel and move.

B. FUNCTIONS OF THE ANIMAL IN SINGULARS.

I. Functions of the Tissues.

a. FUNCTIONS OF THE ANIMAL TISSUES.

1. Functions of the Point-Tissue.

2539. The point-tissue is also spiritually represented, and this spiritual manifestation or expression is the stamp or impress of the arrangement of the matter into points.

2540. The point-matter is the matter of sensation; the sensation is, however, imparted by polarization. The act of feeling is a conduction of the polarity from point to point; this is the light-polarity. This light-like polarity transmitted from point to point is sensibility.

2541. The sensibility is not the result of a peculiar nervous fluid, or even of mechanical vibration, &c., of the nerves; but of an antagonism between animal and world, brain and tegument, sun and planet.

2542. The point-tissue is in every respect the æther which has become the mucus, and has in every respect also to act in accordance thereunto.

2543. The sensibility or the nervous power, viewed in relation to the smallness of the body, operates instantaneously upon every spot. It is not first conducted or tardily conveyed hither and thither; but everywhere, where an antagonism, a stimulus, a planet is, there also is the "vis nervosa." Where a planet is, there also is the solar tension.

2544. But abstractedly or ideally considered, the nervous force certainly requires a time to elapse for the propagation of the stimulus, just as the light-tension darts through the æther only in a given time. As light traverses at the rate of 40,000 miles per second, so must the nervous power, if it obey similar laws to those of its prototype, and the length of a man be estimated at 1-5000th of a mile, glide through the human body in 1-200,000,000th of a second, which, "quoad" the phenomenon, cannot, of course, be observed.

2545. Accordingly, it is theoretically certain that the nervous power does not operate with absolute or unconditional velocity. To the validity of this statement, observations of many kinds, especially those made in diseases, and by astronomical computations of the strokes of the chronometer, afford additional evidence.

2546. Thus, for a stimulus impinging upon the brain, to act or be transmitted from thence into the toes, there elapses 1-200,000,000th of a second. In the event of disease, a retardation in the process is conceivable, and may admit even of being observed.

2. Function of the Globe-tissue.

2547. The dense or solid form is the matter, when it has died away; the function also, or the crystallization, died therein, so soon as the crystal was represented. The office of the bones is only to preserve the counterpoise to the nerve, to supply a limit, and therefore a support to its action, by which means the achievement of the latter first becomes possible.

2548. The business of the bone, is to play an antithetic part to the nerve, and nothing else, or to serve the latter as a "terra firma," upon which it may execute its plans. The bone suffers, and in this consists its office. The other offices of the bone, such as its being the firm and solid framework of the body, its protecting the nervous mass, &c., are subordinate matters, which are at once clearly understood.

3. Function of the Fibrous-tissue.

2549. There is the active motion. The primary motion is, however, a result of the polar tension induced in the æther by the light. Just as the heat has been produced in the æther by the light-polarity, so has been the animal motion in the fibres by the polarity of the nerves.

2550. Every fibre, when it is in motion, has necessarily two polar extremities. For the fibre stands between the artery which is oxygenous, and the nerve which is basic, or between a zinc and silver pole.

2551. In the conditions of rest the two poles must be neutralized, or, generally speaking, not in existence. This is only possible by disjunction of the galvanic circuit or chain.

2552. Since the artery is constantly operating upon the fibre, but the nerve only, when it has been stimulated; so must this change in the condition of the fibre reside in the change of the nervous influence.

2553. In unirritated conditions the nerve does not act upon the fibre; the latter is not illuminated, nor does it stand in a state of tension with the nerve, which is not in itself polar, but is only, when stimulated, a sun towards the fibre, or polar within itself. If the chain be then dissevered, the fibre is in a state of indifference.

2554. Thus, in the event of tension, the nervous extremity of the fibre becomes negative, the arterial extremity positive; both ends necessarily attract each other in order to discharge or unload themselves. This attraction is an abbreviation or contraction.

2555. After the discharge the fibrous extremities are homonymous; they repel each other, and relaxation or extension ensues.

2556. The motion of the fibres is consequently a perfectly galvanic process, devoid of material interference, between nerve, fibre, and blood. The nerve is silver, the artery zinc, and the fibre moist card. All theories of motion based upon swelling of blood, elementary change, and such like causes, are not animal, though organic in character; the former are injections, the latter chemical processes.

2557. Through the fibrous tissue being shortened and elongated, the entire animal is self-displaced.

2558. Through the fibrous tissue the animal appears as animal, through the point-tissue it is (and that in essence) an animal. God is in himself, but he first appears in the world. This elucidates or explains the relation of "noumenon" and "phenomenon."

4. Function of the Cellular Tissue.

2559. This tissue has no other function than that in the plant. Many saps or juices are effused into the cells. The latter are engaged in constant expansion and contraction, whereby they decompose and propel these juices. They are the proper seat of the nutritive process, since they coincide with the capillary vessels.

2560. But as every rigidification is combined with volatilization, so does a process of evaporation occur in them at the same time.

2561. This process is the property of the teguments or membranes, both of those lining the internal cavities, as also of such as are placed externally.

2562. But the process of evaporation is principally the function of the true skin or corium. As an organ of evaporation the corium is similar to the lung. It is consequently aeriform water, which of necessity constitutes the principal mass of evaporation.

2563. The water is, however, mucous in character, the mucus becomes oxydized in the air, and through this also carbonic acid is formed.

Heat.

2564. The chief function of the cell-formation is the process of heat. The cell-process and heat-process are one in kind. Heat is the product of the process of condensation and rarefaction, and thus of the nutrition and evaporation, both of which happen in the cells, or, if we please, in the capillary vessels.

2565. In the skin the process of temperature is individualized.

2566. All temperature depends upon the process of condensation and rarefaction. At one time it is the nerves, at another the vessels, anon, external influences, which alter or modify it. Animal heat, like the cosmic heat, has been produced by change of the fixation. This change, however, takes place principally in the nutrition and evaporation.

2567. The fat is the "residuum" or the antagonism of the process of evaporation or water-formation. It is therefore deposited everywhere on the water-organs, beneath the integument, along the intestine and the vessels, around the kidneys, and so on.

2568. It is, like the adipocire, a product of the aqueous decomposition. On this account it is subservient to the process of temperature. It is the only isolator of heat, while all other animal bodies are conductors.

II. Functions of the Systems.

2569. The functions do not concern the whole body, but only its principal parts.

a. VEGETABLE FUNCTIONS.

2570. The vegetative functions are matter-changing processes, which, consequently, correspond directly to the chemical processes, or are rather of one kind with these, but altered by organic elemental bodies.

1. Functions of the Intestinal System.

2571. The general function of the integument consists in the secretion of juices, of which there are principally two kinds, the general and special.

2572. The general intestinal juice is mucus; it acts by rarefying.

2573. The gastric juice is of an aqueous, mucous, and acid nature. It acts as an acid and is endowed with chemically solvent properties.

2574. The bile is of a basic, inflammable, alkaline nature. It acts also chemically by analysing and precipitating.

2575. The saliva is the gastric juice of the head. It is a juice secreted under the influence of the sensibility, and is on that account indifferencing, and nullifying in its effects; it is the highest poison.

2576. As the indifferent saliva precedes the gastric juice, so does the indifferent pancreatic fluid the bile.

2577. The proper function of the intestinal system is the digestion with all its divisions. There is an animal and a vegetative, or oral and abdominal digestion.

a. Oral Digestion.

2578. Oral digestion is a mortifying or putting to death of the food.

2579. Since what is organic only serves as aliment for the animal, but nothing can be assimilated to the latter, without its having been previously reduced to the original condition of Infusoria, so also must the first act of the digestive process depend upon this, or converting the organic into primary organic bodies.

2580. This reduction to the primary condition is a putting to death of the organic individual. Organisms only which have been killed, can be converted into infusorial matter, and are then nutriment for the animal. The first act of digestion is consequently an act of putting to death.

2581. The act of killing consists of two moments, the mechanical and dynamical, or in lacerating and poisoning.

Laceration.

2582. The mechanical act of putting to death commences with the search after nutriment, and thus with the movement of the feet; to this succeeds the prehension, or seizure with the claws or hands.

2583. This motion of the limbs is then repeated in the cephalic members, or the jaws.

2584. The seizure of the food with the cephalic arms or jaws, is the infliction of a wound commensurate with the position and form of the teeth. The teeth are digits of the cephalic limbs, or being devoid of any fleshy layer, claws. A gripe with such digits is in itself the infliction of a wound. For, in order that the food be grasped with only sufficient firmness to admit of its being drawn into the mouth, the sharp digital points of the mouth, i. e. the teeth, must make an incision therein.

2585. To seize, bite, wound, and kill, is in an animal one and the same act. For, so soon as the food or prey is seized, and consequently wounded, it is drawn deeper into the mouth, and therefore a new grasp and bite is essayed.

2586. Upon this the food is twirled about in the mouth by the muscles, or is chewed, whereby the parts are separated into mechanical atoms.

Poisoning.

2587. Mechanical atoms are, however, not yet dead, because the vital polarity is not extinguished. It is requisite for a dynamic act, which suppresses all galvanism, to operate upon them.

2588. As this act of killing has directly for its object the death of the Organic and that alone, so is it a venenation or process of poisoning. To poison is not merely a chemical act, but one having for its immediate purpose, to separate the connexion of the organic atoms.

2589. The first act performed by the animal is that of poisoning.

2590. Poisoning, as being a direct aggression upon and destruction of life, is a destruction of the galvanic process. Now, the galvanic process is destroyed by suppression, destruction, and separation of its poles. The demolition of poles is a polar equilibration. Poisoning is equilibration of poles on the galvanic organism, or their neutralization.

2591. The primary change of poles is, however, in the blood. Poisoning is a balancing of the blood-poles.

2592. Indifferent blood is no longer blood, but chyle or infusorial primary mass.

2593. The nutritive fluid or chyle is poisoned organic substance. There is no aliment except what is wrought by poison.

2594. The poisoning of the aliments must take place through the medium of their blood, or their sap. If poison therefore does not get into the blood, the death does not ensue. The digestive juice is poison only for the blood, but not for the other systems.

2595. Chemical bodies which induce death, act by destruction of the bodies themselves, not merely by their neutralization or excessive polarization. They do not operate very differently from iron when in a state of red heat. Such is the case with sulphuric acid, nitric acid, alkalies and arsenic.

2596. Now, if these bodies be called poisons, there are thus three kinds of poisons, mineral or chemical, vegetable and animal poisons.

2597. The chemical poisons destroy the mass; they convert the Organic into minerals.

2598. Vegetable poisons reduce the animal to the plant; they do not effect the destruction of the mass in a general sense, but only that which is purely animal, or the nervous system--they are nervous poisons.

2599. The animal poisons destroy what is vegetable in the animal, or the galvanic process--are blood-poisons.

2600. The saliva is the digestive poison.

2601. The saliva is not present, in order to macerate, and so prepare the dry aliments for digestion, but to poison them. Everything else is only a subordinate operation. Now, the process of poisoning takes place only in the blood. The saliva does not act without inflicting a wound.

2602. Strictly regarded, all saliva is poison. There are examples of the saliva of birds, and even of men when inflamed with passion, having acted as poison.

2603. All other animal poisons, contagious principles or miasmata, are analogous to the saliva, being partial salivæ, partial poisons. Diseases of the skin produce tegumentary poisons or salivæ; glandular diseases, glandular poisons; nervous diseases, nervous poisons; diseases of the lungs, pulmonary poisons. The saliva is the blood-poison; the hydrocyanic acid, the nervous poison.

2604. During mastication saliva imbues every atom of the food, whereby the mass is throughout neutralized, or annulled.

Docimasy or Testing.

2605. The oral digestion or that of the mouth cannot, however, occur by itself, without its being a nervous process also. The intestinal function taken up into the nervous system is the taste.

2606. Taste is the chemism resident in the head, the digestion in the nerves. Taste therefore happens according to the theory of the digestion or the chemism.

2607. The lowest element of the chemism is the water, the highest repetition whereof in the earth is--the salt. The former is therefore the object of abdominal digestion, the latter of nervous digestion. To taste is to digest salt. In order to taste the salt, every part of the food must be brought in contact with the tongue; this is only possible through comminution of the aliment by means of the teeth. The mastication dissolves the aliments mechanically into atoms, just as digestion will resolve them chemically into "infusoria."

2608. That which should be digestible, must have a saline character, must be soluble. The tongue is accordingly the test-organ of the digestive process.

Deglutition.

2609. At first the tongue tastes only with its apex or tip; but after the salts which operate upon the tip are neutralized and examined, the tongue will also taste with its root, the two extremities of the tongue and their gustatory sensations being thus mutually opposed. It therefore takes the morsel upon the root and presses it against the palate, whereby the pharyngeal muscles clasp and swallow it.

2610. In deglutition the object of the tongue is not to give over or surrender the morsel to the pharynx, but to enjoy it "per se." During this fruition, however, it is robbed of it. Deglutition is therefore a result of an undesigned mechanical contrivance. Each organ works for the other, while fancying that it works for itself, which again it actually does, while it reaps the enjoyment so derived. Has the tongue finished tasting the food, then the pharynx obtains it involuntarily.

2611. To the saliva, and thus to a morsel, the acidulous gastric juice is polarwise related; both therefore seek to unite, and with this their organs also, namely, pharynx and stomach. The stomach obtains the preponderance, because it is acidulous; the pharynx moves towards it and with it also the morsel.

Rumination.

2612. If the food, when received into the stomach, continue acid by virtue of its nature, or from not having been properly chewed and imbued with saliva and so neutralized, it is then homonymous with the gastric juice. The stomach therefore seeks to neutralize it, by restoring it again to the action of the saliva.

2613. Acid aliments cause vomiting. Grass which has not been masticated, and therefore enters acid or non-killed, and susceptible of fermentation, into the stomach, is regularly brought back into the mouth, and to the saliva, i. e. is ruminated or rechewed.

2614. Rumination is a regular act of vomiting, which has originated from the antagonism of the saliva and gastric juice and from the acid nature of the morsel.

b. Intestinal Digestion.

2615. The intestinal digestion is the perfect chemical process taken up along with all its moments into the animal.

Gastric Digestion.

2616. The stomach exercises by means of the spleen the oxydizing process of the intestine, the solvent function, and thus the action of the water. The gastric juice is related to the food, like water is to earth. The gastric digestion is liquefaction, unto which oxydation makes the preliminary step.

2617. Through the process of liquefaction, the poles are only potentially augmented, but are not dissevered, nor new substances formed. The gastric digestion creates no new bodies, but only mixes the old in the most homogeneous and intimate manner with each other.

2618. The gastric digestion is an animal process of fermentation. In deranged states of the stomach there is therefore a propensity to acid eructation, development of carbonic acid, and even formation of sugar.

2619. This digestion consequently reduces the (animal) food to the signification of the plant. Gastric digestion is a process of vegetable germination. The salivary process is a reduction to the animal death, digestion a reduction of this dead something itself to a lower kingdom.

2620. The gastric juice alone, like an acid, effects the solution of the aliment; with this, the movement of the gastric walls, which only tends to produce an easier mixture of the alimentary particles, having nothing to do.

Hunger.

2621. Through the digestive process the gastric juice is consumed by the food, and the stomach deoxydized. If there is a deficiency of dephlegmatizing and deoxydizing aliments, then the peroxydation of the stomach must produce a feeling--called appetite. If this be not appeased, the oxygenic tension in the stomach is elevated or increased, and then begins to become unpleasant; this is Hunger.

2622. Here the feeling of the stomach's peroxydation is an obstructed process of fermentation, dependent upon want of food and alkaline principles.

Thirst.

2623. The feeling of the reverse condition to the above is Thirst. It originates through a too rapid deoxydation of the stomach, through deglutition of the gastric juice on account of an excess of food. But it may also originate from a deficiency of gastric juice, or from an alkaline tendency in the latter; just as hunger resulted from a superabundance of gastric juice, or a disposition to form acids.

2624. Thirst is the feeling of too powerful a digestion, or of too rapid fermentation, whereby the product or leaven of the latter becomes, as it were, bankrupt; upon this the blood flows in greater quantity, in order to secrete the gastric juice; the arterial nature becomes elevated, and finally, an inflammatory condition, associated with a sense of dryness, originates, and is propagated as far as the mouth.

2625. Thirst and heat rank, like hunger and cold, parallel to each other. The feeling of dryness appears as heat, that of moisture, as cold. Cold therefore at once extinguishes or quenches the thirst; but produces hunger, which again is mitigated by heat.

Biliary Digestion.

2626. The stomach is the pulmonic intestine; the duodenum, through its combination with the liver, is the vascular intestine, having a predominant venous character; or the one is the arteriose, the other the venous stomach.

2627. The gastric digestion has reduced the food to the state of a vegetable; but this does not yet suffice for it to become a nutritive matter, namely, a new organism. As the primary organism originates, so also must the body originate in the process of nutrition, and thus from the element of the Organic. Now, this primitive matter or element is the mucus, the "infusorium." There is still therefore a process necessary to redissolve the vegetable and convert it into protoplasma or primary mucus.

2628. This, however, occurs only through the process of putrefaction being wrought in the food. This process is not simple solution, but decomposition, or separation of the constituent parts. The acid vegetable parts, which had been active through the process of fermentation, must be therefore decomposed, and in such wise, indeed, that what is mucous shall be separated from them.

2629. This separation or analysis takes place by means of the Bile, which combines with the acid of the chyme.

2630. The biliary digestion is an alkalizing or saponaceous process. Through it the chyme becomes separated into nutritive juice or chyle, and into excrement.

2631. The excrement is what is vegetable, or the product of fermentation combined with the bile. The chyle is what is infusorial, or the product of decomposition. Nutrition therefore begins anew. Its process is a "generatio originaria."

2632. In digestion the processes of both organic kingdoms, namely, the fermentative and putrefactive, are repeated.

Absorption.

In the intestine, not merely lung and vascular system, have been represented, but also the integument or organ of absorption.

2633. After the animal food has been reduced to the vegetable, and this again to the infusorial state, it can be taken up by the body. It now becomes absorbed in the small intestine. The small intestine is the tegumentary system, or the root-bark.

2634. The chyliferous or lacteal vessels stand in antagonism with the lung, or the skin as being the original respiratory organ. It is only, therefore, the infusorial chyle that has been absorbed, not the excrement, because between the latter, as the product of oxydation, and the lacteal vessels, repulsion takes place. The chyle, having been absorbed, enters into the thoracic duct, and from thence into the lungs.

Evacuation.

2635. Through the absorption of what is fluid, that which is excrementitious becomes more solid, and is thus given over or transferred into the vegetable, sexual, or large intestine.

2636. The excrement is now found in another, i. e. in a lower, or vegetable animal. It therefore obtains the direction of all sexual secretions; it is thrown out or ejected, and in a reverse direction, because the anus is the sexual mouth.

2637. Digestion is thus through all predicaments, from its incipient dealings with the highest life unto the plant, and from this to the mucous globule, a thorough process of putting to death.

2638. The nutritive will be through all predicaments, from the infusorium to the plant and to the animal, a thoroughly vivifying or life-inspiring process. Digestion is descension, nutrition is ascension.

2. Functions of the Respiratory System.

2639. The branchiæ and lungs are the air-organ of the animal, the foliage. The animal, like the vegetable foliage, is oxydized from water or air, by which means the animal sap, which hitherto is only a root-sap, becomes differenced into an aerial sap.

2640. No animal can live without oxygen gas, because the air is the condition of the galvanic process.

2641. The oxygen passes over materially into the blood or the chyle. Beyond this it is an indifferent matter for physiology, whether the blood simply derives the positive tension from the air, or combines the positive oxygen materially with itself. In both cases the same heterogeneity originates. Were oxygen, however, not to enter the body through the lung, it could not then be seen, whence its ingress might be effected. In other respects, every change of matters is established with material combinations and separations.

2642. The carbonic acid of the respiratory process may originate accidentally, as when it is formed on the integument. In so far is the expiration one and the same with the evaporation.

2643. The chyle ascends directly from the small intestine into the leaf-fabric, or into the lung. Both organs are to be compared with an entire plant, whereof the intestine is the root, the lymphatic vessels the stem, the lung the leaf-fabric or foliage.

2644. The chyle moves in the lymphatic vessels like the vegetable sap, and thus by polar tension between lung and intestine. Lung and intestine have been diametrically opposed. The conductors of the antagonism are the lymphatic vessels.

2645. The lymphatic vessels do not absorb by virtue of their own contractility, nor by open ends; but by physical pores like the cells of plants.

2646. It is the chyle, which is oxydized in the lung; the venous blood is a subordinate object.

2647. Through the oxydation it becomes coloured like the vegetable sap does in a leaf. But the latter sap obtains only the colour of the terrestrial oxydation, of the terrestrial oxyde or the water, and becomes green; while the chyle gains the colour of the cosmic oxyde, or the fire, and becomes red. The red, fire-coloured sap is the blood. The function of the lungs is consequently a formation of blood.

2648. The blood is an infusorial, a green mucous sap, which has been elevated to what is aerial. The blood consists of aerated Infusoria--blood-globules. These are the red substance of the blood. In the lower animals only, where the blood, like the body, contains but few blood-globules, is it colourless.

2649. Through the respiration an electrical difference enters the blood, whereby it becomes separated into several substances.

2650. The water in the chyle is the inorganic menstruum, wherein the mucus, as being a fundamental matter of the vegetable sap, has been dissolved. Through the digestion the mucus becomes animal--gelatine.

2651. The gelatine is the basi-constituent part of the chyle, being a product of the digestion or the root-process. Gelatine is the vegetable mucus repeated and ennobled in an animal. This ennobling took place through the digestion.

2652. "En route" too, the chyle mixes with the nervous blood, and already undergoes a degree of oxydation, whereby the gelatine becomes converted into albuminous matter.

2653. Through the respiration gelatine and albumen are elevated to aerial importance, and still more oxydized; by this means the albuminous matter becomes elevated, and passes over into fibrine. The fibrine is the last product of respiration. Fibrine is the starch-meal in an animal.

2654. The electric duplicity, induced in the blood by the process of respiration, exists accordingly between fibrine and gelatine, while the albumen constitutes or forms the indifference. The fibrine is repelled from the lung, because they are both homonymous; it is the oxydized gelatine. From its communicating its polarity to the whole mass of blood, this also is repelled from the lungs.

3. Functions of the Vascular System.

2655. The capillary vessels of the body range opposite to those of the lungs, just as the biliary does to the splenic stomach, as alkali to acid, as precipitant and secernent to what is non-separated.

2656. The capillary vessels therefore attract the pulmonary blood, separate it, secrete and form new constituent parts; and then, after it has become homonymous, they repel it back again towards the lungs.

2657. The circulation only subsists through the polarity which exists between lung and capillary vessels, between lung and body, between oxydation and reduction, combination and separation.

2658. If the intestine and body be the root, the lung the foliage, so is the lymphatic and vascular system the stem, in which the most perfect substances have been formed. In the circulation the matters for the animal systems must have been fully formed, such as for the bones, the lime; for the muscles, the iron; for the nerve, the albumen.

2659. The liver is the principal organ of the circulation. There also must one principal preparation of the blood take place. On account of its parallelism with the brain, the condition probably resides in it that conduces to formation of the albumen, namely, of the Indifferent, which is the nutritive matter of the nervous mass.

2660. In the vegetable sphere of life there are, in addition to the liver, but two mutually distinct excretory organs, namely, the intestine and the skin.

2661. In the mucous secretion of the intestine the condition, requisite to the formation of phosphate of lime for the bones, probably resides.

2662. In like manner in the formation of the carbonic acid and the water in the integument, the basis for the formation of phosphate of iron for the muscles may reside. In the circulation the intestine would thus be the lime-, the skin the iron-, and the liver the medulla-forming organ.

2663. The two extremes of the circulation, or intestine and lung, form gelatine and fibrine; the circulation itself forms the purely animal matter. Out of the integument and lung grows the muscle, from the intestine the bone and gelatine, out of the liver the nerve. Muscle is integument and air, bone is intestine and chyle, brain is liver and blood. Thus each has a function that is peculiar to it; each organ has its business to perform in the diffuse fabric of the animal body.

2664. Through this variety or change of the offices, the circulation first becomes possible.

2665. If the secernent process be therefore suppressed, the animal then dies as rapidly as if it had been suffocated. It is a suffocation of the opposed pole. Query? does not many a fit of apoplexy depend upon this?

2666. The circulation has consequently two factors, the lung as oxygen-pole, the capillary vessels of the body as hydrogen-pole, the blood as the indifferent water. The circulation is a galvanic process.

2667. In all extremities of the body the arteriose blood becomes deoxydized, decomposed; it is therefore basic and homonymous with the capillary vessels, so that it is consequently repelled, and driven back into the veins.

2668. It can, however, flow nowhere else than to the lung, because there resides its opposite pole. Being again oxydized in, it becomes homonymous to, the lung, is repelled by it, and again attracted by the capillary vessels of the body.

2669. The circulation is therefore a result of dynamic forces, not of mechanical functions. It would occur, were the vessels to be glass tubes.

2670. The pulsation of the heart is not a cause of the circulation, but inversely rather, its consequence or effect.

2671. In the circulation the whole organism, or intestine, lung and integument, is combined. It is therefore the fundamental system, which includes the whole mass of the body.

b. FUNCTIONS OF THE ANIMAL SYSTEMS.

1. Of the Osseous System.

2672. The functions of the osseous system are simply mechanical relations, such as solidity, form and motion.

2673. The motion of the joints presents to our notice interesting relations, especially in reference to the motion of the vertebræ, ribs, limbs and jaws upon each other, but these could not be here treated of in detail.

2674. The acts of swimming, creeping, standing, walking, running, leaping, climbing, and flying, do not exhibit simply mechanical, but truly philosophical moments.

a. Bodily Motion.

2675. Swimming can take place through simple contraction of the body, without locomotive members. It is the continuation of the vesicle's first process of origination; as in the Infusoria and Polyps. In the Worms and Serpents it is effected by an undulating motion of the body, whereby the water is struck with oblique surfaces; there it is fibrous motion. In the Holothuriæ and many aquatic larvæ, it is a propulsion, effected by expelling water from the anus, and thus by squirts, there being consequently contraction of the body or arteriose straitening of the sphincter muscles. In Fishes, swimming is a rowing or remigial stroke, produced by lever-motion, together with the oblique slap made by their tail.

2676. Creeping is either a shortening of the body by fibrous motion, as in the Snails, or an undulatory motion, as in the Serpents.

b. Pedal Motion.

2677. Standing is the position of a lever "in equilibrio," the creation of the proper centre of gravity.

2678. Walking or running is an exchange or alternation of the equilibrium, a combination of standing and creeping.

2679. Leaping or hopping is a flight with the feet.

2680. Climbing is an use of the feet as hands.

c. Alary Motion.

2681. Flying is lever-swimming in the air. It takes place by means of aerial branchiæ, namely, the wings in Insects, and by the thoracic extremities in Birds, which are also none other than animal branchiæ.

2682. Soaring is creeping in the air.

2683. Hovering is standing in the air.

2684. Pouncing is hopping in the air.

2685. Diving is hopping in the water.

2. Functions of the Muscular System.

2686. The muscular system performs, in an active sense, what the osseous system does in a passive. The strength or power of the muscles, and their leverage attachment, is here especially to be regarded. The contraction of the fibres is a charging, by nerves and blood, of the two fibre-poles.

2687. The fibres are charged by the air. It is, in the most general sense, the respiratory vessels by which the muscle is charged. This is strictly the case in Insects, where the tracheæ traverse all the limbs, and directly conduct to the flesh the polarity of the air. In animals, however, with a closed circulation, the arteries undertake the conveyance of air upon the blood, and it is then the latter fluid which streams into the muscles in order to charge them.

2688. Thus if an artery be ligatured, the limb is crippled or lamed. The artery, however, imparts only the positive pole, and consequently of itself produces no shortening or contraction of the fibres. The oxydation takes place at the lower end of the muscle; here, therefore, the latter passes over into tendon.

2689. The nerve is the second condition of the muscular contraction, since it evokes in the fibre the negative pole. Thus if a nerve be ligatured, the limb is likewise motionless.

2690. If the poles be brought by contraction into close approximation, the fibres must re-extend, so soon as the influence of the blood or the nerve ceases.

2691. Now since the blood is constantly streaming in, the reason for the muscular rest must reside in the nerves. The rationale of voluntary motion is consequently the nerve. The relaxation or extension is an unloading of the fibres.

2692. The muscular motion is an electrical process, a motion of blood in the Solid.

2693. Through the polarization of the fibres the muscle is formed from the arteries. The muscle is therefore an individual biconical piece of fibre, having unequal cones. Oxydation takes place at the muscular extremity; here, therefore, originates the sinew or tendon.

2694. A fleshy cyst--or heart--which includes an osseous cyst, must subdivide into several fibrous cones or muscles. One reason of this is the "fore and aft," another is the quantity of the essential vascular branches.

2695. The muscle contracts upon application only of a stimulus.

2696. Every stimulus induces motion only as a result of polar excitation. Every stimulus polarizes; for even the gentlest contact is like the friction, and produces electrical antagonism. It therefore amounts to the same, whatever stimuli, whether mechanical, chemical, or spiritual, have been applied to the muscle. One acts like the other.

2697. If no motion supervene upon, or is even suppressed by, the contact of a body, the nature of the body must then be indifferencing.

2698. Relaxing, laming, life-destroying matters, are indifferencing, or cause a suppression of the poles.

2699. Overcharging principles, e. g. lightning or strong electric sparks may also produce relaxation. These destroy the function of the fibres, and act therefore worse than the in differencing matters.

3. Functions of the Nervous System.

2700. The function of the point-substance is also that of the nervous system, for this is only the point-substance, fashioned and arranged into stalk and branches.

2701. But even on this account the nervous tension proceeds only according to a determinate line, while before it penetrated through the whole mass.

2702. The nervous tension takes place in a nervous system only between a special organ and the nervous centre.

2703. In itself the nervous system is an Indifference, and such then are all the organs upon which it acts, when regarded in reference to this operation; they might, through other functions, be polar.

2704. The nervous system becomes differential either through its two kinds of substances, or through extraneous influence; in the first case it thinks or moves, in the second it feels.

2705. Sensation is in the nervous what motion is in the fibrous system, namely, a polar condition, in which the two ends have a tendency to come together, in order to discharge or unload.

2706. In the sensation the extremity of the nerves strives to approach that of the brain; it is therefore a contractile effort in the nerves, like motion is in the muscular fibre. Juxta-posited granules could not, however, shorten; therefore, the already calculated polarity courses over them.

2707. All external stimuli act upon the nerves and polarize them, but not the muscular fibres.

2708. The fibre becomes directly polarized only through the internal stimuli, or by the blood, galvanic tension, &c.

2709. The most general function of the nervous system consists in its assuming polarity from the world, and imparting this to other systems, apart namely, from the alternate operation of its two substances.

Nervous and Motor System.

2710. The first system is that of motion. The tranquil presence of the nerve in the fibre produces indifference in the latter; so that it has no susceptibility for the polarization that is effected by the artery. Doubtless the arterial blood passes, for the most part, close by the fibre through other capillary vessels.

2711. But if the nerve be polarized it is then basic, negative, and enters into opposition with the arterial blood, which now streams into the capillary vessels of the fibre, and renders the two ends of the latter heterogeneous.

2712. Thus, if the nerve be cut across, it remains always indifferent, and no motion can any longer ensue. But this does ensue so soon as the nerve is galvanized. A proof that the nervous influence is homologous to the galvanic tension.

2713. If the nerve becomes involuntarily negative, then originates spasm.

2714. If the nerve continue morbidly indifferent, then paralysis originates.

Nervous and Vegetative Systems.

2715. The second great system is the tegumentary formation. In this too its ordinary functions occur, such as secretion, evaporation, nutrition, elevation or depression of heat without nervous influence; or they occur while the nerve only acts indifferently.

2716. But if it acts by polarizing, as in the muscular motion, then the tegumentary processes are at once changed. What is material becomes extinguished, and the simply Irritable is manifested in the cells, capillary vessels, and so on.

2717. The process of temperature becomes thereby instantly changed, because the decomposition is changed. The heat is increased by the rapid suppression of the evaporation; it is diminished by the rapid increase of the latter.

2718. The art and manner in which the nerves act upon what is vegetable, is consequently an elevation of this Vegetable to what is animal. It must resign its processes, and simply undertake those of motion. Exactly the same takes place in the secernent organs. They perform their offices themselves through the galvanic tension of the vessels. But if the nerve act upon them they secrete more powerfully, and exactly from the same cause whereby the muscle is self-moved. Thus, if the nerve operate feebly, whereby it is in an irritable state, or if its action be wholly withdrawn, then the secretion will become less.

2719. The more irritable the nerves are, by so much the more animal does the vegetable organism, or the splanchnic system, therefore become; so much the less is it produced on the mass.

2720. Irritable animals and men are therefore meagre or lean. The two cases are uniformly related to each other. Lean men are irritable, not perhaps because the nervous ends are not covered with fat, such as there might be over the integument, the ear, the tongue, nose, &c., but, because where the nutritive process is inactive, what is animal necessarily preponderates. There are consequently three kinds of nervous actions, or phenomena, though all nervous activity in entire systems is similar, or but one. The difference is only derived from the organ upon which the nerves act. There are, consequently, no special nerves of sensation, motion and secretion; or such, forsooth, as have only one of these offices to take care of. Thus, were a nerve of sensation to be prolonged or drawn over a muscle, it would excite motion, and in the case of the liver, secrete bile, &c.

Mesmerism.

2721. When the sensibility mounts to the highest degree, each mass-function will then almost cease, and the organs of sense feel the weakest operation of the stimulus.

2722. Since every stimulation is a polarizing act, and each body is in polar activity towards the other at every conceivable distance, so may an extremely irritable nervous system also perceive the feeblest polarizations.

2723. The eye perceives the polarization at a remote distance from the body whence it proceeds.

2724. In hearing the vibrating body still indeed acts directly upon the ear through the vibrations of air. But a finer, i. e. more irritable ear, hears farther than one that is more dull.

2725. With an elevated sensibility the other systems also may therefore perceive the polarization of the bodies, without coming into contact with them.

2726. To perceive objects in the distance, i. e. merely their polar influence, is called Mesmerism, or animal magnetism.

2727. Now, if it is once possible for other senses besides that of sight to extend their perception into remote space, it no longer matters as to the magnitude of the latter. A feebly charged electrical machine only attracts bodies that are near, one strongly loaded, those which are more remote; such is the case too with weak and strong magnets.

2728. The integument at once perceives electrified surfaces at certain distances; now, as every surface appears electric to the integument, so must the latter, if its sensibility is very much elevated, perceive something of that sort in every proportionate distance.

2729. But homologous polarities only act upon each other, and therefore traverse thoroughly through heterologous bodies. Thus the magnet attracts the iron filings through the table-board, unhindered by the interposed wood, and without any regard being paid to this, or its being even perceived.

2730. The senses may therefore perceive their homologous polarities through other bodies, walls, and such like. By virtue of their perception, they stand in relation to them.

2731. To the very sensible nervous system the vegetable system and its impulse is a foreign object, which detaches itself from the above system, just as the objects of sense have done from the sensorial organs. The vegetable, or in general the material body, appears therefore to the mesmerized like a strange world--they see their own organs--are clair-voyants. Mesmerism therefore comprises nothing which could contradict physiology.

Vegetative Nerves.

2732. The splanchnic or visceral nerves are also distinguished from the animal by their being in a constant state of tension, and hence keeping the processes of their system in constant repair.

2733. The rationale of this resides in the two nervous substances having separated into ganglia and plexuses.

2734. This also serves to explain another phenomenon, viz. that the nerves indeed, but never the brain, attain to perfect rest; because the former is without ganglionic or cortical substance, the latter is throughout surrounded, and obviously interwoven, by it.

2735. Therein lies the reason why the viscera do not sleep.

Sleep.

2736. The condition of the nervous system, as hitherto represented, is called that of being awake. It is the interlude played by the nerves with the world, and with the animal body.

2737. When in a state of health the first interlude ceases, then the other also is over or past. The world-nerves, however, operate only upon the animal systems, upon the senses and the motion of the muscles; it could therefore be these only wherein the nervous function, in compliance with this cessation, is suppressed. Now, muscular rest originates through suppression of the tension between nerve and muscle. In sleep this rest is also derived from the same means.

2738. The tension between nerve and muscle can only cease, if the tension also between the termination of the brain and nerves be suppressed. We are now reduced simply to the consideration of the nervous system, and may, in treating of sleep, pay no attention to the muscular system.

2739. But whence comes the tension in the motor nerves? Obviously only from the cerebral tension. This can originate only in two ways; either through the special organization of the brain, one or the other substance being preponderant, or through the influence of external stimuli.

2740. The encephalic substance becomes more potent than usual, if by rest the cortical substance becomes more arteriose in character. This tension is communicated to all the nerves, sensitive as well as motor, and continues in their interlude with the world and the motor system.

2741. If this encephalic tension is not too potent, it remains only in the brain, without the ability to polarize the nerves also. It then only produces cerebral phenomena, thoughts or dreams.

2742. Dreaming is an encephalic tension excited by the organization, not by the world.

2743. Dreaming is the first step in the liberation of the animal from the vegetable system--it is the first step towards mesmerism.

2744. In a perfect or middling state of health, where the nervous is not very much separated from the tegumentary system, we do not dream.

2745. In a healthy condition an external stimulus would be, consequently, the only cause of waking, did not the long repose bestow a preponderating influence upon the cortical substance. Dreams therefore happen in the morning.

2746. Waking is the intercourse with the world, not with self. If one wakes also from intercourse with self, still the former is synchronous and coexciting.

2747. Thus, if intercourse with the world ceases, sleep originates. If the vegetable intercourse with it also ceases, then death originates. Waking is "consensus" with the world.

2748. Sleep is a death of the animal systems.

2749. Every awaking is a resurrection from death, a new sympathizing with the vegetal body, from which the animal body again originates.

2750. As the animal originally took its rise from, and only through the plant, so also is this repeated in an individual. The plant is the ever-living, ever-verdant, or green, out of which the animal daily sprouts forth as a blossom.

2751. The animal intercourse with the world is also interrupted in two ways, and there are therefore two modes of falling asleep.

2752. The first cause resides in the want of stimulus. The nerves of the senses are not polar, do not therefore excite the brain, nor does this again affect the motor system. The muscle therefore arrives at a state of non-tension; it becomes relaxed, and along with it necessarily the organs of sense, which are thrown into activity by muscular motion. The arms and fingers, whose business is to touch, sink down; the feet which move, and thereby warm and animate the body, are slackened and bent together; the body is in the recumbent posture; the eyelids drop, the light no longer plays upon the visual organs, the external and internal auditory muscles flag also, and the sound is no longer borne upon the ear. Now also does the tension of the senses with the brain cease, and with it the sensation--there is sleep.

2753. This sleep arising from want of stimulus is a faint sleep, and rendered useless by dreams. For there is actually no cause present why the encephalic tension should entirely cease. Men, who do not fall asleep through fatigue, but from want of work, sleep restlessly, awake easily, and again readily fall asleep. Their life is dreaming.

2754. The other cause of the polar suppression in the nerves is like that of the extension of the muscles, or their falling to sleep; it is thus the discharge of the too strongly excited poles. With too high a degree of fibrous tension, which also originates through too long a continuance of the tension, the fibre is placed in a state of activity, which consists in the antagonism being balanced by approximation of the ends. Were nerves, when greatly tensed, capable of being shortened, they would also discharge themselves, and come at least for one instant to rest--they would sleep.

2755. The falling asleep of the fibre is its sleep, though it also does not last long. So is the expansion of the heart its sleep, so is expiration the sleep of the thorax.

2756. In all polarizable organs there is a change or alternation of waking and sleeping, which endures a longer and shorter time. This periodicity depends upon the energy of the polar influence, and upon the size and susceptibility of the substance.

2757. Every substance has its own periods of waking and sleeping, of action and repose. The pulse sleeps shorter than the breathing; this again shorter than being hungry; this again for a briefer time than the sexual function.

2758. There are organs, or systems, which are nearly always in a state of slumber, e. g. the osseous system, because in it the polarity is extinguished. It is only in states of inflammation that it wakes up. Others scarcely ever slumber, e. g. the cellular system, because in it indeed no pole is yet fixed, and in the alternation of poles its life consists.

2759. There is a similar change of poles in a nervous system, and it indeed halts or stops for a middling time. Through the persistent influence of the external world, the nerves of the senses are thrown into such a state of tension with the brain, that blood cannot flow thither in sufficient quantity, in order to maintain the two cerebral substances in mutual antagonism. Brain and nerves become therefore indifferent; muscles and sensorial organs lose their polarizability, and their intercourse ceases with the nerves as well as the world. The brain, and everything else, has now been discharged, and a deep sleep without dreams, an animal death, ensues.

2760. It has been arbitrarily asserted, that no sleep is possible without dreams, but for this statement there are no existing grounds. Whence should the dream come if there is no tension in the brain, or if it has previously undergone sufficient self-exhaustion?

Periodicity.

2761. The sleep of the nerves ranges parallel with that of the planet. It might be said that such was the case from habit or custom, but it is, properly speaking, dependent upon a parallel process of organizing that occurs at the origination of the animal. The matter stands thus: the germ originates in the morning; until evening stimuli act upon and polarize it: in the evening they cease, and with them the tension. The muscles relax upon every movement, and rest necessarily follows in the manner above delineated. With to-morrow's morn the world again acts until evening upon the germ; it wakes up, and the same course of events happens as on the first day. Finally the substance becomes organized according to this periodicity; it becomes, forsooth, not more energetic than is necessary in order to admit or receive a charge of one day; towards evening it is exhausted, is neutral, and rejoices with the relaxation of the muscles, that the world no longer acts upon its frame.

2762. Thus, we may attribute this phenomenon both to custom and synchronous formation; nevertheless one ought not to forget that the organic formation is a metatype, or has been imitated from something that has gone before, and that consequently the law of periodicity has not been bestowed upon both at the same time, but first of all unto nature, and through this to the body, which is its image or likeness.

2763. The nervous periodicity ranges in accordance with the periodicity of the light, or is thus parallel with its archetype, and consequently with the day and night. Day is the waking, night the sleeping of nature. But the animal has originated in and by this alternating change of nature. It is spiritually, as well as corporeally, nature's likeness.

2764. The sexual function in a perfect animal, as in Man, has been adapted to the periods of the year; in other animals other natural periods exert their sway. Animals are commonly pregnant by the month, e. g. for one, two, four, five months, &c. The human species requires three quarters of a year for pregnancy, one quarter for giving suck to the babe, and then it can again conceive. Pregnancy thus lasts a year, and has been based in the sun.

2765. If the female does not become pregnant, the sexual passion, or instinct, is repeated at the expiration of a month. It sleeps about one month, and then awakes for some days. The periodicity may be divided into vegetative and animal, thus,--

a. Animal = World-periodicity.

1. Sleep = Rotation of the Earth. 2. Menstruation = Lunar revolution. 3. Pregnancy = Solar revolution.

b. Vegetal = Earth-periodicity.

1. Digestion = Water, Ebb and Flow. 2. Respiration = Air, Electricity. 3. Pulse = Earth, Magnetism.

Awaking.

2766. The awaking takes place of itself through the origination of a new polarity in the brain during the afflux of arterial blood, whereupon the dreams follow which precede the act of waking. During sleep the plant continues to act, the unloaded cortical substance becomes again oxydized and charged; tension arises between it and the medulla, and with this come the dreams. This encephalic polarity is imparted to the sensitive and motor nerves, and the organs open. If external stimuli are superadded, all this happens somewhat earlier. The act of awaking is invariably, however, a restoration effected, or brought about, by the plant, and especially by the circulation.

2767. Man would therefore wake up had there also been no world of the senses; but then he would not continue awake, but at once relapse into slumber, and sleep the eternal death.

III. Functions of the Organs.

2768. The functions of the organs are the functions of the system associated or combined, just as the organs are but ultimate evolutions of the systems existing under similar relations. The organic functions are always therefore in a state of concatenation with other systems, and there can be no organ which acts in an isolated manner.

2769. By this character a new field for sympathy has been opened. All the organs operate through sympathy. Sympathy is therefore the result of parallel systems, or also of antagonisms between the factors of a single system. Taken in a strict sense, there are no vegetative organs. The organs are therefore limited to the encephalic animal, such as are those of motion and the senses, and to the sexual animal.

1. Functions of the Encephalic Animal.

A. ORGANS OF MOTION.

2770. Just as the nerves have a function in themselves, and one directed towards the subordinate organs, so also has the motor system.

2771. The motor system is in the first place doomed to serve the whole body, since it flexes it, moves it forwards and backwards and upon all sides. It is related principally to the movements of the vertebral column, and serves in numberless animals to effect the act of crawling or creeping.

2772. Then again it will serve individual parts of the body, such as the belly in its evacuations, or the sexual animal in emitting urine, &c. It ministers unto the thorax in the act of respiration, which is a very complicated process. The thoracic muscles are to a certain degree co-ordinated with the constantly polar nervous system, and become thereby and in part involuntary. But one main reason of this appears to be the air that is constantly renewed in their cavity.

2773. In the act of respiration two orders of muscles are active, the proper-pectoral muscles, and the abdominal muscle, which has been displaced from the thorax, or the diaphragm.

2774. As originally the thorax took its rise at the expense of the abdomen, so also is every inspiration an elevation of the thorax and a displacement of the abdomen. Every breath or in-draught of air expands and produces the thorax, but narrows and arrests the abdomen. The diaphragm expresses this contest. Its contraction being a result of the respiratory tension, expresses consequently a preponderance of the thorax, and in obedience to this, narrows and diminishes the abdomen. It is supplied, in conformity with its origin, by nerves from the upper cervical vertebræ, since prior to this the abdomen extended as far as the head, and the branchiæ were appended to it as lateral strips of integument--as in Fishes.

2775. As the thoracic cavity is drawn by the diaphragm's descent towards the abdomen, so by the pectoral muscles is it raised upwards to the head. The latter movements are what is animal in the respiratory process, for they lift the thorax towards the head. Pectoral muscles and diaphragm stand opposite to each other, like limbs and trunk; the ribs are the limbs, the diaphragm the upper abdominal tunic or covering. Through this antagonism what is limbed, as belonging to the thoracic cavity, is drawn upwards, what is abdominal in its character, downwards; the result is expansion, and through this pumping in of the air.

2776. The air is in part voluntarily swallowed like the food, as e. g. by the movement of the ribs, in part involuntarily by the diaphragm. The diaphragm may be termed the heart of the abdominal cavity.

2777. In the lower organized animals, where merely branchiæ are present, the animal motion encroaches but little upon the act of respiration. In Molluscs and Snails, the oxygen is almost always on the branchiæ, as is the case also in Insects. In Fishes the water is still taken in like the food through the mouth, and driven out or expelled by the pharyngeal muscles from between the branchiæ. In them the air is in both respects swallowed. In many Reptiles the air is indeed drawn in through the nostrils, but conveyed into the lungs by a true act of deglutition. These kinds of functions are necessary, because as yet the whole trunk is abdomen, and the thoracic cavity has not as yet separated from it; hence the diaphragm is wanting.

2778. The respiratory originates therefore from the digestive organ; it is freely developed only from the abdomen, and is at length entirely liberated from the latter as a self-substantial cavity, e. g. first of all in the Mammalia. Respiration is originally but an act of deglutition, which has gradually become perfected, by the animal trunk being associated with it to a greater extent.

2779. The pumping in of air has therefore become in the highest degree a process of suction, and in this resembles the digestive function when it has become animal.

2780. Then also the air passes no longer through the mouth, but through the nose, as being the peculiar opening of the thoracic cavity in the head. Even the Fishes have as yet no nostrils opening into the mouth.

2781. The thoracic motion is a limb-motion, and would become locomotion, were the ribs not conjoined. In many of the lower animals the branchiæ are at once organs of motion, such as fins or rudders.

2782. Every inspiration is a self-manning towards the animal; every expiration a retro-depression unto the plant; the abdomen in this case regains the upper hand from the diaphragm reverting to its usual position, and the thoracic cavity narrowing. Respiration is a becoming animal.

2783. The motions in themselves, without reference to the trunk, are the motions of the limbs, as standing, walking, &c. The movements of the arms and feet are sympathetic, because their muscles are of equal signification.

B. FUNCTIONS OF THE NERVE-ORGANS.

2784. These functions have relation only to the nervous system itself, because all nerve-organs are elevated above the trunk, and live in themselves. They are simply the functions of the sensorial organs.

a. Functions of the Vegetable Sensorial Organs.

2785. These must be regarded as those that still encroach upon the inferior organs. They are not, however, the inferior processes themselves, but their ascensive formations into the nervous system. This therefore works henceforward only in and by itself, but yet in relation to the inferior processes.

1. Function of the Sense of Feeling.

2786. To constitute the sense of feeling the integument, in other words the nutritive or vascular system, has assumed a nervose character, and consequently that which is in communication with the materiality of the external world. The function of this sense will therefore have materiality only for its object.

2787. The integument is the organ by whose means the animal is absolved or liberated from the world. The sensation belonging to it, is none other than the perception of this diversity subsisting between the two.

2788. Through the tegumentary sense, the world becomes a something external in relation to the nervous function; while previously it was such through the medium of the skin for the lower organs only, viz. as an object of absorption. The discrimination of materiality is called Feeling. The sense of feeling is the earth-sense.

2789. The sense of feeling perceives materiality, like the nerves perceive all objects or all stimuli, through polar excitation. Every pressure, every contact is polar excitation.

Spotted a typo or a problem in this chapter? Tell us