XLI. EUROPE OF TO-DAY

XLI. EUROPE OF TO-DAY

275. The scholars and learned men of the Middle Ages were but little interested in the world about them. They devoted far more attention to philosophy and theology than to what we should call the natural sciences. They were satisfied in the main to get their knowledge of nature from reading the works of the ancients, above all of Aristotle. Roger Bacon, as we have seen, protested against the exaggerated veneration for books. He foresaw that a careful examination of the things about us,--like water, air, light, animals and plants,--would lead to important and useful discoveries which would greatly benefit mankind.

[Sidenote: Modern scientific methods of discovering truth.]

[Sidenote: Experimentation.]

He advocated three methods of reaching truth which are now followed by all scientific men. In the first place, he proposed that natural objects and changes should be examined with great care, in order that the observer might determine exactly what happened in any given case. This has led in modern times to incredibly refined measurements and analysis. The chemist, for example, can now determine the exact nature and amount of every substance in a cup of impure water, which may appear perfectly limpid to the casual observer. Then, secondly, Roger Bacon advocated experimentation. He was not contented with mere observation of what actually happened, but tried new and artificial combinations and processes. Nowadays experimentation is constantly used by scientific investigators, and by means of it they discover many things which the most careful observation would never reveal. Thirdly, in order to carry on investigation and make careful measurements and the desired experiments, apparatus designed for the special purpose of discovering truth was necessary. As early as the thirteenth century it was found, for example, that a convex crystal or bit of glass would magnify objects, although several centuries elapsed before the microscope and telescope were devised.

[Sidenote: Astrology grows into astronomy.]

The progress of scientific discovery was hastened, strangely enough, by two grave misapprehensions. In the Middle Ages even the most intelligent believed that the heavenly bodies influenced the fate of mankind; consequently, that a careful observation of the position of the planets at the time of a child's birth would make it possible to forecast his life. In the same way important enterprises were only to be undertaken when the influence of the stars was auspicious. Physicians believed that the efficacy of their medicines depended upon the position of the planets. This whole subject of the influence of the stars upon human affairs was called astrology, and was in some cases taught in the mediæval universities. Those who examined the stars gradually came, however, to the conclusion that the movements of the planets had no effect upon humanity; but the facts which the astrologers had discovered through careful observation became the basis of modern astronomy.

[Sidenote: Alchemy grows into chemistry.]

In the same way chemistry developed out of the mediæval study of alchemy. The first experimentation with chemicals was carried on with the hope of producing gold by some happy combination of less valuable metals. But finally, after learning more about the nature of chemical compounds, it was discovered that gold was an element, or simple substance, and consequently could not be formed by combinations of other substances.

[Sidenote: Discovery that the universe follows natural laws.]

In short, observation and experimentation were leading to the most fundamental of all scientific discoveries, namely, the conviction that all the things about us follow certain natural, immutable laws. The modern scientific investigator devotes a great part of his attention to the discovery of these laws and their application. He has given up any hope of reading man's fate in the stars or of producing any results by magical combinations. Unlike the mediæval writers, he hesitates to accept as true the reports which reach him of miracles, that is, of exceptions to the general laws, because he is convinced that the natural laws have been found to work regularly in every instance where they have been carefully observed. His study of the natural laws has, however, enabled him to produce far more marvelous results than those reported of the mediæval magician.

[Sidenote: Galileo's telescope.]

276. In a previous chapter the progress of science for three hundred years after Roger Bacon has been briefly noted.[463] With the exception of Copernicus the investigators of this period are scarcely known to us. In the seventeenth century, however, progress became very rapid and has been steadily accelerating since. In astronomy, for example, the truths which had been only suspected by earlier astronomers were demonstrated to the eye by Galileo (1564-1642). By means of a little telescope, which was hardly so powerful as the best modern opera glasses, he discovered (in 1610) the spots on the sun. These made it plain that the sun was revolving on its axis as astronomers were already convinced that the earth revolved. He saw, too, that the moons of Jupiter were revolving about their planet in the same way that the planets revolve about the sun.

[Sidenote: Sir Isaac Newton and his discovery of the law of universal gravitation.]

The year that Galileo died, the famous English mathematician, Sir Isaac Newton, was born (1642-1727). He carried on the work of earlier astronomers by the application of higher mathematics, and proved that the force of attraction which we call gravitation was a universal one, and that the sun and the moon and the earth, and all the heavenly bodies, are attracted to one another inversely as the square of the distance.

[Sidenote: Development of the microscope.]

While the telescope aided the astronomer, the microscope contributed far more to the extension of practical knowledge. Rude and simple microscopes were used with advantage as early as the seventeenth century. Leeuwenhoek, a Dutch linen merchant, so far improved his lenses that he discovered the blood corpuscles and (1665) the "animalculæ" or minute organisms of various kinds found in pond water and elsewhere. The microscope has been rapidly perfected since the introduction of better kinds of lenses early in the nineteenth century, so that it is now possible to magnify minute objects to more than two thousand times their diameters.

[Sidenote: Advance in medical science.]

This has produced the most extraordinary advance in medicine and biology. It has made it possible to determine the difference between healthy and diseased tissue; and not many years ago the microscope revealed the fact that the bodies of animals and men are the home of excessively small organisms called bacteria, some of which, through the poisonous substances they give out, cause disease. The modern treatment of many maladies, such as consumption, diphtheria, scarlet fever, and typhoid, is based upon this momentous discovery. The success of surgical operations has also been rendered far more secure than formerly by the so-called antiseptic measures which are now taken to prevent the development of bacteria.[464]

[Sidenote: Scientific discovery and invention did not affect daily life before the end of the eighteenth century.]

277. The discoveries of the scientist and of the mathematician did not begin to be applied to the affairs of daily life until about a hundred and fifty years ago. No new ways had previously been discovered for traveling from place to place. Spinning and weaving were still carried on as they had been before the barbarians overran the Roman Empire. Iron, of which we now make our machines, could only be prepared for use expensively and in small quantities by means of charcoal and bellows.

[Sidenote: The 'domestic system' of manufacture.]

Manufacture still meant, as it did in the original Latin (manu facere), to make by hand. Artisans carried on their trade with their own tools in their own homes, or in small shops, like the cobbler of to-day. Instead of working with hundreds of others in a great factory and being entirely dependent upon his wages, the artisan, in England at least, was often able to give some attention to a small garden plot from which he derived a part of his support. This "domestic system" was displaced by factories, as the result of a series of mechanical inventions made in England during the latter half of the eighteenth century. Through them machinery was substituted for hand and foot power and for the simple implements which had served the world for centuries.

[Sidenote: Cheap iron and adequate power essential to the development of machinery.]

[Sidenote: Watt invents the steam engine.]

In order that machinery should develop and become widely useful, two things were necessary. In the first place, there must be some strong material available of which to make the machines; for that purpose iron and steel have, with few exceptions, proved to be the best. In the second place, some adequate power must be found to propel the machinery, which is ordinarily too heavy to be run by hand or foot power. This necessary motive power was discovered in steam. The steam engine was devised by James Watt, an English inventor of great ingenuity. He invented a cylinder containing a piston, which could be forced back and forth by the introduction of steam. His progress was much retarded by the inability of the mechanics of his time to make an accurate cylinder of sufficient size, but in the year 1777 the new machine was successfully used for pumping. A few years later (1785) he arranged his engine so that it would turn a wheel. In this way, for the first time, steam could be used to run machinery--the spindles, for example, in a cotton mill.

[Sidenote: Steam used for spinning and weaving.]

A few years before Watt completed his improved steam engine, the old spinning wheel had been supplanted by the modern system, in which the thread is drawn out by means of spindles revolving at different rates of speed. The spindles, which had at first been run by water power, could now be propelled by steam. The old loom had also been improved, and weaving by steam began to become general after the year 1800.

[Sidenote: Use of steam cheapens iron.]

[Sidenote: New method of producing steel.]

Machinery, however, could not become common so long as iron and steel were expensive. The first use, therefore, to which the crude steam engines were put was to furnish a blast which enabled the iron smelter to employ coal instead of charcoal to fuse the iron ore (1777). Moreover, the steam pumps made it possible for the miners to pump out the water which impeded their work in the mines, and in this way cheapened both the iron and the coal. Soon the so-called "puddling furnace" was invented, by means of which steel was produced much more economically than it could be earlier. Rolling mills run by steam then took the place of the hammers with which the steel had formerly been beaten into shape. These discoveries of the use of steam and coal and iron revolutionized the life of the people at large in western Europe more quickly than any of the events which have been previously recorded in this volume. It is the aim of the remainder of this chapter to indicate very briefly the variety and importance of the effects produced by modern inventions.[465]

[Sidenote: Domestic industry supplanted by the factory system.]

278. Machinery although very efficient was expensive, and had necessarily to be near the boilers which produced the steam. Consequently machines for particular purposes were grouped in factories, and the workmen left their homes and gathered in large establishments. The hand worker with his old tools was more and more at a disadvantage compared with the workman who produced commodities by machinery. The result was inevitable, namely, that domestic industry was supplanted by the factory.

[Sidenote: Advantages of machinery.]

[Sidenote: Division of labor.]

One of the principal advantages of the factory system is that it makes possible a minute division of labor. Instead of giving his time and thought to the whole process, each worker concentrates his attention upon one single step of the process, and by repeating a simple set of motions over and over again acquires wonderful dexterity. At the same time the period of necessary apprenticeship is shortened under the factory system, because each separate task is comparatively simple. Moreover, the invention of new machinery is increased, because the very subdivision of the process into simple steps often suggests some way of substituting mechanical motion for the motion of the human hand.

[Sidenote: Examples of the increased production of goods by machinery.]

An example of the greatly increased output rendered possible by the use of machinery and division of labor is given by the distinguished Scotch economist, Adam Smith, whose great work, The Wealth of Nations, appeared in 1776. Speaking of the manufacture of a pin in his own time, Adam Smith says: "To make the head requires two or three distinct operations; to put it on is a peculiar business, to whiten the pin is another. It is even a trade by itself to put them into the paper, and the important business of making a pin is, in this manner, divided into about eighteen distinct operations." By this division, he adds, ten persons can make among them upwards of forty-eight thousand pins in a day. A recent writer reports that now an English machine makes one hundred and eighty pins a minute, cutting the wire, flattening the heads, sharpening the points, and dropping the pin into its proper place. In a single factory which he visited seven million pins were made in a day, and three men were all that were required to manage the mechanism.

Another example of modern mechanical work is found in printing. For several centuries after the development of that art the type was set up by hand, inked by hand, each sheet of paper was laid by hand upon the type and then printed by means of a press operated by a lever. Nowadays our newspapers are, in the great cities at least, printed almost altogether by machinery, from the setting up of the type until they are dropped complete and counted out by hundreds at the bottom of a rotary press. The paper is fed into the press from a great roll and is printed on both sides and folded at the rate of two hundred or more newspapers a minute.

[Sidenote: New means of communication.]

[Sidenote: Steamboats.]

279. The factory system would never have developed upon a vast scale had the manufacturers been able to sell their goods only in the neighborhood. The discovery that steam could be used to carry the goods cheaply and speedily to all parts of the world made it possible for a manufacturer to widen his market indefinitely. Fulton, an American inventor, devised the first steamboat that was really successful, in 1807, yet over half a century elapsed before steamships began to supplant the old and uncertain sailing ship. It is now possible to make the journey from New York to Southampton, three thousand miles, in less than six days, and with almost the regularity of an express train. Japan may be reached from Vancouver in thirteen days, and from San Francisco via Honolulu, a distance of five thousand five hundred miles, in eighteen days. A commercial map of the world shows that the globe is now crossed in every direction by definite routes, which are followed by innumerable freight and passenger steamers passing regularly from one port to another. These are able to carry goods for incredibly small sums. For example, wheat has frequently been shipped from New York to Liverpool for two cents a bushel.

[Sidenote: Development of the railroad.]

Just as the gigantic modern steamship has taken the place of the schooner and clipper, so, on land, the merchandise which used to be slowly dragged in carts by means of horses and oxen is now transported in long trains of capacious cars, each of which holds as much as many ordinary carts. A ton of freight can now be carried for less than a cent a mile. In 1825 Stephenson's locomotive was put into operation in England. Other countries soon began to follow England's lead in building railroads. France opened its first railroad in 1828, Germany in 1835. By 1840 Europe had over eighteen hundred miles of railroad; fifty years later this had increased to one hundred and forty thousand.

[Sidenote: Startling improvements in the means of communication.]

Besides the marvelous cheapening of transportation, other new means of communication have resulted from modern inventions. The telegraph, the submarine cable, and the telephone, all have served to render communication prompt and certain. Steamships and railroads carry letters half round the globe for a price too trivial to be paid for delivering a message round the corner. The old, awkward methods of making payments have given way to a tolerably uniform system of coinage. Instead of each petty principality and each town having its own coins, as was common, especially in Germany and Italy, before the nineteenth century, all coins are now issued by the national central governments. Yet the most convenient coins are difficult to transfer in large quantities, and nowadays all considerable sums are paid by means of checks and drafts. The banks settle their accounts by means of a clearing house, and in this way almost no large amount of money need pass from hand to hand.

England took the lead in utilizing all these remarkable new inventions, and with their aid became, by the middle of the nineteenth century, the manufacturing center of the world. Gradually the new machinery was introduced on the continent, and since 1850 countries having the necessary coal, such as Germany and Belgium, have developed manufacturing industries which now rival those of Great Britain.

[Sidenote: Some results of the industrial revolution of the nineteenth century.]

[Sidenote: Rapid growth of the towns.]

280. The industrial revolution, as the changes above referred to are usually called, could not but have a profound influence upon the life and government of Europe. For example, the population of Europe appears to have nearly doubled during the nineteenth century. One of the most startling tendencies of recent times has been the growth of the towns. In 1800 London had a population of less than one million; it now contains over four million five hundred thousand inhabitants. Paris, at the opening of the French Revolution, contained less than seven hundred thousand inhabitants; it now has over two and a half millions. Berlin has grown in a hundred years from one hundred and seventy-two thousand to nearly two millions. In England a quarter of the whole population live in towns having over two hundred and fifty thousand inhabitants, and less than a quarter still remain in the country. Our modern life is dominated by the great cities, which not only are the center of commerce and manufacturing, but are the homes of the artist and man of letters.

[Sidenote: Reasons for the growth of the towns.]

There are two obvious reasons for the growth of the towns since the industrial revolution. In the first place, factories are established in places where there is an abundant supply of coal, or where conditions are otherwise favorable; and this brings a large number of people together. In the second place, there is no limit set to the growth of cities, as was formerly the case, by the difficulty of procuring food from a distance. Paris, in the time of Louis XVI, was not a large city in the modern sense of the word; still the government found it very difficult to secure a regular supply of food in the markets. Now grain and even meat and fruit are easily carried any distance. England imports a large amount of her meat from Australia, on the other side of the globe, and even her butter and eggs she gets largely from the continent.

[Sidenote: Abolition of most of the restrictions on trade and industry.]

281. Before the nineteenth century the European governments had been accustomed to regulate trade, industry, and commerce by a great variety of laws, which were supposed to be necessary for the protection of the public. Of this we find examples in the English Navigation Acts;[466] in the guilds, which under the protection of the government enjoyed a monopoly of their industries in their particular districts; in the regulations issued by Colbert[467] and in the grain laws in both France and England, which limited the free importation and even the exportation of grain.

The French and English economists in the eighteenth century, like Turgot and Adam Smith, advocated the abolition of all restrictions, which they believed did far more harm than good. The expediency of this laissez faire,[468] or free-trade policy, has now been recognized by most European powers. England abolished her grain laws (the so-called Corn Laws) in 1846, and since then has adopted the policy of free trade, except so far as she raises a revenue from customs duties imposed upon a very few commodities, like liquor and tobacco. Low import duties are collected by most of the European powers on goods entering their territories, but all export duties have been abolished as well as all customs barriers within the countries.

[Sidenote: Government regulations protecting the laborer.]

A short experience with the factory system showed the need of regulations designed to protect the laborer.[469] There was a temptation for the new factories to force the employees to work an excessive number of hours under unhealthful conditions. Women and children were set to run the machines, and their strength was often cruelly overtaxed. Women and children were also employed in the coal mines, under terribly degrading conditions. One of the great functions of our modern governments has been to pass laws to protect the working men and women and to improve their condition. Germany has been particularly active in this sort of regulation, and has gone so far as to compel workingmen to insure themselves for the benefit of their families.[470]

[Sidenote: Labor unions.]

Another development of the factory system has been the rise of labor unions. These are voluntary associations intended to promote the interests of their members. They have grown as the factory system has been extended, and they now enjoy an influence in certain industries comparable to that exercised by the craft guilds of the Middle Ages. The governments do not undertake, however, to enforce the regulations of the labor unions as they formerly did of the guilds.[471]

[Sidenote: The people admitted to a share in the government.]

[Sidenote: Character of modern constitutions.]

282. The extension of manufacturing industries has had much to do with the gradual admission of the people to a share in the government. The life in towns and cities has quickened the intelligence of the working classes, so that they are no longer willing to intrust the affairs of government entirely to a king or to the representatives of the upper classes. The result of this was, as we have seen, that constitutions were, during the nineteenth century, introduced into all the western European states. While these differ from one another in detail, they all agree in establishing a house of representatives, whose members are chosen by the people at large. Gradually the franchise has been extended so that the poorest laborer, so soon as he comes of age, is permitted to have a voice in the selection of the deputies.[472] Without the sanction of the representatives of the people, the king and the upper, more aristocratic house are not allowed to pass any law or establish any new tax. Each year a carefully prepared list of expenses must be presented to the lower house and receive its ratification before money collected by taxation can be spent.

[Sidenote: Equality before the law.]

The French prefaced their first constitution by the memorable words: "All citizens being equal before the law, are alike eligible to all public offices and positions of honor and trust, according to their capacity, and without any distinction, except that of their character and ability." This principle, so different from that which had hitherto prevailed, has been recognized in most of the modern European constitutions. The privileges and exceptions which everywhere existed before the French Revolution have been abolished. Modern European governments are supposed to treat all alike, regardless of social rank or religious belief.

[Sidenote: Religious equality in England.]

[Sidenote: Repeal of the Test Act, 1828.]

At the opening of the nineteenth century England still kept on the statute book the laws debarring Roman Catholics and dissenters from sitting in Parliament or holding any public office. Exceptions, however, were made in the case of the dissenters. Finally, after violent opposition on the part of the conservative party, the Test Act, passed in the reign of Charles II,[473] was repealed in 1828. Next year the Roman Catholics were also given the right to sit in Parliament and to hold office, like the other subjects of the king.

[Sidenote: Free and compulsory education under the control of the state.]

Education, which was formerly left to the church, has during the nineteenth century become one of the most important functions of government. Boys and girls of all classes, between the ages of four and fourteen or fifteen, are now generally forced to take advantage of the schools which the government supports for their benefit. Tuition is free in France, Italy, Norway, and Sweden, and only trifling fees are required in Germany and elsewhere in western Europe. In 1902 the English Parliament and the French Legislative Assembly each appropriated about forty million dollars for educational purposes. As an example of the rapid advance in education in recent times, it may be noted that in 1843, among those who married in England and Wales, one third of the men and half of the women were unable to sign their names in the marriage registers. In 1899 all but three men in a hundred could write, and almost as many of the women.

[Sidenote: Warfare in recent times.]

283. The general advance in education has not yet taught nations to settle all their disputes without recourse to war. It is true that since Napoleon's downfall there have been but three or four serious wars in western Europe, and these very brief ones compared with the earlier conflicts. But the European powers spend vast amounts annually in maintaining standing armies and building battle ships. France and Germany have each a force of over half a million carefully trained soldiers ready to fight at any moment, and two million more who can be called out with the utmost speed should war be declared.[474] The invention of repeating rifles and of new and deadly explosives have, however, rendered war so terrible a thing to contemplate that statesmen are more and more reluctant to suggest a resort to arms.

[Sidenote: European colonies in the nineteenth century.]

Recent wars and the frequent rumors of war have had their origin mainly in disagreements over colonial matters. The anxiety of the European powers to extend their control over distant parts of the world is now no less marked than it was in the eighteenth century. Modern means of communication have naturally served to make the world smaller and more compact. An event in London is known as promptly in Sydney as in Oxford. A government can send orders to its commanders on the opposite side of the globe as easily as if they were but five miles away. Supplies, ammunition, and arms are, moreover, readily and speedily transferred to remote points.

[Sidenote: The Spanish colonies in North and South America establish their independence, 1810-1826.]

At the opening of the nineteenth century Spain still held Mexico, Florida, Central America, and most of South America except Brazil, which belonged to Portugal. During the Napoleonic period the Spanish colonies revolted and declared their independence of the mother country,--Mexico, New Granada, Chile, and the region about Buenos Ayres in 1810, Venezuela in 1811, etc. By 1826 Spain had been forced to give up the struggle and withdraw her troops from the American continent. In 1822 Brazil declared itself independent of Portugal. After the recent war with the United States Spain lost Cuba, Porto Rico, and the Philippines, the last remnants of her once imposing colonial domains.

[Sidenote: Expansion of England during the nineteenth century.]

England, on the other hand, has steadily increased her colonial realms and her dependencies during the nineteenth century, and has met with no serious losses since the successful revolt of the thirteen American colonies. In 1814 she acquired the Cape of Good Hope from the Dutch, and since then the territory has been enlarged by adding the adjacent districts. During the last years of the nineteenth century England busied herself extending her power over large tracts of western, central, and eastern Africa.

England has secured her interests in the eastern Mediterranean by gaining control of the Suez Canal, which was completed in 1869, mainly with French capital. In 1875 she purchased the shares owned by the khedive of Egypt. Then, since the khedive's finances were in a very bad way, she arranged to furnish him, in the interest of his creditors and in agreement with France, with financial advisers without whose approval he can make no financial decision. Moreover, English troops are stationed in Egypt with a view of maintaining order.

In the southern hemisphere England has colonized the continent of Australia, the large islands of New Zealand, Tasmania, etc. The mother country wisely grants these colonies and Canada almost complete freedom in managing their own affairs. The Canadian provinces formed a federation among themselves in 1867, and in 1901 the Commonwealth of Australia was proclaimed, a federation of the five Australian colonies and the island of Tasmania.

[Sidenote: Expansion of Russia since the Crimean War.]

France exercises a wide influence in Africa and even Germany has made some effort to gain a foothold there; but the most momentous extension of a European power is that of Russia. Since the Crimean War Russia has pressed steadily into central Asia, so that now her boundaries and those of the English possessions in India practically touch one another. She has also been actively engaged in the Far East. In 1898 she leased Port Arthur from China, and now the Trans-Siberian Railroad connects this as well as Vladivostok on the Pacific coast with Moscow.

[Sidenote: The Far Eastern Question.]

Recent events have shown that the European powers are likely to come into hostile relations with one another in dealing with China. The problem of satisfying the commercial and military demands of the various nations constitutes what is known as the Far Eastern Question.

[Sidenote: General disturbance caused by war in modern conditions.]

While all these conquests of the European powers increase the probability of friction and misunderstandings, there is a growing abhorrence of war. It appears more inhuman to men of to-day than it did to their ancestors. Moreover, all parts of the world are now so dependent each on the other that even the rumor of war may produce disastrous results far and wide. The prospect of war frightens the merchants, checks commerce and industry, and causes loss both to the laborer and the capitalist.

[Sidenote: The peace conference at The Hague, 1899.]

Many difficulties between nations can now be adjusted by the rules of international law. Arbitration is more and more frequently preferred to war. In 1899 an international peace conference was held at The Hague at the suggestion of the Tsar. Its object was to consider how the European powers might free themselves from the burden of supporting tremendous armies and purchasing the terrible engines of destruction which modern ingenuity has conceived. The resolutions of the conference embody rules for adjusting international disputes and prohibiting the use of particularly cruel and murderous projectiles, and for the treatment of prisoners of war, etc.

It has been possible to mention only a few of the startling achievements and changes which the nineteenth century has witnessed. Enough has, however, been said to show that Europe to-day differs perhaps more fundamentally from the Europe Napoleon knew than did Napoleon's world from Charlemagne's. Although civil and religious liberty and equality have been established, and incredible progress has been made in scientific thought, in general enlightenment, and in domestic comfort, yet the growth of democracy, the magnitude of the modern city, and the unprecedented development of industry and commerce have brought with them new and urgent problems which the future must face.

General Reading.--The Progress of the Century (Harper & Bros., $2.50), a collection of essays by distinguished writers and investigators, summing up the changes of the nineteenth century. The Statesman's Year Book (The Macmillan Company, $3.00) is issued each year and gives much valuable information in regard to the population, constitution, finances, educational system, etc., of the European states. WELLS, Recent Economic Changes (D. Appleton & Co., $2.00).

LIST OF BOOKS[475]

ADAMS, GEORGE B., Civilization during the Middle Ages (Charles Scribner's Sons, $2.50).

ADAMS, GEORGE B., Growth of the French Nation (The Macmillan Company, $1.25).

ANDREWS, Historical Development of Modern Europe (G.P. Putnam's Sons, $2.75).

BRYCE, The Holy Roman Empire (The Macmillan Company, $1.00).

Cambridge Modern History, Volume I (The Macmillan Company, $3.75).

CESARESCO, Liberation of Italy (Charles Scribner's Sons, $1.75).

CHEYNEY, Industrial and Social History of England (The Macmillan Company, $1.40).

COLBY, Selections from the Sources of English History (Longmans, Green & Co., $1.50).

CUNNINGHAM, Western Civilization in its Economic Aspects: Volume II, Mediæval and Modern Times (The Macmillan Company, $1.25).

EMERTON, Introduction to the Study of the Middle Ages (Ginn & Company, $1.12).

EMERTON, Mediæval Europe (Ginn & Company, $1.50).

FYFFE, History of Modern Europe (Henry Holt & Co., $2.75).

GARDINER, Student's History of England (Longmans, Green & Co., $3.00).

GREEN, Short History of the English People, Revised Edition (Harper & Bros., $1.20).

HASSALL, The Balance of Power [Europe in the Eighteenth Century] (The Macmillan Company, $1.60).

HATCH, Growth of Church Institutions (Whittaker, $1.50).

HENDERSON, A History of Germany in the Middle Ages (The Macmillan Company, $2.60).

HENDERSON, Select Historical Documents of the Middle Ages (The Macmillan Company, $1.50).

HENDERSON, Short History of Germany, 2 volumes (The Macmillan Company, $4.00).

HODGKIN, Dynasty of Theodosius (Clarendon Press, Oxford, $1.50).

JESSOP, The Coming of the Friars (G.P. Putnam's Sons, $1.25).

JOHNSON, Europe in the Sixteenth Century (The Macmillan Company, $1.75)

LEE, Source-book of English History (Henry Holt & Co., $2.00).

LOWELL, E.J., Eve of the French Revolution (Houghton, Mifflin & Co., $2.00).

MATHEWS, The French Revolution (Longmans, Green & Co., $1.25).

MUNRO, Mediæval History (D.C. Appleton & Co., 90 cents).

OMAN, Dark Ages (The Macmillan Company, $1.75).

PERKINS, France under the Regency (Houghton, Mifflin & Co., $2.00).

PHILLIPS, Modern Europe (1815-1899) (The Macmillan Company, $1.50).

ROSE, Life of Napoleon the First, 2 volumes (The Macmillan Company, $4.00).

ROSE, Revolutionary and Napoleonic Period (The Macmillan Company, $1.25).

SCHWILL, History of Modern Europe (Charles Scribner's Sons, $1.50).

SMITH, MUNROE, Bismarck and German Unity (The Macmillan Company, $1.00).

STEPHENS, The French Revolution, 3 volumes (Charles Scribner's Sons, $7.50).

Translations and Reprints from the Original Sources of European History (Department of History, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia. Single numbers, 10 cents; double numbers, 20 cents).

WAKEMAN, Europe from 1598 to 1715 (The Macmillan Company, $1.40).

WALKER, The Protestant Reformation (Charles Scribner's Sons, $2.00).

INDEX

Abbeys, see Monasteries.

Abbot, meaning of, 58.

Abbots chosen by feudal lords, 155.

Abelard, 268 f.

Absolute monarchy, 475 ff., 496 ff.

Acolyte, 20.

Acre taken in First Crusade, 194.

Act of Appeals, 430.

Act of Supremacy, 430.

Act of Uniformity, 491.

Adda, valley of, 471.

Address to the German Nobility, by Luther, 396 f.

Adrian VI, Pope, attempts reformation of Church, 310.

Adrianople, battle of, 25.

Æneid, copies of, in Middle Ages, 333, note.

Agincourt, battle of (1415), 292.

Agricola, Rudolph, 379.

Aids, feudal, 111, 145 and note.

Aistulf, Lombard king, 74 f.

Aix-la-Chapelle, Charlemagne's palace at, 78.

Alaric takes Rome, 26.

Albertus Magnus, 231, 260; writes commentary on Aristotle, 272.

Albigenses, 221 f.; crusade against, 223 f., 256.

Alchemy, 672.

Aleander's views of Protestant revolt, 399, 403.

Alemanni, 35; attempted conversion of, by St. Columban, 65.

Alessandria built, 178.

Alexander III, Pope, 178 f.

Alexander VI, Pope (Borgia), 362, 364.

Alexander I, Tsar, 611, 620.

Alexius, Emperor, and First Crusade, 188, 191.

Alfred the Great, 133 f.

Alsace ceded to Germany, 472 f., 663 and note.

Alva, 448 ff.

Amalfi, commerce of, 243.

Ambrose, 51.

America, North, explored by English, 351.

American colonies of England, revolt of, 532 ff.

American Revolution, 533 ff.

Amiens, rupture of Treaty of, 610.

Anabaptists, 416.

Anagni, attack on Boniface VIII at, 306.

Ancien Régime, 537 ff.

Andrea del Sarto, 346.

Angelico, Fra, 343.

Angevins, see Plantagenets.

Angles, 27; settle in Britain, 60.

Anglo-Saxon, 253.

Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, 134, 253.

Anjou, 126, 301.

Anne, Queen, 524.

Antioch, Latin principality of, 193.

Antwerp, 450.

Appanages, creation of, in France, 128.

Aquinas, 231, 272.

Aquitaine, 67, 82, 93, 124, 126. See also Guienne.

Arabia, 243.

Arabs, condition of, before Mohammed, 69; conquests of, 70 f.; conquer Syria, 188; civilization of, in Spain, 356.

Aragon united with Castile, 357.

Archbishops, origin of, 21; powers of, 203 ff.

Arches defined and illustrated, 264.

Architecture, mediæval, 262 f.; Romanesque, 263; Gothic, 264 f.; domestic, 266 f.; Renaissance, 339 f.

Aristotle, mediæval veneration for, 271 f.; Dante's estimate of, 331.

Arius, 30.

Arles, see Burgundy.

Armada, 463.

Arnold of Brescia, 177.

Arnulf of Carinthia, 97.

Art, mediæval, 261 f.; fostered by Italian despots, 326; Renaissance, 339; Arabic, 356.

Arthur, nephew of John of England, 127.

Artois, count of, 575, 630. See Charles X of France.

Assignats, 571, 591 and note.

Astrology, 260, 672.

Astronomy, mediæval knowledge of, 331; discoveries of Copernicus, 351; modern, 672 f.

Athanasius, 50.

Athens, school at, closed, 33.

Attila, 27.

Augsburg, Hungarians defeated near, 150; confession of, 417 f.; diet of, 417 f.; religious Peace of, 419 f., 465.

Augustine, Bishop of England, 61.

Augustine, Bishop of Hippo, 26, note, 51, 390, 393.

Augustinian order, 385, note, 387.

Austerlitz, battle of, 611.

Australia, 685 f.

Austrasia, 37, 38.

Austria, 150, 354 f.; hold of, on Italy, 507; conflicts with Turks, 517 f.; war of 1809 with Napoleon, 619; mixed population of, 632; influence of, after 1815, 640; revolution of 1848 in, 644 f.; opposition of, to German unity, 651 f.; decline of influence of, after 1851, 653 f.; war with Prussia (1866), 660.

Austrian Mark, 150.

Austrian Netherlands, given to France, 604; to Holland, 625.

Austrian Succession, War of, 518 ff.

Avignon, seat of papacy (1305-1377), 307 f.; Clement VII, anti-pope, reëstablishes papal court at, 310.

Azores Islands discovered by Portuguese, 347.

Baber, 529 and note.

Babylonian Captivity of the Church (1305-1377), 307 f.

Babylonian Captivity of the Church, by Luther, 397.

Bacon, Francis, 478.

Bacon, Roger, 273, 478, 671.

Bacteria, 674.

Baden granted a constitution, 635.

Bæda, see Venerable Bede.

Bagdad, 83, note.

Baillis, established by Philip Augustus, 130.

Balance of power, 427 f., 625 f.

Baldwin, in First Crusade, 191 f.; ruler of Jerusalem, 194.

Balliol, 279.

Banking, origin of, 246.

Bannockburn, battle of (1314), 280.

Banquet, Dante's, 331.

Baptism essential to salvation, 46; sacrament of, 210.

Baptists, 491.

Barbarians, see Germans.

Barbarians, Laws of the, 40.

Barbarossa, Frederick, see Frederick I, Emperor.

Barebone's Parliament, 489.

Barons, War of the, 146 f.

Basel, Council of (1431-1449), 318 f.

Basil, 51.

Bastile, fall of the, 565.

Bavaria, conquered by the Franks, 37; 65, 67, 82, 93, 98, 112; made an electorate, 467; in War of Austrian Succession, 518 f.; elector of, assumes title of king, 612; granted a constitution, 635.

Baylen, battle of, 618.

Bede, see Venerable Bede.

Bedford, duke of, 293.

"Beggars" of the Netherlands, 447.

Belgium, 627 f.; becomes an independent kingdom, 640 f.

Belisarius overthrows the Vandal kingdom, 33.

Benedict, St., 57 f.; Rule of, 57 f.

Benedict IX, Pope, 160.

Benedict XIII, Pope, deposed by Council of Pisa, 313; by Council of Constance, 315.

Benedictine order, 57, note.

Beneficium, 105 f.

Berbers, 71.

Berlin, Congress of, 670.

Bible, translated into Gothic, 252; Wycliffe's translation of, 309; first printed, 338; German, before Luther, 378, 405; Luther's translation of, 405 f.; German, for Catholics, 413; English translation of, 431; King James version of, 478 and note.

Bishop of Rome, not yet pope in Constantine's time, 21; obscurity of the early, 50; Valentinian's decree concerning, 51. See Pope.

Bishops, origin of, 20, 67; method of choosing, 155; complicated position of, 156, 174; duties, position, and importance of, 204, 206 f.

Bismarck, 657 ff., 663.

Black Death (1348-1349), 288.

Black Friars, see Dominicans.

"Black Hole" of Calcutta, 531.

Black Prince of England, at Crécy, 285; and Poitiers, 287.

Blockade, 615 f.

Boethius, last distinguished Roman writer, 19, 31 f., 134.

Bohemia, Huss spreads Wycliffe's doctrines in, 309; relation with Council of Basel, 318 f.; revolts from the Hapsburgs, 466 f.; in 1848, 646, 648.

Bohemians, Charlemagne forces, to pay tribute, 82.

Bohemond, in First Crusade, 191 f.

Boleyn, Anne, 429 f.

Bologna, study of Roman law at, 177.

Bonaparte, analysis of character of, 595 ff. See Napoleon.

Bonaventura, head of Franciscan order, quoted, 232.

Boniface, St., apostle to the Germans, 65 f.; anoints Pippin, 73.

Boniface VIII, Pope, struggle with Philip the Fair, 304 f.

Book of Prayer, English, 435, 458, 482, 491.

Books copied by monks, 58.

Borgia, Cæsar, hero of Machiavelli's Prince, 362.

Borgia, Pope Alexander VI, 362.

Borodino, battle of, 621.

Bosnia, 669, 670 and note.

Boso, count of Vienne, 97.

Bosworth Field, battle of, 297.

Bothwell, 459 f.

Boulogne, Napoleon's army at, 610 f.

Bourbon kings, 453, 630.

Brandenburg, electorate of, 372, 474, 515 f. See Prussia.

Brazil, 685.

Breitenfeld, battle of, 470.

Bremen, foundation of, 81; commerce of, 244; member of the German empire, 604.

Bretigny, Treaty of (1360), 286 f.

Britain conquered by the Angles and Saxons, 60; church of, yields to Roman Church, 62.

Brittany, 123.

Bruce, Robert, 279 f.

Bruges, 123, 245.

Brumaire, eighteenth, 598.

Bruni, Leonardo, estimate of importance of Greek studies, 336.

Bruno, Archbishop, 149.

Buckingham, 478.

Bulgaria, 669 f.

Bulgaria, South, 670, note.

Bulls, papal, origin of name, 204, note.

Bundesrath, 661, 666.

Burgher class, rise of, 249.

Burgundians, 30, 36; number of, entering the empire, 39.

Burgundy, county of, 366, 471. See also Franche-Comté.

Burgundy, duchy of, 124, 292; alliance with England, 292 f.; importance of, under Philip the Good and Charles the Bold, 300, 354, 417.

Burgundy, kingdom of, 38, 97, 124 and note, 153.

Burnt Njal, The Story of, 99, note.

Buttress, flying, defined and illustrated, 264 f.

Byzantium, 22, note.

Cabinet, English, 524 f.

Cadiz, 479.

Cædmon, 253.

Cæsar, drives back the Germans, 5; conquers Britain, 60.

Cahiers, 562 f.

Calais taken by English, 285, 295.

Calcutta, 529; "Black Hole" of, 531.

Calendar, French republican, 582 and note.

Caliph, title of, 70.

Calmar, Union of, 469.

Calonne, 556 f.; reforms proposed by, 558 ff.

Calvin, 425 f., 452.

Calvinists, 420, 473.

Cambray, League of (1508), 365.

Campo-Formio, Treaty of, 594 f.

Canada won by the English, 530, 532, 685 f.

Canary Islands discovered by Portuguese, 347.

Canon law, 202, note; burned by Luther, 399.

Canonical election, 155.

Canons, 207, note.

Canons and decrees of the Council of Trent, The, 440.

Canossa, 169.

Canterbury, the religious capital of England, 61; St. Martin's at, 61; dispute concerning Archbishop of, under John, 183.

Capet, Hugh, 121.

Capetian kings, position of early, 121 f., 124 f.

Capitularies, 87.

Carbonari, 637.

Cardinals, 162 and note, 204.

Carloman, brother of Pippin, 72.

Carlsbad Resolutions, 634 f.

Carlstadt, 407 f.

Carnot, 588.

Carolingian line in France, 120 f.

Cassiodorus, his treatises on the liberal arts and sciences, 32.

Castile, united with Aragon, 357.

Castle, mediæval, 100, 267.

Catechism, Napoleon's, 617.

Cathari, 221.

Cathedral, the mediæval, 262 f.; of Wells, 265 f.

Catherine de' Medici, 454 f.

Catherine of Aragon, 367, 428 ff.

Catherine II of Russia, 514.

Catholic Church, early conception of, 20. See Church, Clergy.

Catholic League of Dessau, 415.

Catholic League in Germany, 466 f.

Catholic party, formation of a, at Regensburg, 412.

Catholic reaction, 438, note.

Catholic reformation, 412 f., 437 ff.

Cavaliers, 485.

Cavour, 654.

Celibacy of the clergy, see Marriage.

Celts in Britain, 60.

Chalcedon, Act of the Council of, 51.

Châlons, battle of, 27.

Champagne, counts of, growth of possessions of, 113 f; position of, 114 f.

Chapter, cathedral, 207.

Charlemagne, 77 ff.; ideal of, of a great German empire, 79; coronation of, as emperor, 83 f.; reëstablishes the Western Empire, 84 f.; system of government of, 86; his farms, 86 and note; interest of, in schools, 87 ff., 268; disruption of empire of, 92 ff.; collects German poems, 253; hero of romances, 254.

Charles Martel, 38; aids Boniface, 66, 67 ff.; defeats the Mohammedans at Tours, 72.

Charles the Bald, 92 f., 95.

Charles the Fat, 96 f.

Charles the Simple, 96, note, 113, 121 f.

Charles V of France (1364-1380) reconquers most of English possessions in France, 287 f.

Charles VI of France, 292 f.

Charles VII of France, 293 f.

Charles VIII of France invades Italy, 360 f.

Charles IX of France, 454 ff.

Charles X of France, 630. See also Artois, count of.

Charles the Bold of Burgundy, 300, 422.

Charles V, Emperor, 301; possessions of, 354, 359 f.; coronation of, 367; wars with Francis I, 366, 415, 417; at diet of Worms, 400; at Augsburg, 417 f.; attitude toward the Protestants, 438; abdicates, 444.

Charles VI, Emperor, 518.

Charles VII, Emperor, 518 f.

Charles I of England, 478 ff.; financial exactions of, 479, 481; execution of, 486 f.

Charles II of England, 488, 490 ff.

Charles II of Spain, 502; will of, 506.

Charles XII of Sweden, 513 f.

Charles Albert of Sardinia, 646, 647, 650.

Charter, French, of 1814, 629 f.

Charter, the Great, of England, 144, 146.

Charters granted to mediæval towns, 239 f.

Chemistry, 672.

Chivalry, 256 f.

Christian IV of Denmark, 467 f.

Christian missions, map of, 63.

Christianity, preparation for, in Roman Empire, 18; promises of, 18; pagan rites and conceptions adopted by, 19.

Christians, persecution of, 10.

Chrysoloras called to teach Greek in Florence, 336.

Church, apostolic, 19; organization of, before Constantine, 20; in the Theodosian Code, 21; survives the Roman Empire, 22; greatness of, 44; sources of power of, 45 ff.; attitude of, toward the civil government, 47; begins to perform the functions of the civil government, 48; coöperation of, with the civil government, 80, note, 81; maintains knowledge of Latin, 87; policy of William the Conqueror in regard to English, 138; wealth of, 154; lands of, feudalized, 154; offices bought and sold, 158; and state, 165, 303; character and organization of mediæval, 201 ff.; services of, to civilization, 216; evil effects of wealth upon, 217 f.; loses power as modern states develop, 303 f.; reasons for influence of, in Middle Ages, 303, 370; corruption of, 217 ff.; during Babylonian Captivity of, 307; in Germany, 383; attempted reformation of, 223; at Constance, 317; taxation of, 307; attempted union of, with Eastern Church, 319; attitude of humanists toward, 335; enthusiasm for, in Germany before Luther, 377; discontent with, in Germany, 385; in France before the Revolution, 541 ff.; attacked by Voltaire, 550; property of, confiscated by the National Assembly, 570 f.; lands, secularization of, 603.

Church fathers, 50 f.

Cicero, humanists' estimate of, 332, 334.

Cisalpine republic, 595, 601, 602.

Cistercian order, 219.

City of God, The, Augustine's, 26, note, 78.

Civil Constitution of the Clergy, 571 f., 580, 606 f.

Civil war in England, 485 f.

Classics, Greek and Roman, neglect of, in the Middle Ages, 259, 330, 333, note; Dante's respect for, 331; revival of, 332 ff.; Petrarch's enthusiasm and search for, 332 ff.

Clement V, Pope, removes seat of papacy to France, 306.

Clement VII, anti-pope, returns to Avignon, 310.

Clement VII, Pope, 412, 430.

Clergy, minor orders of, 20; privileges of, in Theodosian Code, 21; attitude toward civil government, 81; lower, demoralized by simony, 159; importance of, to civilization, 214 f.; benefit of, 214, note; corruption of, 217 f.; secular, opposition of, to mendicant orders, 231; reform of, at Regensburg, 412; policy of Henry VIII toward, 429 ff.; in France before the Revolution, 542; representatives of, join third estate, 564; Civil Constitution of, 571 f., 580, 606 f.; non-juring, in France, 572, 579, 606. See also Marriage.

Clericis laicos, papal bull, 304.

Clive, 531 f.

Clovis, conquests of, 35 f.; conversion of, 35; number of soldiers of, baptized, 39.

Cnut, king of England, 134.

Coal, use of, 676.

Code Napoléon, 607 f.

Coinage, French king's control of, 131.

Colbert, reforms of, 499 f.

Colet, 426 f.

Coligny, 455 f.

Cologne, 12, 248; elector of, 372.

Coloni, condition of, 15 f.

Colonies, European, 527 ff., 684; Roman, 12; French, in North America, 527 f.; Spanish, 684 f.

Columban, St., 65.

Columban St., Life of, 65, note.

Columbus, 350.

Comitatus, 105 f.

Comites, 67.

Commendation, 105 and note.

Commerce, development of, 199 f., 243 f.; restrictions on, 245 f.; in Italy, 243, 322 f.; in France and England, 302.

Commercial war between Holland and England, 488.

Committee of Public Safety, 585, 587 f.

Common law, English, 142.

Commons, House of, 147. See Parliament.

Commons, summoned to the French Estates General, 131; the English, 147.

Commonwealth, England a, 487.

Commune, Paris, 586; insurrection of, 1871, 664.

Communes, establishment of, in France in 1789, 566.

Communes, origin of, 239 f.

Communication, modern means of, 678 f., 684.

Communion under both kinds, 432 and note.

Compass, invention of, 352.

Compendiums, reliance upon, in later Roman Empire, 17; inherited by Middle Ages, 18.

Compurgation, 41.

Concordat, between Francis I and Pope Leo X, 366, note; of 1801, 607.

Condé, 472.

Condottieri, Italian mercenary troops, 326 f.

Confederation of the Rhine, 612 f.

Confession, 212, note.

Confession of Augsburg, 417 f.

Confirmation, sacrament of, 211.

Congregational church, 483.

Congress of Berlin, 670.

Congress of Vienna, 625 ff.

Conrad II, Emperor, 153.

Conrad III, Emperor, 173, note, 197.

Consolation of Philosophy, The, of Boethius, 19, 134.

Constance, heiress of Naples and Sicily, marries Emperor Henry VI, 180.

Constance, Peace of (1183), 179; Council of (1414), 314.

Constantine, 21 f.

Constantine VI, 84.

Constantinople, 22 f.; threatened by Turks, 188; taken by the Turks, 23, 517; Bishop of, put on an equal footing with the Bishop of Rome, 51; during First Crusade, 191; culture of, affects the West, 336 f.; desire of Russia for, 668.

Constitution, first French, 576; of the year VIII, 599; veneration for a, in Italy, 637.

Constitutional government, desire for, in France, 563; demand for, in Prussia, 632; granted in southern Germany, 635; in Piedmont, 651.

Consul, title of Bonaparte, 600, 608.

Continental blockade, 615 f.

Continental system, the, 616.

Continuity of history, 4.

Conventicle Act, 492.

Convention, French, 582 ff.; close of, 590 f.

Conversion of the Germans, 56 ff.; of the Saxons, 80.

Copernicus (Kopernik), astronomical discoveries of, 351 f.

Copyists, carelessness of, 89 and note, 90.

Corbie, school at, 90.

Cordova, emir of, 83; brilliant civilization of caliphate of, 356.

Corn Laws, 681.

Corneille, 500.

Corsica added to France, 536, 592 f.

Cortez conquers Mexico, 351.

Council, general, 311 f.; of Clermont, 188; fourth Lateran, 184; of Pisa, 313; of Constance, 314 ff.; of Basel, 318 f.; of Ferrara-Florence, 319 f.; Luther recognizes fallibility of, 393.

Council of Blood, 448.

Council of State, French, 599.

Counter-reformation, 438, note.

Counties, sheriffs in the English, 137.

Counts, origin of, 67; position of, 102.

Counts of the march, 82, 86.

Coup d'état, 598.

Court, lord's, 110 and note.

Court of High Commission, 482.

Covenant, National, 483 f.

Crécy, battle of, 284.

Crema destroyed by Frederick I, 178.

Crimean War, 668 f.

Cromwell, Oliver, 485 ff.; death of, 489 f.

Cromwell, Richard, 490.

Crusade, Albigensian, 223 f., 256.

Crusades, 23, 187 ff.; effects of, 199 f., 243, 347.

Culloden Moor, 527.

Culture, mediæval, 250 f.; general use of Latin, 250; Germanic languages, 251 f.; Romance languages, 251 f.; literature, romance, 254 f.; chivalry, 256 f.; ignorance of the past, 259; popular science, 260; art, 261 f.; education, the universities, 267 f.; Roman and canon law, 269; Aristotle, 271; scholasticism, 272.

Curia, papal, 204.

Customs duties, 246, 681.

Customs lines, interior, 539 f.

Customs union, German, 635.

Cyprian, 20.

Czar, see Tsar.

Dagobert, 38.

Damascus, seat of the caliphate, 70, 83, note.

Danegeld, 134.

Danes, 99, note; invade England, 133 f.; defeated by Alfred, 133.

Danish language, derivation of, 251.

Dante, 330 f.

Danton, 589.

Dantzig, 196, 248.

Dark age before Charlemagne, 87.

"Dark ages," meaning of, 6, 91.

Darnley, 459.

Dauphin, origin of title, 292, note.

Deacons, 19 f.

Declaration of Independence, American, 533.

Declaration of Rights, English, 494.

Declaration of the Rights of Man, 568 ff., 629.

Decretum of Gratian, 269.

Degrees, university, explained, 270, note.

Deist, 550.

Departments in France, 538, 567 f.

Desaix, 601 f.

Dessau, League of, 415.

Dialogues of Gregory the Great, 54.

Diaz rounds Cape of Good Hope, 348.

Dictatus of Gregory VII., 164.

Diet, German, attempts to reform government, 375.

Directory, French, 591, 593, 597 f., 601.

Discoveries in fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, 347 f.; modern scientific, 671 ff.

Dispensations, papal, 203.

Dissenters, 491.

Divine Comedy of Dante, 330.

Divine right of kings, 476 f., 496 ff.

Doge of Venice, 324.

Domain, 121.

Domesday Book, 138.

Dominican order organized, 230.

Donauwörth, 466.

Drake, Sir Francis, 461.

Dresden, battle of, 623.

Dukes, origin of, 67.

Dumouriez, 582, 584.

Dunkirk, 489, 588.

Dupleix, 531.

Dürer, Albrecht, 346.

Dutch, commerce of, 448. See also Holland.

Dutch language, derivation of, 251.

East Frankish kingdom, 94, 98.

East Goths, 28 f., 30, 33.

East India Company, English, 530; French, 530.

Eastern Church, see Greek Church.

Eastern Empire, 22; civilization of, in Middle Ages, 23.

Eastern question, origin of, 535, 667 ff.

Ecclesiastical states, origin of, 156, note; in Germany, disappearance of, 603 f.

Eck, 392 f., 398, 418.

Economists, French, 552 f.

Edessa, Latin principality of, established, 193; fall of, 196.

Edict of Nantes, 542.

Edict of Restitution, 468, 473.

Edict of Worms, 403 f., 415.

Education, clerical monopoly of, 213 f.; mediæval, 267; humanistic, 335; compulsory, 683.

Edward the Confessor, 134, 136 f.

Edward I of England, 147, 278 f.

Edward II, 280; forced to abdicate, 281.

Edward III, claims French crown, 283 f., 286 f.

Edward IV, 296.

Edward V, 297.

Edward VI, 434 f.

Egbert, king of Wessex, 133.

Egypt, Bonaparte's expedition to, 597 f.; English occupation of, 685.

Eisenach, Luther at, 405.

Elba, 624.

Elders, 19, 426, note.

Elders, Council of, 590, 599.

Electors in empire, 372, 524, note.

Elizabeth, queen of England, 430, 451, 458 ff., 476.

Embargo acts of the United States, 615 f.

Emigrant nobles, 575, 577, 579; permitted to return, 607.

Émigrés, see Emigrant nobles.

Emirate of Cordova, 83, note.

"Emperor Elect," 152, note.

Emperor, Roman, his will law, 10; worship of, 10.

Emperor, title of, held by Italian kings, 151; assumed by Otto the Great, 151; assumed by Napoleon, 608; assumed by Austrian ruler, 612.

Empire, reëstablishment of, in the West, 84; divisions of, 92 f., 96; relations with papacy, 151 f.; under Hohenstaufens, 173, 185; under Hapsburgs, 355. See Holy Roman Empire.

Empire, Roman, character and organization of, 8 ff.

Engine, steam, 675 f.

England, early culture in, 64; becomes a part of the Catholic Church, 64; claims of kings of, to France, 130; importance of, in history of Europe, 133; on the accession of William the Conqueror, 135; feudalism in, 135; Norman conquest of, 136 ff.; made tributary to pope by John, 183; commerce of, 244 f., 351, 460 f.; conquers Wales, 278; relations of, with Scotland, 279 f.; union of, with Scotland, 280; during the Hundred Years' War, 281 ff., 291 ff., 301 f.; labor problem of, and Peasants' War, 288 ff.; Wars of the Roses, 296 f.; humanism in, 335, 363; Protestant revolt in, 426 ff.; struggle for constitutional government, 475 ff.; establishment of commonwealth, 487 ff.; restoration of the Stuarts, 490; revolution of 1688, 493; in the War of the Austrian Succession, 526; in the Seven Years' War, 520 f.; expansion of, 523 ff.; colonies of, in North America, 527 ff.; settlements of, in India, 529; colonial possessions of, at end of eighteenth century, 535; involved in war with France (1793), 583; renews war with Napoleon, 610; expansion of, in the nineteenth century, 685. See also Britain.

English language, 134, 147, 251, 253 f.

Epictetus, 18.

Equality before the law, 683.

Erasmus, 381 f.; attitude of, toward Luther, 394, 427.

Estates General, 131 f. and note, 285, 298 f., 305, 475, 496 f.; demanded by the parlement of Paris, 560; summoning of, 561; meeting of (1789), 562 f.

Esthonia, 514.

Etruria, kingdom of, 620.

Eucharist, see Mass.

Eugene IV, Pope, 319.

Eugene of Savoy, 507.

Euric, king of West Goths, 26.

Europe after 1814, 625, 627 f.; contemporaneous, 671.

Excommunication, 213.

Exorcist, 20.

Fabliaux, mediæval, 256.

Far Eastern Question, 686.

Ferdinand I, Emperor, brother of Charles V, 412, 444, 465, 517.

Ferdinand II, Emperor, 467.

Ferdinand of Aragon, 357, 363, 364.

Ferrara-Florence, Council of, 319 f.

Feudal dues, 110 f.; in France, 543; abolition of, 567.

Feudal hierarchy, no regular, 116.

Feudal registers, 112.

Feudalism, 104 ff.; origins of, 99 ff., 102 f., 104 f.; anarchy of, 116 f.; in England, 135; connection of, with chivalry, 257.

Fief, hereditary character of, 106 ff.; conditions upon which granted, 110 and note; classes of, 110, 111 f., 115.

Five Hundred, Council of, 590, 599.

Flanders, 94, 123 f., 244; weavers from, in England, 139; relations of, with England, 283 f.; under dukes of Burgundy, 300; art of, 346.

"Flayers," 298.

Florence, 321, 325, 327 ff., 342; under Savonarola, 361 f.

Fontenay, battle of, 93.

Foot soldiers, English, defeat French knights at Crécy, 284; at Poitiers, 285; at Agincourt, 292.

Forest cantons, 421.

France, origin of, 94, 95 f., 121; position of early kings of, 121 f., 125; under Philip Augustus, 130; genealogical table of the kings of, 282, note; during the Hundred Years' War, 281 ff., 288, 291 ff.; standing army of, established, 298; condition under Louis XI, 299 ff.; influence of Italian culture, 335, 363; Protestantism in, 451 ff.; wars of religion, 451 ff.; limits of, in 1659, 501 f.; ascendency of, under Louis XIV, 495 ff.; absolute monarchy in, 545; reforms of Colbert, 499 f.; condition of, at end of the reign of Louis XIV, 508; joins in War of Austrian Succession, 518; alliance with the Hapsburgs, 520; possessions in North America, 527 f.; in India, 529 ff.; losses of, at close of Seven Years' War, 532; aids the United States, 534; in the eighteenth century, 535 f., 537 ff.; first Revolution, cause of, 545, 563; course of, 558 ff.; First Republic, 581 ff.; Reign of Terror, 585 ff.; constitution of the year III, 590 f.; reforms of Bonaparte, 599, 606, 616; restoration of the Bourbons, 629 f.; revolution of 1848, 642 ff.; Third Republic, 664 f.

Franche-Comté, 300, 366, 471; ceded to France, 502 f. See Burgundy, county of.

Francis I, Emperor, 519.

Francis II, Emperor, assumes the title of Emperor of Austria, 612.

Francis I of France, 365, 415, 417, 425; wars with Emperor Charles V, 366; persecutes the Protestants, 452.

Francis II of France, 452 f.

Francis Joseph I, accession of, 650.

Francis of Assisi, 226 ff.

Franciscan order founded, 228.

Franconian line of emperors, 153.

Franco-Prussian War, 662 f.

Frankfurt, National Assembly at, 646, 651 f.

Franks, conquests of, 30, 34; conversion of, 35; history of, 36 f.; alliance of, with popes, 73, 75 f. See also Charlemagne.

Frederick, Elector of the Palatinate, 466 f., 477.

Frederick I (Barbarossa), Emperor, 173, 197.

Frederick II, Emperor, 181 f., 198.

Frederick I of Prussia, 516.

Frederick II of Prussia, see Frederick the Great.

Frederick the Great, 516, 518 ff.

Frederick the Wise, of Saxony, collects relics, 377; patron of Luther, 389.

Frederick William III of Prussia, 613 f., 621 f.

Frederick William IV of Prussia, 652 f., 656, note.

Freedmen, condition of, 15.

Freedom of the Christian, by Luther, 397, note.

Freemen in competition with slaves in Roman Empire, 15.

Free towns, German. See Towns.

French Academy, 501.

French and Indian War, 530.

French language, 94, 251, 254, 260.

French Revolution, 4, 537 f.; opening of, 557, 558 ff.; second, 574, ff.

Frequens, decree, of Council of Constance, 318, note.

Friends, Society of, 491.

Frisia, 79.

Fritzlar, sacred oak of Odin at, 66.

Fust, John, printer of Psalter of 1459, 338, note.

Future life, pagan view of, 18; Christian view of, 19.

Galileo, 673.

Gall, St., Irish missionary, 65; monk of, 78 and note.

Garibaldi, 655, 667.

Gascony, 124.

Gaul, West Goths establish a kingdom in, 26; occupied by the Franks, 30, 35; church in, reformed and brought under the papal supremacy, 66.

Gelasius, Pope, his opinion of the relation of the Church and the civil government, 47.

Geneva, Calvin at, 425 f.

Genghiz Khan, 510.

Genoa, 174, 194, 198; commerce of, 243, 347; given to Sardinia, 626.

Geoffrey, son of Henry II, 126 f. and note.

George I of England, 524.

George II of England, 526.

George III, 533.

German Confederation of 1815, 632 f.; dissolution of, 660.

German empire, Proclamation of the, 665.

German kings, difficulties of, caused by the imperial title, 85; vain attempt of, to control Italy, 85.

German kingship, 148, 152 f.

German language, 94 f. and note, 251; reduced to writing, 252 f., 258 f.; books published in the, 250, note; in Luther's time, 405 f.

Germans, infiltration of, into Roman Empire, 8, 12, 16 f.; objects of, in invading the Empire, 25; number of invading, 39; fusion of, with the Romans, 39; character of early, 42; conversion of, 56 ff.

Germany, 79, 95 f.; foundation of towns in northern, 81; assigned to Louis the German, 92 f., 94; history of, contrasted with that of France, 148; under the same ruler as Italy, 151 f.; confusion in, under Henry VI, 182; want of unity in, 185, 355; culture in, 335, 363; before Protestant revolt: complexity, organization, the electors, the knights, the cities, neighborhood war, the diet, reorganization in fifteenth century, social and intellectual conditions, 371 f.; during the Protestant revolt, 405 ff.; progress of Protestantism in, 418 ff.; religious division of, 412, 415 ff.; after the Thirty Years' War, 473 f.; territorial reorganization of, in 1803, 604; condition of, in 1814, 626; effects of Napoleonic era in, 631 f.; in 1848, 646; unification of, 656 ff., 665.

Ghent, 123; commerce of, 245, 248.

Ghibelline party, 179, note.

Ghiberti, 342.

Gian Galeazzo Visconti of Milan, 325.

Gibbon, 73, 76.

Gibraltar, 507, 532; siege of, 534.

Giotto, 341 f.

Girondists, 585 f., 587.

Glass, stained, 264.

Godfrey of Bouillon, 191 f., 193.

Golden Bull sanctions neighborhood war, 117.

Good Hope, Cape of, rounded by Diaz (1486), 348; ceded to England, 685.

Gothic language, Bible translated into, 252.

Gothic type, 339.

Government, difficulty of, in the Middle Ages, 67, 85, 98; effect of feudalism on, 108 f.; natural, 120; modern character of, 682 f.

Grail, legend of Holy, 258.

Granada, fall of, 83, 357.

Grand Alliance, 506.

Grand Remonstrance, 484.

Granson, 422.

Gratian, Decretum of, 269.

Gravitation, discovery of universal, 673.

Gray Friars, see Franciscans.

Great Charter of England, 144-146.

Great Elector of Prussia, 516.

Great Khan, 510.

Great Mogul, 529.

Great St. Bernard crossed by Bonaparte, 601.

Greece, creation of the kingdom of, 640, 668.

Greek books brought to Venice in 1423, 337.

Greek Church, tends to separate from the Latin, 51; union of, with Western Church, 319.

Greek culture in the Roman Empire, 12.

Greek language, knowledge of, in Middle Ages, 64, 336; revived study of, in Italy, 320, 336 f.

Greek New Testament, 423.

Gregory of Tours, 33, 36.

Gregory the Great, 52 ff.; writings of, 54; missionary work of, 55, 61.

Gregory VI, Pope, 160.

Gregory VII, 52, note, 138, 162, 164 ff.; reform of, 161, 162 f.; conflict of, with Henry IV, 167 ff.; death of, 170.

Gregory XI, Pope, 310.

Gregory XII, Pope, 313, 315.

Grotius, 508.

Guelf party, origin of, 179, 182.

Guienne, 130, 140, 283. See also Aquitaine.

Guilds, craft, 241 f., 500; abolition of, in France, 555.

Guillotine, 588 f. and notes.

Guise, Henry of, 456.

Guises, 454.

Gunpowder, invention of, 352.

Gustavus Adolphus, 468 ff.

Gustavus Vasa, 469.

Hades, 18.

Hadrian, tomb of, 54.

Hadrian IV, Pope, and Frederick I, 176 f.

Hadrian VI, Pope, 410-412.

Hague, peace conference at The, 686.

Hampden, John, 481.

Hanover, electorate of, 524, note.

Hanover, house of, 524; occupied by Napoleon, 610; relations of, with Prussia, 613 f.

Hanseatic League, 247 f.

Hanseatic towns annexed to France, 602.

Hapsburg, Rudolf of, king of Germany, 185.

Hapsburgs, rise of, 354 f., 421, 444 f., 471, 517 ff.

Harold, Earl of Wessex, 136 f.

Hastings, battle of, 136, note.

Hébert, 589.

Heilbronn, articles of, 414.

Hejira, the, 69.

Henrietta Maria, 478.

Henry II of England, possession of, 126, 140 ff.

Henry III of England, 146 f.

Henry IV of England, 291.

Henry V of England continues Hundred Years' War, 291 ff.

Henry VII of England, 296 f.

Henry VIII of England, 365, 367, 426 ff., 476.

Henry II of France, 452.

Henry III of France, 456.

Henry IV of France, 457 f.

Henry I of Germany, 149 and note.

Henry III, Emperor, 153 f.; intervenes in papal matters, 160, 166.

Henry IV of Germany, 165 ff.; conflict of, with Gregory VII, 167 ff., 174.

Henry V, Emperor, 171.

Henry VI, Emperor, 180 f.

Henry of Navarre, see Henry IV of France.

Henry the Lion, 180.

Henry the Proud, 179.

Heresy, in twelfth and thirteenth centuries, 220 f.; punishment of, 225; of Huss, 314 f., 403 and note.

Herzegovina, 669, 670 and note.

Hesse, Philip of, 409 f., 415, 419.

Hesse-Cassel, 628.

Hildebrand, see Gregory VII.

Hindustan, 348, 529 ff.

History, scope of, 1; continuity or unity of, 4; notions of, in the Middle Ages, 259 f.

Hohenstaufens, 173 f. See also Frederick I, Henry VI, Frederick II.

Hohenzollern family, 515. See also Brandenburg and Prussia.

Holbein, Hans, 346.

Holidays, number of, reduced in Germany, 412.

Holland, 449; war with England, 492; war with France, 492 f., 502 f.; colonies of, 527; becomes the Batavian republic, 604; Louis Bonaparte, king of, 613; annexed to France, 620; made a kingdom, 625, 632. See also United Netherlands.

Holy Land, commercial interests of Italian cities in, 198 f.

Holy League formed by Pope Julius II against France, 365.

Holy League, French, 456.

Holy Roman Empire, 85, 152 f., 473; consolidation of, in 1803, 603 f.; dissolution of, 612. See also Germany.

Homage, 109 and note; refusal of, 116 f.

Horace, idea of life entertained by, 45; Satires of, 333, note.

Hospitalers, 194 f.

House of Lords, abolition of, 487. See also Parliament.

Hrolf, 122 f.

Huguenots, 454 ff., 467; Charles I attempts to aid, 478 f.; position of, under Louis XIV, 504 f.

Humanists, Italian, 334 f.; German, 379 f.

Humanities, 334.

Hundred Years' War, 281 ff., 291 ff.

Hungarians, 149; defeated by Otto the Great, 150.

Hungary, freed from the Turks, 518; during revolution of 1848, 646, 648 f.; dual union of, with Austria, 650.

Huns, 25, 27.

Huss, 309, 315 ff., 393.

Hussite wars, 317.

Hussites, 432, 465.

Hutten, Ulrich von, 385 f., 395 f., 399, 404, 410.

Iconoclastic controversy, 74. See Images.

Illuminations, 261 f.

Images, demolition of, in England, 433 f.; in the Netherlands, 447 f.

Immunities, 101.

Imperial title, 151 f. See also Emperor.

Indemnity, the French, 664.

Independents, 482 f. and note.

India, Portuguese seek a sea route to, 348; Europeans in, 528 ff.; during Seven Years' War, 530.

Indulgences attacked by Wycliffe, 308; explained, 390 f.; attitude of Luther toward, 390 ff., 412, 423.

Industrial revolution, 679 f.

Industry stimulated by commerce in Middle Ages, 244 f.

Infeudation, 106 f.; of other things than land, 115.

Innocent III, Pope, struggle of, with the Hohenstaufens, 181 f.; attempts to reform the Church, 223.

Inquisition established, 224, 231; in Spain, 358, 619; in the Netherlands, 445, 447.

Institutes of Christianity, Calvin's, 425 f.

Interdict, 183, 213.

International law, 507 f.

Invasions of the ninth and tenth centuries, 98 f.

Invention, progress of, in fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, 352 f.; modern, 674 ff.

Investiture, lay, 155 ff., 161; prohibition of, 163, 167; question of, settled at Worms, 171 f.

Invincible Armada, 463.

Ireland, 461 f., 487 f.

Irene, Empress, 84.

Irish monks in Britain, 62.

Iron industry, 352, 675 f.

Isabella, queen of Castile, 357.

Islam, 69.

Italian language, derivation of, 251; used by Dante in the Divine Comedy, 330; by Petrarch, 334.

Italy, during the barbarian invasions, 33; united to Charlemagne's empire, 85, 93, 96; German kings make vain attempt to control, 151 f.; towns of, under Frederick I, 174 f.; Hohenstaufens in, 180, 186; commerce of, 198 f., 243 f.; divisions of, in fourteenth century, 321 f.; culture of, during the Renaissance, 321, 339 ff.; invasion of, by Charles VIII, 360 f.; hold of Austria on, 507; Bonaparte's campaign in, 594; Napoleon, king of, 611; after 1815, 636 f., 638 f.; war of independence of, 645 f.; constitutions granted to various states of, 646; unification of, 654 ff.; formation of the present kingdom of, 655 f.

Ivan the Terrible, 511.

Jacobins, 578 f., 590.

Jacobites, 526 and note.

James I of England, 467; theory of kingship of, 475 ff.

James II, 493.

James VI of Scotland, 462. See also James I of England.

Jamestown, 528.

Jefferson, Thomas, opinion of the condition of France, 544.

Jena, battle of, 614.

Jerome, St., 51; advocate of the monastic life, 57.

Jerome Bonaparte, 614.

Jerusalem, 185, 188; Kingdom of, 192 ff., 197 f.

Jesuits, order of, 462, 465 f., 494.

Jewry, 246.

Jews, economic importance of, 246; persecution of, 246, 358.

Joan of Arc, 293 f.

John of England, 126 f., 144 ff.; vassal of pope, 183.

John, king of France, 285.

John Frederick of Saxony, 415, 418 f.

John XXIII, Pope, 313.

Jongleurs, 256.

Joseph Bonaparte, king of Spain, 618.

Josephine, 607, 620.

Journal des Savants, 501.

Jousts, 118.

Jubilee at Rome (1300), 305.

Julius II, Pope, 344, 365.

Jury, origin of, 142.

Just price, doctrine of, 245.

Justification by faith, 388, 439.

Justinian 33; closes government schools, 267.

Kadijah, wife of Mohammed, 69.

Kappel, battle of, 425.

Kent, king of, converted, 61.

King, position of, in Middle Ages, 73, 102, 108, 120.

King of Rome, 620.

King of the Romans, 152, note.

Kneeling Parliament, 436.

Knighthood, 257 f.

Knights, summoned to the English Parliament, 147; in Germany, 407; revolt of, 409 f.; disappearance of, 604.

Knox, John, 459.

Koran, the, 69 f.

Kossuth, 650.

Labor, division of, 677.

Labor unions, 681 f.

Laborers, protection of, 681.

Lafayette, 534, 563, 570.

Laissez faire, 553, 681.

Lancaster, house of, in England, 291, 296; genealogical table of, 297, note.

Lancelot, description of, quoted, 258.

Landholding, in the Roman Empire, 104. See also Feudalism.

Lanfranc, 138.

Langton, Stephen, 183.

Langue d'oc, 254, note.

Langue d'oïl, 254, note.

La Rochelle, 455, 457, 478.

La Salle, 528.

Latin Church tends to separate from the Greek, 51. See also Church.

Latin language, contrast of the written, with the spoken, 39, 252, note; knowledge of, preserved by the Church, 87 f.; general use of, in the Middle Ages, 95, 202, 250.

Latin literature, extinction of, 31. See also Humanists.

Laud, William, 481 f., 484.

La Vendée, revolt of, 587.

Law, see Canon and Civil law.

Law of Free Monarchies, The, of James I, 477.

Law of Nature and Nations, by Pufendorf, 508.

Laws of the Barbarians, 40.

Lay investiture, see Investiture.

Lea, Henry C., description of Church, 214; account of mendicants, 230.

Lefèvre, 452 f.

Legates, 162.

Legion of Honor, 617.

Legislative Assembly, 576, 579 f.

Legitimists, 664, note.

Legnano, battle of, 179.

Leipsic, disputation at, 392 f.; battle of, 623.

Leo the Great, 21, 51, 52.

Leo III, Emperor, forbids the veneration of images, 74.

Leo IX, Pope, reform begun by, 161 f.

Leo X (Medici), Pope, patron of art, 344, 365, 391, 410.

Leonardo da Vinci, 344 f.

Leopold II, 577.

Leopold of Hohenzollern, 662, note.

Letters of Obscure Men, 380 f., and note.

Lettres de cachet, 546.

Leyden, siege of, 451, note.

Libraries, destruction of, 32; established in Italy, 337.

Ligurian republic, 610.

Lisbon, trade in spices, 348.

Lit de justice, 547.

Livonia, 514.

Llewelyn, Prince of Wales, 278.

Logic, esteem for, in the Middle Ages, 268, 271; decline of, 334 f.

Lombard cities, 170 f., 174 ff.

Lombard League, 178.

Lombard, Peter, Sentences of, 210, 396 f.

Lombards as bankers, 246.

Lombards, History of the, by Paulus Diaconus, 90.

Lombards in Italy, 33, 34, 65, 74 f.; conquered by Charlemagne, 81.

London, 248, 290.

Long Parliament, 484 ff.; dissolved by Cromwell, 488 f.; recalled, 490.

Lord, mediæval, position of, 99 f.; meaning of term, 106.

Lord Protector, Cromwell, 489.

Lord's Supper, Zwingli's conception of, 425. See also Mass.

Lorraine, 94, 300, 472; added to France, 536; portion of, ceded to Germany, 663 and note.

Lorsch, Chronicles of, passage from, 84.

Lothaire, son of Louis the Pious, 93.

Lotharii regnum, 94.

Louis the Fat of France, 125.

Louis the German, 92, 93, 95.

Louis the Pious, 92.

Louis IX (Saint), 130 f., 198.

Louis XI of France, 299 f.

Louis XII of France, 364 f.

Louis XIII of France, 458.

Louis XIV, 472, 489, 492, 495 ff.; idea of position of, 496 f.; court of, 498; wars of, 501 ff.; condition of France at end of reign of, 508.

Louis XV, 508, 553.

Louis XVI, position of, 545, 553 f.; removes to Paris, 570; flight of, to Varennes, 575 f.; imprisonment of, 581; trial and execution of, 583.

Louis XVII, 625, note.

Louis XVIII, 625; policy of, 629 f.

Louis Philippe, 630, 642 f.

Louisiana, 534, 602.

Low Church party, 482.

Loyola, Ignatius, 440 ff.

Lübeck, 244, 248.

Lucien Bonaparte, 599.

Luther, Martin, 387 ff.; burns the canon law, 368, 399; early life and education of, 387; enters monastery, 387; justification by faith, 388; called to Wittenberg, visits Rome, 389; teaches biblical theology, 389; the theses of, 390; warfare against indulgences, 390; debate with Eck at Leipsic, 392; relations with humanists, 393; with Ulrich von Hutten, 395; Address to the German Nobility of, 396; Babylonian Captivity of the Church of, 397; excommunicated, 398; at diet of Worms, 401; outlawed by the emperor, 403 and note; translates the Bible, 405; view of reform of, 407 ff.; rash talk of, about princes, 413; attacks the peasants, 414, 416.

Lützen, battle of, 470.

Luxembourg, 300, 662.

Lyons revolts against the Convention, 587, 589.

Machiavelli, The Prince of, 327, 362.

Machinery, introduction of, 675 ff.

Madras, 529.

Magdeburg, 469.

Magellan circumnavigates the globe, 351.

Magyars, see Hungarians.

Major Domus, see Mayors of the Palace.

Malory, the Mort d'Arthur of, 255, note.

Malta, 195.

Mandeville, Sir John, referred to, 261, note.

Manor, 100, 234 f.; court of the, 236.

Mantua, 471.

Manufacture, increase of, in thirteenth century, 200; modern, 675.

Manuscripts, 337 f.

Marches, establishment of, 82.

Marco Polo, 347.

Marcus Aurelius, Meditations of, 18.

Marengo, battle of, 601.

Margaret, queen of Navarre, 452.

Margraves, origin of, 82, 86, 102.

Maria Louisa, 620.

Maria Theresa, 518 ff.

Marie Antoinette, 554, 570, 589.

Marlborough, 506.

Marquette, 528.

Marquises, 86.

Marriage, of the clergy, 154, 157 and note, 161, 163, 418; sacrament of, 211.

Marseilles, revolt of, 587.

Marston Moor, battle of, 486.

Mary of Burgundy, 301.

Mary of Modena, 493.

Mary, queen of England, 435 f.

Mary Queen of Scots, see Mary Stuart.

Mary Stuart, 454, 459 ff.

Mass, the, 211 f., 407, 409, 432.

Matilda, 126, 140.

Maurice of Saxony, 418 f.

Maximilian I, Emperor, 356, 358 f., 363, 365.

Maximilian of Bavaria, 466, 467.

Mayence, 66, 78; elector of, 372, 378; printing at, 338.

Mayflower, 483.

Mayors of the Palace, 38.

Mazarin, 495.

Mazzini, 639, 648.

Mecca, 68, 69, 70.

Medici, 328 f., 361, 366; Lorenzo de', 328, 344; library of the, 337.

Medicine, modern advance in, 674.

Medina, 69.

Melanchthon, 417.

Mendicant orders, 225 f.

Merovingian documents, carelessness of, 87.

Merovingian kings, 38, 72.

Mersen, Treaty of, 95 f.

Metric system, 591.

Metternich, 634; overthrow of, 644 f.

Metz, 452, 473, 663.

Mexican expedition, 662.

Mexico, 351, 358.

Michael Angelo, 342, 344 f.

Microscope, development of, 674.

Middle Ages, meaning of term, 5 f.; character of, 42 f.

Middle kingdom of Lothaire, 94 f.

Milan, Edict of, 21; married clergy in, 163; destruction of, by Frederick I, 176 f.; despots of, 324 f.; claimed by France, 364 f.; claimed by Charles V, 366, 417.

Miles Coverdale, 431.

Military service, feudal, 110.

Miniature, derivation of word, 262.

Minnesingers, 258.

Minor orders of the clergy, 20.

Minorca, 507.

Mirabeau, 564.

Miracles, frequency of, in Middle Ages, 46 f.

Missi dominici, 86, 102.

Missions, greatly increase the power of the pope, 66; of the Jesuits, 442.

Model Parliament, 147.

Modern languages, origin of, 40, 250 ff.

Mohammed, 68 f.

Mohammedan conquests, see Arabic conquests.

Mohammedan invasion of Italy, 150.

Mohammedanism, 69 f.

Mohammedans, 68 ff., 88; gradual expulsion of, from Spain, 83, 356 f.; commerce of, 199, 243.

Molière, 500.

Moluccas, 347, 348.

Monasteries, breaking up of, in Germany, 407 f.; in England, 432 f.

Monasticism, attraction of, for many different classes, 56 f.

Money, scarcity of, in the Middle Ages, 98; use of, 236, 247.

Mongol emperors of India, 529 and note.

Mongols, 510.

Moniteur, 578.

Monk, George, 490.

Monk of St. Gall, 78 and note.

Monks, 46; origin and distinguished services of, 56 f., 219.

Monte Cassino, founding of, 57.

Montesquieu, 552.

Moors, in Spain, 357 f.; expulsion of, 464.

Moravians, 149.

More, Sir Thomas, 427, 432.

Morgarten, battle of, 421.

Mort d' Arthur, Malory's, 255, note.

Moscow, 512, 514; princes of, 510 f.; Napoleon at, 621.

Mosque, 70.

Mountain party, 585 f.

Münster, 472.

Murat, king of Naples, 618.

Murten, battle of, 422.

Nantes, Edict of, granting of, 457; revocation of, 504 f.

Nantes, massacre at, 589.

Naples, kingdom of, 180, 360, note, 363 f., 613; revolution in, 635, 637 f.

Napoleon Bonaparte, 536, 574, 592 ff.; idea of, of a European empire, 609; Memoirs of, 624.

Napoleon II, 620.

Napoleon III, 644; intervenes in Italy, 654 f.; position of, after 1866, 662.

Naseby, battle of, 486.

National Assembly, first French, 564, 570; close of, 576 f.

National guard, 566.

National workshops, 643 f.

"Natural boundaries" of France, 501 f.

Natural laws, discovery of, 672 f.

Navigation Act, 488.

Necker, 556.

Nelson, 597 f., 615.

Netherlands, 295; come into Austrian hands, 301; revolt of, 445 ff.; Louis XIV claims, 502; Spanish, ceded to Austria, 507.

Neustria, 37 f.

New Testament, edition of, by Erasmus, 382.

New York, 492.

Newspapers, origin of French, 578; Napoleon's attitude toward, 608 f.

Newton, Sir Isaac, 673.

Nicæa, Council of, 21; during First Crusades, 188, 192.

Niccola of Pisa, 340.

Nicholas II, Pope, decree of, 162.

Nicholas V, 320, 337.

Niebelungs, Song of the, 253.

Nimwegen, Peace of, 503.

Nobility, origin of Frankish, 38; titles of, 86; character of feudal, 112, 234 f.; in France under Louis XI, 299 f.; established by Napoleon, 608, 617.

Nobles, privileges of, in France, 542 f.; emigration of French, 575.

Nogaret, 306.

Non-juring clergy, 572 f., 579.

Nördlingen, battle of, 470.

Norman conquest of England, 136 ff.; results of, 138 f.

Normandy, 122 f., 127, 284, 292.

Normans, amalgamate with the English, 139, 146; in Sicily, 180, note. See also Northmen.

Norse literature, 99, note.

North German Federation, 660 f.

Northmen, treaty of Charles the Fat with, 96 f., 99 and note; in Russia, 510.

Northumbria, king of, 62.

Notables, meeting of, 558 f.

Novara, battle of, 650.

Novgorod, 248, 510.

Nuremberg, 373; diet of (1522), 410 f.

Odo, 96, 120 f.

Odoacer, 28.

Ordeal, 41, 142.

Ordination, sacrament of, 211.

Orient, European relations with, 199 f., 244.

Orleanists, 664, note.

Orleans, duke of, 292; Maid of, 294.

Ormond, 487.

Osnabrück, 472.

Ostrogoths, see East Goths.

Other-worldliness of mediæval Christianity, 45.

Othman, 517.

Otto I, the Great, of Germany, 149 ff.

Otto of Brunswick, 182.

Otto of Freising, 173, 197.

Overlord, 106, note.

Pagan idea of the life after death, 18, 45.

Paganism, merges into Christianity, 19; of Italian humanists, 335.

Painting, Italian, 340 f., 346; in northern Europe, 346.

Palace, school of the, 90.

Palatinate, electorate of, 372, 467; Louis XIV's operations in, 505.

Pallium, 203, 307.

Pan-Slavic Congress of 1848, 648.

Papacy, origin of, 49 ff.; seat of, transferred to Avignon, 306 f., 308, 317. See also Pope.

Papal legates, 162.

Papal states, 75 f., 170, 320, 620, 639, 655, 667. See also Pope.

Papyrus, supply of, cut off, 87.

Paris, 37, 96; Treaty of (1763), 532; Peace of (1783), 534; importance in the Revolution, 570; commune of, 581, 589; insurrection of (June, 1848), 643; of 1871, 664.

Parish, administration of, 208 f.

Parlements, French, origin of, 130 f., 547 f., 559 f.

Parliament, English, 147, 281, 286, 289; after Wars of the Roses, 298, 308, 475; struggle of, with Charles I, 478 ff., 496.

Parma, duchess of, 447 f.

Parsifal, by Wolfram von Eschenbach, 258.

Patrick, St., 62.

Paulus Diaconus, 90.

Peasants' War, in England, 309; in Germany, 407, 413 ff.

Peasants in France, condition of, before the French Revolution, 544 f.

Penance, sacrament of, 211 f.

Pepys, Diary of, 492.

Persecution, religious, 432, 436; of English Catholics, 462.

Peter Lombard, Sentences of, 268, 334, 425.

Peter, St., 49 f.

Peter the Great, 511 ff.; reforms of, 512.

Peter the Hermit, 190.

Petition of Right, 479.

Petrarch, 288, 332 ff.

Philip Augustus of France, 125 ff., 130, 183, 197, 246.

Philip the Fair, of France, 131, 196, 280; struggle of, with Boniface VIII, 304 f.

Philip VI of France, 283.

Philip the Good, of Burgundy, 293, 295, 300.

Philip II of Spain, 436, 444 ff.; reign of, 463 f.

Philip V, first Bourbon king of Spain, 506.

Picts, 279.

Piedmont, reforms in, 654.

Piers Ploughman, 290.

Pilgrim Fathers, 483.

Pillnitz, Declaration of, 577 f.

Pins, illustration of the manufacture of, 677.

Pippin of Heristal, 38.

Pippin the Short, 72 f., 75 f.

Pisa, Council of, 313.

Pitt, the elder, 530.

Pius IX, 639, 648.

Plantagenets, 125 ff., 140 ff.

Plassey, battle of, 531 f.

Plebiscite, 600, 644.

Poitiers, battle of, 285.

Poland, 153, 514; first partition of, 521, 583 f.; Napoleon's campaign in, 614; dispute over, at the Congress of Vienna, 626 f.

Pomerania, 473.

Pondicherry, 530.

Pope, 52; origin of name of, 52, note; 54 f., 66; alliance of, with Franks, 72 f., 75 f.; opposition to iconoclasm, 74, 85; relations of, with Otto the Great, 151 f.; position of, in tenth and early eleventh centuries, 161; election of, 162; powers of, claimed for by Gregory VII, 164 f.; position of, in the Church, 202 ff.; during the Great Schism, 310 ff.; attitude of, toward councils, 438; attitude of, toward Italian unity, 639, 647; position of, since 1870, 667.

Popular sovereignty defended by Rousseau, 552.

Port Mahon, 532.

Portuguese, explorations by, 347 f.; colonies of, 348, 527, 685.

Praise of Folly, by Erasmus, 383, 427.

Prayer-book, English, 435, 458, 482, 491.

Preaching Friars, 231.

Prefects, French, 599.

Presbyterian Church, 425 f., 459, 482 f.

Presbyters, 19 f., 426, note.

Press, censorship of, in the eighteenth century, 549.

Pressburg, Treaty of, 611.

Pride's Purge, 486.

Priest, 20; duties of, 208 f.

Prime minister, 526.

Prince Charlie, 527.

Prince of Wales, origin of title of, 278.

Printing, invention of, 337 f.; modern methods of, 678.

Privileges in France, 540; abolition of, 567.

Protestant, origin of term, 416 f.

Protestant revolt, conditions explaining, 377; course of, in Germany, 405 ff.

Protestant union of German princes, 415, 466.

Protestantism, in Germany, 418 ff.; in Switzerland, 423 ff.; in England, 430-435; in the Netherlands, 447 ff.; in France, 451 ff.

"Protests" of the French parlements, 547.

Provençal language, 254; troubadours' songs in, 256.

Provisors, statute of, in England, 308.

Prussia, 474, 515 ff., 544; war of, with France, 581, 583 f., 593, 613 f.; reforms of Stein and Hardenberg, 622 f.; after 1815, 626 f., 631; in 1848, 646; strengthening of army of, 656 f.; war with Austria (1866), 660; war with France (1870), 662 f.; predominating influence of, in the German empire, 666.

Prussians conquered by the Teutonic knights, 196.

Ptolemy's estimate of size of the world, 350.

Pufendorf, 508.

Purgatory, 212.

Puritans, 482, 483 and note, 491.

Quakers, 491.

Quebec, 528, 530.

Racine, 500.

Railroads, development of, 678 f.

Rajah, 529.

Raphael, 344 f.

Ravenna, interior of a church at, 29.

Reaction, after Napoleon's downfall, 628; in Germany, 634 f.

Reason, worship of, 589.

Reform Act, English, 682, note.

Regalia, 177.

Regensburg, formation of Catholic party at, 412.

Regular clergy defined, 59.

Reichsdeputationshauptschluss, 603.

Reign of Terror, 537, 573, 588 ff.; customs of, abolished, 607.

Relics, German collections of, 377 f.

Relief, 108, note.

Religious equality, 683.

Rembrandt, 346.

Renaissance, 321, 329 f.

Republic, the "red," in France, 643.

Republican calendar, 591.

Republican party in France, origin of, 576.

Restoration in England, 490.

Reuchlin, 380.

Revolution of 1848, 642 ff.; results of, 653.

Revolutionary Tribunal, 588.

Reynard the Fox, 256.

Rhine, left bank of, ceded to France, 603.

Rhine, the Confederation of the, 612 f.

Richard I, the Lion-Hearted, 126 f., 144, 197 f.

Richard II of England, 291, 315.

Richard III of England, 297.

Richelieu, 458, 467, 495; intervenes in the Thirty Years' War, 471 f.

Rights of Man, Declaration of, 568 ff.

Rising in the north of England, 460.

Roads, 12; poor, in the Middle Ages, 98, 242.

Robbia, Luca della, 343.

Robert Guiscard in Naples and Sicily, 180, note.

Robespierre, 589, f.

Rois fainéants, 38.

Roland, Song of, 83, note, 255.

Rollo, 122 f.

Roman Church, the mother church, 49 f.

Roman Empire, 8 ff.; reasons for decline of, 12 ff.; religious revival in, 18; "fall" of, in the West, 27; relations of, with Church, 47; continuity of, 84 f.

Roman law, 11; retained by Theodoric, 29; supplanted by German customs, 40; study of, revived, 177, 269.

Romana lingua, see French language.

Romance languages, derivation of, 251 f.

Romances, mediæval, 254 f.

Rome, city of, 26, 53, 305, 310; ascendency of, in art, 344; sack of, 417, note; made a republic, 648; added to the kingdom of Italy, 667.

Romulus Augustulus, 28.

Roncaglia, Frederick I holds two assemblies at, 176 f.

Roncesvalles, Pass of, 83, note.

Rossbach, battle of, 520.

"Rotten boroughs," 682, note.

Roumania, 669 f.

Roumelia, Eastern, 670, note.

Roundheads, 485.

Round Table, Knights of the, 255.

Rous, 510.

Rousillon, 471 f.

Rousseau, 551.

Royal library of France, 501.

Rubens, 346.

Rudolf of Hapsburg, 355.

Rule of St. Benedict, 57 f.

Rump Parliament, 487 f.

Rurik, 510.

Russia, 509 ff.; relations of, with Napoleon, 614, 620 f.; Crimean War of, 668 f.; recent expansion of, 686.

Sacraments, 210 f.; attacked by Luther, 397 f.; confirmed by the Council of Trent, 439.

Sacrosancta, decree, 317.

Sagas, 99, note.

St. Bartholomew's Day, massacre of, 455 f.

St. Bernard, 197, 219, 268.

St. Dominic, 229 f.

St. Francis of Assisi, 225 ff., 342.

St. Mark's church at Venice, 323.

St. Meinrad, 423.

St. Omer, terms of charter of, 240.

St. Peter's Church at Rome, 344.

St. Petersburg, founding of, 512 f.

Saint-Simon, 500.

Saladin takes Jerusalem, 197.

Salamander, mediæval account of, quoted, 260.

Salisbury, oath of, 137 f.

Salt tax, French, 540.

Saracens, see Mohammedans.

Saratoga, battle of, 534.

Sardinia, kingdom of, 628.

Satires of the sixteenth century, 406.

Savonarola, 361 f.

Savoy, France deprived of, 625.

Saxons, 27, 79 ff., 98; settle in England, 60; rebel against Henry IV, 166.

Saxony, 179 f.; electorate of, 372; question of, at the Congress of Vienna, 626 f.

Scandinavian kingdoms, 468 f.

Schism, the Great, 310 f., 314 f.

Schleswig-Holstein affair, 657 f.

Schoifher, Peter, 338, note.

Scholasticism, 272 f.

School of the palace, 90.

Schools established by Charlemagne, 88 f.

Science, mediæval, 260, 356; modern methods of, 678 ff.

Scotch people, 280 f.

Scotland, 135, 278 ff., 459; under the same ruler as England, 476; Charles I at war with, 483; union with England, 524; welcomes the Young Pretender, 526 f.

Sculpture, mediæval, 262, 265 f.; Renaissance, 340.

Secular clergy defined, 59.

Sedan, battle of, 663.

Seigneur, derivation of, 106, note.

Seneca, opinion on origin of practical arts, 14.

Senior, late Latin, 106, note.

Senlac, battle of, 136.

Sentences of Peter Lombard, 210, 425.

Sepoys, 531.

September massacres, 582.

Serfdom, 16, 234; disappearance of, in England, 290 f.; abolished in France, 567; in Prussia, 622.

Serfs, coloni resemble the, 16, 100; condition of, 234 ff., 414. See also Serfdom.

Servia, 668 ff.

Sevastopol, 669.

Seven Years' War, 519 f.; in India, 530 ff.

Sévigné, Madame de, 500, 505.

Sforza family, 327.

Shakespeare, 477 f.

Sheriffs appointed by William the Conqueror, 137.

Ship money, 481, 484.

Shires, 135 and note.

Sicily, 180, 182, 185, 360, note.

Sickingen, Franz von, 406 f., 409 f.

Sigismund, Emperor, 314 f.

Silesia, 518 f.

Simon de Montfort leads Albigensian crusade, 223.

Simon de Montfort, Parliament of, 146 f.

Simony, 158 f., 161, 218.

"Simple priests" of Wycliffe, 309.

"Six Articles," the, 431 f.

Slavery in Roman Empire, 13 ff.

Slavs, 82; on the borders of Germany, 150, 153; settlement of, in Europe, 509, 648 f.

Smith, Adam, 677.

Social Contract of Rousseau, 551.

Social Democrats, 643.

Sophia of Hanover, 524.

Sorbonne, 452.

South Bulgaria, 670, note.

Southampton granted a charter, 240.

Spain, 26, 70 f., 83, 346; maritime power of, 351; under Charles V, 354, 356 f., 445, 451, 455; decline of, 464; colonies of, 527; Napoleon attempts to control, 618 f., 623, 637; loses American colonies, 684 f.

"Spanish fury," 450.

Spanish language, derivation of, 251.

Spanish March, 83, 94.

Spanish Netherlands, see Netherlands.

Spanish Succession, War of the, 506 ff.

Spectacles, invention of, 352.

Speyer, Edict of (1526), 415 f.; protest of, 316 f. and note.

Spice trade, importance of, 348 f.

Stamp Act, 532.

Star Chamber, Court of, 484.

State, character of, in Middle Ages, 48, 165.

States of the Church, see Papal states.

Statutes of Laborers, 289.

Steam, application of, 675 f.

Steamboats, 678.

Steel, 676.

Steelyard, 248.

Stein, reforms of, 622, 631.

Stem duchies in Germany, 148 f.

Stephen, king of England, 140.

Stone of Scone, 280.

Strafford, 484.

Strand laws, 247.

Strasburg, 473; seized by Louis XIV, 504, 663 f.

Strasburg oaths, 94.

Stuart, house of, 475.

Students' associations in Germany, 633.

Subdeacon, 20.

Subinfeudation, 106 f.

Subtenant, 107.

Subvassals, 107 ff.

Suffrage, extension of, 682.

Sully, 457 f.

Sutri, the council of, 160.

Suzerain, 106 and note.

Sweden, 468 f., 473; under Charles XII, 513 f.

Swiss mercenaries, 423 and note.

Switzerland, origin of, 421 ff.; Protestant revolt in, 423 ff., 473, 605, 626.

Symbolism, mediæval, 261.

Syria, Bonaparte's campaign in, 598.

Taille, 299, 540, 545 f., 556, 559.

Talleyrand, 626.

Tamerlane, 529, note.

Tancred, 180 f.

Tartars, 510.

Taxation, in Roman Empire, 13; papal, 204, 384; of church property, 304; without representation, 533; reform of, in France, 567.

Teachers, government, in Roman Empire, 12, 32.

Telescope, 67.

Templars, 195 f., 306.

Temporalities, 156.

"Tennis-Court" oath, 564.

Test Act 492; repeal of, 683.

Tetzel, 390.

Teutonic order, 195 f.; in Prussia, 515 f.

Theodoric, 28 ff.

Theodosian Code, provisions of, relating to the Church, 21.

Theodosius the Great, 22 f., 27.

Theology in University of Paris, 269.

Thermidor, 9th, 590, note.

Theses, Luther's ninety-five, 390 f.

Third estate, 543 ff.

Thirty-Nine Articles, the, 435.

Thirty Years' War, 465 ff.

Thomas à Becket, 142 f.

Thomas Aquinas, 231, 272.

Three Henrys, War of the, 456.

Tilly, 469 f.

Tilsit, treaties of, 614.

Timur, 529, note.

Tithe, 81, 202.

Titian, 346.

Toleration, religious, in Germany, 415 ff., 419 f.; in France, 454 ff.; modern, 683.

Tolls in Middle Ages, 246 f.

Toul, 452, 473.

Toulouse, counts of, 124, 256.

Tourneys, 118.

Tours, battle of, 71 f.

Towns, representatives of, summoned to Parliament, 147; in Middle Ages, 174, 200, 232, 237 f., 248; German, 373, 375, 604; growth of the modern, 680.

Trade, mediæval, 238, 242 f.; restrictions on, abolished, 680.

Trafalgar, battle of, 615.

Transubstantiation, 213, 309, 425, 431.

Treasury of "good works," 378.

Trent, Council of, 437 ff.

Treves, 12; electorate of, 372.

Trial by jury, 142.

Trials, mediæval, 41, 140 ff.

Triple Alliance, 502 f.

Troubadours, 256.

Troyes, Treaty of (1420), 293.

Truce of God, 118.

Tsar, title of, 511, note.

Tudor, house of, 296 f.

Tuilleries, 581, 664.

Turenne, 472.

Turgot, 553, note, 554 f.

Turkey in Europe, 535; disruption of, 628, 667 ff.

Turks, 188, 190 f., 376, 514, 517.

Twelve Articles of the peasants, 413 f.

Ulfilas translates Bible into Gothic, 252.

Ulm, 374, 611.

Unction, sacrament of extreme, 211.

United Provinces, 450, 473.

Unity of the Church, by Cyprian, 20.

Unity of history, 4.

Universities, mediæval, 269 f., 333, 356; German, 380, 398.

Urban II, 188.

Usufruct, 105.

Usury, doctrine of, 245.

Utopia, by Sir Thomas More, 427.

Utrecht, Union of, 450; Treaty of, 507.

Valentinian III, decree of, 51.

Valois, house of, 455.

Van Dyck, 346.

Van Eyck brothers, 346.

Vandals, 26, 33.

Varennes, flight to, 575 f.

Vassals, origin of, 102 f., 106; obligations of, 110 f.

Vasco da Gama, 348.

Vassy, massacre of, 455.

Vatican library, 337.

Velasquez, 346.

Vendée, La, revolt of, 587.

Venerable Bede, the, 56, 64.

Venetia given to Austria, 626; 655; ceded to Italy, 667.

Venice, founding of, 27; commerce of, 194, 198 f., 243 f., 347; government of, 321 f.; painting at, 346; war of, with League of Cambray, 364 f.; destruction of republic of, 595; in 1848, 648. See Venetia.

Verdun, 452, 473; Treaty of, 93; fall of, 582.

Versailles, 498.

Vespasiano, Italian bookseller, 337, note.

Veto, royal, in England, 524 and note.

Victor Emmanuel, 650, 654 f.

Vienna, siege of, by Turks, 517 f.; Congress of, 625 ff.; revolution of 1848 in, 645, 650.

Vikings, 99, note.

Villa, Roman, 14, 100.

Villehardouin, 260.

Visconti, 324 f., 364.

Visigoths, see West Goths.

Voltaire, 519, 549 ff.

Vulgate, 51, 439.

Wager of battle, 41.

Wagram, battle of, 619.

Waibling, castle of, 179, note.

Waldensians, 221 f., 452.

Waldo, Peter, 221.

Wales, 135, 277 f.

Wallenstein, 468 and note, 469 f.

Wallingford, charter of, 240.

Walpole, 526.

Walther von der Vogelweide, 258, 384.

War and Peace of Grotius, 508.

War, neighborhood, 117 ff.

War of the Barons, 146 f.

Warfare, modern, 684, 686.

Wars of the Roses, 296 ff.

Warsaw, grand duchy of, 614, 626.

Wartburg, 405; festival at the, 633.

Washington, George, 533 f.

Waterloo, battle of, 624.

Watt, James, 675.

Welf, 179.

Wellington, 623 f.

Wessex, 133.

West Frankish kingdom, 94. See also Franks.

West Goths, 25 f., 36, 39, 71.

Westphalia, kingdom of, 614, 623.

Westphalia, Peace of, 472 f.

Whitby, Council of, 62.

White Hill, battle on the, 467.

William the Conqueror, claim of, to English crown, 136; policy of, in England, 136 ff., 165.

William III of England, 492 ff., 505, 506, 523 f., 525.

William of Orange, king of England, see William III.

William of Orange (the Silent), 448 ff.

William I of Prussia, 656 f.; chosen emperor, 665.

"Winter king," 467.

Witenagemot, 135, 137, 147.

Wittenberg, University of, 389; reform at, 407 f.

Wolfram von Eschenbach, 258.

Wolsey, Cardinal, 367, 427 ff.

Worms, council of, 167; Concordat of, 171; diet of, 400 f.; Edict of, 403 f., 415.

Writing, style of, used in Charlemagne's time, 89.

Würtemberg, 372; duke of, assumes the title of King, 612; granted a constitution, 635.

Wycliffe, John, 308 f.; influence of, on Huss, 315, 393.

Xavier, 442.

"Yea and Nay," by Abelard, 268.

York, house of, 296, 297, note.

Young, Arthur, 544.

Young Italy, 639.

Young Pretender, 526 f.

Zealand, 449.

Zipangu (Japan), 347.

Zollverein, 635.

Zurich, 421 f., 424.

Zwingli, 416, 420, 423 ff.

FOOTNOTES:

[1] There is a short description of Roman society in Hodgkin, Dynasty of Theodosius, Chapter II.

[2] Reference, Adams, Civilization during the Middle Ages, Chapter II, "What the Middle Ages started with."

[3] There are a number of editions of this work in English, and selections from Epictetus are issued by several publishers. See Readings, Chapter II.

[4] There is an English translation of this published by Stock ($1.20).

[5] Whoever separates himself from the Church, writes Cyprian, is separated from the promises of the Church. "He is an alien, he is profane, he is an enemy, he can no longer have God for his father who has not the Church for his mother. If anyone could escape who was outside the Ark of Noah, so also may he escape who shall be outside the bounds of the Church." See Readings in European History, Chapter II.

[6] Reference, Adams, Civilization, Chapter III, "The Addition of Christianity."

[7] See Readings in European History, Chapter II, for extracts from the Theodosian Code.

[8] An older town called Byzantium was utilized by Constantine as the basis of his new imperial city.

[9] St. Augustine, who was then living, gives us an idea of the impression that the capture of Rome made upon the minds of contemporaries, in an extraordinary work of his called The City of God. He undertakes to refute the argument of the pagans that the fall of the city was due to the anger of their old gods, who were believed to have withdrawn their protection on account of the insults heaped upon them by the Christians, who regarded them as demons. He points out that the gods whom Æneas had brought, according to tradition, from Troy had been unable to protect the city from its enemies and asks why any reliance should be placed upon them when transferred to Italian soil. His elaborate refutation of pagan objections shows us that heathen beliefs still had a strong hold upon an important part of the population and that the question of the truth or falsity of the pagan religion was still a living one in Italy.

[10] Reference, Emerton, Introduction to the Middle Ages, Chapter III.

[11] Reference, Emerton, Introduction, Chapter V.

[12] Reference, Oman, Dark Ages, Chapter I.

[13] Reference, Oman, Dark Ages, Chapter II.

[14] See above, p. 19.

[15] See Readings, Chapter III (end), for historical writings of this period.

[16] For Justinian, who scarcely comes into our story, see Oman, Dark Ages, Chapters V-VI.

[17] Reference, Oman, Dark Ages, Chapter IV.

[18] See Readings, Chapter III, for passages from Gregory of Tours.

[19] Reference, Emerton, Introduction, 68-72.

[20] Reference, Oman, Dark Ages, Chapter XV.

[21] The northern Franks, who did not penetrate far into the Empire, and the Germans who remained in Germany proper and in Scandinavia, had of course no reason for giving up their native tongues; the Angles and Saxons in Britain also adhered to theirs. These Germanic languages in time became Dutch, English, German, Danish, Swedish, etc. Of this matter something will be said later. See below, § 97.

[22] Extracts from the laws of the Salian Franks may be found in Henderson's Historical Documents, pp. 176-189.

[23] Professor Emerton gives an excellent account of the Germanic ideas of law in his Introduction, pp. 73-91; see also Henderson, Short History of Germany, pp. 19-21. For examples of the trials, see Translations and Reprints, Vol. IV, No. 4. A philosophical account of the character of the Germans and of the effects of the invasions is given by Adams, Mediæval Civilization, Chapters IV-V.

[24] Tacitus' Germania, which is our chief source for the German customs, is to be found in Translations and Reprints, Vol. VI, No. 3. For the habits of the invading Germans, see Henderson, Short History of Germany, pp. 1-11; Hodgkin, Dynasty of Theodosius, last half of Chapter II.

[25] See above, § 7.

[26] For reports of miracles, see Readings, especially Chapters V and XVI.

[27] Matt. xvi. 18-19. Two other passages in the New Testament were held to substantiate the divinely ordained headship of Peter and his successors: Luke xxii. 32, where Christ says to Peter, "Stablish thy brethren," and John xxi. 15-17, where Jesus said to him, "Feed my sheep." See Readings, Chapter IV.

[28] The name pope (Latin, papa = father) was originally and quite naturally applied to all bishops, and even to priests. It began to be especially applied to the bishops of Rome perhaps as early as the sixth century, but was not apparently confined to them until two or three hundred years later. Gregory VII (d. 1085) was the first to declare explicitly that the title should be used only for the Bishop of Rome. We shall, however, hereafter refer to the Roman bishop as pope, although it must not be forgotten that his headship of the Western Church did not for some centuries imply the absolute power that he came later to exercise over all the other bishops of western Europe.

[29] The great circular tomb was later converted into the chief fortress of the popes and called, from the event just mentioned, the Castle of the Angel (San Angelo).

[30] For extracts from Gregory's writings, see Readings, Chapter IV.

[31] Benedict did not introduce monasticism in the West, as is sometimes supposed, nor did he even found an order in the proper sense of the word, under a single head, like the later Franciscans and Dominicans. Nevertheless, the monks who lived under his rule are ordinarily spoken of as belonging to the Benedictine order. A translation of the Benedictine rule may be found in Henderson, Historical Documents, pp. 274-314.

[32] Cunningham, Western Civilization, Vol. II, pp. 37-40, gives a brief account of the work of the monks.

[33] See Readings, Chapter V, for Gregory's instructions to his missionaries.

[34] See Readings, Chapter V.

[35] There is a Life of St. Columban, written by one of his companions, which, although short and simple in the extreme, furnishes a better idea of the Christian spirit of the sixth century than the longest treatise by a modern writer. This life may be found in Translations and Reprints, Vol. II, No. 7, translated by Professor Munro.

[36] For extracts from the Koran, see Readings, Chapter VI.

[37] An admirable brief description of the culture of the Arabs and their contributions to European civilization will be found in Munro, Mediæval History, Chapter IX.

[38] One of the most conspicuous features of early Protestantism, eight hundred years later, was the revival of Leo's attack upon the statues and frescoes which continued to adorn the churches in Germany, England, and the Netherlands.

[39] Charlemagne is the French form for the Latin, Carolus Magnus, i.e., Charles the Great. It has been regarded as good English for so long that it seems best to retain it, although some writers, fearful lest one may think of Charles as a Frenchman instead of a German, use the German form, Karl.

[40] Professor Emerton (Introduction, pp. 183-185) gives an example of the style and spirit of the monk of St. Gall, who was formerly much relied upon for knowledge of Charlemagne.

[41] These decrees lose something of their harshness by the provision: "If after secretly committing any one of these mortal crimes any one shall flee of his own accord to the priest and, after confessing, shall wish to do penance, let him be freed, on the testimony of the priest, from death." This is but another illustration of the theory that the Church was in the Middle Ages a governmental institution. It would be quite out of harmony with modern ideas should the courts of law, in dealing with one who had committed a crime, consider in any way the relations of the suspected criminal to his priest or minister, or modify his sentence on account of any religious duties that the criminal might consent to perform.

[42] The king of Prussia still has, among other titles, that of Margrave of Brandenburg. The German word Mark is often used for "march" on maps of Germany.

[43] The Mohammedan state had broken up in the eighth century, and the ruler of Spain first assumed the title of emir (about 756) and later (929) that of caliph. The latter title had originally been enjoyed only by the head of the whole Arab empire, who had his capital at Damascus, and later at Bagdad.

[44] As Charlemagne was crossing the Pyrenees, on his way back from Spain, his rear guard was attacked in the Pass of Roncesvalles. The chronicle simply states that Roland, Count of Brittany, was slain. This episode, however, became the subject of one of the most famous of the epics of the Middle Ages, the Song of Roland. See below, § 99.

[45] Reference, for Charlemagne's conquests, Emerton, Introduction, Chapter XIII; Oman, Dark Ages, Chapters XX-XXI.

[46] See Readings, Chapter VII, and Bryce, Holy Roman Empire, Chapter V.

[47] See extracts from these regulations, and an account of one of Charlemagne's farms, in Readings, Chapter VII.

[48] For the capitulary relating to the duties of the missi, see Readings, Chapter VII.

[49] See above, p. 32.

[50] These lines are taken from a manuscript written in 825. They form a part of a copy of Charlemagne's admonition to the clergy (789) mentioned below. The part here given is addressed to the bishops and warns them of the terrible results of disobeying the rules of the Church. Perhaps the scribe did not fully understand what he was doing, for he has made some of those mistakes which Charlemagne was so anxious to avoid. Then there are some abbreviations which make the lines difficult to read. They ought probably to have run as follows: ... mereamini. Scit namque prudentia vestra, quam terribili anathematis censura feriuntur qui praesumptiose contra statuta universalium conciliorum venire audeant. Quapropter et vos diligentius ammonemus, ut omni intentione illud horribile execrationis judicium ...

[51] See Readings, Chapter VII.

[52] References for the reign of Louis the Pious, Henderson, Germany in the Middle Ages, Chapter VI; Oman, Dark Ages, Chapter XXIII.

[53] Named for Lothaire II.

[54] For the text and translation of the Strasburg oaths, see Emerton, Mediæval Europe, pp. 26-27, or Munro, Mediæval History, p. 20. A person familiar with Latin and French could puzzle out a part of the oath in the lingua romana; that in the lingua teudisca would be almost equally intelligible to one familiar with German.

[55] The following table will show the relationship of the descendants of Charlemagne:

Charlemagne, d. 814 | Louis the Pious, d. 840 | +---------------------------+--------------------------+ | | | Lothaire, d. 855 Louis the German, d. 876 Charles the Bald, d. 877 | | | | +-----------------------------+ | | | | Carloman, d. 880 Charles the Fat (deposed 887) | | | | Louis the Stammerer, d. 879 | | | | | +----------------+------------------+ | | | | Arnulf, d. 899 Louis, d. 882 Carloman, d. 884 Charles the Simple, d. 929[56] | Louis the Child, d. 911.

[56] Who was too young to be considered in 884, but afterwards became king of France and progenitor of the later Carolingian rulers.

[57] Reference, Henderson, Germany in the Middle Ages, Chapter VII; Oman, Dark Ages, Chapter XXV.

[58] Reference, Munro, Mediæval History, pp. 34-39. The Northmen extended their expeditions to Spain, Italy, and even into Russia. In England, under the name of Danes, we find them forcing Alfred the Great to recognize them as the masters of northern England (878). The Norse pirates were often called vikings, from their habit of leaving their long boats in the vik, i.e., bay or inlet. A goodly number of the Northmen settled in Iceland, and our knowledge of their civilization and customs comes chiefly from the Icelandic sagas, or tales. Some of these are of great interest and beauty; perhaps none is finer than The Story of Burnt Njal. This and others may be read in English. See Readings, Chapter VIII.

[59] An account of the manor will be given later, Chapter XVIII.

[60] See an example of an immunity granted by Charlemagne to a monastery, in Emerton, Introduction, pp. 246-249, also Munro, Mediæval History, p. 44. Other examples are given in the Readings, Chapter IX.

[61] Extracts from the chronicles of the ninth century illustrating the disorder of the period will be found in the Readings, Chapter VIII.

[62] See above, p. 16.

[63] See an example of this form of grant in the seventh century in Readings, Chapter IX. The reader will also find there a considerable number of illustrations of feudal contracts, etc.

[64] See formula of "commendation," as this arrangement was called, in Readings, Chapter IX. The fact that the Roman imperial government forbade this practice under heavy penalties suggests that the local magnates used their retainers to establish their independence of the imperial taxgatherers and other government officials.

[65] See Adams, Civilization, pp. 207 sqq.

[66] Lord is dominus, or senior, in mediæval Latin. From the latter word the French seigneur is derived. Suzerain is used to mean the direct lord and also an overlord separated by one or more degrees from a subvassal.

[67] A relic of the time when fiefs were just becoming hereditary was preserved in the exaction by the lord of a certain due, called the relief. This payment was demanded from the vassal when one lord died and a new one succeeded him, and from a new vassal upon the death of his predecessor. It was originally the payment for a new grant of the land at a time when fiefs were not generally held hereditarily. The right did not exist in the case of all fiefs and it varied greatly in amount. It was customarily much heavier when the one succeeding to the fief was not the son of the former holder but a nephew or more distant relative.

[68] Homage is derived from the Latin word for man, homo.

[69] The conditions upon which fiefs were granted might be dictated either by interest or by mere fancy. Sometimes the most fantastic and seemingly absurd obligations were imposed. We hear of vassals holding on condition of attending the lord at supper with a tall candle, or furnishing him with a great yule log at Christmas. Perhaps the most extraordinary instance upon record is that of a lord in Guienne who solemnly declared upon oath, when questioned by the commissioners of Edward I, that he held his fief of the king upon the following terms: When the lord king came through his estate he was to accompany him to a certain oak. There he must have waiting a cart loaded with wood and drawn by two cows without any tails. When the oak was reached, fire was to be applied to the cart and the whole burned up "unless mayhap the cows make their escape."

[70] The feudal courts, especially those of the great lords and of the king himself, were destined to develop later into the centers of real government, with regular judicial, financial, and administrative bodies for the performance of political functions.

[71] In the following description of the anarchy of feudalism, I merely condense Luchaire's admirable chapter on the subject in his Manuel des Institutions Françaises. The Readings, Chapters X, XII, XIII, XIV, furnish many examples of disorder.

[72] The gorgeous affairs of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries were but weak and effeminate counterparts of the rude and hazardous encounters of the thirteenth.

[73] References, for the mediæval castle, the jousts, and the life of the nobles, Munro, Mediæval History, Chapter XIII, and Henderson, Short History of Germany, pp. 111-121.

[74] See the famous "Truce of God" issued by the Archbishop of Cologne in 1083, in Readings, Chapter IX.

[75] See genealogical table, above, p. 96.

[76] Reference, Emerton, Mediæval Europe, pp. 405-420. Readings, Chapter X.

[77] Not to be confounded with the duchy of Burgundy just referred to. See p. 97, above.

[78] See genealogical table and map of the Plantagenet possessions, pp. 140-141, below.

[79] Henry's family owes its name, Plantagenet, to the habit that his father, Geoffrey of Anjou, had of wearing a bit of broom (planta genista) in his helmet on his crusading expeditions.

[80] Geoffrey, the eldest of the three sons of Henry II mentioned above, died before his father.

[81] The Estates General were so called to distinguish a general meeting of the representatives of the three estates of the realm from a merely local assembly of the provincial estates of Champagne, Provence, Brittany, Languedoc, etc. There are some vague indications that Philip had called in a few townspeople even earlier than 1302.

[82] For the French monarchy as organized in the thirteenth century, see Emerton, Mediæval Europe, pp. 432-433; Adams, Civilization, pp. 311-328.

[83] In spite of the final supremacy of the West Saxons of Wessex, the whole land took its name from the more numerous Angles.

[84] References, Green, Short History of the English People (revised edition, Harper & Brothers), pp. 48-52; extracts from the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle may be found in Readings, Chapter XI.

[85] The shires go back at least as far as Alfred the Great, and many of their names indicate that they had some relation to the earlier little kingdoms, e.g., Sussex, Essex, Kent, Northumberland.

[86] See above, p. 62.

[87] Often called the battle of Hastings from the neighboring town of that name.

[88] For contemporaneous accounts of William's character and the relations of Normans and English, see Colby, Sources, pp. 33-36, 39-41; Readings, Ch. XI.

[89] Reference, for the Conqueror and his reign, Green, Short History, pp. 74-87, and Gardiner, Students' History, pp. 86-114.

[90]

William I (1066-1087), m. Matilda, daughter of Baldwin V of Flanders | +----+----------------------+-------------------------+ | | | William II (Rufus) Henry I (1100-1135), Adela, m. Stephen, (1087-1100) m. Matilda, daughter of Count of Blois Malcolm, King of Scotland | | | Matilda (d. 1167), Stephen (1135-1154) m. Geoffrey Plantagenet, Count of Anjou | Henry II (1154-1189), the first Plantagenet king

[91] See above, p. 126.

[92] References, Green, pp. 104-112; Gardiner, pp. 138-158. A contemporaneous account of the murder is given by Colby, Sources, pp. 56-59.

[93] See above, p. 126.

[94] For John's reign, see Green, pp. 122-127.

[95] The text of the Great Charter is given in Translations and Reprints, Vol. I, No. 6; extracts, in the Readings, Chapter XI.

[96] These were payments made when the lord knighted his eldest son, gave his eldest daughter in marriage, or had been captured and was waiting to be ransomed.

[97] See map following p. 152 for the names and position of the several duchies.

[98] Arnulf, the grandson of Louis the German, who supplanted Charles the Fat, died in 899 and left a six-year-old son, Louis the Child (d. 911), who was the last of the house of Charlemagne to enjoy the German kingship. The aristocracy then chose Conrad I (d. 918), and, in 919, Henry I of Saxony, as king of the East Franks.

[99] See Readings, Chapter XII.

[100] See Emerton, Mediæval Europe, Chapter IV, for a clear account of the condition of the papacy, the struggles between the rival Italian dynasties, and the interference and coronation of Otto the Great.

[101] Henry II (1002-1024) and his successors, not venturing to assume the title of emperor till crowned at Rome, but anxious to claim the sovereignty of Rome as indissolubly attached to the German crown, began to call themselves before their coronation rex Romanorum, i.e., King of the Romans. This habit lasted until Luther's time, when Maximilian I got permission from the pope to call himself "Emperor Elect" before his coronation, and this title was thereafter taken by his successors immediately upon their election.

[102] For Otto II, Otto III, and Henry II, see Emerton, Mediæval Europe, Chapter V; and Henderson, Germany in the Middle Ages, pp. 145-166.

[103] These grants of the powers of a count to prelates serve to explain the ecclesiastical states,--for example, the archbishoprics of Mayence and Salzburg, the bishopric of Bamberg, and so forth,--which continue to appear upon the map of Germany until the opening of the nineteenth century.

[104] From the beginning, single life had appealed to some Christians as more worthy than the married state. Gradually, under the influence of monasticism, the more devout and enthusiastic clergy voluntarily shunned marriage, or, if already married, gave up association with their wives after ordination. Finally the Western Church condemned marriage altogether for the deacon and the ranks above him, and later the sub-deacons were included in the prohibition. The records are too incomplete for the historian to form an accurate idea of how far the prohibition of the Church was really observed throughout the countries of the West. There were certainly great numbers of married clergymen in northern Italy, Germany, and elsewhere, in the tenth and eleventh centuries. Of course the Church refused to sanction the marriage of its officials and called the wife of a clergyman, however virtuous and faithful she might be, by the opprobrious name of "concubine."

[105] Pronounced sĭm'o-ny.

[106] Reference, Emerton, Mediæval Europe, pp. 201-209.

[107] The word cardinal (Latin, cardinalis, principal) was applied to the priests of the various parishes in Rome, to the several deacons connected with the Lateran,--which was the cathedral church of the Roman bishopric,--and, lastly, to six or seven suburban bishops who officiated in turn in the Lateran. The title became a very distinguished one and was sought by ambitious prelates and ecclesiastical statesmen, like Wolsey, Richelieu, and Mazarin. If their official titles were examined, it would be found that each was nominally a cardinal bishop, priest, or deacon of some Roman church. The number of cardinals varied until fixed, in 1586, at six bishops, fifty priests, and fourteen deacons.

[108] The decree of 1059 is to be found in Henderson, Historical Documents, p. 361.

[109] For text of the Dictatus, see Readings, Chapter XIII. The most complete statement of Gregory's view of the responsibility of the papacy for the civil government is to be found in his famous letter to the Bishop of Metz (1081), Readings, Chapter XIII.

[110] For this letter, see Colby, Sources, p. 37.

[111] Reissues of this decree in 1078 and 1080 are given in the Readings, Chapter XIII.

[112] To be found in the Readings, Chapter XIII.

[113] Henry's letter and one from the German bishops to the pope are both in Henderson, Historical Documents, pp. 372-376.

[114] Gregory's deposition and excommunication of Henry may be found in the Readings, Chapter XIII.

[115] For Gregory's own account of the affair at Canossa, see Readings, Chapter XIII.

[116] For a fuller account of the troubles between Gregory and Henry, see Henderson, Germany in the Middle Ages, pp. 183-210; Emerton, Mediæval Europe, pp. 240-259.

[117] See Readings, Chapter XIII.

[118] For the emperors Lothaire (1125-1137) and Conrad III (1138-1152), the first of the Hohenstaufens, see Emerton, Mediæval Europe, pp. 271-282.

[119] Something will be said of the mediæval towns in Chapter XVIII.

[120] Reference, Emerton, Mediæval Europe, pp. 271-291.

[121] Reference, Emerton, Mediæval Europe, pp. 293-297.

[122] The origin of the name Ghibelline, applied to the adherents of the emperor in Italy, is not known; it may be derived from Waibling, a castle of the Hohenstaufens.

[123] The attention of the adventurous Normans had been called to southern Italy early in the eleventh century by some of their people who, in their wanderings, had been stranded there and had found plenty of opportunities to fight under agreeable conditions for one or another of the local rival princes. From marauding mercenaries, they soon became the ruling race. They extended their conquests from the mainland to Sicily, and by 1140 they had united all southern Italy into a single kingdom. The popes had naturally taken a lively interest in the new and strong power upon the confines of their realms. They skillfully arranged to secure a certain hold upon the growing kingdom by inducing Robert Guiscard, the most famous of the Norman leaders, to recognize the pope as his feudal lord; in 1059 he became the vassal of Nicholas II.

[124] For John's cession of England and oath of vassalage, see Henderson, Historical Documents, pp. 430-432. For the interdict, see Colby, Sources, pp. 72-73.

[125] For the career and policy of Innocent III, see Emerton, Mediæval Europe, pp. 314-343.

[126] An excellent account of Frederick's life is given by Henderson, Germany in the Middle Ages, pp. 349-397.

[127] For the speech of Urban, see Readings, Chapter XV.

[128] The privileges of the crusaders may be found in Translations and Reprints, Vol. I, No. 2.

[129] For Peter the Hermit, see Translations and Reprints, Vol. I, No. 2.

[130] For the routes taken by the different crusading armies, see the accompanying map.

[131] For an account of the prowess of Richard the Lion-Hearted, see Colby, Sources, pp. 68-70.

[132] Heraldry may be definitely ascribed to the Crusades, for it grew up from the necessity of distinguishing the various groups of knights. Some of its terms, for example, gules (red) and azur, are of Arabic origin.

[133] References. For the highly developed civilization which the crusaders found in Constantinople, Munro, Mediæval History, Chapter X. For the culture of the Saracens, see the same work, Chapter IX.

[134] The law of the Church was known as the canon law. It was taught in most of the universities and practiced by a great number of lawyers. It was based upon the acts of the various church councils, from that of Nicæa down, and, above all, upon the decrees and decisions of the popes. See Emerton, Mediæval Europe, pp. 582-592.

One may get some idea of the business of the ecclesiastical courts from the fact that the Church claimed the right to try all cases in which a clergyman was involved, or any one connected with the Church or under its special protection, such as monks, students, crusaders, widows, orphans, and the helpless. Then all cases where the rites of the Church, or its prohibitions, were involved came ordinarily before the church courts, as, for example, those concerning marriage, wills, sworn contracts, usury, blasphemy, sorcery, heresy, and so forth.

[135] Many of the edicts, decisions, and orders of the popes were called bulls from the seal (Latin, bulla) attached to them.

[136] For an illustration of provinces and bishoprics, see accompanying map of France showing the ecclesiastical divisions. The seats of the archbishops are indicated by [Symbol]; those of the bishops by [Symbol].

[137] See below, § 81.

[138] Except those monasteries and orders whose members were especially exempted by the pope from the jurisdiction of the bishops.

[139] Those clergymen who enjoyed the revenue from the endowed offices connected with a cathedral church were called canons. The office of canon was an honorable one and much sought after, partly because the duties were light and could often be avoided altogether. A scholar like Petrarch might look to such an office as a means of support without dreaming of performing any of the religious services which the position implied. For an account of the relations between the chapter and the bishop, see Emerton, Mediæval Europe, pp. 549-550.

[140] It should be remembered that only a part of the priests were intrusted with the care of souls in a parish. There were many priests among the wandering monks, of whom something will be said presently. See below, § 91. There were also many chantry priests whose main function was saying masses for the dead in chapels and churches endowed with revenue or lands by those who in this way provided for the repose of their souls or those of their descendants. See below, p. 213.

[141] For several centuries the Sentences were used as the text-book in all the divinity schools. Theologians established their reputations by writing commentaries upon them. One of Luther's first acts of revolt was to protest against giving the study of the Sentences preference over that of the Bible in the universities.

[142] All the sacraments,--e.g. orders and matrimony,--are not necessary to every one. Moreover, the sincere wish suffices if one is so situated that he cannot possibly actually receive the sacraments.

[143] Confession was a very early practice in the Church. Innocent III and the fourth Lateran Council made it obligatory by requiring the faithful to confess at least once a year, at Easter time. For sacraments, see Readings, Chapter XVI.

[144] See above, p. 183, and Translations and Reprints, Vol. IV, No. 4, for examples of the interdict and excommunication.

[145] The privilege of being tried by churchmen, which all connected with the Church claimed, was called benefit of clergy. See Readings, Chapter XVI.

[146] The bishops still constitute an important element in the upper houses of parliament in several European countries.

[147] For a satire of the thirteenth century on the papal court, see Emerton, Mediæval Europe, p. 475.

[148] It must not be forgotten that the monks were regarded as belonging to the clergy. For the various new orders of monks and the conditions in the monasteries, see Munro, Mediæval History, Chapter XII, and Jessopp, Coming of the Friars, Chapter III, "Daily Life in a Mediæval Monastery."

[149] See Readings, Chapter XVII.

[150] See Readings, Chapter XVII, for the beliefs of the Albigenses.

[151] Examples of these decrees are given in Translations and Reprints, Vol. III, No. 6.

[152] His son married an English lady, became a leader of the English barons, and was the first to summon the commons to Parliament. See above, pp. 146-147.

[153] For the form of relaxation and other documents relating to the Inquisition, see Translations and Reprints, Vol. III, No. 6.

[154] The whole rule is translated by Henderson, Historical Documents, p. 344.

[155] In Italy and southern France town life was doubtless more general.

[156] The peasants were the tillers of the soil. They were often called villains, a word derived from vill.

[157] The manner in which serfs disappeared in England will be described later.

[158] Reference, Munro, Mediæval History, Chapter XIV, where the subject of this chapter is treated in a somewhat different way.

[159] In Germany the books published annually in the German language did not exceed those in Latin until after 1680.

[160] Even the monks and others who wrote Latin in the Middle Ages were unable to follow strictly the rules of the language. Moreover, they introduced many new words to meet the new conditions and the needs of the time, such as imprisonare, imprison; utlagare, to outlaw; baptizare, to baptize; foresta, forest; feudum, fief, etc.

[161] See above, pp. 94-95.

[162]

"Bytuene Mershe and Avoril When spray beginneth to springe, The little foul (bird) hath hire wyl On hyre lud (voice) to synge."

[163] Of course there was no sharp line of demarcation between the people who used the one language and the other, nor was Provençal confined to southern France. The language of Catalonia, beyond the Pyrenees, was essentially the same as that of Provence. French was called langue d'oïl, and the southern language langue d'oc, each after the word used for "yes."

[164] The Song of Roland is translated into spirited English verse by O'Hagan, London, 1880.

[165] The reader will find a beautiful example of a French romance of the twelfth century in an English translation of Aucassin and Nicolette (Mosher, Portland, Me.). Mr. Steele gives charming stories of the twelfth and thirteenth centuries in Huon of Bordeaux, Renaud of Montauban, and The Story of Alexander (Allen, London). Malory's Mort d'Arthur, a collection of the stories of the Round Table made in the fifteenth century for English readers, is the best place to turn for these famous stories.

[166] An excellent idea of the spirit and character of the troubadours and of their songs may be got from Justin H. Smith, Troubadours at Home (G.P. Putnam's Sons, New York). See Readings, Chapter XIX.

[167] Reference, Henderson, Short History of Germany, Vol. I, pp. 111-121.

[168] See Steele's Mediæval Lore for examples of the science of the Middle Ages. For the curious notions of the world and its inhabitants, see the Travels, attributed to Sir John Mandeville. The best edition is published by The Macmillan Company, 1900. See Readings, Chapter XIX.

[169] The word miniature, which is often applied to them, is derived from minium, i.e., vermilion, which was one of the favorite colors. Later the word came to be applied to anything small. See the frontispiece for an example of an illuminated page from a book of hours.

[170] So called because it was derived from the old Roman basilicas, or buildings in which the courts were held.

[171] In France as early as the twelfth century.

[172] Notice flying buttresses shown in the picture of Canterbury cathedral, p. 208.

[173] See Readings, Chapter XIX.

[174] The origin of the bachelor's degree, which comes at the end of our college course nowadays, may be explained as follows: The bachelor in the thirteenth century was a student who had passed part of his examinations in the course in "arts," as the college course was then called, and was permitted to teach certain elementary subjects before he became a full-fledged master. So the A.B. was inferior to the A.M. then as now. After finishing his college course and obtaining his A.M., the young teacher often became a student in one of the professional schools of law, theology, or medicine, and in time became a master in one of these sciences. The words master, doctor, and professor meant pretty much the same thing in the thirteenth century.

[175] An example of the scholastic method of reasoning of Thomas Aquinas may be found in Translations and Reprints, Vol. III, No. 6.

[176] Reference, Green, Short History of the English People, pp. 161-169.

[177] See above, p. 147.

[178] See above, pp. 127-128 and 130.

[179] See above, pp. 131-132.

[180] Formerly it was supposed that gunpowder helped to decide the battle in favor of the English, but if siege guns, which were already beginning to be used, were employed at all they were too crude and the charges too light to do much damage. For some generations to come the bow and arrow held its own; it was not until the sixteenth century that gunpowder came to be commonly and effectively used in battles.

[181] For the account of Crécy by Froissart, the celebrated historian of the fourteenth century, see Readings, Chapter XX.

[182] See above, pp. 131-132.

[183] Reference, Adams, Growth of the French Nation, pp. 116-123.

[184] For an example of the Statutes of Laborers, see Translations and Reprints, Vol. II, No. 5, and Lee, Source-book of English History, pp. 206-208.

[185] For extracts, see Readings, Chapter XX.

[186] For description of manor, see above, pp. 234-235.

[187] For this younger line of the descendants of Edward I, see genealogical table below, p. 297.

[188] See above, p. 287.

[189] The title of Dauphin, originally belonging to the ruler of Dauphiny, was enjoyed by the eldest son of the French king after Dauphiny became a part of France in 1349, in the same way that the eldest son of the English king was called Prince of Wales.

[190] Reference, Green, Short History, pp. 274-281. For official account of the trial of Joan, see Colby, Sources, pp. 113-117.

[191] DESCENT OF THE RIVAL HOUSES OF LANCASTER AND YORK

Edward III (1327-1377) | +------------------------+---------------------------+ | | | Edward, John of Gaunt, Edmund, the Black Prince Duke of Lancaster Duke of York (d. 1376) | | | +--------+---------+ | | | | | RICHARD II | | | (1377-1399) | | | HENRY IV John Beaufort Richard (1399-1413) | | | | | HENRY V John Beaufort Richard (1413-1422) | | | | | HENRY VI | +-----------+--------------+ (1422-1461) | | | | EDWARD IV RICHARD III | (1461-1483) (1483-1485) | | | +--+----------+ Edmund Tudor m. Margaret | | | | | HENRY VII m. Elizabeth of York EDWARD V (1485-1509), Murdered in First of the the Tower, Tudor kings 1483

[192] References, Green, Short History, pp. 281-293, 299-303.

[193] See Readings, Chapter XX.

[194] Reference, Adams, Growth of the French Nation, pp. 121-123, 134-135.

[195] See above, p. 128.

[196] See geneological table above, p. 282.

[197] See below, Chapter XXIII.

[198] Reference, Adams, French Nation, pp. 136-142.

[199] See Readings, Chapter XXI.

[200] The name recalled of course the long exile of the Jews from their land.

[201] See Readings, Chapter XXI.

[202] For statutes, see Translations and Reprints, Vol. II, No. 5, and Lee, Source-book, pp. 198-202.

[203] See above, p. 183.

[204] Reference, Green, Short History, pp. 235-244. For extracts, see Readings, Chapter XXI; Translations and Reprints, Vol. II, No. 5; Lee, Source-book, for the treatment of the Lollards, as the followers of Wycliffe were called, pp. 209-223.

[205] The eighth and last of these eastern councils, which were regarded by the Roman Church as having represented all Christendom, occurred in Constantinople in 869. In 1123 the first Council of the Lateran assembled, and since that five or six Christian congresses had been convoked in the West. But these, unlike the earlier ones, were regarded as merely ratifying the wishes of the pope, who completely dominated the assembly and published its decrees in his own name.

[206] See above, pp. 202-203.

[207] THE POPES DURING THE GREAT SCHISM

Gregory XI (1373-1378) Returns to Rome in 1377

Roman Line Avignon Line

Urban VI (1378-1389) Clement VII (1378-1394) | | Boniface IX (1389-1404) Benedict XIII (1394-1417) | | Innocent VII (1404-1406) Council of Pisa's Line | | | Gregory XII (1406-1415) Alexander V (1409-1410) | | | | | John XXIII (1410-1415) | | | | | | | | | | +------------------ Martin V (1417-1431) -----------------+

[208] See above, pp. 222-223.

[209] For examples of the general criticism of the abuses in the Church, see Translations and Reprints, Vol. III, No. 6.

[210] This decree, Frequens, may be found in Translations and Reprints, Vol. III, No. 6.

[211] On account of an outbreak of sickness the council was transferred to Florence.

[212] See above, p. 186.

[213] This word, although originally French, has come into such common use that it is quite permissible to pronounce it as if it were English,--rẹ-nā'sens.

[214] See above, p. 27.

[215] See above, pp. 198-199 and 243.

[216] See above, pp. 174 sqq.

[217] In the year 1300 Milan occupied a territory scarcely larger than that of the neighboring states, but under the Visconti it conquered a number of towns, Pavia, Cremona, etc., and became, next to Venice, the most considerable state of northern Italy.

[218] A single example will suffice. Through intrigue and misrepresentation on the part of Gian Galeazzo Visconti, the Marquis of Ferrara became so wildly jealous of his nephew that he beheaded the young man and his mother, then burned his own wife and hung a fourth member of the family.

[219] See above, pp. 31-32.

[220] The translation of The Banquet in Morley's "Universal Library" is very poor, but that of Miss Hillard (London, 1889) is good and is supplied with helpful notes.

[221] See the close of the fourth canto of the Inferno.

[222] See above, pp. 271-272.

[223] Copies of the Æneid, of Horace's Satires, of certain of Cicero's Orations, of Ovid, Seneca, and a few other authors, were apparently by no means uncommon during the twelfth and thirteenth centuries. It seemed, however, to Petrarch, who had learned through the references of Cicero, St. Augustine, and others, something of the original extent of Latin literature, that treasures of inestimable value had been lost by the shameful indifference of the Middle Ages. "Each famous author of antiquity whom I recall," he indignantly exclaims, "places a new offense and another cause of dishonor to the charge of later generations, who, not satisfied with their own disgraceful barrenness, permitted the fruit of other minds and the writings that their ancestors had produced by toil and application, to perish through shameful neglect. Although they had nothing of their own to hand down to those who were to come after, they robbed posterity of its ancestral heritage."

[224] Petrarch's own remarkable account of his life and studies, which he gives in his famous "Letter to Posterity," may be found in Robinson and Rolfe, Petrarch, pp. 59-76.

[225] See above, pp. 45-46.

[226] Historians formerly supposed that it was only after Constantinople was captured by the Turks in 1453 that Greek scholars fled west and took with them the knowledge of their language and literature. The facts given above serve as a sufficient refutation of this oft-repeated error.

[227] In Whitcomb, Source Book of the Italian Renaissance, pp. 70 sqq., interesting accounts of these libraries may be found, written by Vespasiano, the most important book dealer of the time.

[228] Manuscript, manu scriptum, means simply written by hand.

[229] The closing lines (i.e., the so-called colophon) of the second edition of the Psalter which are here reproduced, are substantially the same as those of the first edition. They may be translated as follows: "The present volume of the Psalms, which is adorned with handsome capitals and is clearly divided by means of rubrics, was produced not by writing with a pen but by an ingenious invention of printed characters; and was completed to the glory of God and the honor of St. James by John Fust, a citizen of Mayence, and Peter Schoifher of Gernsheim, in the year of our Lord 1459, on the 29th of August."

[230] Note the similarity in form of the letters in the accompanying illustration and those in the illuminated page which serves as the frontispiece of this volume. It is not easy at first sight to tell some early printed books from the best manuscripts. It may be observed that the Germans still adhere to a type something like that used by the first printers.

[231] See above, pp. 261-262.

[232] See above, p. 263.

[233] With the appearance of the mendicant orders, preaching again became an important part of the church service, and pulpits were erected in the body of the church, where the people could gather around them. These pulpits offered a fine opportunity to the sculptor and were often very elaborate and beautiful.

[234] The frescoes in Pompeii and other slight remnants of ancient painting were not discovered till much later.

[235] In the church of Santa Croce in Florence and in that of St. Francis at Assisi.

[236] Fra is an abbreviation of frate, brother.

[237] See below, pp. 361, 363, 364.

[238] One of the most celebrated among the other Florentine painters of the period was Botticelli. He differs from most of his contemporaries in being at his best in easel pictures. His poetic conceptions, the graceful lines of his draperies, and the pensive charm of his faces have especially inspired a famous school of English painters in our own day--the Preraphaelites.

[239] See below, pp. 364, 365.

[240] Leonardo was an engineer and inventor as well.

[241] Compare his Holy Family with the reproduction of one of Giotto's paintings, in order to realize the great change in art between the fourteenth and sixteenth centuries.

[242] See his portrait of Erasmus below, p. 382.

[243] For an example of the magnificent bronze work produced in Germany in the early sixteenth century, see the statues of Philip the Good and Charles the Bold, pp. 300, 301, above.

[244] See his portrait of Charles I below, p. 480.

[245] Marco Polo's travels can easily be had in English; for example, in The Story of Marco Polo, by Noah Brooks, Century Company, 1898. A certain Franciscan monk, William of Rubruk, visited the far East somewhat earlier than the Polo brothers. The account of his journey, as well as the experiences of other mediæval travelers, may be found in The Travels of Sir John Mandeville, published by The Macmillan Company, 1900.

[246] See map above, pp. 242-243.

[247] Reference, Cambridge Modern History, Chapter I.

[248] Reference, Cambridge Modern History, Chapter II. Kingsley has described these mariners in his Westward Ho. He derives his notions of them from the collection of voyages made by an English geographer, Hakluyt (died 1616). Some of these are published by Payne, Voyages of Elizabethan Seamen (Clarendon Press, 2 vols., $1.25 each).

[249] See above, pp. 85, 151 sq., and Chapters XIII-XIV.

[250] Rudolf, like many of his successors, was strictly speaking only king of the Romans, since he was never crowned emperor at Rome. See above, pp. 152 n., 185.

[251] From 1438 to 1806 only two emperors belonged to another family than the Hapsburgs.

[252] See above, p. 301.

[253] See above, p. 71.

[254] See map above, following p. 152.

[255] No one can gaze upon the great castle and palace of the Alhambra, which was built for the Moorish kings, without realizing what a high degree of culture the Moors had attained. Its beautiful and impressive arcades, its magnificent courts, and the delicate tracery of its arches represent the highest achievement of Arabic architecture.

[256] See above, pp. 224-225.

[257]

Austria Burgundy Castile Aragon Naples, etc. (America)

Maximilian I = Mary (d. 1482), Isabella = Ferdinand (d. 1516) (d. 1519) | dau. of Charles (d. 1504) | | the Bold (d. 1477) | | | Philip (d. 1506) === Joanna the Insane (d. 1555) | +---------------+-----+ | | Charles V (d. 1558) Ferdinand (d. 1564) = Anna, heiress to kingdoms Emperor, 1519-1556 Emperor, 1556-1564 of Bohemia and Hungary

[258] It will be remembered that the popes, in their long struggle with Frederick II and the Hohenstaufens, finally called in Charles of Anjou, the brother of St. Louis, and gave to him both Naples and Sicily. See above, p. 185. Sicily revolted in 1282 and was united with the kingdom of Aragon, which still held it when Charles V came to the Spanish throne. The older branch of the house of Anjou died out in 1435 and Naples was conquered by the king of Aragon, and was still in his family when Charles VIII undertook his Italian expedition. The younger branch of the house of Anjou had never reigned in Naples, but its members were careful to retain their asserted title to it, and, upon the death of their last representative, this title was transferred to Louis XI. He, however, prudently refused to attempt to oust the Aragonese usurpers, as he had quite enough to do at home.

[259] See above, p. 327.

[260] More important for France than the arrangements mentioned above was the so-called Concordat, or agreement, between Francis and the pope in regard to the selection of the French prelates. Francis was given the privilege of appointing the archbishops, bishops, and abbots, and in this way it came about that he and his successors had many rich offices to grant to their courtiers and favorites. He agreed in return that the pope should receive a part of the first year's revenue from the more important offices in the Church of France. The pope was, moreover, thereafter to be regarded as superior to a council, a doctrine which had been denied by the French monarchs since the Council of Basel. The arrangements of the Concordat of 1516 were maintained down to the French Revolution.

[261] See below, p. 428-429.

[262] The Catholic Church, on the other hand, held that certain important teachings, institutions, and ceremonies, although not expressly mentioned in the Bible, were nevertheless sanctioned by "tradition." That is, they had been handed down orally from Christ and his apostles as a sacred heritage to the Church, and like the Bible were to be received as from God. See Readings, Chapter XXIV.

[263] For the origin of these and of the other ecclesiastical states of Germany, see above, p. 156.

[264] The manner in which the numerous and often important ecclesiastical states all disappeared in Napoleon's time will become clear later. See below, § 244.

[265] See above, pp. 117 sqq. For the German law permitting feuds, see Henderson, Historical Documents, p. 246. In 1467, the German diet ventured to forbid neighborhood war for five years. It was not, however, permanently prohibited until a generation later.

[266] For example, in one of the books of instruction for the priest we find that he is warned, when he quotes the Bible, to say to the people that he is not translating it word for word from the Latin, for otherwise they are likely to go home and find a different wording from his in their particular version and then declare that the priest had made a mistake.

[267] Some seventeen universities had been established by German rulers and towns in a little over one hundred years. The oldest of them was founded in 1348 at Prague. Several of these institutions, for example, Leipsic, Vienna, and Heidelberg, are still ranked among the leading universities of the world.

[268] See above, § 104.

[269] For examples of these Letters of Obscure Men, see Whitcomb, Source Book of the German Renaissance, pp. 67 sq., and Translations and Reprints, Vol. II, No. 6. The peculiar name of the satire is due to the fact that Reuchlin's sympathizers wrote him many letters of encouragement, which he published under the title, Letters of Celebrated Men to John Reuchlin. The humanists then pitched upon the modest title, Letters of Obscure Men, for the supposed correspondence of the admirers of the monks. The following is an example of the "obscure men's" poetry. One of them goes to Hagenau and meets a certain humanist, Wolfgang Angst, who, the writer complains, struck him in the eye with his staff.

Et ivi hinc ad Hagenau Da wurden mir die Augen blau Per te, Wolfgang Angst, Gott gib das du hangst, Quia me cum baculo Percusseras in oculo.

[270] See below, pp. 426-7.

[271] This may be had in English, published by Scribner's Sons ($1.25) or Brentano ($1.25).

[272] See above, pp. 317-318.

[273] See above, p. 203.

[274] The Augustinian order, to which Luther belonged, was organized in the thirteenth century, a little later than the Dominican and the Franciscan.

[275] He writes exultingly to a friend: "Our kind of theology reigns supreme in the university; only one who lectures on the Bible, Augustine, or some real Church father, can reckon on any listeners; and Aristotle sinks lower and lower every day." In this way he sought to discredit Peter Lombard, Aquinas, and all the writers who were then most popular in the theological schools. Walker, The Reformation, pp. 77-91.

[276] See above, p. 211-212.

[277] It is a common mistake of Protestants to suppose that the indulgence was forgiveness granted beforehand for sins to be committed in the future. There is absolutely no foundation for this idea. A person proposing to sin could not possibly be contrite in the eyes of the Church, and even if he secured an indulgence it would, according to the theologians, have been quite worthless.

[278] See above, p. 344.

[279] The complete text of the theses may be found in Translations and Reprints, Vol. II, No. 6.

[280] See above, p. 209, for the Church's doctrine of the "indelible character" which the priest received at ordination.

[281] See above, §§ 81-82. The two great works of Luther, here mentioned, as well as his Freedom of the Christian, in which he explains his own doctrine very simply, may be found translated in Wace and Buchheim, Luther's Primary Works.

[282] It must be remembered that it was the emperor's business to execute the law, not to discuss its propriety with the accused. In the same way nowadays, should a man convicted, for example, of bigamy urge that he believed it Scriptural to have two wives, the court would refuse to listen to his arguments and would sentence him to the penalty imposed by law, in spite of the fact that the prisoner believed that he had committed no wrong.

[283] The text of the Edict of Worms is published in English in the Historical Leaflets issued by the Crozer Theological Seminary, Chester, Pa.

[284] See Readings, Chapter XXVI.

[285] See below, § 167.

[286] The "Twelve Articles" may be found in Translations and Reprints, Vol. II, No. 6.

[287] The Protest of Speyer is to be had in English in the Historical Leaflets published by the Crozer Theological Seminary, Chester, Pa.

[288] For the successive wars between Charles and Francis and the terrible sack of Rome in 1527, see Johnson, Europe in the Sixteenth Century, pp. 172-175 and 181-195.

[289] It is still accepted as the creed of the Lutheran Church. Copies of it in English may be procured from the Lutheran Publication Society, Philadelphia, for ten cents each.

[290] Reference, Johnson, Europe in the Sixteenth Century, Chapter V; Walker, The Reformation, pp. 188-216.

[291] See above, p. 300.

[292] This condition has not changed; all Swiss laws are still proclaimed in three languages.

[293] Switzerland had made a business, ever since the time when Charles VIII of France invaded Italy, of supplying troops of mercenaries to fight for others, especially for France and the pope. It was the Swiss who gained the battle of Marignano for Francis I, and Swiss guards may still be seen in the pope's palace.

[294] So eloquent was the new preacher that one of his auditors reports that after a sermon he felt as if "he had been taken by the hair and turned inside out."

[295] See above, pp. 212-213.

[296] For Zwingli's life and work see the scholarly biography by Samuel Macauley Jackson, Huldreich Zwingli (G.P. Putnam's Sons, 1901).

[297] See below, p. 452.

[298] Calvin intrusted the management of church affairs to the ministers and the elders, or presbyters, hence the name Presbyterian. For Calvin's work, see Johnson, Europe in the Sixteenth Century, pp. 272-276.

[299] See above, p. 382.

[300] An English translation of the Utopia is published by the Macmillan Company at 50 cents.

[301] See above, § 139.

[302] The clergy only recognized the king as "Head of the Church and Clergy so far as the law of Christ will allow." They did not abjure the headship of the pope over the whole Church.

[303] These were the sufficiency of the bread without the wine for the laity in partaking of the communion;[A] the celibacy of the clergy; the perpetual obligation of vows to remain unmarried; the propriety of private masses; and, lastly, of confession. The act was popularly known as "the whip with six strings."

[A] The custom of the Church had long been that the priest alone should partake of the wine at communion. The Hussites, and later the Protestants, demanded that the laity should receive both the bread and the wine.

[304]

Henry VIII, m. (1) Catherine, m. (2) Anne Boleyn, m. (3) Jane Seymour | | | Mary (1553-1558) Elizabeth (1558-1603) Edward VI (1547-1553)

It was arranged that the son was to succeed to the throne. In case he died without heirs, Mary and then Elizabeth were to follow.

[305] These may be found in any Book of Common Prayer of the English Church or of the Protestant Episcopal Church in the United States.

[306] For an extract from the Bishop of Worcester's diary, recording these changes, see Readings, Chapter XXVII.

[307] The Catholics in their turn, it should be noted, suffered serious persecution under Elizabeth and James I, the Protestant successors of Mary. Death was the penalty fixed in many cases for those who obstinately refused to recognize the monarch as the rightful head of the English Church, and heavy fines were imposed for the failure to attend Protestant worship. Two hundred Catholic priests are said to have been executed under Elizabeth; others were tortured or perished miserably in prison. See below, p. 462, and Green, Short History, pp. 407-410.

[308] There is an admirable account of the spirit of the conservative reformers in the Cambridge Modern History, Vol. I, Chapter XVIII.

[309] Protestant writers commonly call the reformation of the mediæval Catholic Church the "counter-reformation" or "Catholic reaction," as if Protestantism were entirely responsible for it. It is clear, however, that the conservative reform began some time before the Protestants revolted. Their secession from the Church only stimulated a movement already well under way. See Maurenbrecher, Geschichte der Katholischen Reformation.

[310] They may be had in English, Decrees and Canons of the Council of Trent, translated by Rev. J. Waterworth, London and New York. See extracts from the acts of the council in Translations and Reprints, Vol. II, No. 6.

[311] See Readings, Chapter XXVIII.

[312] Reference, Parkman's, Jesuits in North America, Vol. I, Chapters II and X.

[313] DIVISION OF THE HAPSBURG POSSESSIONS BETWEEN THE SPANISH AND THE GERMAN BRANCHES

Maximilian I (d. 1519), m. Mary of Burgundy (d. 1482) | Philip (d. 1506), m. Joanna the Insane (d. 1555) | +----------------------------+ | | Charles V (d. 1558) Ferdinand (d. 1564), m. Anna, heiress to kingdoms Emperor, 1519-1556 Emperor, 1556-1564 | of Bohemia and Hungary | | Philip II (d. 1598) Maximilian II (d. 1576) inherits Spain, the Netherlands, Emperor, and inherits Bohemia, and the Italian possessions of Hungary, and the Austrian possessions the Hapsburgs of the Hapsburgs

The map of Europe in the sixteenth century (see above, p. 372) indicates the vast extent of the combined possessions of the Spanish and German Hapsburgs.

[314] Reference, Johnson, Europe in the Sixteenth Century, Chapter VIII.

[315] It is impossible in so brief an account to relate the heroic deeds of the Dutch, such, for example, as the famous defence of Leyden. The American historian Motley gives a vivid description of this in his well-known Rise of the Dutch Republic, Part IV, Chapter II. The most recent and authoritative account of the manner in which the Dutch won their independence is to be found in the third volume of A History of the People of the Netherlands, by the Dutch scholar Blok, translated by Ruth Putnam (G.P. Putnam's Sons, 3 vols., $7.50). Miss Putnam's own charming William the Silent (G.P. Putnam's Sons, 2 vols., with many fine illustrations, $3.75) gives an impressive picture of the tremendous odds which he faced and of his marvellous patience and perseverance.

[316] Reference, Johnson, Europe in the Sixteenth Century, pp. 386-389.

[317] See Readings, Chapter XXVIII.

[318] See above, p. 221.

[319] The origin of this name is uncertain.

[320] Reference for Henry IV, Wakeman, Europe from 1598-1715, Chapter I.

[321] Reference, Schwill, History of Modern Europe, Chapter VI, or a somewhat fuller account in Johnson, Europe in the Sixteenth Century, Chapter IX.

[322] Reference, Green, Short History, pp. 370-376, 392-405.

[323] For English mariners and their voyages and conflicts with Spain, see Froude's English Seamen in the Fifteenth Century. The account of Drake's voyage is on pp. 75-103. See also "The Famous Voyage of Sir Francis Drake," by one of Drake's gentlemen at arms, in E.J. Payne's Voyages of Elizabethan Seamen to America, Vol. I, pp. 196-229, Oxford, 1893.

[324] See above, p. 62.

[325] Reference for life and death of Mary Stuart, Green, Short History, pp. 379-392, 416-417.

[326] References, Green, Short History of the English People, pp. 418-420; Froude, English Seamen, pp. 176-228.

[327] Reference, Johnson, Europe in the Sixteenth Century, Chapter VII, §§ 1 and 3.

[328] See above, pp. 419-420.

[329] Reference, Wakeman, Europe from 1598-1715, Chapter III.

[330] Wallenstein (b. 1583) had been educated in the Catholic faith, although he came of a family with Hussite sympathies.

[331] Reference, Wakeman, Europe from 1598-1715, Chapter IV.

[332] Reference, Wakeman, Europe from 1598-1715, Chapter V.

[333] See above, p. 452.

[334] Reference, Wakeman, Europe from 1598-1715, Chapter VI. For a brief and excellent review of the whole war, see Schwill, Modern Europe, pp. 141-160.

[335] See above, p. 467.

[336] See above, p. 273.

[337] See the translators' dedication to James I in the authorized version of the Bible. Only recently has it been deemed necessary to revise the remarkable work of the translators of the early seventeenth century. Modern scholars discovered very few serious mistakes in this authorized version, but found it expedient for the sake of clearness to modernize a number of words and expressions.

[338] See Lee, Source-book of English History, pp. 348-352.

[339] See Lee, Source-book of English History, pp. 352-355, for the first writ of ship money.

[340] See above, p. 426, n. 1.

[341] The name Puritan, it should be noted, was applied loosely to the English Protestants, whether Low Churchmen, Presbyterians, or Independents, who aroused the antagonism of their neighbors by advocating a godly life and opposing popular pastimes, especially on Sunday.

[342] Reference, Green, Short History, pp. 595-614. For a contemporary account of Puritans, see Readings, Chapter XXX.

[343] Reference, Lee, Source-book of English History, pp. 355-357.

[344] Reference for Cromwell's early career and his generalship, Green, Short History, pp. 554-559.

[345] For charge against the king, etc., see Lee, Source-book of English History, pp. 364-372.

[346] Reference, Green, Short History, pp. 580-588, 594-600.

[347] See below, p. 502.

[348] Reference, Wakeman, Europe from 1598-1715, Chapter VII.

[349] Louis does not appear to have himself used the famous expression, "I am the state," usually attributed to him, but it exactly corresponds to his idea of the relation of the king and the state.

[350] Reference, Perkins, France under the Regency, pp. 129-141.

[351] Reference, Perkins, France under the Regency, Chapter IV.

[352] Reference, Perkins, France under the Regency, pp. 141-147.

[353] See above, pp. 488 and 492, 493.

[354] See below, pp. 517-518.

[355] Reference, Perkins, France under the Regency, Chapter VI.

[356] The title Tsar, or Czar, was formerly supposed to be connected with Cæsar (German, Kaiser), i.e., emperor, but this appears to have been a mistake.

[357] References, Schwill, Modern Europe, pp. 215-230; Wakeman, European History from 1598-1715, pp. 300-308.

[358] See above, p. 196.

[359] The title King of Prussia appeared preferable to the more natural King of Brandenburg, because Prussia lay wholly without the empire, and consequently its king was not in any sense subject to the emperor but was wholly independent. Since western Prussia still belonged to Poland in 1701 the new king satisfied himself at first with the title, King in Prussia.

[360] Reference, Schwill, Modern Europe, pp. 230-238.

[361] Reference, Schwill, Modern Europe, pp. 238-247.

[362] Reference, Hassall, The Balance of Power, pp. 18, 19, 303-317. See map below, p. 584.

[363] The last instance in which an English ruler vetoed a measure passed by Parliament was in 1707.

[364] See above, pp. 278-280.

[365] Originally there had been but seven electors (see above, p. 372), but the duke of Bavaria had been made an elector during the Thirty Years' War, and in 1692 the father of George I had been permitted to assume the title of Elector of Hanover.

[366] Wolsey, it will be remembered, had advanced the same reason in Henry VIII's time for England's intervention in continental wars. See above, p. 428.

[367] Except in 1718-1720, when she joined an alliance against Spain, and her admiral, Byng, destroyed the Spanish fleet.

[368] Derived from Jacobus, the Latin for James. The name was applied to the adherents of James II and of his son and grandson, the elder and younger pretenders to the throne.

[369] It will be remembered that the children of James II by his second and Catholic wife, Mary of Modena, were excluded from the throne at the accession of William and Mary. See genealogical table on preceding page.

[370] The Dutch occupation of a portion of the coast of North America was brought to an end, as has been mentioned, by the English. See above, p. 492.

[371] For the settlement of the English and French in North America, see Morris, The History of Colonization, Vol. I, Chapter X, and Vol. II, Chapter XVII; also Parkman, Montcalm and Wolfe, Vol. I, pp. 20-35.

[372] See above, p. 348.

[373] Baber claimed to be descended from an earlier invader, the famous Timur (or Tamerlane), who died in 1405. The so-called Mongol (or Mogul) emperors were really Turkish rather than Mongolian in origin. A very interesting account of them and their enlightenment may be found in Holden, The Mogul Emperors of Hindustan (Charles Scribner's Sons, $2.00).

[374] Reference, Perkins, France under Louis XV, Vol. I, Chapter XI.

[375] Reference, Green, Short History of the English People, pp. 776-786.

[376] See below, p. 568.

[377] The interior customs lines roughly coincided with the boundaries of the region of the great salt tax. See accompanying map.

[378] The figures indicate the various prices of a given amount of salt.

[379] See above, p. 366.

[380] Reference, Lowell, Eve of the French Revolution, Chapter III.

[381] See above, Chapter XVIII.

[382] Only a very small portion of the nobility were descendants of the ancient and illustrious families of France. The king could grant nobility to whom he would; moreover, many of the government offices, especially those of the higher judges, carried the privileges of nobility with them.

[383] Reference, Lowell, Eve of the French Revolution, Chapter XIII.

[384] See above, § 192.

[385] See Lowell, Eve of the French Revolution, pp. 116-118.

[386] See the account of Voltaire's defense of Calas in Perkins, Louis XV, Vol. II, pp. 198 sqq.

[387] See above, p. 500.

[388] Turgot, the leading economist of the time, argues that it would be quite sufficient if "the government should always protect the natural liberty of the buyer to buy, and of the seller to sell. For the buyer being always the master to buy or not to buy, it is certain that he will select among the sellers the man who will give him at the best bargain the goods that suit him best. It is not less certain that every seller, it being his chief interest to merit preference over his competitors, will sell in general the best goods and at the lowest price at which he can make a profit in order to attract customers. The merchant or manufacturer who cheats will be quickly discredited and lose his custom without the interference of government."

[389] Reference, Lowell, Eve of the French Revolution, Chapter II.

[390] Turgot succeeded in inducing the king to abolish the guilds and the forced labor on the roads, but the decrees were revoked after Turgot's dismissal. For an admirable short account of Turgot's life, ideas, and reforms, see Say, Turgot (McClurg, 75 cents).

[391] See Readings, Chapter XXIV.

[392] Reference, Lowell, Eve of the French Revolution, pp. 238-242.

[393] See above, pp. 131-132.

[394] Reference, H. Morse Stephens, The French Revolution, Vol. I, pp. 13-15, 20-24.

[395] Pronounced kă-yā'.

[396] Examples of the cahiers may be found in Translations and Reprints, Vol. IV, No. 5.

[397] Reference, Lowell, Eve of the French Revolution, Chapter XXI.

[398] Reference, Stephens, The French Revolution, Vol. I, pp. 128-145.

[399] Reference, Stephens, The French Revolution, Vol. I, Chapter VI.

[400] This decree may be found in Translations and Reprints, Vol. I, No. 5.

[401] Reference, Stephens, French Revolution, Vol. I, Chapter VII.

[402] See above, p. 568.

[403] The text of the Civil Constitution of the Clergy may be found in Translations and Reprints, Vol. I, No. 5.

[404] Reference, Mathews, The French Revolution, Chapter XII.

[405] The formerly despotic king is represented as safely caged by the National Assembly. When asked by Marie Antoinette's brother what he is about, Louis XVI replies, "I am signing my name,"--that is, he had nothing to do except meekly to ratify the measures which the Assembly chose to pass.

[406] By June, 1791, there were four hundred and six of these affiliated clubs.

[407] A committee of the Convention was appointed to draw up a new republican calendar. The year was divided into twelve months of thirty days each. The five days preceding September 22, at the end of the year, were holidays. Each month was divided into three decades, and each "tenth day" (décadi) was a holiday. The days were no longer dedicated to saints, but to agricultural implements, vegetables, domestic animals, etc.

[408] In former times it had been customary to inflict capital punishment by decapitating the victim with the sword. At the opening of the Revolution a certain Dr. Guillotin recommended a new device, which consisted of a heavy knife sliding downward between two uprights. This instrument, called after him, the guillotine, which is still used in France, was more speedy and certain in its action than the sword in the hands of the executioner.

[409] Reference, for the conduct of the terrorists and the executions at Paris, Nantes, and Lyons: Mathews, The French Revolution, Chapter XVII.

It should not be forgotten that very few of the people at Paris stood in any fear of the guillotine. The city during the Reign of Terror was not the gloomy place that we might imagine. Never did the inhabitants appear happier, never were the theaters and restaurants more crowded. The guillotine was making away with the enemies of liberty, so the women wore tiny guillotines as ornaments, and the children were given toy guillotines and amused themselves decapitating the figures of "aristocrats." See Stephens, French Revolution, Vol. II, pp. 343-361.

[410] The date of Robespierre's fall is generally known as the 9th Thermidor, the day and month of the republican calendar.

[411] There were about forty billions of francs in assignats in circulation at the opening of 1796. At that time it required nearly three hundred francs in paper money to procure one in specie.

[412] See above, pp. 326-327.

[413] Reference, Rose, Life of Napoleon, Vol. I, Chapter VIII.

[414] Reference, Rose, Revolutionary and Napoleonic Era, pp. 95, 96, 104-108, 114, 115.

[415] Reference, Rose, Life of Napoleon, Vol. I, pp. 144-148.

[416] Reference, Ibid., Chapter X.

[417] See above, § 134.

[418] Reference, Rose, Revolutionary and Napoleonic Era, pp. 132-133.

[419] The roads were dilapidated and the harbors filled with sand; taxes were unpaid, robbery prevailed, and there was a general decay in industry. A manufacturer in Paris who had employed sixty to eighty workmen now had but ten. The lace, paper, and linen industries were as good as destroyed.

[420] See above, pp. 572-573, 579-580.

[421] Reference, Rose, Life of Napoleon, Vol. I, Chapter XII.

[422] Reference, Rose, Revolutionary and Napoleonic Era, pp. 148-163.

[423] See Translations and Reprints, Vol. II, No. 2.

[424] See above, p. 604.

[425] See above, p. 581.

[426] That is, a blockade too extensive to be really carried out by the ships at the disposal of the power proclaiming it.

[427] Reference, Rose, Life of Napoleon, Vol. II, pp. 197-207. For documents relating to the blockade and "the Continental system," see Translations and Reprints, Vol. II, No. 2.

[428] See Readings, Chapter XXXVIII.

[429] Napoleon was never content with his achievements or his glory. On the day of his coronation, December, 1806, he complained to his minister Decrès that he had been born too late, that there was nothing great to be done any more. On his minister's remonstrating he added: "I admit that my career has been brilliant and that I have made a good record. But what a difference is there if we compare ours with ancient times. Take Alexander the Great, for example. After announcing himself the son of Jupiter, the whole East, except his mother, Aristotle, and a few Athenian pedants, believed this to be true. But now, should I nowadays declare myself the son of the Eternal Father, there isn't a fishwife who would not hiss me. No, the nations are too sophisticated, there is nothing great any longer possible."

[430] "It depends upon you alone," he said to the Spanish in his proclamation of December 7, "whether this moderate constitution that I offer you shall henceforth be your law. Should all my efforts prove vain, and should you refuse to justify my confidence, then nothing remains for me but to treat you as a conquered province and find a new throne for my brother. In that case I shall myself assume the crown of Spain and teach the ill-disposed to respect that crown, for God has given me power and will to overcome all obstacles."

[431] Reference, Rose, Revolutionary and Napoleonic Era, pp. 193-201. Louis Bonaparte, the father of Napoleon III, and the most conscientious of the Bonaparte family, had been so harassed by his imperial brother that he had abdicated as king of Holland.

[432] Reference, Rose, Life of Napoleon, Vol. II, Chapter XXXII.

[433] See above, p. 544.

[434] This decree may be found in Translations and Reprints, Vol. II, No. 2.

[435] Reference, Rose, Revolutionary and Napoleonic Era, pp. 335-361.

[436] The son of Louis XVI had been imprisoned and maltreated by the terrorists. He died while still a boy in 1795, but nevertheless takes his place in the line of French kings as Louis XVII.

[437] Compare the accompanying map with that below, pp. 666-667.

[438] This document may be found in Translations and Reprints, Vol. I, No. 3.

[439] Reference, Andrews, Modern Europe, Vol. I, Chapter IV.

[440] Observe the boundary of the German Confederation as indicated on the map, pp. 626-627, above. Important portions of the German constitution of 1815 are given in Translations and Reprints, Vol. I, No. 3.

[441] For the Carlsbad Resolutions, see Translations and Reprints, Vol. I, No. 3.

[442] Reference, Andrews, Modern Europe, Vol. I, pp. 229-257.

[443] The island of Sardinia had, in 1720, been given to the duke of Savoy, who was also ruler of Piedmont. The duke thereupon assumed the title of king of Sardinia, but Piedmont, with Turin as its capital, remained, nevertheless, the most important part of the kingdom of Sardinia.

[444] Reference, Andrews, Modern Europe, Vol. I, pp. 205-212.

[445] Reference, Fyffe, History of Modern Europe (Popular Edition, 1896), Chapter XV.

[446] See above, p. 449.

[447] See above, p. 600.

[448] See map, p. 649, below.

[449] The Slavic inhabitants of Bohemia.

[450] Reference, Andrews, Modern Europe, Vol. II, Chapter III.

[451] He ruled until 1861 as regent for his brother, Frederick William IV, who was incapacitated by disease.

[452] Reference, Fyffe, Modern Europe, pp. 954-957.

[453] Andrews, Modern Europe, Vol. 2, pp. 173-180.

[454] In 1869 Spain was without a king, and the crown was tendered to Leopold of Hohenzollern, a very distant relative of William I of Prussia. This greatly excited the people of Paris, for it seemed to them only an indirect way of bringing Spain under the influence of Prussia. The French minister of foreign affairs declared that the candidacy was an attempt to "reëstablish the empire of Charles V." In view of this opposition, Leopold withdrew his acceptance of the Spanish crown early in July, 1870, and Europe believed the incident to be at an end. The French ministry, however, was not satisfied with this, and demanded that the king of Prussia should pledge himself that the candidacy should never be renewed. This William refused to do. The account of the demand and refusal was given in such a way in the German newspapers that it appeared as if the French ambassador had insulted King William. The Parisians, on the other hand, thought that their ambassador had received an affront, and demanded an immediate declaration of war.

[455] Reference, Fyffe, Modern Europe, pp. 988-1002.

[456] Alsace had, with certain reservations,--especially as regarded Strasburg and the other free towns,--been ceded to the French king by the treaty of Westphalia (see above, p. 473). Louis XIV disregarded the reservations and seized Strasburg and the other towns (1681) and so annexed the whole region to France. The duchy of Lorraine had upon the death of its last duke fallen to France in 1766. It had previously been regarded as a part of the Holy Roman Empire. In 1871 less than a third of the original duchy of Lorraine, together with the fortified city of Metz, was ceded back to Germany.

[457] The monarchical party naturally fell into two groups. One, the so-called legitimists, believed that the elder Bourbon line, to which Louis XVI and Charles X had belonged, should be restored in the person of the count of Chambord, a grandson of Charles X. The Orleanists, on the other hand, wished the grandson of Louis Philippe, the count of Paris, to be king. In 1873 the Orleanists agreed to help the count of Chambord to the throne as Henry V, but that prince frustrated the plan by refusing to accept the national colors,--red, white, and blue,--which had become so endeared to the nation that it appeared dangerous to exchange them for the white of the Bourbons.

[458] See above, p. 75.

[459] See above, pp. 514, 517-518, 535.

[460] See above, p. 640.

[461] Herzegovina is a small province lying between Bosnia and the Adriatic. Both Bosnia and Herzegovina appear on the map as a part of Austria, to which they now belong, to all intents and purposes. See map, p. 649, above.

[462] In 1885 South Bulgaria (formerly known as Eastern Roumelia) proclaimed itself annexed to Bulgaria. The Sultan, under the influence of the western powers, permitted the prince of Bulgaria to extend his power over South Bulgaria.

[463] See above, pp. 351-352.

[464] See The Progress of the Century, Harper Bros., pp. 181-188, 232-242.

[465] Reference, for the development of the inventions, Cheyney, Industrial History of England, pp. 199-216.

[466] See above, p. 488.

[467] See above, p. 500.

[468] See above, p. 553.

[469] Reference, Cheyney, Industrial History of England, pp. 224-239.

[470] For factory legislation in England, see Cheyney, Industrial History, pp. 244-262.

[471] Reference, Cheyney, Industrial History, pp. 277-293.

[472] England, like the continental countries, has gradually, during the nineteenth century, conceded the right to vote to almost all adult males. Before 1832 a great part of the members of the House of Commons were chosen, not by the voters at large but by a few individuals, who controlled the so-called "rotten boroughs." These boroughs had once been important enough to be asked by the king to send representatives to Parliament, but had sunk into insignificance, or even disappeared altogether. Meanwhile great manufacturing cities like Birmingham, Manchester, and Sheffield had grown up, and as there had been no redistribution of representatives after the time of Charles II, these large cities were unrepresented in Parliament. This evil was partially remedied by the famous Reform Act of 1832. At the same time the amount of property which one must hold in order to be permitted to vote was reduced. In 1867 almost all of the workingmen of the cities were granted the franchise by permitting those to vote who rented a lodging costing at least fifty dollars a year. This doubled the number of voters. In 1885 the same privilege was granted to the country people.

[473] See above, p. 492.

[474] See Sir Charles Dilke on "War," in The Progress of the Century, 333 sqq.

[475] The works here enumerated are those referred to in the notes throughout the volume. They would form a valuable and inexpensive collection for use in a high school. The prices given are in most instances subject to a discount, often as high as twenty-five per cent.

ANNOUNCEMENTS

AN INTRODUCTION TO THE HISTORY OF WESTERN EUROPE

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A SYLLABUS FOR THE HISTORY OF WESTERN EUROPE

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