An Illustrated Dictionary of Words used in Art and Archaeology Explaining terms frequently used in works on architecture, arms, bronzes, Christian art, colour, costume, decoration, devices, emblems, heraldry, lace, personal ornaments, pottery, painting, sculpture, &c., with their derivations. (part 4 of 4)

=Silver.= In Christian art, an emblem of purity. (See WHITE.) As one of the two metals among the tinctures of Heraldry, represented by a white space. (See ARGENT.)

=Silver, Cloth of.= Josephus tells us that the royal robe of Herod Agrippa was a tunic made of silver. In the Middle Ages it was woven, like gold, in long narrow shreds unmixed with anything else, into a web for garments.

=Sima=, Arch. (See CYMA.)

=Simikion=, Gr. (σιμίκιον). A musical instrument of the Greeks; it had thirty-five strings.

=Simpulum= or =Simpuvium=, R. A small cup used for libations. It was in the form of a ladle with a long handle.

=Sinciput.= The front part of the head. The back part is the occiput.

=Sindon= (σινδών). (See CORPORAL.)

=Singing-bread=, Chr. The larger altar breads used in the mass were called singing-bread; the smaller ones consecrated for the people were known as houseling bread. (See also HOLY BREAD.)

=Sinister=, Her. The left side of a shield (considered from the back, or wearer’s point of view). The bendlet or baton sinister is generally (not rigorously) regarded in modern Heraldry as the most appropriate difference of illegitimacy. (Consult Boutell’s English Heraldry, p. 194.)

=Sinopia.= A fine red pigment found upon ancient mural paintings.

=Sinum= or =Sinus=, R. A vessel of small dimensions, but tolerably wide and deep, which was used for holding wine or milk.

=Siparium=, R. The curtain of a theatre. It was divided in the middle and withdrawn to the sides to disclose the stage.

=Sipho=, Gr. (σίφων, a hollow body). A siphon for exhausting liquids from a vessel by the pressure of the atmosphere. A painting at Thebes shows that the principle of the siphon was known to the Egyptians as early as the eighteenth dynasty. The same name was applied to a suction and forcing pump, which was generally employed as a fire-engine.

=Sirens= (Gr. Σειρῆνες [probably from σειρὰ, a chain, to signify their attractive power]). These mythical representatives of the evil side of the seductive power of music, are represented in art as lovely women to the waist, and fishes or birds below. Sometimes they have wings, which the Muses are said to have plucked (see MUSES) of their feathers; as Orpheus, by opening their minds to the unattainable higher music, drove them to suicide in the end. In Christian symbolism the sirens typify the three carnal lusts. (See Fig. 455.)

=Sirpea.= (See SCIRPEA.)

=Sispa-sastra=, Hind. A Hindoo work, the title of which means literally the science of manual art. It was a kind of encyclopædia, and comprised about thirty treatises on the manual arts, and included a treatise on architecture written by a Hindoo whose name has not come down to us; but a sage or mage called Dupayana compiled, abridged, and edited, about 1500 B.C., the lost treatise of the Hindoo architect. (Bosc.)

=Sistrum=, Egyp. (σεῖστρον; σείω, to shake). A kind of rattle formed by a certain number of metallic rods which passed through a framework also of metal; this was attached to a short handle ending in a head of Athor. By shaking the instrument by the handle the metallic rods and the movable rings suspended from them were made to give out a sharp rattling sound. The Egyptians made use of the sistrum in the ceremonial worship of Isis and at funerals. Roman coins of Hadrian present a personification of Egypt as a female figure seated with the sacred ibis at her feet, and a sistrum in her hand. The instrument is still in use on the Nile.

=Sitella.= Diminutive of SITULA (q.v.).

=Situla=, R. A bucket for drawing water from a well.

=Situlus.= Synonym of SITULA (q.v.).

=Sixfoil=, Her. A flower of six leaves.

=Size= is used to prepare paper for printing upon, and as a vehicle in oil painting. (See DISTEMPER.)

=Skeens=, Celtic. Long sharp knives; “sheen dubh,” black knife, the Highlander’s dernier ressort.

=Skinning=, in Masonry. (See REGRATING.)

=Skirophorion.= (See SCIROPHORIUM.)

=Sling.= (See BALEA, FUNDA.)

=Slipped=, Her. Pulled or torn off.

=Smalt.= A vitreous substance coloured by cobalt, used for painting on china, not being affected by fire. It makes also a bad pigment in water-colour painting, and is largely used for giving a blue tinge to writing-paper, linen, &c. (See COBALT.)

=Smalti=, It. Cubes of coloured glass applied in the modern MOSAICS.

=Snail=, Chr. In Christian iconography the snail is an emblem of sloth and of the resurrection.

=Snood= (A.S. snôd). A head-band for ladies, of the Anglo-Saxon period, similar to that now used by young unmarried women in Scotland.

=Soapstone.= (See STEATITE.)

=Socculus.= Diminutive of soccus.

=Soccus=, Gr. and R. A slipper worn in Greece both by men and women, but at Rome by women only. It was worn by actors upon the stage.

=Socle=, Arch. A plain block or plinth forming a low pedestal to a column; or a plinth round the bottom of a wall.

=Soffit=, Arch. The flat surface on the lower side of an arch or cornice.

=Solarium=, R. (sol, the sun). (1) A sun-dial; (2) a water-clock or clepsydra (solarium ex aquâ); (3) a terrace constructed on the top of a house or portico.

=Soldurii=, Gaul. A body of Gallic warriors forming a CLAN under one chief.

=Solea=, R. and Chr. (solum, sole of the foot). A sandal of the simplest kind, consisting of a sole fastened on with straps over the instep. Solea ferrea, a horse-shoe, or soccus of iron; solea sparta, a sock of Spanish broom for the feet of beasts of burden or of cattle; solea lignea, wooden clogs fastened to the feet of criminals. Lastly the term denoted a machine for crushing olives, the nature and shape of which are entirely unknown. In Christian archæology, the term solea was used to denote, in the early basilicas, a space in front of the choir.

=Soler= (Lat. solarium; A.S. up-flor). The upper floor of a house, approached by a staeger (Ang. stair) outside.

=Soles of the Feet=, Egyp. and Chr. On a great number of Christian tombs there occur representations of the soles of the feet. This symbol has been variously explained. In our opinion, one which has never been broached before, it denoted that the dead were in the power of God; for among the Egyptians, whenever a god or powerful king was spoken of, it was said of him that he put his enemies under the sole of his foot. Ezekiel uses the same terms in speaking of Jehovah. Whenever an Egyptian went on a pilgrimage to a distant place, he never left the country without engraving on some stone the impression of his feet, to which he added his name and titles. (Bosc.)

=Soliferreum= or =Solliferreum=, R. A javelin made entirely of massive iron.

=Solium=, R. This term denotes (1) a chair or arm-chair with a high back; (2) a bier of wood or terra-cotta for a dead body; (3) the granite or marble seat in an ancient bath.

=Solstice.= The time when the sun appears to stand still, at one of the solstitial points, i. e. at his greatest distance from the equator; the summer solstice is the longest day, June 22nd; the winter solstice December 22nd, in the North Hemisphere; reversed in the South.

=Sonata=, Ital. A piece of music with various movements, composed for a single instrument with or without accompaniment. Sonate di camera, sonatas adapted for chamber music; sonate de chiesa, for churches.

=Sonnachiosi of Bologna.= One of the Italian Academies, having for their device a bear, which sleeps through the winter; and the motto spero avanzar con la vigilia il sonno. (I hope by vigils to make up for sleep.)

=Sorrows of the Virgin.= (See JOYS OF THE VIRGIN.)

=Sortes=, R. Lots; small tablets or counters thrown into a SITELLA or urn full of water, and withdrawn for soothsaying.

=Soteria=, Gr. and R. (σωτήρια, i. e. of saving). Sacrifices in honour of the gods offered by way of thanksgiving for escape from any danger.

=Sounding-board=, Chr. A sort of dome or canopy, placed above pulpits to convey the voice of the preacher to his auditory. In the centre of the lower part of the canopy there is often a carved dove, symbolizing the Holy Ghost. Sounding-boards must be placed five feet above the speaker’s head, and their diameter should exceed that of the pulpit by six to eight inches on either side.

=Soutane=, Fr. A white woollen cassock, worn by priests under the rochet.

=Sow=, Chr. In Christian iconography, the sow is a symbol of evil, impurity, gluttony, and fecundity. It is borne in the crest of Hamilton, Duke of Hamilton, with the motto, “Through.”

=Span.= Of an arch, the breadth between the imposts.

=Spandril=, Arch. The triangular space between the upper arch of a door and the square mouldings which form a frame to it.

=Spangles=, of gold and silver, were, in the Middle Ages, artistically shaped concave, and sewed on like tiles, one overlapping the other, producing a rich and pleasing effect. Our present flat spangles are quite modern.

=Spanish Black.= A pigment of burnt cork.

=Spanish Brown.= (See OCHRE.)

=Spanish Ferreto.= A rich reddish-brown pigment.

=Spanish Red.= An ochreous red pigment, yellower than the Venetian red.

=Spanish Stitch.= A kind of embroidery introduced into England by Katharine of Aragon in 1501.

=Span-roof=, Arch. Having two inclined sides; not a pent-roof.

=Spartea.= (See SOLEA.)

=Sparum=, R. A weapon specially employed by the agricultural population, whence its name of sparum agreste, telum rusticum. It was a kind of halberd. A form sparus was also in use.

=Spatha=, Gr. and R. (σπάθη). (1) A batten or wooden blade used by weavers for beating the threads of the woof. (2) The spatula of a druggist or chemist. (3) A long, broad, two-edged sword, with a sharp point.

=Spathalium=, Gr. and R. (σπαθάλιον:). A kind of bracelet with bells attached, so that it bore some resemblance to the flower-sheath of the palm-tree (spatha), whence its name.

=Speak-house=, O. E. A parlour.

=Spean=, Hind. A monumental bridge, of no great height, among the Khmers or ancient inhabitants of Cambodgia. The balustrade of this bridge was formed by means of NAGAGAS (q.v.).

=Spear=, Her., is seldom seen in blazon, though it appears as a “punning device” in the arms granted to Shakspeare’s father. (See LANCE, CUSPIS, &c.)

=Specillum=, R. A surgeon’s probe, of iron, bronze, or silver.

=Spectra.= Impressions which remain for a time on the retina of the eye, after looking at certain bright and coloured objects. They are either similar in colour and form to the objects which excited them, or vary according to the laws of the spectrum; e.g. if the eye is fixed on a red wafer, lying on a sheet of white paper, it will appear fringed with a faint green; then if, after a time, the eye is turned to another part of the paper, where there is no wafer, a green wafer will appear.

=Spectrum.= The series of colours that a beam of white light slips into under refraction:—red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, and violet.

=Specula=, R. A watch-tower.

=Specularia=, Gr. and R. Window-panes made with a kind of transparent stone (lapis specularis).

=Speculum=, R. (specio, to behold). A mirror; they were made in ancient times of a white composition of copper and tin, and afterwards of silver. The back of the mirror was decorated with beautiful engraved or enchased designs. There were also glass mirrors backed with a thin leaf of metal. Mirrors were not contrived to be hung against a wall, or to stand on a table, but were generally held by female slaves in front of their mistresses. (See MIRRORS.)

=Specus=, R. Originally a dark grotto or cave; later the covered canal of an aqueduct.

=Spence=, O. E. The buttery attached to the hall; 13th, 14th century.

=Speos=, Egyp. (σπέος). HYPOGEA or subterranean Egyptian temples. Hemispeos was the name given to temples built partly above and partly under the ground.

=Sperlings=, O. E. Sprats.

=Sperthe=, O. E. A battle-axe.

=Spetum=, Med. A kind of PARTISAN, but narrower and lighter.

=Sphæristerium=, Gr. and R. (σφαιριστήριον, lit. place for ball). An apartment attached to a gymnasium or set of baths for playing with balls.

=Sphæromachia=, Gr. and R. (σφαιρο-μαχία). A game of ball.

=Sphendone=, Gr. A band or fillet with which Greek ladies confined their hair. (See DIADEMA, HAIR, &c.)

=Sphinx=, Egyp. (Σφίγξ). An emblem peculiarly Egyptian, signifying the religious mystery; in this sense it was adopted by the Romans and placed in the pronaos of their temples. The ANDRO-SPHINX (Fig. 617), a human head upon a lion’s body, typified generally the union of intellectual and physical power; the CRIO-SPHINX (Fig. 618) had the head of a ram; and the HIERACO-SPHINX (Fig. 619) that of a hawk. The two latter are complex emblems; the hawk being the sun-god’s and the king’s special figure, and the ram that of the god Neph. The symbolical importance of these figures was completely disregarded in the course of their application to the purposes of Greek art.

=Sphyrelata=, Gr. Hammered metal-work; the earliest form of art manufacture in metal. Archaic statues, antecedent to the invention of the art of casting, were formed of hammered plates fastened together with rivets. (See METALLURGY.)

=Spicæ Testaceæ=, R. (spica, ear of corn). Oblong bricks for pavements; applied in the Spicatum Opus.

=Spicatum= (opus), R. A term answering to our HERRING-BONE. work; it was a kind of construction in which the stones were arranged so as to resemble the setting of the grains in an ear of corn. (Fig. 620.)

=Spiculum=, R. (dimin. of spicum, a point). The barbed iron head of an arrow or lance. The custom of barbing weapons dates from a very early period, since it is met with in prehistoric times. Fig. 621 shows a barbed bone arrow.

=Spider-work= (opus araneum). A kind of embroidery; specimens of the 13th and 14th centuries are in South Kensington Museum.

=Spike.= Oil of spike used in wax painting is prepared from the wild lavender.

=Spina=, R. (lit. a spine). A long, low wall along the middle of a circus, marking off the course in a race. At each end were the goals, (metæ). (See CIRCUS, META.)

=Spinet= (Ital. spinetta). An old-fashioned musical instrument on the principle of the harpsichord and pianoforte. Brass and steel wires were struck by quills fixed to the tongues of jacks which were moved by the keys of a finger-board. (Fig. 622.)

=Spinther=, R. (σφιγκτήρ). A bracelet; it was worn upon the left arm, and retained in its place merely by the elasticity of the material. The term is really a corruption of sphincter, the muscle which remains naturally contracted. (See ARMILLA.)

=Spira=, R. (σπεῖρα). Anything spiral or coiled; such as (1) a coil of rope; (2) an ornament worn by women on the head; (3) the string by which the cap of the Salian priests was fastened under the chin; (4) the base of a column.

=Spire=, Arch. An acutely-pointed termination crowning a steeple. (See CHAMFER.)

=Spirit Fresco.= A new method of painting in fresco, introduced by Mr. Gambier Parry, 1880.

=Spirits of Wine= are used to dissolve resins in the preparation of varnishes.

=Spirula.= Diminutive of spira.

=Spittle= or =Spittlehouse=, O. E. A hospital.

=Spolarium=, R. (spolio, to strip off). A cloakroom in the baths, where the bathers left their clothes; in an amphitheatre or circus the term was applied to a cella in which gladiators who had been killed in the arena were stripped of their clothes and weapons.

=Spolia=, R. Booty taken in war. PRÆDA means plunder generally; MANUBIUM, the share of the commander or the state; EXUVIÆ, the personal spoils of an enemy; and SPOLIA, properly speaking, arms or implements of war. (See OPIMA SPOLIA.)

=Spoon=, Chr. In early times, especially among the Greeks, Syrians, and Copts, the sacrament in one kind only was administered with a small gold or silver spoon, into which a few drops of the consecrated wine were poured. In the Middle Ages spoons were frequently ornamented with figures, some carved in ivory or wood, and others of metal. APOSTLE SPOONS had figures of the Apostles on the handles. (See LABIS and COCHLEAR.)

=Sporta=, R. A broad plaited basket made of wood and usually furnished with two handles. Diminutives of this term are sportella and sportula.

=Springers=, Arch. The lowest stones of an arch resting on a column, pilaster, or cluster of small columns.

=Spurs= with rowels appear first in the 13th century; in early times and in antiquity they were merely sharp goads fixed to the heel. In the middle of the 15th century spurs were of extravagant length. In Heraldry, the knightly spur had a single point, up to about 1320, and was known as the “pryck-spur;” the later form is called the “rouelle-spur.”

=Spurn=, O. E. A piece of stone or wood protecting a corner house or gate-post from wheels. One end is fixed in the ground, and the other attached at an angle to the post or wall.

=Squinch=, Arch. Small arches built across angles of towers to support projecting masonry above.

=Stadium=, Gr. (στάδιον). The course for the foot-race at Olympia, which measured exactly one stadium (606¾ feet). The stadium was the principal Greek measure for distance, and equalled the eighth of a Roman mile.

=Stag= (cervus). Representations of the stag occur in many Christian bas-reliefs and paintings. It is the emblem of many dissimilar moral ideas, but more especially of a longing desire for baptism, from an application of the text in the 42nd Psalm, “Like as the hart,” &c. (See HART.)

=Stalactite= (Gr. στάλαγμα, an icicle). Spar, in the form of icicles hanging from the roof of a cavern. =Stalagmites= are heaped up from their droppings on the floor, forming when they unite with the Stalactites the so called Organ pipes.

=Stalagmium=, Gr. and R. (σταλάγμιον). An ear-ring decorated with pearls, or small gold or silver drops, which bore more or less resemblance to the shape of a drop of water (στάλαγμα), whence its name.

=Stall-plate=, Her. The plate bearing the arms of a knight, and placed in his stall in the chapel of his order.

=Stalls=, Chr. Seats in a chapel; made to be used in two ways: either with the flap of the seat let down called “sellette,” which formed the regular seat, or with the flap raised, affording only a small resting-place called miserere. The elbows are often called “museaux” from their being in many cases ornamented with the head of some animal. (See MISERERE.)

=Stamen=, R. The spun thread as it comes off the spindle.

=Stamnos=, Gr. and R. A vessel in the shape of a Panathenæan water-jar or amphora, but with a wider neck, and with two ears and no handle.

=Stanchion=, Arch. The upright iron bar between the mullions of a window.

=Standard= or =Banner=, Chr. The symbol of victory over sin, death, and idolatry. (See ENSIGNS, LABARUM, SIGNA, &c.) In heraldry, a long narrow flag introduced in the 14th century. The ROYAL STANDARD bears the blazonry of the Queen’s arms. The UNION JACK was produced in the reign of James I., in 1606, as the national flag of united England and Scotland, combining the banners of St. George and St. Andrew. The latest UNION JACK shows, over the saltire of St. Andrew, the gules of St. Patrick, and was introduced upon the occasion of the union with Ireland. The word “Jack” is a corruption of the French “Jacques,” for James.

=Standing Stones.= Celtic monuments, also called megalithic, consisting of a row of stones standing in a line. (See DOLMEN, MENHIR, MEGALITHIC, &c.)

=Standish=, O. E. A case for pens and ink; an inkstand.

=Stanniferous Wares.= (See POTTERY.)

=Stapes=, =Stapia=, Med. Lat. A stirrup.

=Star of India.= An order of knighthood instituted by Queen Victoria in 1861. The INSIGNIA are the Badge (Fig. 171); collar of heraldic roses and lotus-flowers alternating with palm-branches, a crown being in the centre; ribbon of pale blue with white borders, crossing the left shoulder; and star of diamonds, having a mullet upon an irradiated field in its centre, with the motto “Heaven’s Light our Guide.”

=Stars=, Her. (See ESTOILE, MULLET.)

=Stars=, Chr. Emblematic of the canopy of Heaven, are generally represented on the domed ceilings of churches. These were usually forged in metal and fixed on to an azure ground. They are attributes of the Virgin Mary as queen of heaven, and of St. Dominic and other saints.

=Stars=, =Star-moulding=, Arch. An ornament of the Romano-Byzantine period, in the shape of a star with four rays only. (Fig. 627.) It is met with as a decoration in various mouldings.

=Statera=, R. A steelyard or Roman balance, of much later invention than the scales called libra. It consisted (Fig. 628) of a rod or yard (scapa), divided by equidistant points (puncta), and was suspended by means of a handle (ansa) consisting of a hook or chain. The weight (æquipondium) forms a counterpoise to any object suspended from one of the hooks or the scale (lancula). (Fig. 418.) The term is sometimes looked upon as a synonym of LIBRA (q.v.). It denotes besides (1) a wooden bar or yoke placed across the withers of a pair of horses harnessed to a BIJUGUS (q.v.); (2) a plate or dish, probably of circular form.

=Statuettes.= Small statues in bronze or porcelain for the decoration of rooms. For =Porcelain Statuary=, consult Jacquemart’s History of the Ceramic Art.

=Stauracin= (Gr. σταυρὸς, a cross) was a silken stuff figured with small plain crosses; hence polystauron, having many crosses.

=Steatite= or =Soapstone=. A soft, unctuous, magnesian mineral, used by the Chinese for statuary and decorative purposes.

=Steel, Engraving in=, was invented during the present century. The process is nearly the same as engraving in copper. (See CHALCOGRAPHY.)

=Stega=, Gr. and R. (στέγη, i. e. a covering). The deck of a ship; a synonym for CONSTRATUM (q.v.).

=Steganography=, Gr. (στεγανὸς, secret). Cypher, or secret writing, by substitution of signs for letters.

=Steinkerque= was a twisted necktie, and owed its origin to the battle of that name fought in 1692 by Marshal Luxembourg against William of Orange. When the French princes were suddenly ordered into action, hastily tying their cravats—in peaceful times an elaborate proceeding—they rushed to the charge and gained the day. In honour of this event ladies also wore their lace neckerchiefs twisted in this careless fashion. Steinkerques became the rage, and were worn in England and France by men and women for many years afterwards. The engraving represents the Grand Dauphin of France wearing a Steinkerque.

=Stela=, =Stelè=, Gr. A pillar, or stone of a cylindrical or quadrangular shape, often surmounted by an ornament in the form of a palm. These stelæ served to mark out burial-places. Fig. 631 represents a Roman, and Fig. 630 a Greek stelê.

=Stemma=, Gr. and R. (στέμμα, i. e. that which crowns). Among the Greeks this term served to denote a wreath bound round with woollen fillets; among the Romans the same term denoted a long roll of parchment ornamented with garlands. This roll contained the genealogy of the family. Stemmata were hung upon the busts of ancestors, and in front of the imagines majorum.

=Stencil.= A plate of any material in which patterns have been cut out. The use of stencil plates is of great antiquity. They were used in the schools of ancient Rome to teach writing, and by the emperors for affixing their sign manual to documents.

=Stereobate.= The base of a plain wall. (See STYLOBATES.)

=Stereochromy.= A new method of wall painting, with water-colours sprinkled over with fluoric acid, adapted permanently to resist all the influences of climate.

=Stereo-graphy= (στερεὸς, solid). Geometrical drawing of solids on a plane surface.

=Stereoscope.= A binocular glass, arranged in conformity with the natural convergence of the sight of each eye to a focal centre. An object is photographed twice, as it would appear to each eye if the other were closed; and when the two pictures are looked at together in the stereoscope, an effect of rounded solidity (stereon) is produced. The effect is particularly beautiful in photographs of statues.

=Stereotype.= Solid type, obtained from a cast of the forme of movable type, for permanent use in printing works of which many editions are required.

=Steyre=, O. E. A stair.

=Stiacciato=, Ital. Sculpture in very low relief, less than basso-relievo.

=Stibadium=, Gr. and R. (στιβάδιον). A circular dining-couch generally made of wicker-work. Another name for it was SIGMA.

=Sticharium=, Chr. (στιχάριον). A white tunic worn by the Greek bishops and deacons in certain ceremonies.

=Stigma=, R. (στίγμα, lit. a mark by pricking). A mark, impression, or brand. Thieves were branded with the letter F, which stood for fur, thief. A stigma tattooed on the arm was the mark by which conscripts were declared capable of military service, &c., hence

=Stigmata=, Chr. The marks of the five sacred wounds on the hands, feet, and side of Our Lord; said to have been miraculously printed on the persons of saints.

=Stil de grain.= (See PINKS.)

=Still Life.= Inanimate objects.

=Stilted Arch.= One having the capital or impost mouldings of the jambs below the level of the springing of the curve, the moulding of the arch being continued vertically down to the impost mouldings.

=Stilus=, =Stylus=, R. A style, or instrument of bone, ivory, iron, bronze, or silver, about five inches long, having one end pointed, and the other flattened like a spatula; the latter served either to spread the wax on the writing-tablet, or to erase by smoothing down what had been written upon it; the other and pointed end served for writing upon the wax-covered tablet. The term also denoted (1) the needle or index of a sun-dial; (2) a bronze needle; (3) a probe employed for garden purposes. (4) A sharp stake in a pitfall. It was also called graphium.

=Stimulus=, R. (στίζω, to prick). A goad for driving cattle.

=Stipple.= Etched imitations of chalk drawings of the human figure, called engravings in stipple, have a very soft effect, but are inferior to engraving. In this variety the whole subject is executed in dots without strokes on the etching-ground, and these dots are bitten in with aquafortis. The dots may be harmonized with a little hammer, in which case the work is called opus mallei. In the method known as mezzo-tinto, a dark barb or ground is raised uniformly by means of a toothed tool; and the design being traced, the light parts are scraped off from the plate by fitting instruments, according to the effect required. (See ENGRAVING.)

=Stips=, R. A small bronze coin, equal to the twelfth part of an as, or about a quarter of a farthing; it bore on the reverse the prow of a vessel.

=Stocheion=, Gr. A form of sun-dial. (See HOROLOGIUM.)

=Stockings= were introduced into England with knitting in 1501, when Queen Elizabeth was presented with a pair of black knit silk stockings by her tirewoman, and immediately discontinued the cloth hose she had previously worn. The Scotch claim the invention of knitting, and a French company of stocking-knitters established at Paris in 1527 took for their patron St. Fiacre, who is said to have been the son of a King of Scotland. (See NETHERSTOCKS.)

=Stola=, R. (στολὴ, lit. an equipment). The robe worn by Roman matrons; it consisted of a wide tunic with long sleeves. It came down to the ankles or feet, and was confined at the waist by a girdle, leaving broad loose folds over the breast. The pallium was worn over the stola. It was the distinguishing dress of the Roman matron, and the meretrices or divorced women were forbidden to wear it. The stola was also worn by a certain class of priests. (See PALLIUM, TOGA.) (See Fig. 632.)

=Stole=, Chr. This term, a synonym of orarium, denoted, with the early Christians, according to Fleury, a piece of fine linen which was worn round the neck. It was used as a kind of pocket-handkerchief, long before the introduction of Christianity, by the Romans, who named it indifferently linteolum, strophium, and sudarium. In the Christian Church it is represented by a narrow band of embroidered stuff, and worn over the left shoulder by deacons; and across both shoulders by bishops and priests. It is sacred to the memory of the cloth with which the Saviour is alleged to have wiped away the sweat from His face as He passed to the Crucifixion. (See SUDARIUM, ORARIUM.)

=Stone Ochre.= A pigment. An earthy oxide of iron. (See OCHRES.)

=Stone-ware.= (See POTTERY.)

=Stopping-out.= In etching, arresting the action of the acid on the fainter lines of a plate, by covering them over with a preparation called stopping-ground, while the deeper and broader parts corrode. (See ETCHING.)

=Stoup=, Chr. A small niche with a basin, at the entrance of a church, placed there for the holy water. O. E. A kind of tankard. (See Fig. 615.)

=Stragulatæ.= Striped or barred silks; 13th century.

=Stragulum=, R. (sterno, to throw over). A general term to denote any kind of covering used for bed-clothing, or a covering for men, horses, or beasts of burden, and thence a caparison.

=Strap-work=, Arch. A form of architectural ornament, by the tracery of a narrow band or fillet in convolutions similar to those that a leather strap thrown down at hazard would form. It is characteristic of the Renaissance period.

=Strasburg Porcelain.= The manufacture of this ware, which was begun by Charles Hannong about 1721, became very celebrated for about sixty years. (Consult Jacquemart’s History of the Ceramic Art.) (Fig. 634.)

=Strasburg Turpentine.= A varnish made of the resin from the silver fir (pinus picea), diluted with naphtha, drying linseed, or nut oil.

=Strena=, R. A new year’s gift or present made on the calends of January.

=Stria=, R. The fluting of a column.

=Striated.= Fluted like a column.

=Strigilis=, R. (stringo, to scrape). A bronze scraper for the skin, curved and hollowed like a spoon, used in the bath. The same term is used in architecture for a fluting which resembles the bath-strigil in form.

=String-course=, Arch. A narrow moulding projecting from the wall of a building in a horizontal line.

=Stroma=, =Gr.= (στρῶμα). A Greek term synonymous with the Latin STRAGULUM.

=Strontian Yellow.= A pale canary-coloured pigment.

=Strophe= (στρέφω, to turn). In Greek poetry, the first division of a choral ode, of which the other parts were the antistrophe and the epode.

=Strophium=, R. (στρόφιον, lit. a thing twisted). (1) A long scarf which the Roman women rolled into a band, and fastened round the body and breast. (2) A girdle for the same purpose, generally of leather. (3) The term likewise denoted the cable of an anchor. (See ORARIUM.)

=Structura=, R. (struo, to build up). A general term for any kind of masonry. (See OPUS.)

=Struppus= or =Strupus=, R. A rope or other fastening by which the oar is attached to the thole (scalmus).

=Stucco=, It. A fine plaster, for covering walls, prepared by various methods, as a mixture of gypsum and glue; or white marble, pulverized with plaster of lime and mixed with water; the opus albarium of the ancients.

=Stump=, for drawing in pencil or crayon. It is a thick roll of strong paper made into a kind of pencil, and used for rubbing over lines to soften them down for ground tints, gradation of shading, &c.

=Stylites=, Chr. (στυλίτης). “Pillar saints.” Anchorites of the early Church who passed their lives on the top of a column, in order to give themselves up to meditation. There were some of them in Syria down to the 12th century. They derived their name from στῦλος, a column.

=Stylobate=, Arch. A pedestal supporting a row of columns; Figs. 635 to 637 represent three richly-decorated stylobates found in the baths and other Roman ruins at Nismes. (See PEDESTAL, STEREOBATE.)

=Stylus=, R. (Gr. στῦλος). A pointed instrument with which the Romans wrote on their waxed tablets. (See STILUS.)

=Subarmale=, =Subermale=, R. A garment worn by soldiers underneath their armour; it formed the tunic of the legionaries, and representations of it are very frequently met with on the bas-reliefs of monumental columns and triumphal arches.

=Subjugium=, R. Curved pieces of wood placed at each end of a yoke, underneath it; whence their name.

=Sublicius=, R. (sublica, a pile). Any wooden structure supported on piles. (See PONS.)

=Subligaculum=, =Subligar=, R. (subligo, to tie below). A cloth worn by acrobats, drawn between the legs and made fast to the girdle.

=Subsecus=, R. A tenon, in carpentry; that is, the tongue or wedge which fits into a mortise.

=Subsellium=, R. (i. e. lower than a sella). A movable bench without a back, which was used in large assemblies. In a theatre or circus the same term was applied to the circular rows of seats in the cavea.

=Subsericum.= Partly, not all, silk; opposed to holosericum.

=Substructio=, R. (substruo, to build underneath). Any work of solid masonry, such as a foundation wall, abutment walls, &c. (See SUSPENSURA.)

=Subtrefoiled=, Arch. Decorated with foils placed underneath; a term applied to what are called trefoil-headed arches.

=Subucula=, R. (sub, and duo, to put on). Under-garments of wool which the Romans wore next the skin, underneath the tunic.

=Suburbanum=, R. A villa in the suburbs of Rome.

=Succinctus=, R. (succingo, to gird beneath). Wearing a girdle round the waist above the tunic; applied to a person prepared for active exertion.

=Sucula=, R. A capstan.

=Sudarium=, Chr. A name of the miraculous portrait of our Lord, impressed on the cloth presented to Him by St. Veronica on the way to the Crucifixion. (See STOLE, VERA ICON.) A representation of this legendary portrait is given in Albert Dürer’s “Little Passion.”

=Sudatorium=, R. (sudor, sweat). The hot room in a Roman bath. (See CALDARIUM.)

=Sud’ha=, Hind. A temple of the Khmers or ancient inhabitants of Cambodgia, built of one unmixed material, and thence called pure (sud’ha).

=Suffibulum=, R. A large square piece of white cloth worn by vestals and priests during the discharge of their functions.

=Suggestus=, R. (sub and gero, to heap up). (1) A stage or platform from which an orator addressed a crowd. The ROSTRA at Rome was a celebrated suggestus. (2) In a camp the suggestus was formed of stones and clods of turf, or constructed of wood-work, from which the general harangued the troops. (3) The raised seat from which the Emperor saw the games.

=Suile=, R. A stable for pigs; among the Romans a building of considerable size, containing a number of separate sties (haræ).

=Sulphate of Barytes.= (See BARYTES.)

=Sulphate of Zinc=, or white vitriol, is used as a dryer.

=Sulphurs.= Impressions taken by the goldsmiths of the 16th century from the engravings executed on plates, paxes, &c.; and which they obtained by spreading a layer of melted sulphur on the face of the plate, producing a cast in relief of the lines engraved. Some few of these proofs exist in the British and continental museums, and are known as “sulphurs.” They are amongst the rarest specimens connected with the art of engraving. (Fairholt.)

=Sun=, Her. When represented shining and surrounded by rays, he has a representation of a human face on his disc, and is blazoned “In splendour,” or “In glory;” when “eclipsed” the representation is the same, but tinctured sable.

=Sundials.= The sun-dial of Ahaz is mentioned by Isaiah, 713 B.C. Sundials with appropriate mottoes have been at all times fashionable. Mrs. Palliser gives a long selection of such mottoes: e.g.:—

Nulla hora sine linea, “No hour without a line.” (Nec momentum sine linea, was Cardinal Richelieu’s motto.) Pereunt et imputantur—“They pass and are imputed”—(Martial). Of the passing hour, Dubia omnibus, ultima multis—(“Uncertain to all, the last to many”); or, suprema hæc multis forsitan tibi—(“The last to many, perhaps to thee”). The old sun-dial at the Palais de Justice in Paris is inscribed, in letters of gold, Sacra Themis mores, ut pendula dirigit horas—(“Holy Justice guides manners, as this dial does the hours”). The largest number are allusions to Death, as:

Io vado e vengo ogni giorno. Ma tu andrai senza ritorno—(“I go and come daily, but thou shalt go and never return.”) And on a sun-dial at Bourges is the following:

“La vie est comme l’hombre, Insensible en son cours. On la croit immobile: Elle s’avance toujours.”

More cheerful mottoes are found from Horace, as: Carpe diem. Horas non numero nisi serenas (at Venice), &c.

(Consult Mrs. Alfred Gatty, “Book of Sundials.”)

=Super-altar=, Chr. A small portable altar.

=Superaria.= (See EPENDYTES.)

=Supercilium=, R. (lit. eye-brow). (See LIMEN SUPERIUS.)

=Superindum.= (See EPENDYTES.)

=Superpellicum=, Chr. A surplice.

=Suppedaneum.= A synonym for SCABELLUM and SCAMNUM (q.v.).

=Supplicatio=, R. (supplico, to kneel down). The act of praying when kneeling; opposed to precatio, a prayer uttered standing. Solemn thanksgivings offered to the gods in their temples.

=Supporter=, Her. A figure that stands by a shield of arms, as if supporting or guarding it. Supporters came into use during the 14th century. (See Fig. 24.)

=Surahé=, Pers. A Persian wine bottle. The illustration represents a beautiful specimen of hard porcelain decorated in patterns, of Chinese character, executed under the glaze with cobalt. A legend on the medallions contains the words Deh surahé, “Give me the bottle.” (Fig. 640.)

=Surbase=, Arch. The shaft of a PEDESTAL.

=Surcoat.= Any garment worn over armour; more especially the long flowing garment worn by knights until 1325. (See Fig. 463.)

=Surface-rib=, Arch. The rib of a groined vaulting.

=Surinda=, Hind. A stringed instrument played with a bow.

=Surod=, Hind. A kind of guitar, sounded with a plectrum.

=Surplice=, Chr. The Protestant alb. See Stevens, in a note to All’s Well that Ends Well, Act i., scene 3, for notices of the Puritan aversion to this article of clerical costume.

=Suspensura=, R. In a general sense this term denotes anything that is supported, suspended above arcades, columns, or pillars, and more especially the flooring of a bath-room, when it is supported by small low pillars. Fig. 391 shows the flooring of a bath-room, and Fig. 641 the pillars supporting the suspensura. (See HYPOCAUST.)

=Svastika=, Hind. A kind of Greek cross, each branch of which ends in a hook. This cross has a sacred character, and is met with on a great variety of objects. Its origin dates back to the bronze age, and it is represented on the weapons of that period. (See FYLFOT.)

=Swallow.= In Christian symbolism, the emblem of pride and of conversion.

=Swallow-tail.= (See DOVE-TAIL.)

=Swan=, Her. When blazoned “proper”—white with red beak and legs—it is the badge of the Bohuns, Staffords, and some other families.

=Swathbondes=, O. E. Swaddling clothes (mentioned by Shakspeare).

=Swine’s Feather=, O. E. A kind of bayonet about six inches long, affixed to a musket-rest and projected by the action of a spring; 17th century.

=Sword.= (See GLADIUS.)

=Sword=, in Christian art, is a symbol of martyrdom; it is also the attribute of martyrs who were soldiers. In Heraldry, when borne as a charge, it is straight in the blade, pointed, and with a cross-guard. The custom of swearing on the sword, the hilt of which took the shape of a cross, or had crosses engraved on it, is mentioned in very ancient history. (Cf. Hamlet.)

=Sympathetic Inks.= Inks of which the marks are invisible until the moisture is absorbed by the application of heat. (See COBALT.)

=Symposium=, Gr. A drinking party, distinguished from deipnon, a feast. A very common subject of representations on ancient vases.

=Syndon= or =Sindon=. A better kind of cendal (q.v.)

=Synoikia=, Gr. (1) Athenian festivals held in honour of Athena in the month Hecatombeion (July-August). Their object was to commemorate the union of the government of all the towns of Attica in Athens. (2) A lodging-house adapted to hold several families (Latin, insula), for the convenience of foreigners and others who by Athenian law were prohibited from acquiring house property of their own.

=Synthesis= or =Synthesina=, Gr. and R. (σύν-θεσις). One of the vestes cœnatoriæ which the master of the house, the Amphitryon, provided for his guests. The parable of the “Wedding Garment” has reference to this practice. It was a kind of tunic worn over the other garments, and during the Saturnalia by all classes alike. It was usually dyed some colour, and was not white like the toga.

=Sypirs=, O. E. Cloth of Cyprus.

=Syrinx= (O. E. 9th and 10th cent.). An instrument resembling Pandean pipes.

=Syrinx=, Gr. and R. (σῦριγξ). The pastoral pipe invented by Pan; it was called by the poets arundo and fistula. It was formed of seven hollow reeds of regulated lengths adjusted to form an octave.

=Syrma=, Gr. (σύρω, to sweep). A robe with a train worn on the stage by those actors who had to represent the parts of gods or heroes. Hence the word is poetically used for tragedy.

=Systyle=, Gr. and R. (σύστυλος). An arrangement in architecture, the intercolumniation of which is of the width of two diameters of the shaft, measured at its lower part, just above the apophyge; the distance between the plinths being exactly equal to the diameter of the plinths, as in the Parthenon at Athens.

=Tabard=, O. E. (Lat. colobium). A tunic with sleeves, worn over the armour by knights of the Tudor period, and blazoned on the sleeves, front, and back; it is the official costume of a herald; Chaucer’s ploughman wears a tabard, like the modern smock-frock. (See COAT ARMOUR.) Fig. 642.

=Tabaret.= A stout, satin-striped silk.

=Tabbinet=, O. E. Another name for POPLIN.

=Tabby=, O. E. A silk watered or figured.

=Tabella=, Gen. (dimin. of tabula). A small board, or tablet, of any kind, esp. (1) a wax-tablet; (2) a voting-tablet (tessera); (3) a letter sent by a messenger (tabellarius); (4) tabella absolutoria, a receipt for a debt; (5) tabella damnatoria, a judicial record of a verdict and sentence; (6) tabella liminis, the leaf of a door, &c.

=Taberna=, R. (1) A retail shop; Fig. 643 shows a shop at Pompeii, restored. (2) Taberna deversoria, taberna meritoria, or simply taberna, a wine-shop or tavern. (Fig. 643.)

=Tabernacle Work=, Arch. The ornamented open work over the stalls (of a cathedral church, &c.), and, in general, any minute ornamental open work is called tabernacle work.

=Tabernaculum=, =Tabernacle=, R. and Chr. (Lit. a tent). (1) A booth of planks, or a wooden hut covered with hides. (2) In Christian archæology, the tabernacle is a small shrine placed on the altar for the consecrated wafer. It succeeded the pyx, which was anciently deposited in one of two chambers arranged on each side of the altar. Originally of goldsmith’s work, in the 15th and 16th centuries they became stone shrines decorated with sculpture, approached by steps, rising into lanterns and pinnacles to the roof of the church. A cast of a beautiful tabernacle of late 15th century, marble with a gilt metal door, is in the South Kensington Museum. Tabernacles of ivory were common in the 16th century. (3) Ornamental niches in a hall. (4) Accurately applied the term signifies a canopy, (of stone, wood, or other material) such as was placed over a NICHE, a stall, &c.

=Tabernula.= Dimin. of TABERNA (q.v.).

=Tabinet.= (See TABBINET.)

=Tabl shamee=, Egyp. The Syrian drum, used by the modern Egyptians; a kind of kettle-drum of tinned copper, with a parchment face.

=Tablature=, Fr. One part of a painted wall or ceiling, forming a single piece or design.

=Table=, O. E. The ancient meaning of this word was “any level expanded surface,” such as a flat piece of board. A picture was called a table (Latin tabula) as late as the 17th century. (See TABULA.)

=Table-base=, Arch. A BASE MOULDING, near the ground, immediately over the plinth.

=Table Diamond.= A gem cut with a flat surface.

=Tablementum=, Arch. Synonym of TABULA.

=Tables=, O. E. (1) Backgammon. (2) Ivory writing-tablets, so called, were used in the middle ages in England by people of all ranks:—

“His felaw had a staff tipped with horn, A pair of tables all of ivory, And a pointed ypolished fetishly, And wrote alway the names, as he stood Of alle folk that gaue hem any good.” (Chaucer.)

=Tablet.= (Fr. tablette.) Any flat surface for inscriptions; leaves for memoranda.

=Tablets.= In architecture a general term for small projecting mouldings or strings, mostly horizontal. The tablet at the top, under the battlement, is called a cornice, and that at the bottom a basement, under which is generally a thicker wall. The tablet running round doors and windows is called a dripstone, and if ornamented a canopy. (Rickman, p. 42.)

=Tabletterie=, Fr. Turned work in ivory or shells, &c.

=Tablinum=, R. One of the apartments in a Roman house; it was a recess in the ATRIUM, and contained the wax or ivory portraits and statues in bronze and marble of ancestors, and carved representations of their honourable achievements in the state, and the family archives. (See DOMUS.)

=Tabor=, =Tabour=, O. E. A very loud drum “which is bad for people’s heads, for, if stretched tight and struck hard, it may be heard at half a league’s distance.”

=Tabouret.= An embroidery frame.

=Tabret=, Heb. A small tabor.

=Tabula=, R. and Chr. (1) Literally, a plank, and thence used to denote a variety of objects made of wood or planks, as for instance a bench; a dice-table; a waxed writing-tablet (tabula cerata); a panel-painting; a votive-tablet; a voting-ticket. (2) Arch. Properly any solid construction adapted for superficial decoration, as the frontal of an altar. “The most remarkable example of the tabula destined for the front of the Altar, is preserved in Westminster Abbey; it is formed of wood, elaborately carved, painted and enriched with a kind of mosaic work of coloured glass, superficially inlaid, a species of decoration of Italian origin.” (Consult Parker’s Glossary s.v.) (3) In Christian archæology, tabulæ nuptiales or dotales was the name given to the parchment scrolls in the hands of persons who figure in the marriage scenes represented on tombs.

=Tabularium=, R. A place set apart in the temples at Rome where the public records were kept.

=Tace=, Chr. The cross or crutch of St. Anthony.

=Taces.= (See TASSETS.) The skirts or coverings to the pockets. (Meyrick.)

=Taces.= Overlapping plates of armour to envelope the abdomen (see TACHES), introduced in the 14th century, under Richard II.

=Tack= or =Dag=, O. E. A kind of pistol: something like a petronel.

=Tæda= or =Teda=, R. A resinous torch made with pieces and slips of the pine called teda.

=Tænia=, Gr. and R. (1) The ribbon with which a wreath or fillet round the head was attached. (2) In architecture, the band which separates the Doric frieze from the architrave; it is, in many cases, ornamented with painting similar to that shown in Fig. 644.

=Taffeta= (Pers. taftah, from taftan, to twist). A thin, glossy silken fabric, having a wavy lustre; a less costly silk than CENDAL (q.v.), 16th century. Stow records that it was first made in England by John Tyce, of Shoreditch, London, 41 Elizabeth, 1598.

=Taille de bois=, Fr. Wood-engraving.

=Taille douce=, Fr. Copper-plate engraving.

=Taille dure=, Fr. Steel engraving.

=Tail-piece.= An ornamental design placed at the end of a page or chapter of a book. In French cul-de-lampe.

=Takel=, O. E. An arrow,—

“Wel could he dress his takel yeomanly.” (Chaucer.)

=Talaria=, R. (talus, the ankle). Wings fixed to the ankles; the attribute of Mercury, Perseus, and sometimes Minerva. They are represented either attached to sandals, or growing from the limb.

=Talbot=, Her. A badge of the Earl of Shrewsbury of that name (the “Scourge of France”). A silver running hound or talbot.

=Talbotype.= The photographic process of multiplying impressions from a negative, invented by Mr. Fox Talbot. (See CALOTYPE.)

=Talc= (from Germ. Talg, tallow). A translucent mineral, resembling mica but much softer, “being calcined and variously prepared, it maketh a curious whitewash, which some justify lawful, because clearing not changing the complexion.” (Fuller.) The Chinese make lanterns, shades, and ornaments of talc.

=Talent=, Gr. and R. (τάλαντον, lit. a balance). A weight of silver with the Greeks, and of copper with the Romans; applied as a unit of value. The GREEK talent of silver is estimated at rather less than 250_l._ sterling—it contained 60 minæ, or 6000 drachmæ. The ATTIC talent was of much smaller value, of less than an ounce of gold, and is that generally intended by the word. The silver talent was called talentum magnum. The JEWISH talent of silver = about 396_l._, and of gold = about 5475_l._ From its application as an expression of a man’s available wealth, metaphorically applied in Scripture to resources of any kind, as of intellect, position, &c., for the due unselfish administration of which he is responsible.

=Talero=, It. A Venetian silver coin = about five francs.

=Talevas=, =Talvas=. (See TAVOLACE.)

=Tali=, R. (Gr. ἀστράγαλος). Knuckle-bones of sheep or goats, used from the earliest times, exactly as they are by children now, to play with. When they were marked with black dots on each face they were used as dice. The numbers were 1, 3, 4 and 6; 1 being opposite to 6, and 3 opposite to 4; and each number, and each cast, had its appropriate name: 1 was called in Greek μονὰς, εἷς, κύων, Χῖος; Ionic οἴνη; Latin, unio, vulturius, canis; 3 was τριὰς, and ternio; 4, τετρὰς, and quaternio; 6, ἑξὰς, ἑξίτης, Κῷος, and senio. The best throw was that called Venus or jactus Venereus, in which the four tali showed different numbers. By this cast the player became king of the feast or symposium; in the canis (dog-throw), on the other hand, all four dice turned up the same number.

=Talisman= (Arab, tilsam, a magical image). A charm worn about the person as a protection from dangers, especially from the effects of magic and the “evil eye.” The bullæ worn by children, and the rings of the ladies among the Greeks and Romans frequently contained such charms. The practice has survived in all ages and nations, and is not at all unfrequent in the 19th century, and even among the educated classes.

=Tall-boys=, O. E. High cups or glasses.

=Tall-men=, O. E. Loaded dice.

=Tall-wood=, O. E. “Pacte wodde to make byllettes of, taillee.” (Palsgrave.)

=Talleh=, Arab. Myrrh from Abyssinia.

=Tallow-cut= (Fr. en cabuchon). This is a term applied by lapidaries to precious stones not cut into regular facets, but ground down and polished.

=Tally=, O. E. (Fr. tailler, to cut.) An ancient method of keeping record of monies advanced to the Royal Exchequer. A tally was a piece of wood inscribed with a receipt, which was split by an officer, and one part delivered to the lender, and the other, called the Stock, preserved in the Tally-office in the Exchequer. Hence the name Stocks for the Government securities. After the disuse of the tallies in 1782 the old ones were used for firing in the Houses of Parliament, and caused their destruction in 1834.

=Talmud= (Chaldean, lit. instruction,) consists of two parts, the MISHNA and GEMARA; and contains the whole body of Hebrew law and traditions.

=Talus.= (1) R. The game of knuckle-bones. (See ASTRAGALUS.) (2) Arch. The sloping part of a work, a term in fortification.

=Talvace=, O. E. A shield or buckler, circular and projecting.

=Talvas=, O. E. An oblong wooden shield, 14th century.

=Tambour=, Fr. A small drum. Rich embroidery work done on a drum-shaped frame.

=Tamboura.= An ancient musical instrument of the lute or guitar kind. The Hindoos represent Ganesa, the god of wisdom, as a man with the head of an elephant, holding a tamboura in his hands.

=Tambourine.= A small drum with only one skin, played on by the hand.

=Tamine=, =Taminy=, =Tammy= (Fr. tamis, a sieve). A thin woollen textile, highly glazed.

=Tampion.= (See TOMPION.)

=Tang-fish.= Seals are so called in the Shetlands.

=Tankard.= (Norman Fr. Tankar.) A drinking-jug with a cover. The name is said to be compounded of étain, tin, and quarte, a quart measure. The Flemish had tankards of wood, with pegs down the sides, to measure the quantity drunk. (See Figs. 615 and 645.) (See POKAL.)

=Tapestry.= The introduction of tapestry properly so called dates from the 12th century, when it began to rival the more ancient embroidered stuffs called Sarrazinois carpets. Tapestry is woven on looms, i. e. on a warp rolled round two cylinders, and stretched out between them either vertically or horizontally, for the insertion of the woof between and among the threads. When woven on a vertical warp, it is called high-warp (haute-lisse); when horizontal, low-warp (basse-lisse). The former produces, for many reasons, incomparably the finest work, and is the method adopted for the Gobelins and Savonnerie tapestries. The progress of the art has followed, especially in Flanders, that of painting, from which its models are derived. It has become less popular than it was during the present century, from the general disuse of hangings in the decoration of houses. Perhaps the best condensed account of this extensive subject is the work of M. Alfred de Champeaux, translated for the South Kensington Museum. (See BAYEUX TAPESTRY.)

=Tapul=, O. E. The perpendicular ridge down the centre of a breastplate.

=Tar-black.= A kind of lamp-black prepared by the combustion of coal tar, or of the heavy oils of tar and schist.

=Targe=, Fr. Med. A dagger or small sword: “Les autres gens avoient targes et semitarges, qui sont espées de Turquie.” (See SEMITARGE.)

=Targe= or =Target=, O. E. A round shield.

=Targe= (or =Pavoise=) =Futée=, Fr. A shield composed of several pieces, which loosened on being struck, and fell asunder. The Swabian jousters at Maximilian’s triumph are described (Meyrick, vol. ii.) as bearing these shields.

=Targe=, =Target=. (Welsh targa, wicker-work.)

=Targum=, Chaldee (lit. interpretation). A paraphrase, or lesson from the Old Testament in the Chaldee language.

=Tarn.= A mountain lake.

=Tarots.= Emblematical cards still used in Switzerland and parts of Germany. “They are unknown, except as curiosities, to the Parisians and to ourselves; but they are, nevertheless, the sole representatives of the original cards which the Gipsies brought with them into Europe.” (Rev. E. S. Taylor.)

=Tarpaulin.= A tarred palling or covering.

=Tars, Cloth of.= A web of silk and the downy wool of goats of Tibet, the forerunner of cashmere.

=Tarsia= or =Intarsia=. A kind of mosaic in woods; representing views of buildings and ornament of various kinds, by inlaying pieces of wood, of various colours and shades, into panels of walnut wood.

=Tarsus.= In Anatomy, the instep and socket of the ankle-bone.

=Tartan=, Fr. (not Gaelic). The Highland plaid, the dress of the Scottish Highlanders, said to be derived from the Celta; the Galli non braccati.

=Tartarium.= Cloth of Tars was a costly cloth of royal purple, probably a mixture of silk and goat’s hair from Thibet. It is mentioned by Chaucer:—

“His coat armure was of cloth of Tars, Couched with perles.”

=Tas= or =Tats=, Egyp. Amulets of gilded sycamore wood, cornelian, jasper, glass, &c., found suspended from the necks of mummies.

=Tassel-gentle=, O. E. (for tercel-gentle). A species of hawk. (Shakspeare.)

=Tasses.= Flaps of armour attached to the bottom of the breastplate for the protection of the thighs.

=Tat= or =Dad=, Egyp. A sculptor’s stool; a religious emblem worn by gods and sacred animals round the neck. The term was also probably a name of Mendés.

=Tau=, =Taucross=. (1) Her. A cross formed like the letter T, so called in Greek. This charge is also called the Cross of St. Anthony. (2) Chr. As a motive for ornamental design the tau is the ancient form of the episcopal staff as represented in the catacombs. Originally curved like the pagan lituus, it became in the 8th century straight. The Taus were often hollowed to contain relics, &c. (Consult Ivories, by W. Maskell, pp. 84, 85.)

=Tauntons.= A kind of broad cloth made at Taunton in Somersetshire.

=Tavolace= or =Talevas= (It. tavolaccio). A large thick wooden shield; like a table (tavola) of wood (hence its name), 15th century.

=Tawdry.= Showy. The word is said to be derived from Ethelreda torquem, St. Ethelred’s necklace, which was composed of rows of twisted lace, an ornament much used by Anglo-Saxon ladies. (Stormont.)

=Tawdry Lace.= A kind of fine lace alluded to by Shakspeare, Spenser, &c. (Halliwell.)

“Fimbriæ nundinis sanctæ Ethelredæ emptæ.” (Coles.)

=Tawney=, O. E. A deep orange colour, used in the Middle Ages as a livery colour.

=Tawney Coat=, O. E. The dress of summoner or apparitor. (Shakspeare.)

=Taxidermy.= The art of preserving the skins of animals.

=Tazza=, It. An ornamental cup or vase, with a flat shallow bowl, standing on a foot, and with handles.

=Tchy=, Chinese. Twelve recurrent periods of the cycle of sixty years, represented by animals assigned to the twelve months, i. e. the signs of the Chinese Zodiac. They are: November, the rat; December, the ox; January, the tiger; February, the rabbit; March, the dragon; April, the serpent; May, the horse; June, the hare; July, the ape; August, the hen; September, the dog; October, the boar. The above are accordingly frequent accessories of designs on porcelain.

=Te Deum=, Chr. The first words and title of a hymn composed by St. Augustin and St. Ambrose about 390.

=Tegillum=, E. (dimin. of tegulum, a roof). A short mantle with a hood, made of a coarse material; worn by country people and fishermen.

=Tegula=, R. (Gr. κέραμος; Lat. tego, to cover). A roofing tile; originally of baked clay or wooden shingles. At an early date (620 B.C.) tiles of marble were introduced, and were followed by tiles of gilded bronze; per tegulas exire means to go out by the opening in the roof of the atrium, the compluvium.

=Teheran Ware.= An inferior Persian majolica.

=Tela=, R. A loom, an essential adjunct to every large establishment in ancient Rome; tela jugalis was the simplest description of weaving-loom. The warp was called stamen from its upright position; the woof subtegmen or trama. In Greek στήμων and κρόκη.

=Telamones=, R. Figures of men, which were employed in lieu of columns to support an entablature. (See ATLANTES.) (Fig. 646.)

=Temo=, R. The pole of a carriage, waggon, plough, &c.

=Tempera Painting.= Painting with pigments mixed with chalk or clay, and diluted with weak glue or size; chiefly used in scene-painting and decoration. (See DISTEMPER.)

=Templars.= An order of knighthood introduced about A. D. 1118, and suppressed A. D. 1309. They wore a red Maltese cross on a white field, and bore a banner showing that cross on a white field; and a second banner of black and white called Beau Séant, this word Beau Séant being their battle-cry. Their badges were the AGNUS DEI, or Lamb and Flag; and a device representing two knights on one horse, indicating the original poverty of the order. This is blazoned in modern times as a pegasus, the two knights being mistaken for wings on a flying horse.

=Template.= (1) A model in thin board of an ornament to be produced in sculpture. (2) A short timber under a girder.

=Temple.= (See TEMPLUM.)

=Temple Church=, London—a round church—is a representative specimen of the transition period of architecture in England from the NORMAN to the EARLY ENGLISH. “The Eastern part is a most excellent specimen of plain light Early English, and its growing and slender piers are perhaps unequalled.” (Rickman, Architecture in England, &c.)

=Templet.= (See TEMPLATE.)

=Templum=, =Temple=, R. (τέμνω, to cut off). A Greek temple was not originally intended for worshippers, but as a shrine for the gods. In the earliest times the Greek temples were made of wood, and the primitive origin of them was probably a hollow tree in which the image was placed as in a niche. The early Greek temples were dark and gloomy, having no windows, but lighted through the door, or by lamps. At a very early stage in history, temples of great grandeur and beauty are mentioned. All temples were built in an oblong or round form, and were mostly adorned with columns; they were classified accordingly as astyle, without any columns; in antis, with two columns in front, between the antæ; prostyle, with four columns in front; or amphiprostyle, with four columns at each end; peripteral, with columns at each end and along the sides; or dipteral, with two ranges of columns all round, one within the other, &c. They were also described according to the number of columns in the porticoes, as tetrastyle, hexastyle, decastyle, &c.,—this number was never uneven; or according to the intercolumniation, as pycnostyle, systyle, eustyle, diastyle, or aræostyle. Many of the great temples consisted of three parts: the pronaos or vestibule; the cella, properly the naos; and the opisthodomos.

=Tendrils= of a vine or other creeping plant, with which it clasps the objects that support it, furnish abundant suggestions for ornamental designs in scroll-work.

=Tenebrosi.= A school of Italian artists who devoted their attention to striking Rembrandt effects of light and shade; represented by Caravaggio.

=Tenent=, =Tenant=. A term in French heraldry applied to human figures as SUPPORTERS.

=Tennée= or =Tawney=, Her. A deep orange colour, indicated by vertical lines crossing PURPURE.

=Tenon.= The end of a piece of wood, shaped to fit into another piece.

=Tenor.= In Music, a high male voice.

=Tensa= or =Thensa=, R. A triumphal car, probably in the form of a platform on wheels, and richly decorated, upon which the images of certain gods were paraded during the Circensian games. The ceremony was regarded as one of the highest solemnity, and the car was escorted by the senators in robes of state, who helped to drag the carriage or to lead the horses, with thongs attached for the purpose.

=Tenture=, Fr. Paper or tapestry hangings.

=Tepidarium=, R. (tepidus, lukewarm). (1) A warm room in a bath; used as a preparation for the SUDATORIUM. (2) The vessel in which the water was heated.

=Tercel=, O. E. The male hawk. (Shakspeare.)

=Terce major.= A sequence of three best cards.

=Terebenthina.= Turpentine.

=Terebra=, R. (tero, to rub or wear away). (1) Any tool used for boring, such as a drill, a gimlet, an auger, &c. (2) A mechanical ram contrived to pierce the walls of a fortification.

=Terginum=, R. (tergum, the back). A leathern lash used for flogging slaves.

=Terminal Figures.= Statues of the god Terminus. (See TERMINI, HERMÆ.)

=Terminalia=, R. Festivals in honour of Terminus the god of boundaries; they took place yearly on the eighth day of the calends of March (23rd of February), which was the last day of the old Roman year.

=Termini=, =Terms=, R. The statues of the god TERMINUS, which consisted merely of posts or pillars for landmarks, were crowned with garlands by the proprietors of co-terminous lands.

“When Tarquin the Proud desired to build a temple to Jupiter upon the Tarpeian rock, he begged all the inferior divinities to give up the altars they had upon the rock in favour of the master of them all. All the gods cheerfully consented except Terminus. This Terminus, therefore, who refused to yield to Jupiter, was chosen by Erasmus for his haughty device, with the motto Cedo nulli.” (Mr. Palliser, Historic Devices, &c.) (See Fig. 648.)

=Terra-cotta=, It. Baked clay; largely used in architectural ornament.

=Terra da Boccali=, It. (See TERRA DI LAVA.)

=Terra di Lava=, It. A clay which was anciently used in combination with charcoal to form a white ground for the reception of oil colours.

=Terra di Siena.= An ochreous earth producing a yellow and a deep orange pigment; useful for oil and water-colour painting. (See SIENA.)

=Terra Nera.= Black earth; an ancient pigment.

=Terra Verde.= (See GREEN EARTH.)

=Terraglia.= (See POTTERY.)

=Terretta=, It. (See TERRA DI LAVA.)

=Terry Velvet.= A kind of silk plush or ribbed velvet.

=Tertiary Colours=, produced by the mixture of two secondary colours, are greys, inclining to the primary or secondary colour which is in excess in their composition. (Consult Chevreuil on Colours.)

=Teruncius=, R. A silver coin equal in value to one-fourth of an as.

=Tessela=, R. (diminutive of tessera). A small cube of stone or marble used for making mosaic pavements (tesselatum opus or tesselata structura).

=Tesselated pavement.= Inlaid or mosaic work composed of tesselæ. Tesselatum flagrum. (See FLAGRUM.) Cf. MUSIVUM OPUS. (Consult Buckman and Newmarch, Remains of Roman Art in Cirencester.)

=Tessera=, R. (Gr. κύβος). A cube, a die; tesseræ, tesseræ lusoriæ, dice of ivory, bone, or wood; the dice-box is fritillus. (Compare TALUS.) Tessera hospitalis was an oblong token of wood or earthenware, exchanged among families agreed to mutual hospitality. Many of these tokens have the bust of Jupiter Hospitalis impressed; tessera theatralis, a pass to the theatre; tessera militaris (Gr. σύνθημα), a tablet on which the watch-word or war-cry of the day was written; it was passed about the ranks before joining battle. Tesseræ frumentariæ or nummariæ, vouchers for bread or money distributed by the magistrates among the poor. (Cf. TESSELA, TALUS, TABULÆ.)

=Testa=, R. A sherd of tiles or pottery, and thence an earthenware vase.

=Testaceum=, R. (testa). Made of tiles; the term was used to denote a roofing or pavement made with the fragments of broken tiles.

=Tester.= (1) Any flat canopy. The framework over a four-post bedstead. (2) A silver coin so called from the head (teste) of the king upon it. In the reign of Henry VIII. it was worth 12_d._ and afterwards 6_d._ French testers were struck by Louis XII. in 1513, and Scotch under Queen Mary in 1559.

=Testière=, Med. Fr. Originally, mailed armour for a horse’s head, subsequently a plate between the ears on which a crest was fixed. (See CHANFRON.)

=Testif=, Fr. Camel’s hair.

=Testudinatus=, R. Made in the form of a TESTUDO (q.v.); the term was applied either to a roof or a ceiling.

=Testudineus=, R. Made with tortoise-shells.

=Testudo=, R. (testa, a shell). (1) A tortoise, and thence a lyre of which the sounding bottom was made out of a tortoise-shell. (2) In Architecture, an arched ceiling, the four sides of which converge to a centre. (3) Testudo arietaria was a movable wooden shed covered with skins and containing a battering-ram (Fig. 574). (4) Lastly the term denoted a kind of defensive roof formed by the shields of soldiers when advancing to the foot of a rampart (Fig. 649).

=Tetra-chordon=, Gr. and R. (τετρά-χορδον). Literally, having four strings; hydraulos tetrachordon was a hydraulic organ with four pipes.

=Tetra-comus=, Gr. A banqueting-song sung at the festival of Bacchus during the fourth course (κῶμος).

=Tetra-doros= (sc. later), Gr. A peculiar kind of brick described by Vitruvius; it was called from its measuring four hand-breadths.

=Tetra-drachmum=, Gr. (τετρά-δραχμον). An Attic silver coin of the value of four drachmæ, or about 3_s._ 3_d._

=Tetra-foliated=, Arch. Said of any architectural decoration showing four foils.

=Tetragon.= A plane figure having four angles; a four-sided figure.

=Tetra-morph=, Chr. (Gr. τέσσαρα, four; μορφὴ, shape). The union of the four attributes of the Evangelists (the angel, eagle, lion, and ox), in one figure, e. g. as a woman crowned and seated on an animal which, with the body of a horse, has the four heads of the mystic creatures; and of the four feet one is human, one hoofed for the ox, one clawed like an eagle’s, and one like a lion’s; underneath is inscribed Animal Ecclesiæ.

=Tetra-style=, Gr. and R. (τετράστυλος). Having four columns. (See TEMPLUM.)

=Tetra-vela=, Lat. “The veils or curtains placed between the pillars which supported the canopy of the altar, at the sides and in front, and which were drawn round it when the priest was not officiating.” (Fairholt.)

=Teutonic Order.= A military order of knights, established in the Holy Land about 1191. They first subdued and Christianized Prussia.

=Tewel=, Arch. (From the French tuyau.) A pipe or flue to convey smoke; it is mentioned by Chaucer:

“... Soche a smoke gan out wende Blacke, blue and greenish, swartishe, rede, As doith where that men melte lede, Lo! all on hie from the tewell.” (House of Fame.)

=Textile=, R. (texo, to weave). Woven. Anything capable of being woven.

=Texture.= In Art, the surface appearance of a representation not of textiles only, but of the other parts of a picture—wood, marble, skin, hair, &c. Gerard Dow excels in texture.

=Thalamifera=, Gr. A term applied, in describing ancient sculpture, to kneeling figures supporting tablets, on which figures of the gods or inscriptions are carved.

=Thalamus=, Gr. and R. (θάλαμος). The nuptial chamber in a Roman house; the others were called DORMITORIA.

=Thalysia=, Gr. (θαλύ-σια). Greek festivals of the harvest and vintage.

=Thargelia=, Gr. (θαργήλια). Very ancient festivals held at Athens on the occasion of a plague or other public disaster in honour of Apollo and Artemis; in which two persons, generally criminals, were put to death for the purification of the city.

=Thaumaturgi=, Chr. (θαυματο-εργός). Workers of miracles.

=Theatrum=, =Theatre=, Gr. and R. (θέατρον, lit. a place for seeing). The construction of the ancient GREEK theatre was similar to that of modern theatres. The seats rose one behind and above the other in concentric half-circles, and the whole space enclosed was called cavea, the pit, being in most cases a real excavation from the rock. The central level space within and below the circles for spectators was covered with boards, upon which the chorus danced and performed their part. This was the ORCHESTRA, the central point of which and of the plan of the whole building was the THYMELE, or altar of Dionysus. This altar became a property of the piece, doing duty as a funeral monument, an altar, or a pulpit for the leader of the chorus or flute-player, according to the nature of the performance going on, in which it must be remembered that the part assigned to the chorus in the orchestra below was quite as important as any other, and in its original intention was in fact the centre of interest, to which the performance on the stage was accessory. The whole theatre and orchestra were open to the sky. The cavea of the former accommodated about 50,000 spectators. The arrangements of the stage were elaborate and ingenious, and the art of scene-painting developed at a very early period. The ROMAN theatre differed from the Greek principally in the absence of an orchestra, that space (the modern pit) being used for the seats of senators, foreign ambassadors, &c. Remains of ancient theatres still exist in Greece, Italy, and France. The most perfect of these are the Colosseum at Rome, and the amphitheatre at Nismes.

=Theca Calamaria=, Gr. and R. (θήκη; τίθημι, to put into). A portable inkstand.

=Thenard’s Blue.= (See COBALT.)

=Thensa.= (See TENSA.)

=Theo-gamia=, Gr. (θεο-γάμια). Greek festivals held in honour of Proserpine and commemorating her marriage with Pluto.

=Theorbo.= A stringed musical instrument; a kind of lute, having supplementary strings by the side of the finger-board.

=Thermæ=, Gr. and R. (θέρμαι, lit. hot-springs). Distinguished from balneæ. The luxurious establishments for bathing, gymnastics, and conversation which grew up under the Roman Empire, on which all the resources of architecture and decorative art were lavished. The ruins of the thermæ of Titus, Caracalla, and Diocletian are still visible. They contained, besides the baths properly so called, “exedræ for philosophers and rhetoricians to lecture in, porticoes for the idle, and libraries for the learned, and were adorned with marbles and fountains, and shaded with walks and plantations.”

=Thermography.= A chemical process for copying prints and drawings upon paper or metal by the agency of heat without light.

=Thermopolium=, R. (θερμο-πώλιον). A refreshment-room, in which warm drinks were sold, such as mulled wine, mead, &c.

=Thermulæ= (dimin. of thermæ). Baths on a small scale.

=Thesaurus=, Gr. A treasure-house. In the monuments of the heroic period many subterranean buildings of great extent and peculiar construction have been attributed to this purpose; but they may more probably have been sepulchral. In historical times the public treasures were in the agoræ or the temples. (See ÆRARIUM.)

=Theseum.= An Athenian temple built in the 5th century B.C., to receive the bones of Theseus. It was richly ornamented with statuary and sculpture. The former has been destroyed; but some metopes and sculptured friezes in high relief remain, of which castings exist in the British Museum. Our illustration represents an incident of the “Battle of the gods and the giants,” and is remarkable for anatomical precision. In these sculptures Greek art has entirely emerged from the archaic stage, and they were doubtless the inspiring models for Pheidias and his contemporaries, and the forerunners of the Parthenon sculptures. (See ELGIN MARBLES.)

=Thesmo-phoria.= Greek festivals of women and maidens in honour of Demeter, in commemoration of the traditions of civilized life. The solemnities opened with processions of women bearing on their heads the books of the sacred laws (ascribed to Demeter). On the second day, of fasting and mourning, the women remained all day grouped round the statue of Demeter in the temple, taking no other food than cakes of sesame and honey, and in the afternoon walked barefoot in procession behind a waggon on which baskets with mystical symbols were borne to the thesmophorion. On the third day they commemorated the smiles of Demeter, under the epithet of καλλιγένεια.

=Thibet Cloth.= A fabric of goat’s hair; called also camlet.

=Thick-pleached=, O. E. Thickly interwoven. (Shakspeare.)

=Thieves’ Vinegar.= A kind of aromatic vinegar for a sick-room, consisting of the dried tops of rosemary, sage-leaves, lavender-flowers, and bruised cloves, steeped in acetic acid and boiling water. It derives its name and popularity from a story that thieves who plundered the dead bodies during the plague with perfect security, attributed their impunity to the use of this disinfectant. (Simmonds’ Commercial Dictionary.)

=Thimbles= are said to have been found at Herculaneum. The manufacture was introduced into England, from Holland, about 1695.

=Thistle=, Her. The national badge of Scotland represented after its natural aspect and tinctured proper. The Order of the Thistle of Scotland was instituted a long time before the union of the two kingdoms (commemorated in the badge selected by James I. of the rose and thistle combined). (Fig. 293.) The badge or jewel is of gold enamelled, having a figure of St. Andrew holding his silver saltire and surrounded by rays, and an oval border with the motto. It is borne from the collar of the order formed of thistles alternating with bunches of rue sprigs, or on a dark green ribbon across the shoulder. The order of the Ecu d’Or, instituted by Louis of Bourbon (1410), had also a thistle in the jewel and girdle.

=Tholus=, Gr. and R. (θόλος). A dome and cupola of a circular building.

=Thorax=, Gr. (θώραξ). (1) A breastplate; Latin LORICA (q.v.). (2) A bust of wax, marble, or bronze.

=Three-pile=, O. E. Rich velvet.

=Three-quarter.= A size of portrait; 30 inches by 25. (See PORTRAIT PAINTING.)

=Thrones=, Chr. An order of angels, usually represented with double wings, supporting the Throne of the Almighty in ethereal space.

=Through-stone= or =Throwstone=, O. E. (variously spelt, derived from Anglo-Saxon, thruh, a coffin.) A flat grave-stone. Parker gives in his “Glossary” the following quotation:—

“Over the midst of the said vault did lie a fair throwstone, and at each either side of the stone it was open, through which were cast the bones of the monks whose graves were opened for other monks to lie in; which vault was made to be a charnel-house to put dead men’s bones in.”

(Ancient Rites of Durham.)

=Thurible=, Chr. An incense-burner. Generally of bronze. The practice of burning incense in religious functions is very ancient, and originated in the East. The illustration (Fig. 652) is a beautiful specimen of Arabian work devoted to this object.

=Thurles=, O. E. (holes through the wall). The small windows of a house; 12th century.

=Thyas= or =Thias=, Gr. A Bacchante, the Greek equivalent for the Latin BACCHA.

=Thymela=, =Thymelê=, Gr. (θυμέλη). (Literally, a place for sacrifice.) An altar placed in the orchestra of a Greek theatre and dedicated to Bacchus.

=Thyroma=, Gr. (θύρωμα). A synonym for the Latin JANUA (q.v.).

=Thyrsus=, R. (θύρσος). A long staff, surmounted with a fir-cone, or a bunch of vine-leaves or ivy, with grapes or berries, carried by Bacchus, and the satyrs, mænads, and others, during the celebration of religious rites. Beneath the garland or fir-cone the thyrsus ends in the sharp point of a spear, a puncture from which induces madness.

=Tiara=, Gr. (τιάρα). A hat with a tall high crown; the characteristic head-dress of the north-western Asiatics; especially the Armenians, Parthians, Medes, and Persians. Tiara recta or cidaris was an upright tiara, the regal head-dress of Persia. Tiara Phrygia was a synonym for MITRA. Fig. 653 represents the head-dress and costume of a Persian soldier.

=Tiara=, Chr. The Pope’s triple crown, emblematic of his authority in the three kingdoms of heaven, earth, and the lower world. (See Fig. 653.)

=Tibia=, R. (Greek, aulos). A pipe or flute of reed, bone, ivory, horn, or metal, perforated with holes for the notes like a flute; the principal varieties were:—the monaulos or single pipe, including the bagpipe (utricolarius); the diaulos, or double pipe, bound round the cheeks with a bandage called by the Romans capistrum, and in Greek phorbeia; and the syrinx or Pandæan pipe, of three to nine tubes.

=Tibia Curva=, R. A kind of flute curved at its broadest end.

=Tibia Dextra=, R. The right-hand pipe of the diaulos, usually constructed of the upper and thinner part of a reed.

=Tibia Gingrina=, R. A flute made of a long thin tube of reed with a mouth-hole at the side of one end.

=Tibia Ligula=, R. A flute resembling the modern flageolet.

=Tibia Longa=, R. A flute used especially in religious worship.

=Tibia Obliqua=, R. A flute having the mouthpiece at right angles to the tube.

=Tibia Sinistra=, R. The left-hand pipe of the diaulos, usually constructed of the lower and broader part of a reed.

=Tibia Utricolarius=, R. The ancient bagpipe.

=Tibia Vasca=, R. A flute having the mouthpiece at a right angle.

=Tibiæ Pares=, R. A name for the double flute when the tubes were exactly alike, impares when they differed.

=Tie-beam=, Arch. The strong horizontal on which the king-post and other uprights rest, which support the beams of a roof.

=Tierce=, =Per Tierce=, Her. Divided into three equal parts.

=Tig=, O. E. A shallow drinking-bowl with four handles, made to pass round the table from hand to hand as a loving cup.

=Tiger-wood=, obtained from Guiana, is a valuable ornamental wood for cabinet-work.

=Tignum=, R. In a general sense wood used in carpentry, a beam or joist; in a more restricted sense, a tie-beam, rafters, brackets, &c.

=Tigrinæ.= Tiger-tables. Great importance was attached in Roman decorative art to the grain of the wood. Tables having “veins arranged in wavy lines,” were called Tigrinæ, from the resemblance of their pattern to that of a tiger’s skin. Those having “veins which formed spirals, or little whirlpools,” were called pantherinæ, or panther-tables.

=Tiles= for roofs are of two kinds:—plain tiles and pan tiles; they are mentioned in an ancient statute of King Edward IV. (1477), regulating the

“Fesure, whitying, et anelyng de tewle, appelez pleintile, autrement nosmez thaktile, roftile, ou crestile, cornertile et guttertile fait et affaire deinz cest Roialme.”

Glazed or encaustic tiles were anciently much used for paving sacred edifices. English designs are generally heraldic in character. In Spanish architecture tiles were used for the decoration of walls instead of hangings; and richly decorated pavements are found in Asia Minor and the East Indies. (Consult Parker’s Glossary, J. G. Nichols, Examples of Tiles, &c.)

=Tilt=, O. E. The word is properly applied to the exercises in training for the joust, against the QUINTAIN, the PEL, the ring, and other objects.

=Timbre=, Her. (1) Anciently, the crest; (2) Modern French, the helm, in a coat of arms.

=Timbrel.= An ancient tambourine, with a double row of gingles.

=Tin-glazed Wares.= (See POTTERY.)

=Tina=, R. A large vessel used for holding wine; its shape is unknown.

=Tinctures=, Her. The two metals and the five colours of heraldry.

=Tint= of colour = degree of intensity. In painting in oils this is lowered by the addition of a white pigment, in water-colours by dilution. “Tint is any unbroken state of any colour, varying between the intensity of its parent colour and the purity of white.” (J. B. Pyne, in the Art Union of 1844.) (See TONES.)

=Tint-tools.= In copper and wood-engraving, gravers used for skies, still waters, architecture, &c. The word “tint” in engraving means colour, and skies are tints cut horizontally.

=Tintinnabulatus=, R. Carrying a bell (tintinnabulum); a term applied especially to animals which carried a bell hung round their neck.

=Tintinnabulum=, R. (Gr. κώδων). A bell used as a hand-bell; they took very various forms in antiquity, hemispherical, pear-shaped, or cylindrical, and some were square. The Romans also made use of a kind of swinging gong similar to that shown in Figs. 654 and 655, of a specimen discovered at Pompeii, and now in the Naples museum.

=Tintinnabulum=, O. E. A musical instrument made of a set of bells, arranged in order within a frame.

=Tints.= (See TONE.)

=Tiraz=, Arab. The ancient name of the apartment in an Arab palace set apart for weaving; also of the rich silken stuffs woven there.

=Tire Valiant= or =Volant=, O. E. A kind of head-dress. (Shakspeare.)

=Titulus=, R. (1) The title or INDEX of a book. (2) A notice in front of a house to be let or sold. (3) An epitaph or other inscription on monuments. (4) A large board mounted on a spear and inscribed with the numbers of the prisoners, cities, and standards that had been captured from the enemy; carried in a TRIUMPH or OVATION.

=Tobine.= A stout twilled silk.

=Toga=, R. (tego, to cover). The principal outer garment of a Roman, as the PALLIUM (q.v.) was the national dress of the Greek. Among the different kinds of toga were the toga restricta, toga fusa, toga prætexta, toga pura or virilis, toga palmata, toga picturata, &c. The colour of the toga was ordinarily white. Candidates (from candidus, white) were so called from their whitening their togas with chalk; the toga pulla, of the natural colour of black wool, was worn in mourning; the toga picta, or embroidered toga, was for generals on their triumphs. (See also PRÆTEXTA, TRABEA, &c.) The illustration (Fig. 656) represents the statue of a Roman senator of the Augustan age.

=Togatus=, R. Wearing the toga; essentially the Roman costume, opposed to palliatus, a man in the Greek dress.

=Togula=, R. (dimin. of toga). (1) A toga of a fine texture; or (2) the short and threadbare toga of coarse texture, worn by a poor man, who then went by the name of togatulus.

=Toilinet.= A textile of silk or cotton warp, with woollen weft.

=Toise.= In French lineal measurement = 76 inches.

=Toison d’Or=, Her. The Golden Fleece. A French order of knighthood, instituted by Philip the Good in 1429. The order has a king at arms called Toison d’Or. The collar is composed of flint-stones, alternately with double fusils placed two and two together, forming double B’s. From this suspends a Golden Fleece. The motto is, “Pretium non vile laborum.” (See FUSIL.)

=Tokens.= Small coins issued by tradesmen for current money. (Consult W. Boyne’s Tokens, &c.)

=Tolleno=, R. (tollo, to lift). (1) A contrivance for drawing water from a well, made of a strong cross-bar poised from the top of an upright beam, with a weight at one end and a rope and bucket at the other. (2) A similar apparatus was used in siege operations to lift soldiers up to a wall.

=Tom-tom.= Oriental small drum, of a barrel form, covered at each end with skin, carried obliquely, and beaten with one hand at each end.

=Tomb.= From the earliest ages tombs similar in general design to those of modern times have been used to mark the resting-places of the dead. Fig. 657 represents an ancient monument in Lycia. (See STELA, SHRINE.)

=Tombac.= Red brass; the white tombac is an alloy of copper and zinc, containing not more than 20 per cent. of zinc.

=Tompion.= The plug to the mouth of a cannon.

=Tondi=, It. A name given to a series of twelve circular medallions, painted by Luca della Robbia, with impersonations of the twelve months.

=Tondino=, It. A name given to small plates or dishes, which it was a mediæval fashion for the gallants to present, filled with confectioneries, to ladies. They are described as small, with a wide flat brim and sunk centre; in this, the central medallion generally occupied by a figure of Cupid, hearts tied by ribbons or pierced with arrows, or by joined hands, and similar amatory devices, or with a shield of arms and initial letters, &c.

=Tones= are the modifications which a colour, in its greatest intensity, is capable of receiving from white, which lowers its tone, or black which heightens it. A scale is an assemblage of tones of the same colour, thus modified. The pure colour is the normal tone of the scale. Hues are the modifications which a colour receives from the addition of a small quantity of another colour. (Chevreuil on Colour, pp. 34, 35.)

=Tonometer.= A delicate instrument for tuning musical instruments, by marking the number of vibrations.

=Tonstrina=, R. A barber’s shop; frequented only by the middle classes; the rich were shaved at their houses; and the poor allowed their beards and hair to grow.

=Tonsure=, Chr. The clerical crown, adopted, it is said, in imitation of St. Peter, or of the Crown of Thorns, was disapproved of in the 4th century as pertaining only to penitents; and not made essential till the end of the 5th or beginning of the 6th centuries.

=Tontisse=, Fr. Flock-paper; paper-hangings ornamented with flock-wool.

=Tooth-Ornament=, Arch. A name of the NAILHEAD moulding. It is the peculiar distinction of the Early English style, to which it is nearly, if not exclusively, confined. It is the regular progression from the Norman zigzag to the delicate quatrefoil of the DECORATED ENGLISH. It resembles a succession of low, square, pierced pyramids set on the edges of a hollow moulding.

=Toothing=, Arch. Projecting bricks left at the end of a wall, to form a union with any further buildings.

=Topaz.= There are two varieties of this gem; the Brazilian yellow, which is the best known, and the Oriental.

=Topaz=, Her. In blazoning arms of nobles, the names of gems were sometimes substituted for tinctures; the topaz for gold (OR).

=Topes=, Hind. Buddhist sepulchral monuments, cone-shaped, and round at the tops, like the dagobs of Ava and Ceylon.

=Topiaria= (Ars), R. Artificial training of shrubs and trees into fantastic shapes. Painted representations of landscapes on the walls of houses were called TOPIA. (See HORTUS.)

=Topiarius=, R. A gardener skilled in the ARS TOPIARIA (q.v.).

=Torale=, R. (torus, a couch). The hanging valance of a couch.

=Torch=, R. The emblem of marriage, from the custom of forming wedding processions in the evening by torch-light. Upright, the torch was the emblem of rejoicing; reversed, of death or sleep; hence its application upon funereal monuments.

=Torcular=, =Torculum=, R. A wine or oil-press. Hence—

=Torcularium=, R. The press-room.

=Toreador=, Sp. A bull-fighter.

=Toreuma=, Gr. and R. (τόρευμα). Carving upon ivory executed on the lathe.

=Toreutic Art= (from τορεύω, to bore through; or from τορός, clear, distinct). Sculpture; especially of metals, ivories, metallic castings in relief, &c. A long essay on the meaning of this word occurs in the works of De Quincy.

=Tormentum=, R. (1) (Torqueo, to twist.) A general term for such instruments as the balista, catapulta, onager, scorpio, &c., from the twisting of the strands of the ropes that were used as the string to the bow. (2) Torture. By the Greek law the evidence of slaves was always extracted by torture. In Rome free persons in humble circumstances were also subjected to it in cases of treason.

=Tornus=, Gr. and R. A lathe or potter’s wheel.

=Torquatus=, R. Wearing the Gallic TORQUE. Torquatus miles, a soldier who received such a collar as a reward, and wore it, not round the neck, but on the breast, like a decoration.

=Torques=, Gen. (torqueo, to twist). A necklace, or armlet, or collar of gold or other wire spirally twisted. (See ARMILLA, MONILE, &c.)

=Torse=, Her. A crest-wreath. (See ORLE.)

=Torso=, It. In Sculpture, the trunk regarded apart from the head and limbs. The celebrated Torso of Hercules, in the Vatican, by Apollonios, about 336 B.C., is said to have been the favourite inspiration of Michael Angelo. Another fine torso is that known as the Farnese, in the Naples Museum, representing probably a seated figure of Bacchus.

=Torteau=, Her. A red ROUNDLE (q.v.).

=Tortoise.= Among the Egyptians the tortoise was an emblem of darkness and of death. Fig. 129 is the remarkable device of Cosmo, Grand Duke of Tuscany, with the motto, “Hasten slowly,” i. e. have caution with energy.

=Tortoise-shell= is largely used for making combs, and for veneering on cabinet-work. When it is softened with hot water, it receives impressions which become permanent if it is suddenly cooled. The plates used are those found on the back of the sea-turtle (chelone imbricata). Five large plates are obtained from the middle of the carapace or upper buckler, and four large ones from the sides, called “blades,” and twenty-five smaller plates from the edges, called “feet or noses.” The belly shells are of a yellow colour, and are used for the purposes of horn.

=Torus=, R. Anything swelling like the strand of a rope. A bed covered with sheets or blankets (toralia).

=Torus=, Arch. A convex moulding used in architectural decoration (Fig. 659) at all periods and by all nations.

=Touchstone= is a kind of black jasper, known as Lydian stone, used for testing gold. This is done with touching-needles tipped with metal in various states of alloy, and the streaks that they make on the touchstone determine the fineness of the gold. In Architecture, certain black marbles were anciently so called, from their supposed identity with the lapis Lydius.

=Tough=, Turkish. A Turkish standard; a horse-tail attached to the upper part of a pike which ends in a crescent and ball.

=Tourelle=, Fr. A small tower on a castle, with a winding staircase.

=Towers.= (See ROUND TOWERS.)

=Trabea=, R. (lit. shaped like a trabs or beam). A rich toga, either made entirely of purple cloth or decorated with horizontal stripes of that colour. The purple toga was an attribute of the gods, and afterwards of the emperors; purple and white, or purple and saffron, of augurs; purple and white, of royalty (kings).

=Trabs=, R. A beam; especially a long beam supporting the joists of a ceiling.

=Tracery.= In architecture or decorative work, geometrical ornament, such as is inserted on the upper parts of Gothic windows, in Alhambraic architecture, &c.

=Tracing-paper= is made of tissue-paper soaked in oil or thin varnish.

=Trajan Column=, in Rome, the work of Apollodorus, A. D. 114, is 10½ feet in diameter, and 127 feet high, made of 34 blocks of white marble—23 in the shaft, 9 in the base, which is finely sculptured, and 2 in the capital and torus. The sculptures show about 2500 figures besides the horses, and represent the battles and sieges of the Dacian War. The column is a perfect handbook of the military costume of Rome and other countries of its period. (Consult the work of Alfonso G. Hispano, published at Rome, 1586, which contains 130 plates representing all the sculptures; or the more modern work of Pietro Santo Bartoli, which contains beautiful engravings of all the reliefs.) A plaster cast of the column in two pieces is in the South Kensington Museum, with a handbook by J. H. Pollen on a desk near its base, with the aid of which it can be perfectly studied at leisure.

=Trama=, Sp. The weft or woof; a kind of silk thread so called.

=Transenna=, R. and Chr. A snare for birds. It consisted of a net stretched over a circular framework. In Christian archæology, the name was given to a marble lattice placed in the catacomb chapels to protect the relics.

=Transept=, Arch. A transverse nave, passing in front of the choir, and crossing the longitudinal or central nave of a church. It is sometimes called the cross, and each of its parts to the right and left of the nave are called cross-aisles.

=Transfluent=, Her. Flowing through.

=Transition Periods= of Architecture. Generally speaking, all periods deserve this title, as the progressive change of the styles is continuous. Those with more precision so described are, in English Architecture, three:—from the NORMAN to the EARLY ENGLISH; and then to the DECORATED; and thirdly to the PERPENDICULAR, styles.

=Transmuted=, Her. Counter-changed.

=Transom=, Arch. The horizontal cross-bar in a window.

=Transposed=, Her. Reversed.

=Transtrum=, R. (trans, across). In a general sense a horizontal beam. In the plural, transtra, the cross-benches of a ship occupied by the rowers.

=Trapeso=, It. A weight for gold and silver; the twentieth part of an ounce.

=Trapetum=, R. A mill for crushing olives.

=Trapezophorum=, R. (τραπεζο-φόρον). A richly carved leg for side-boards or small tables; sometimes called DELPHICA (q.v.).

=Trasformati of Milan.= One of the Italian Academies who bore as a device a plane-tree, and the verse from Virgil, “et steriles platani malos gessere valentes,” “the barren planes have borne good fruit” (cut out of a wild olive-tree and grafted in).

=Travagliati.= One of the Italian literary academies, whose device was a sieve (vaglio) with the motto “donec purum” (until clean).

=Traversed=, Her. Facing to the sinister.

=Travertine=, =Travertino=, It. A compact kind of TUFA stone, used in architecture; part of St. Peter’s and the Colosseum of Rome are built of this stone. (See TUFA.) It is a stone of a white or yellowish tint, and was used by the ancient painters to give body to lakes.

=Trebuchet=, Fr. Med. A mechanical contrivance for projecting stones and darts; a kind of enormous cross-bow or sling.

=Tredyl=, O. E. (See GRYSE.)

=Treflée=, Her. (See BOTONNÉE.)

=Trefoil=, Arch. An ornament of three foils peculiar to the Romano-Byzantine and pointed styles. This ornament occurs in bands or string-courses, and also forms entablatured foliage. A synonym for it is tiercefoil. In Heraldry, a leaf of three conjoined foils generally borne slipped. (Fig. 660.)

=Trellis.= Open lattice-work.

=Trenchers= (Fr. tranchoirs). Originally thick slices of bread on which the meat was served, instead of plates; 13th century.

=Trental=, O. E. Chr. for Trigintale. Thirty masses for the dead.

=Tresson=, Fr. A net for the hair, worn by ladies in the Middle Ages. (See CALANTICA.)

=Tressure=, Her. A variety of the ORLE, generally set round with fleurs-de-lys. A striking example is to be seen in the Royal Shield of Scotland, now displayed in the second quarter of the Royal Arms, blazoned as—Or, within a double Tressure flory; counterflory, a lion rampant guardant.

=Trevat.= A weaver’s cutting instrument for severing the pile-threads of velvet.

=Triangle=, Chr. An equilateral triangle is a symbol of the Holy Trinity, and therefore the motive, only second in frequency and importance to the CROSS, of the construction and decoration of Christian churches.

=Triangle.= A musical instrument of early occurrence, producing sound by the striking of a metal triangle with a metal rod.

=Triblet.= A goldsmith’s tool used in making rings.

=Tribometer.= An instrument for estimating the friction of different metals.

=Tribon=, Gr. and R. (τρίβων). Literally, worn threadbare; and thence a coarse and common sort of mantle worn by the Spartans or by Romans who affected Spartan manners.

=Tribula= or =Tribulum=, R. (tero, to rub). An apparatus for threshing corn; consisting of a heavy platform armed with iron teeth or sharp flints.

=Tribulus=, R. (τρί-βολος, three-pointed). A CALTRAP (q.v.).

=Tribunal=, R. A raised platform for the curule chairs of the magistrates in the Basilica.

=Tribune=, R. and Chr. The semicircular recess in a Latin basilica in which the chief magistrate had his raised seat and administered justice. In Christian archæology, a gallery in a church; the triforium and the organ-loft are tribunes. In Italian, tribuna, a picture-gallery.

=Tricerion=, Chr. (τρὶς, thrice; κέρας, a horn). A candlestick with three branches, symbolizing the Holy Trinity. (See DICERION.)

=Tricked=, Her. Sketched with pen and ink in outline.

=Triclinium=, Gr. R. and Chr. (τρι-κλίνιον). A set of three dining-couches arranged round a table, and thence the dining-room itself, especially the summer dining-room. In Christian archæology the triclinium was an apartment attached to a Christian basilica, in which pilgrims were entertained.

=Tricolor.= The French national standard—red, white, and blue—introduced at the period of the revolution of 1789.

=Tricomos=, Gr. and R. A song for the third course of a banquet (κῶμος) at the festivals of Bacchus. The comus was peculiar to the first, and the tetracomos to the fourth course.

=Tricot=, Fr. (1) Silk net. (2) A knitted cotton fabric.

=Trident=, R. A three-pronged fork, the attribute of Neptune, used (1) for spearing fish; (2) by the class of gladiators called RETIARII; (3) as a goad for horses and cattle.

=Triens=, R. A small copper coin current among the Romans; it was worth the third of an as, or about one farthing. It bore on the obverse a ship’s prow or a horse’s head, and four balls indicating four ounces (unciæ).

=Trieterides=, Gr. (τρι-ετηρίδες). Festivals of Bacchus, held in Bœotia every third year.

=Triforium=, Chr. A gallery over the side aisles of a church, open to the nave in arcades of three arches (tres fores).

=Triga=, R. A car drawn by three horses yoked either abreast or with one in front.

=Trigarium=, R. A field for the exercise of trigæ and other chariots.

=Triglyph=, Arch. (τρίγλυφος). An ornament consisting of three flutings or upright groovings separating the metopes in a Doric frieze. (Fig. 458.)

=Trigonalis=, R. Three-cornered “catch-ball;” a subject on frescoes.

=Trigonum=, Gr. and R. (τρίγωνον). (1) A mosaic of triangular pieces of marble, glass, terra-cotta, or other material (sectilia). Fig. 662 is from a pavement at the entrance of a house at Pompeii. (2) A musical stringed instrument; a triangular lyre, probably derived from Egypt.

=Trilith=, Celt. (τρί-λιθος). A Celtic monument of three stones forming a kind of door.

=Trilix=, R. In weaving, triple thread. (Compare BILIX.)

=Trilobate=, Arch. Presenting three foils.

=Trimodia=, R. A basket or vessel made to contain three modii (tres modii).

=Trinity=, Chr. For a detailed account of the progressive series of representations in Art of the Holy Trinity, consult Fairholt’s Dictionary, Didron’s Iconographie Chrétienne, &c.

=Triobolum=, Gr. A Greek silver coin of the value of three oboli. It was the established fee payable to an Athenian dikast for the hearing of a cause.

=Tripetia.= A Gallic term signifying a three-legged stool.

=Tripod= (Gr. τρί-πους). A vessel or table on three feet; esp. the slab at Delphi upon which the priestess of Apollo sat. (See DELPHICA, CORTINA.)

=Tripping=, Her. In easy motion, as a stag.

=Triptych= (τρί-πτυχος, three-fold). A form of picture, generally for ecclesiastical purposes, in three panels; a centre, and two hanging doors worked on both sides. (Fig. 664.)

=Tripudium=, R. The noise made by the grain as it fell from the beaks of the sacred chickens on to the ground; it was looked upon by the priest as a favourable omen; another name for it was terripavium (striking the earth). (See AUSPICIUM.)

=Triquetra=, Arch. A symmetrical interlaced ornament of early northern monuments. An endless line forming three arcs symmetrically interlaced will describe the figure.

=Trireme=, R. (tres, and remus, oar). A galley with three banks of rowers.

=Trisomus=, Chr. (τρί-σωμος). A triple sarcophagus. (Cf. BISOMUS.)

=Trispastus=, R. (τρί-σπαστος, drawn three-fold). A block for raising weights; of three pullies (orbiculi), set in a single block (trochlea).

=Triton.= A sea-monster; generally represented as blowing a shell (murex), and with a body above the waist like that of a man, and below like a dolphin.

=Triumphal Arch.= A monumental structure, usually a portico with one or more arches, erected across a public road for a triumphal procession to pass under.

=Triumphalia=, R. Insignia conferred upon a general on the occasion of a triumph; consisting of a richly embroidered toga and tunic, a sceptre, a chaplet of laurel leaves with a crown of gold, and a chariot.

=Triumphalis= (Via), R. The road traversed by a triumph.

=Triumphus=, =Triumph=, R. The pageant of the entry of a victorious general into Rome.

=Trivet=, Her. A circular or triangular iron frame with three feet, borne by the family of Tryvett.

=Trivium=, R. (tres, and via, a way). A place where three roads meet.

=Trochilus=, Arch. A concave moulding in classic architecture. (See SCOTIA.)

=Trochlea=, R. (τροχιλέα). A machine for raising weights, very similar to the TRISPASTOS.

=Trochus= (τροχὸς, a wheel). A hoop represented on ancient gems as driven by naked boys with a crooked stick, precisely in the existing school fashion. It was of bronze, often with rings attached.

=Trombone.= A large trumpet with an arrangement of sliding tubes for modulating the tones by which every gradation of sound within its compass can be exactly produced.

=Trophy=, Gr. (τρόπαιον). A monument of victory (τροπή). Fig. 665 represents a trophy of Gallic spoils, from a bas-relief on the triumphal arch at Orange.

=Trotcosie=, Scotch. A warm covering for the head, neck, and breast, worn by travellers.

=Trua=, dim. =Trulla=, R. (1) A large flat ladle or spoon perforated with holes and used for skimming liquids when boiling. (2) A kind of drinking-cup. (3) A portable brazier or earthenware vessel perforated with holes (Fig. 666) for carrying hot coals about. (4) A mason’s trowel.

=Trullissatio=, R. A coating of plaster or cement laid on by the trowel (trulla).

=Trumeau=, Fr. A pier looking-glass.

=Trumpet=, Her. The Roman tuba; a long straight tube expanded at its extremity.

=Truncated.= With the top cut off parallel to the base.

=Trunnions.= The side supports on which a cannon rests on its carriage.

=Truss=, Arch. The system of timbers mutually supporting each other and the roof.

=Trussed=, Her. Said of birds, with closed wings.

=Trussing=, Her. Said of birds of prey, devouring.

=Tuba=, R. A straight bronze trumpet with a small mouthpiece at one end, the other being wide and bell-shaped. (Cf. CORNU.)

=Tubilustrum=, =Quinquatrus=, R. Festivals held at Rome twice a year, for the purification of trumpets (tubæ).

=Tubla.= Assyrian drums, with skin at the top only.

=Tuck=, O. E. A short sword or dagger, worn in the 16th and 17th centuries by all classes.

=Tucket=, O. E. (It. toccata). A flourish on a trumpet.

=Tudesco=, Sp. A wide cloak.

=Tudor Arch=, Arch. An arch of four centres, flat for its span; having two of its centres in or near the spring, and the other two far below it. (Rickman.)

=Tudor Flower=, Arch. An ornament common to Elizabethan buildings. A flat flower, or leaf, as a crest or finish on cornices, &c.

=Tudor Rose=, formed by the union of the white and red roses of York and Lancaster; is described in heraldry as a white rose charged upon a red one. (See Fig. 395.)

=Tudor Style=, Arch. The style which prevailed under the Tudor dynasty. The term is loosely applied to various periods. (See PERPENDICULAR.)

=Tufa.= A porous variety of limestone deposited by calcareous water. It hardens on exposure to the air; and was much used by the Romans for facing buildings, and generally, on account of its lightness, for vaulting. (See TRAVERTINE.)

=Tugurium=, R. (tego, to cover). A thatched roof, and thence, a peasant’s hut.

=Tulip-tree.= The wood of this tree is smooth and fine-grained, very easily wrought, and not liable to split. It is largely used in carving and ornamental work, and for panels in coach building.

=Tulle=. A plain silk lace, blonde or net.

=Tumblers.= The drinking-glasses so called take their name from their original shape, rounded at the bottom, so that they tumbled over unless they were very carefully set down. Similar goblets are still made of wood in Germany; often with the inscription—

“Trink’ mich aus, und leg’ mich nieder: Steh’ ich auf, so füll’ mich wieder.”

=Tumulus= (tumeo, to swell). Sepulchral mounds of ancient and prehistoric construction. The illustrations, figs. 668 and 669, show the plan and section of a Gallic tumulus opened at Fontenay le Marmion.

=Tumulus Honorarius.= (See CENOTAPHIUM.)

=Tunbridge Ware.= Inlaid-work of variously-coloured woods made at Tunbridge Wells in Kent.

=Tunica=, Gr. and R. A tunic; the principal garment worn both by men and women among the Greeks and Romans. It was a kind of woollen shirt confined round the neck and the waist; it came down as far as the knee; it had short sleeves which only covered the upper part of the arm. Tunics were classed as follows: the exomis, the epomis, the chiton, the manicata or manuleata, the talaris, the muliebris, the interior or intima, the recta, the angusticlavia, the laticlavia, the patagiata, the palmata, the asema, and the picta. (Bosc.) (Fig. 670.)

=Tunicatus=, Gr. and R. Wearing a tunic.

=Tunicle=, Chr. (Lat. subtile). The vestment of the sub-deacon; it resembled the dalmatic, but had tight sleeves.

=Turbo=, R. (Gr. βέμβιξ). A child’s whipping-top; the whorl of a spindle.

=Turibulum.= (See THURIBLE.)

=Turicremus.= (See THURICREMUS.)

=Turkey Carpets= are made entirely of wool, the loops being larger than those of Brussels carpeting, and always cut; the cutting of the yarn gives the surface the appearance of velvet.

=Turkey-stitch= (point de Turquie). A kind of carpet made at the Savonnerie, established 1627.

=Turma=, R. A squadron of legionary cavalry; it consisted of thirty-two men commanded by a decurion, and led under a vexillum.

=Turnbull’s Blue.= A light and delicate variety of Prussian blue.

=Turner’s Yellow.= An oxychloride of lead, known also as patent yellow, and Cassell yellow.

=Turquoise.= A valuable blue gem for ornamental purposes. (S.) Fossil ivory impregnated with copper. (F.)

=Turrets=, Arch. (Fr. tourette, a small tower). Towers of great height in proportion to their diameter, and large pinnacles, are called turrets; these often contain staircases, and are sometimes crowned with small spires. Large towers often have turrets at their corners.

=Turricula=, R. (dimin. of turris). A small tower; also, a dice-box in the form of a tower, to which the Greeks applied the term of pyrgus (πύργος). Turricula has a synonym FRITILLUS (q.v.).

=Turriger=, R. Bearing a tower; the term applies both to an elephant and a ship of war when thus armed.

=Turris=, =Tower=. In a general sense, any building or collection of buildings either lofty in themselves or built upon an elevation, and thence, fortifications, such as a tower of defence, the tower of a city gate or a castle, a DONJON (q.v.).

=Tus= or =Thus=, R. Frankincense, imported from Arabia and used in great quantities by the ancients either for religious ceremonies or to perfume their apartments.

=Tuscan Order of Architecture.= The simplest of the five ORDERS of classical architecture, having no ornament whatever; unknown to the Greeks; a variety of ROMAN DORIC (q.v.). The column is about seven diameters high, including the base and capital. The base is half a diameter in height; the capital is of equal height, having a square abacus, with a small projecting fillet on the upper edge—under the abacus is an ovolo and a fillet with neck below; the shaft is never fluted; the entablature is quite plain, having neither mutules nor modillions; the frieze also is quite plain.

=Tusses= or =Toothing-stones=, in building, are projecting stones for joining other buildings upon.

=Tutulatus=, R. Having the hair arranged in the form of a cone, or wearing the sacerdotal cap called tutulus, and thence a priest who usually wore the TUTULUS (q.v.).

=Tutulus= or =Apex=, R. (1) A flamen’s cap; it was conical and almost pointed. (2) A mode of arranging the hair on the crown of the head in the shape of a pyramid or cone. An example is seen in the Medicean Venus.

=Twill.= A kind of ribbed cloth.

=Tympanium=, R. (τυμπάνιον). A pearl shaped like a kettle-drum, namely, with one surface flat and the other round.

=Tympanum=, R. (τύμπανον). (1) A tambourine, like that of modern times: a piece of stiff parchment stretched over a hoop with bells. (2) A drum-shaped wheel; tympanum dentatum, a cogged wheel. (3) In architecture, the flat surface, whether triangular or round, marked out by the mouldings of a pediment. Fig. 671 shows a tympanum of the Romano-Byzantine period. (For TRIANGULAR PEDIMENT, see Fig. 26.)

=Tynes=, Scotch. (1) Branches of a stag’s antlers. (2) Teeth of a harrow.

=Tyrian Purple.= An ancient dye of a brilliant colour, obtained from shells of the murex and purpura.

=U.= The letter repeated so as to mark the feathering upon tails of birds, is a peculiarity of Sicilian silks.

=Udo=, R. A sock made of goat-skin, or felt.

=Ulna=, R. A measure of length, subdivision of the foot measure.

=Ultramarine= or =Lapis Lazuli= (azurrum transmarinum). A beautiful blue pigment obtained from lazulite, highly esteemed by early painters. In consequence of the costliness of this pigment its use in a picture was regulated by special contract, and it was either supplied or paid for by the person who ordered the picture. Lely has recorded that he paid for his as much as 4_l._ 10_s._ the ounce. The pigment is now artificially compounded. (Cf. GUIMET’S U.)

=Umbella=, =Umbraculum=, R. (umbra, shade). An umbrella, made to open and shut like those of modern times. It is represented on vases held by a female slave over the head of her mistress. (See also UMBRELLAS.)

=Umber.= A massive mineral pigment used by painters as a brown colour, and to make varnish dry quickly. Raw umber is of an olive brown, which becomes much redder when burnt. (See OCHRES.)

=Umbilici=, R. (lit. navels), were the ornamental bosses which projected from each end of the staff round which a volume of papyrus or parchment (liber) was rolled. They were also called cornua, and geminæ frontes. (See LIBER.)

=Umbo= (Gr. ὀμφαλός). (1) The boss of a shield, often sharp and projecting so as to form an offensive weapon in itself. (2) A bunch formed by the folds of the toga tacked in to the belt across the chest.

=Umbræ=, R. The shades of the departed; represented in the forms in which they abandoned life. Those killed in battle, mutilated, &c.

=Umbrellas.= ANGLO-SAXON manuscripts sometimes represent a servant holding an umbrella over the head of his master. In the sculptures of ancient EGYPT and ASSYRIA they are represented borne by the attendants on a king. The GREEK and ROMAN ladies used parasols in all respects resembling those of modern times. In the PANATHENAIC procession the daughters of foreign settlers in Athens had to carry parasols over the heads of the Athenian maidens taking part in the procession. They were substituted later on by broad hats, the Roman PETASUS and the Greek THOLIA. In the SIAMESE empire an umbrella is the emblem of the royal dignity.

=Umbrere=, =Umbril=. In mediæval armour, a projection on a helmet acting as a guard to the eyes.

=Umbril.= (See UMBRERE.)

=Uncia= (Gr. οὐγκία, Angl. ounce). The unit of measurement. The twelfth part of anything. In currency, a copper coin; the twelfth part of an As. Its value was expressed on the obverse and reverse by one ball; in lineal measurement, the twelfth of a foot, whence our inch; in square measure, the twelfth of a jugerum; of liquids, the twelfth of a sextarius; in weight, the twelfth of a pound (libra).

=Uncial Letters.= When writing on papyrus or vellum became common, many of the straight lines of the capitals, in that kind of writing, gradually acquired a curved form. From the 6th to the 8th, or even 10th century, these uncials, or partly rounded capitals, prevail in illuminated MSS. (See also MINUSCULE, SEMI-UNCIALS.)

=Uncus=, R. (ὄγκος). A hook such as (1) that with which the corpses of gladiators were dragged out of the arena; or those of criminals from the carnificina where they were executed. (2) The fluke of an anchor, &c.

=Under-croft=, Arch. A subterranean chamber.

=Undulated=, Arch. (unda, a wave). Moulded or sculptured in the form of a wave; as for instance the undulated torus. (See NEBULE.) (Fig. 673.)

=Undy=, =Undée=, Her. Wavy.

=Unguentaria=, R. Flasks or boxes of costly workmanship for holding perfumes, essences, oils, and salves, for use in the baths, &c. (See NARTHECIA.)

=Unicorn.= In Christian art a symbol of purity, especially of female chastity. Attribute of St. Justina of Antioch. In Heraldry it is famous as the sinister supporter of the Royal Shield of England. The legend was that its body took the form of a horse and antelope, and it had one horn on its head. It was believed to live solitary in the woods, and could only be caught by a maiden. The property of detecting poison was attributed to its horn, and Hentzner, who visited England in 1598, says:—

“We were shown at Windsor the horn of an Unicorn, of about eight spans and a half in length, valued at above 100_l._”

It is frequently mentioned in ancient inventories:—

“1391. Une manche d’or d’un essay de lincourne pour attoucher aux viandes de Monseigneur le Dauphin.” Comptes Royaux, quoted by Mrs. Bury Palliser.

In allusion to this property, Alviano, the champion of the Orsini family, adopted as his device a unicorn at a fountain surrounded by snakes, toads, and other reptiles, and stirring up the water with its horn before he drinks, with the motto, “I expel poisons.”

=Union Cloths.= Fabrics of wool with wefts of cotton.

=Union Jack.= The National Ensign of the United Kingdom of Great Britain—exhibiting the Union of the crosses of St. George and St. Andrew combined—first displayed in the reign of James I., 1606. The flag as it is now used, dates from the beginning of this century. It is borne on a shield, charged in pretence upon the escutcheon of the Duke of Wellington.

=Upapitha=, Hind. The pedestal of the Hindoo orders, which included, besides the pedestal properly so called, the base (athisthama), the pillar or shaft (stambu) which was either square or polygonal and only rounded at the upper part near the capital or cushion which took its place, and lastly the entablature (prastura).

=Uræus=, Egyp. A transcription of the Egyptian word ârâ or the asp hajé, a kind of serpent called by the Greeks basilicon (βασιλικόν). The uræus as an emblem of the sovereign power forms the distinctive ornament in the head-dress of the Egyptian kings.

=Urbino Ware=, made at Urbino, under the patronage of its Duke. “A city,” says Jacquemart, “which has supplied potters and painters to the greater part of the workshops of Italy; which has sent ceramic colonies to Flanders and Corfu, and yet we are scarcely acquainted with its works, except those of its decline.” (Fig. 676.) (See MAJOLICA.)

=Urceolated= (Basket), Arch. The corbel of the capital which narrows a little underneath its upper part.

=Urceolus.= Diminutive of URCEUS (q.v.).

=Urceus=, R. An earthenware pitcher used in religious ceremonies; represented on coins in the form of a modern ewer.

=Uriant=, Her. Said of a fish when it swims in a vertical position; head downwards. (Cf. HAURIANT.)

=Urn.= The common urn, the κάλπις of the Greeks, had a narrow neck and swelling body; it was used for conveying water from the fountain. The funereal cinerary urn was in general quadrangular, but there were a large number which resembled the kalpis, with the exception that they had a wider neck and were furnished in every case with a lid. Fig. 677 represents a funeral urn of Indian pottery, of very ancient date. The electoral urn, from which lots were drawn at the comitia to decide the order of voting, was of an oval form and had a narrow neck to prevent the possibility of more than one number being drawn out at a time. An urn is always introduced as an appropriate emblem of the river-gods. The urna was a measure of capacity containing eight congii or half an AMPHORA.

=Urnarium=, R. A square table or hollow slab on which urnæ or earthenware vessels were placed.

=Ustrina=, =Ustrinum=, R. (uro, to burn). A public place for burning the bodies of the dead, in contradistinction to BUSTUM, a private place of cremation, situated within the sepulchral enclosure. It was in the public ustrina that the bodies of people of moderate means as well as the poor were burned.

=Uter=, R. A wine-skin or large leathern bag made of goat-skin, pig-skin, or ox-hide, and used for holding wine or other liquids. Uter unctus was a goat-skin inflated with air and thoroughly greased on the outside. The peasants of Greece were fond of dancing and leaping upon these wine-skins, which it was extremely difficult to do without frequent falls. This was a very popular rustic game, and formed a principal feature of the second day of the festival of Bacchus, called by the Greeks Ascolia (Ἀσκώλια), ἀσκὸς being the Greek equivalent of uter.

=Uti Rogas=, R. A voting formula affirmative of the proposition in debate, written on the ticket in the abbreviated form V. R. for uti rogas (as you propose).

=Utricularius=, R. (from uter). A performer on the bagpipe.

=Utriculus.= Diminutive of UTER (q.v.).

In mediæval words the initials V and B occasionally interchange:—as Vanneria for Banneria, a banner, &c.

=Vacerra=, R. (vacca, a cow). An enclosure in which cattle were kept.

=Vacons=, Hind. Hindoo genii which figure in the celestial hierarchy immediately after Brahma. They are eight in number, and each of them protects one of the eight regions of the world: Paoulestia is the guardian of the North or mineral wealth; Ima, god of the dead and the infernal regions, is the guardian of the South; Indra, god of the ether and the day, the guardian of the East; Pratcheta, god of waters and the ocean, the guardian of the West; Içania, who is looked upon as an incarnation of Siva, is the guardian of the North-East; Pavana, king of the winds, the guardian of the North-West; Agni or Pacava, the god of fire, is the guardian of the South-East; and Nirouti, the prince of the evil genii, is the guardian of the South-West. (Bosc.)

=Vagina=, R. The scabbard of a sword, made of wood or leather, and generally ornamented with plates and bosses of metal. (See Fig. 44.)

=Vails= (from Vale, farewell!). Fees to servants from parting guests.

=Vair.= The fur of the squirrel, much worn in state costumes of the 14th century. In Heraldry—one of the furs—represented as a series of small shields placed close together, alternately blue and white.

=Valance.= Drapery hangings for furniture, cornices, &c.; hence—

=Valenced.= Fringed with a beard. (Shakespeare.)

=Valencia Pottery.= M. Jacquemart considers this the most ancient and the true centre of the ceramic fabrication in Spain, carried back by tradition to the Roman domination. On the conquest of Spain from the Moors the Saracen potters of Valencia were protected by special charter. Fig. 678 is an illustration of the gilded ware for which Valencia is famous.

=Valenciennes.= The date of the introduction of the manufacture of this lace is unknown, although it existed before the time of Louis XIV., under whose reign it flourished and reached its climax between 1725 and 1780. Valenciennes lace is made entirely on the pillow, of simple combinations, with one kind of thread for the pattern and for the ground. (See engraving.) No lace is so expensive to make from the number of bobbins required. The flax used is of the finest quality, so fine that the lace-makers worked in underground cellars to keep their work from the air, and scarcely completed an inch and half of lace in a day.

=Valendar Clay.= A kind of potter’s clay from Nassau. (Simmonds.)

=Valet=, O. E. (Med. Lat. valeti). Sons of the nobility and of knights bore this title, until they acquired the military belt. (Meyrick.)

=Valle Cypre.= A silk mourning crape, called also Bologna crape.

=Vallum=, Gr. and R. (vallus, a stake). A palisade made with strong branches of trees, which was placed on the top of the embankment (agger) surrounding a camp.

=Valvæ=, R. (Gr. σανίς). Folding doors or shutters; synonym of FORES.

=Vambrace= (Fr. avant bras). The ancient BRACHIALE, the covering of the lower arm, from the elbow to the wrist. Originally it covered only the outside of the arm, but afterwards was made like a sleeve of iron. (Cf. REREBRACE.)

=Vamp.= Upper leathers for shoes. In Russia and the East they are richly embroidered.

=Vampire.= A monster of mediæval iconography. A well-known example is the one which decorates the angle of one of the towers in Paris Cathedral.

=Vamplate= (Fr. avant plaque). A guard of metal over the handle of a tilting-lance.

=Van= (from Fr. avant). Of an army, the front.

=Vandyke-brown.= A pigment of a fine, deep, semi-transparent brown colour obtained from peat.

=Vane=, or =Fane=, O. E. (from the German Fahne, a banner), (1) A broad flag to be carried by a knight in a tournament. (Meyrick, i. 155.) Hence (2) a weathercock, in Mediæval buildings generally in the form of a heraldic banner supported by a figure. (See FANE.)

=Vanishing Point.= In perspective. (See POINT OF SIGHT.)

=Vannerie=, Fr. Basket-work.

=Vannus=, R. A winnowing-van; i. e. a broad flat basket used for winnowing the chaff from the corn. It was among the agricultural symbols borne in the processions of Ceres. A sculpture in the British Museum represents the infant Bacchus riding in such a basket in the hands of a pair of dancing bacchantes.

=Vantbrace.= (See VAMBRACE.)

=Vaquero=, Sp. A jacket worn by women and children.

=Vardingale=, O. E. The farthingale or hooped petticoat of Elizabeth’s reign, fig. 681.

“Supporters, postures, farthingales, Above the loins to wear, That, be she ne’er so slender, yet She cross-like seems four square.” (Warner, in Albion’s England.)

=Varnishes= are made by dissolving resins or gum-resins in alcohol, ether, &c., so that as the spirit evaporates the varnish dries down into a transparent film; varnishes are coloured with aloes, annotto, cochineal, dragon’s blood, gamboge, indigo, red saunders, saffron, or turmeric. Amber varnish is hardest and most durable in colour, but dries very slowly. Animé varnish dries quickly, but is liable to crack, and deepens in colour with exposure to the air. Copal ranks next to amber in durability, and the varnish becomes lighter by exposure; the best copal varnishes are slow in drying unless mixed with animé. Mastic is a favourite spirit varnish used as a picture varnish and for delicate works of a pale colour. Damar mixed with mastic makes an appropriate varnish for maps and similar work. The qualities to be sought in varnishes for a painting are that they should resist damp, exclude air, and not injure the colour. (See also ITALIAN VARNISH, STRASBURG TURPENTINE, &c.)

=Vas=, R. A vase. Any kind of vessel, e.g. Vasa Corinthia, Vasa Deliaca, Vasa Samia, Murrhina, &c. The manufacture and ornamentation of vases was one of the most important branches of Classical Art. Illustrations of vases are found in this work under:

Fig. Acratophorum 7 Amphora 20 Arezzo Vase 37 Aryballos 46 Bifrons 85 Cantharus 132 Cylix 232 Ecuelle 278 Egyptian 279 Funeral Urn 340 Hydria 391 Chinese Vase 406 Lecythus 422 Nuremberg 491 Oinochoe 498 Valentia 678

=Vatillum.= (See BATILLUM.)

=Vaunt-brace=, O. E., or =Warnbrace=. Armour for the body.

=Vectis=, R. (veho, to carry). A bar of wood or iron used as a lever, crow-bar, capstan bar, or pole for carrying burdens on the back; the workman who made use of a vectis was called vectiarius.

=Vedas= (from Sanskrit vid, to know), Hind. Four collections of sacred books said to have been collated about 3000 B.C. from earlier documents. They are the RIGVEDA, a collection of hymns and prayers; the YAJURVEDA, liturgical and ceremonial ordinances; SAMAVEDA, lyrical pieces; and ATHARVAVEDA, chiefly incantations. Besides the above, each Veda contains fragmentary writings called Sambuta, and dogmatic treatises called Brahmana; and certain Commentaries, called Upavedas, Vedangas, and Upangas are regarded as forming a fifth Veda. The above form the sacred books of the Hindoo religion.

=Vegetable Blue Black.= (See BLUE BLACK.)

=Vegetable Ivory.= Nuts of a South American palm (Phytelephas macrocarpa) resembling ivory, and much used for ornamental carving.

=Vehicles= or =Mediums=. The liquid in which pigments are applied. In fresco and water-colour painting gum-water is used; in distemper painting, size; in oil painting, the fixed oils of linseed, nut, and poppy. In encaustic wax is used. (See also MEDIUM, COPAL, ITALIAN VARNISH, MEGYLP, &c.)

=Velamen= and =Velamentum=, R. (velum, a veil). A veil worn by women, concealing the whole person. (See FLAMMEUM.)

=Velarium=, R. (velum, a covering). An awning stretched over a theatre; usually of woollen cloth, but sometimes of more costly materials.

=Velatura=, It. A mode of glazing, adopted by the early Italian painters, by which the colour was rubbed on by all the fingers or the flat of the hand, so as to fill the interstices left by the brush, and cover the entire surface of the picture thinly and evenly. (Fairholt.)

=Velatus=, R. (velo, to cover). Veiled or wearing flowing garments; having the forehead encircled with a garland. Milites velati were supernumerary soldiers who filled the places of those who were killed or disabled.

=Velites=, R. A body of light-armed infantry not forming part of the legion, who skirmished in small companies.

=Vellum.= Fine parchment from the skins of calves; any parchment binding is by librarians technically described as vellum. It is a beautiful substitute for paper, for luxurious printing of books for presentation, &c., and was much used by mediæval artists for painting and illuminating.

=Velours= (Fr. Velvet). A kind of velvet or plush for furniture, carpets, &c., manufactured in Prussia, partly of linen, and partly of double cotton warps with mohair yarn weft. (Simmonds’ Commercial Dict.)

=Velours d’Utrecht.= A woollen velvet, for tapestry, &c., made in the Netherlands.

=Veloute=, Fr. Velvet lace.

=Velum=, R. (1) A general term for any kind of sail, esp. the square mainsail of a ship in contradistinction to the other sails. (2) The curtain or drop-scene of a theatre. (3) The curtain or hanging put up as a covering in front of a door. (4) A synonym for VELARIUM.

=Velure= (Fr. velours). Velvet. (Shakespeare.)

=Velvet= (Ital. velluto; hairy or shaggy, like an animal’s skin) was introduced into England in the 13th century. Velvet upon velvet is that where the pattern shows itself in a double pile, one pile higher than the other. “Purshed” velvet was velvet raised in a network pattern.

=Velvet Painting.= The art of painting on fine velvet.

=Velveteen.= A kind of FUSTIAN.

=Venabulum=, R. (venor, to hunt). A hunting-spear, a strong staff with a broad lozenge-shaped iron head.

=Venationes.= Hunting scenes and sports in the arena in which wild beasts were introduced fighting with each other and with men, a common subject of representation on bas-reliefs on ancient tombs.

=Veneering= is the art of covering wooden objects with a thin slice of ornamental wood, so as to give the whole the false appearance of being made of the superior wood. It is distinct from MARQUETRY or INLAID-WORK (q.v.).

=Veneficium=, R. The crime of poisoning; an accusation abused by the ancient Romans almost as that of witchcraft was in the middle ages.

=Venetian Blinds= are those made of laths strung together.

=Venetian Chalk.= A white talc used for marking cloth, &c.

=Venetian Door.= A door lighted by panes of glass on each side.

=Venetian Point.= The engraving represents an exquisite specimen of Venetian point lace in relief, shown at the International Exhibition, 1874, among other wonderful reproductions of ancient needle-made lace. (For method of working, see NEEDLE POINT.)

=Venetian Porcelain.= (See ECUELLE.)

=Venetian Red= or =Scarlet Ochre=. A burnt ochre, used as a pigment in oil and water-colours. Its colour is red, alloyed with blue and yellow.

=Venetian Window.= A window with three separate lights.

=Venew= (Fr. venu). A bout at a fencing-school.

=Venice, Doge of.= The illustration represents the state costume of the Doge of Venice, wearing the traditional cap of liberty, the ermine, and richly embroidered robes of his office.

=Venice Turpentine.= A product of the larch, used for varnishing pictures. It is liable to crack.

=Venice White.= (See CARBONATE OF LEAD, BARYTES.)

=Ventaile= or =Aventail=. A movable front to a helmet, through which the wearer breathed:—“quâ ventus hauritur.”

“L’escu au col, la ventaille fermée.” (Roman de Roncevaux.)

=Ventrale=, R. (venter, the belly). A girdle of peculiar shape, fastened round the loins over the abdomen.

=Vents=, Scotch. Chimneys.

=Venturina=, Sp. A precious stone, of a yellowish-brown colour. Hence:—

=Venturine.= A powder of gold used to sprinkle over japanned surfaces.

=Ver Sacrum=, R. (lit. a holy (or dedicated) Spring). The dedication to sacrifice of all that is born in a certain year, in the months of March and April, was a common practice of the early Italian nations, especially of the Sabines. In the most ancient times actual infanticide was a part of this offering; but in later years the practice was modified as regarded children. They were brought up, under a vow of dedication, to the age of twenty-one, and then with veiled faces expelled across the frontiers. Many colonies resulted from this practice.

=Vera Icon=, Chr. The true image impressed upon the SUDARIUM (q.v.) of St. Veronica. In St. Peter’s at Rome, in a chapel dedicated to that saint, a painting on linen is shown as the veritable napkin of St. Veronica; and a fine mosaic over the altar, after a design by Andrea Sacchi, represents the incident. (See STOLE.)

=Verandah.= An open portico to a house. In the tropical countries the open verandah is the principal apartment of a house, and Society appear to the passers-by, in their illuminated verandahs, like the actors on the stage of a theatre.

=Verbena=, R. Sacred herbs torn up by the roots from the enclosure of the Capitoline hill; which the Roman fetiales or ambassadors always carried in their hands on foreign embassies. (Compare VINDICIÆ.)

“When an injury had been received from a foreign state four fetiales were deputed to seek redress, who again elected one of their number to act as representative. He was styled pater patratus populi Romani. A fillet of white wool was bound round his head, together with a wreath of sacred herbs gathered within the enclosure of the Capitoline hill (verbenæ, Sagmina), whence he was called Verbenarius.” (Dr. Smith.)

=Verber=, R. In a general sense, any kind of leather thong; as, for instance, the thong of a sling, the thong of a whip for driving horses or scourging slaves, &c.

=Verde Antico.= A green mottled serpentine marble, used by ancient sculptors, found at Taygetos. It is much valued for its beautiful markings.

=Verde Azurro=, It. (1) A native carbonate of copper, of a greenish-blue colour; the Armenian stone of Pliny. (2) A blue-green pigment.

=Verde Eterno.= A dark green pigment, anciently used by the Venetian painters.

=Verdigris.= A bright acetate of copper, used as a green pigment.

=Verditer= (=Blue= and =Green=). A hydrated percarbonate of copper. It is generally prepared by decomposing the solution of nitrate of copper, by the addition of chalk. The refined blue and green verditers, see CARBONATES OF COPPER (Mountain blue). The verditer known as Bremen Green is produced by subjecting copper to the action of sea salt and vitriol for three months. (Cf. CHRYSOCOLLA.)

=Veretonus=, Med. Lat. The VIRETON (q.v.).

=Verge=, O. E. A rod. In Mediæval Architecture the shaft of a column.

=Verge Board=, Arch. The external gable-board of a house, which is often elaborately ornamented with carvings. (See BARGE-BOARD.)

=Vergers= (Fr. verge, a staff). Officers who carry a rod or staff of office. In the law courts a white wand, before the judges; in cathedrals, &c., a rod tipped with silver.

=Verguilla=, Sp. Gold or silver wire, without silk.

=Vermeil=, Fr. Silver-gilt, or gilt bronze.

=Vermiculatum.= A kind of pavement disposed in wreathed lines like the undulations of worms (vermes). (See PAVIMENTUM.)

=Vermilion.= The minium of the ancients. A bright and beautiful red colour.

=Vermilion.= The bisulphuret of mercury in powder, a delicate bright red pigment which is pale or deep; supposed to be the pigment known to the Romans as minium. (Cf. CINNABAR, RED LEAD.)

=Vernacle=, Chr. A term for the VERA ICON.

=Vernation.= See ESTIVATION.

=Vernis-Martin Work.= A Japanese style of painting and enamelling on furniture, carriages, and small objects, named after the introducer, who was born about 1706.

=Vernon Gallery=, founded in 1847 by the gift of Mr. Robert Vernon of 157 pictures of the British school, is now in the South Kensington Museum.

=Verona Green.= A variety of GREEN EARTH (q.v.). (See APPIANUM.)

=Verona Serge.= A thin textile fabric, made of worsted, or mohair, and of cotton.

=Veronese Green.= (See CARBONATE OF COPPER.)

=Veronica.= (See VERA ICON.)

=Vert=, Her. Green, represented in engraving by lines sloping downwards from left to right.

=Vert bleu=, Fr. (See VERDE AZURRO.)

=Verticillus=, R. (verto, to turn). The whorl of a spindle, a small disk of wood, stone, or metal, by means of which a rotary movement is given to the spindle. (Cf. TURBO.)

=Veru=, R. Literally, a roasting-spit made of wood and with an iron point. The term was also applied to a weapon of Samnite origin used by the Roman infantry, and bearing much resemblance to a spit. (2) An arrow or dart. (Fr. vire.)

=Veruculum=, R. (dimin. of veru). A small javelin used by the Roman infantry.

=Vervels=, =Varvals=, Her. Small rings.

=Vesara=, Hind. A Hindoo temple built on a circular plan.

=Vesica Piscis= (in Italian, mandorla, almond). The oblong glory surrounding the whole person of Our Lord, or the Virgin, or saints ascending into heaven. The seals of abbeys, colleges, and other religious establishments were all of this form. (See Fig. 684.) It is in form symbolical of the monogram ἴχθυς. (see ACROSTIC.)

=Vespæ=, =Vespillones=, R. The bearers of a bier in a funeral were so called by the common people, because they came to fetch the bodies in the evening (vespertino tempore).

=Vespers=, Chr. In the Roman Church, the afternoon service; in the English Church, Evening Prayer.

=Vessets.= A kind of cloth.

=Vest=, O. E. “A wide garment reaching to the knees, open before, and turned up with a facing or lining, the sleeves turned up at the elbows.” (Randle Holme, 1683.)

=Vestalia=, Gr. and R. Festivals in honour of Vesta. Asses were driven through Rome, carrying wreaths of flowers and rolls.

=Vestals=, R. The priestesses of the goddess Vesta, to whom the charge was committed of the sacred fire. They were originally four, subsequently six in number. Their distinctive dress was the infula fitting close to the head, with vittæ depending, a long tunic of white linen, and the purple TOGA, or mantle, with a long train to it.

=Vested=, Her. Clothed.

=Vestibule=, Arch. An entrance-court or vacant space before the entrance to a house, temple, or other building. (See DOMUS.)

=Vestment=, Chr. The hangings of an altar, and the robes of the clergy; the term often comprises also the sacred vessels.

=Vestry=, Chr. The modern vestiarium in a church; called also the SACRISTY.

=Vethym=, or =Vathym=, O. E. A fathom—six feet.

=Vettura=, It. (Fr. voiture). A travelling carriage.

=Vexillatio=, R. Troops under one vexillum; and thence the troops of the allies.

=Vexillum=, R. A cavalry standard consisting of a square piece of woollen cloth spread upon a cross. (See SIGNA MILITARIA.)

=Vexillum Regale=, Med. Lat. The Royal Standard.

=Via=, R. The high road. These were so constructed by the Romans that following generations used them without repair for more than a thousand years. The earliest was the Appian or the Great South Road from Rome to Brindisi, made B.C. 312; the Great North Road continued through Gaul was the Flaminian Road. The construction of a Roman road was the following:—between trenches thirteen to fifteen feet apart, the gremium or foundation was made firm, if necessary, in a marsh, with piles; this was covered with large stones of a regulated size, such as London streets were formerly paved with (statumen), and this with macadamized stones cemented with lime (rudus), rammed down hard, and nine inches thick; then came small shards of pottery, six inches thick, also cemented with lime (nucleus), and over this the pavement of large blocks of the hardest stone (see SILEX), irregular, but fitted and joined with the greatest nicety, and perfectly smoothed with a slope for drainage.

=Viaticum=, R. A provision for a journey. Adopted by the Christian Church in reference to the last offices of religion to the dying, with the obvious symbolical significance.

=Vibia=, R. A cross-bar and uprights forming a trestle.

=Vibrella=, Med. Lat. A cannon.

=Vices.= The seven VICES commonly met with in Christian allegory are: Anger, Avarice, Envy, Lust, Pride, Revenge, and Sloth.

=Vicessis=, R. Twenty pounds weight = 14·987 lbs. avoirdupois.

=Victima=, R. The animals used for sacrifices were mostly domestic; as bulls, sheep, goats, pigs, dogs, or horses; each god had his favourite animals. The head of the victim was generally strewed with roasted barley meal, mixed with salt, and adorned with garlands, and sometimes its horns were gilt. A bunch of hair was cut from its forehead and thrown into the fire as primatiæ. It was killed by a person called the popa, not by the priests; and part of the intestines were burned, or to river-gods, thrown into the river, &c.

=Victoria Cross= is of bronze, and was instituted by the Queen in 1856 to render honour to “conspicuous bravery” in actual conflict by sea or land. It is worn on the left breast attached to a blue ribbon for the Navy, and a red for the Army.

=Victoriatus=, R. A silver coin stamped with a figure of Victory, while its obverse represented a bearded Jupiter. (Fig. 686.)

=Victory= is represented by the ancients winged, and bearing a palm branch and a laurel crown. Fig. 687 is the beautiful device adopted by Martin, King of Aragon, in 1396, with the motto, “Not in the Darkness.”

=Vicuna.= A kind of alpaca wool.

=Vicus=, R. (Gr. κώμη). A quarter in a city.

=Vidrecome=, Fr. A large drinking-glass.

=Vielle=, Fr. The “hurdy-gurdy,” an ancient stringed instrument played with finger-keys, and producing sound by the friction of a wheel instead of a fiddle-bow.

=Vienna Lake.= (See CARMINATED LAKES.)

=Vienna White.= (See CARBONATE OF LEAD.)

=Vigessis=, R. (See VICESSIS.)

=Vignette= (Fr. a little vine). A small woodcut or illustration on a page. In Architecture, a running ornament of leaves and tendrils, common in the hollow mouldings of Gothic Architecture; especially in the Decorated and Perpendicular styles. (Parker.)

=Vihuela.= A musical instrument, represented in the celebrated Portico della Gloria of Santiago da Compostella, in Spain. It closely resembles the REBEC (q.v.).

=Villa=, R. A Roman farmstead or country house. It was divided into three distinct parts: the urbana, or house of the owner; the rustica, or farm building in which the slaves and animals lived; and the fructuaria or magazine for storing the produce.

=Villicus=, R. A gardener. (See HORTUS.)

=Vimana=, Hind. A Hindoo temple consisting merely of a building in the form of a pyramid, allowing of several stories which recede one above the other. Vimanas are divided into five groups: the medium vimana, called santiaca; the victorious (pantica), the enormous (jayada), the admirable (atb’ huta), and the amiable (sarvacama).

=Vina=, Hind. A kind of Hindoo lyre furnished with a small number of strings.

=Vinalia.= Roman festivals of two kinds—urban and rustic. The former were kept on 23rd April, when the wine of the previous year was first broached; the rustic on 19th August, when the vintage opened by the priest solemnly plucking the first bunch of grapes, after a sacrifice of lambs to Jupiter.

=Vinatico.= A coarse mahogany wood, obtained in Madeira, from Persea Indica.

=Vinculum=, R. (vincio, to bind). A general term to denote anything that binds, fastens, or clasps; such as a string, lace, ribbon, chaplet, or garland, strap, dog or slave-collar, manacles, fetters. (See AMENTUM, COLLARE, COMPES, CORONA, &c.)

=Vindiciæ= (vindico, to claim). A fragment of any property under dispute which, under the old Roman jurisprudence, the plaintiff was compelled to bring before the court and to place beneath his foot while stating his case; if the property in question were a flock, the vindiciæ consisted of a tuft of wool; if an estate or field, of a clod or turf taken from the said estate or field.

=Vindicta=, R. (vindico, to deliver). The rod with which the prætor or his lictor struck a slave on the head in the ceremony of manumissio, by way of declaration that he was free. (See FESTUCA.)

=Vine.= (See VITIS.)

=Vine Black.= Ink used in copper-plate printing; prepared from the charred husks of grapes and the residue of the vine press.

=Vinea=, R. (lit. a bower of vine-branches). The vineæ, also called under the emperors causiæ, were a kind of mantelets or sheds employed in siege operations, made of light timbers covered with planks and the skins of animals.

=Vinum Saccatum.= (See COLLUM VINARIUM.)

=Viol.= (See FIDDLE.)

=Viola= or =Alto-viola=. A tenor violin; tuned an octave above the violoncello. It is larger than the ordinary violin and has four gut strings, of which the third and fourth are covered with silver-plated copper wire. Its name in the ancient “set of viols” was viola di braccio.

=Viola da Gamba.= An instrument closely resembling the modern violoncello. (See Fig. 689.)

=Viola d’Amore=, It. An obsolete species of violin producing a very sweet and peculiar tone by an arrangement of metal wires vibrating in unison with the gut strings.

=Violet= is a combination of equal red and blue. It is complementary to yellow. In Christian art, the colour violet or the amethyst, signified love and truth, or passion and suffering.

=Violet Wood.= A turnery wood of Guiana, the produce of Andira violacea.

=Violin.= This instrument has three gut strings, and a fourth of silver wire. The back, neck, sides, and circles are generally made of sycamore; the belly, bass-bar, sound-post, and six blocks, of deal; the finger-board and tail-piece of ebony. The Hindus claim the invention of the bow, for a period about 3000 years B.C. (See FIDDLE.)

=Violoncello.= A large and deep-toned instrument of the viol kind, the two lowest strings being covered with silver wire.

=Violone=, It. Contre-basso or double bass; the largest instrument of the violin kind.

=Virago Sleeves.= A fashion of ladies’ dress in the reign of Charles I., perpetuated in the bishop’s sleeves.

=Vire=, Fr. A barbed arrow, used with the early cross-bow.

=Vireton=, It. A peculiar form of arrow, the feathers in which are spirally arranged to produce a spinning movement in its flight.

=Virga=, R. A general term for any kind of rod or wand; as, for instance, a riding-whip; a switch for chastising children or slaves; a very slight stick carried by a lictor to aid him in opening a way through the crowd for the magistrate before whom he walked.

=Virgatus=, R. Striped; a term applied to cloth or drapery ornamented with bands (virgæ), or to anything plaited with twigs of osier, such as a basket.

=Virginal.= A musical instrument which originated in the middle ages. A specimen of the time of Elizabeth, in the form of a miniature pianoforte, is in the South Kensington Museum. (Fig. 690.) It was followed by the SPINET (q.v.).

=Virgins= are usually represented soberly robed with long hair streaming down their backs. The parable of the wise and foolish virgins is a very common subject of mediæval sculpture and church decoration.

=Viria=, R. A very ancient term replaced by ARMILLA (q v.).

=Viridarium=, R. An ornamental garden. (See HORTUS.)

=Virtu=, Fr. The quality of rareness, or art excellence sought in the selection of specimens of art-work by a Virtuoso.

=Virtues.= A degree of the second order of ANGELS. They are usually represented in complete armour bearing pennons and battle-axes. The Cardinal virtues are: Power, Prudence, Temperance, and Justice; and the Theological virtues are: Faith, Hope, and Charity. There are innumerable other virtues variously represented in Christian allegory, opposed to corresponding VICES.

=Virtuoso=, It. A man skilled in the selection of specimens of art-work.

=Viscount= (vice-comes). The fourth degree of rank and dignity in the British peerage. Originally an earl’s deputy in his county, made an arbitrary title of honour, next in rank to an earl, by Henry VI. in 1440. A viscount’s mantle is two doublings and a half of plain fur. His coronet, granted by James I., has only a row of sixteen pearls set close to the circlet.

=Vise=, Arch. A spiral staircase. (See NEWEL.)

“Vyce, a tourning stayre, vis.” (Palsgrave.)

=Visitation=, Chr. (It. La visitazione; German, die Heimsuchung Mariä). A frequent theme of Christian art, representing the meeting of the Virgin Mary and Elizabeth, the mother of St. John the Baptist. (Consult Mrs. Jameson’s Legends of the Madonna.)

=Visor.= The part of a helmet made to cover the face. (See UMBRIL.)

=Vitis=, =Vine=, R. and Chr. A vine or vine-branch with which a centurion punished any soldier who had neglected his duty. In Christian symbolism, the vine-stock with clusters of grapes is an emblem of the Church. Representations of it are frequently met with on monuments of Christian art.

=Vitreous Wares.= Wares having a glassy surface. (See POTTERY.)

=Vitro di Trino= (Ital.). An ornamental glass-work invented by the Venetians in the 15th century, consisting of a sort of lace-work of white enamel or transparent glass, forming a series of diamond-shaped sections; in the centre of each an air-bubble was allowed to remain as a decoration. (Fairholt.)

=Vitrum=, R. GLASS (q.v.).

=Vitruvian Scroll=, Arch. A name given to a peculiar pattern of scroll-work, consisting of convolved undulations, used in classical architecture. (Parker.)

=Vitta=, R. A ribbon or band worn round the head by Roman women of free birth to confine their hair. Vitta sacra was a long ribbon confining the flocks of wool which formed an infula, and worn by the priests or the victim destined for sacrifice. The term was further applied to the ribbon which passed round garlands or festoons of leaves and fruits, and thence to any ribbon employed in the decoration of an architectural motive, such as tori for instance, as shown in Fig. 693.

=Vittatus=, R. Adorned with the vitta; a term applied to women, victims, and certain architectural ornaments.

=Vivarium=, R. (vivum, a living thing). A general term for any kind of place in which live animals are kept; such as aviaries, warrens, fish-ponds, game preserves, &c.

=Vivianite.= A blue phosphate of iron, occasionally used as a pigment.

=Vizard.= A mask for the face.

“On with this robe of mine, This vizard and this cap!” (Old Play.)

=Vizor.= (See VISOR.)

=Voided=, Her. Having the central area removed.

=Volant=, Her. Flying.

=Volante Piece.= A piece of jousting-armour fastened to the GRAND-GARDE above it, protecting the neck and breast.

=Volets=, Fr. (1) The side wings of a TRIPTYCH. (2) A gauze veil worn at the back of the head, by ladies, in the Middle Ages. (See Fig. 704.)

=Volumen=, R. (volvo, to roll). A very long, narrow sheet made of strips of papyrus glued together. This sheet was gradually rolled round a wooden cylinder as the reader perused what was written on it, an operation expressed by the term evolvere volumen. When a work was of considerable length, each book or chapter was rolled round a separate stick or wooden cylinder, so that a single volume (volumen) consisted of a large number of rolls.

=Volupere=, O. E. A woman’s cap or nightcap.

“The tapes of her white volupere.” (Chaucer, The Miller’s Tale.)

=Volute=, Arch. (volvo, to roll). (1) The spiral scroll peculiarly distinguishing the capital in the Ionic order. (Fig. 694.) (2) The small volutes of the Corinthian capital which are placed at the four angles of the abacus; they are called helices majores, while the volutes beneath the cinque-foils are called helices minores. (See HELIX.)

=Vomer=, =Vomis=, R. A plough-share; it resembled almost exactly our modern ones.

=Vomitoria=, R. (vomo, to discharge). Doors in a theatre or amphitheatre opening on the corridors of the building, or on to the scalæ leading into the cavea. Fig. 695 represents a vomitorium (restored) in the Coliseum or Flavian amphitheatre, at Rome.

=Votive Tablets.= Sculptured representations of parts of the body affected with disease, offered to the gods, either in gratitude or propitiation. The superstition introduced by the ancient Egyptians has survived all religious revolutions, and survives in Roman Catholic countries at the present day. Wilkinson says:—

“After the cure of a disease was effected they (the ancient Egyptians) frequently suspended a model of the restored part in the temple of the god whose interposition they had invoked, precisely in the same manner as in the sheikh’s tombs in modern Egypt, and in the Roman Catholic chapels of Italy and other countries, consecrated to the Virgin or a saint; and ears, eyes, distorted arms and other members were dedicated as memorials of their gratitude and superstition.” (Ancient Egyptians.)

=Voulge.= (See LANGUE-DE-BŒUF.)

=Voussoir=, Arch. A French term for the wedge-shaped stones (ring-stones) of which an arch is composed.

=Vulcanalia.= Roman festivals to Vulcan, celebrated with games in the Flaminian circus on the 23rd August. The sacrifices were of fishes, which the people threw into the fire; and it was the custom to commence the work of the day by candle-light, in honour of the god of fire.

=Vulned=, Her. Wounded or bleeding. The pelican in its piety (Fig. 531) is described as vulning herself.

=Vulture=, Egyp. Among the Egyptians, the vulture is the symbol of maternity, and accordingly a representation of it served to write the word mother, and the name of the goddess MAUT.

=Vulture Feathers.= Largely used for making artificial flowers; the feathers of species of accipitres imported from Bombay.

=Vulturius=, =Vulture=, R. A throw at dice. It is not known how many points made up a vulture, but it is clear from certain authors that it was a bad throw, although not so bad as the canis or dog.

=Vuyders= or =Guiders=. Straps to draw together the parts of armour.

This initial interchanges frequently with gu:—as ward, guard; wicket, guichet, &c.

=Wafters=, O. E. Blunted swords for exercise.

=Wain=, O. E. A wagon.

=Wainscot=, Arch, (from the German Wand-Schotten, wall-covering), wooden panelling used to line the inner walls.

=Waist.= The central part of the upper deck of a ship, between the fore and main masts.

=Wait.= An old English wind instrument resembling the SHAWM (q.v.). It was used by the watchmen or waights, to proclaim the time of night.

=Waka-tana.= The war canoe of New Zealand; some of these are fifty feet long, by four feet beam, with a high stern-post. This and the carved prow are both richly decorated with a profusion of feathers. (Simmonds.)

=Wakes= (A.S. wæcan). Originally vigils or eves of Saints’ days. The late-wake of the Highlanders; the lyke-wake of the early English, and the wake of the Irish are the remains of the ancient northern custom of watching the body of a deceased friend before burial. (Consult Brand’s Popular Antiquities.)

=Wales.= The strong side planks of the body of a ship, running fore and aft.

=Walking-sticks.= (See BOURDON.) (See also Fig. 91.) Fairholt (Costume in England) gives the following quotation from an inventory of Greenwich Palace, temp. Henry VIII.

“A cane, garnished with sylver and gilte, with astronomie upon it. A cane, garnished with golde, having a perfume in the toppe, under that a diall, with a pair of twitchers, and a pair of compasses of golde, and a foot rule of golde, a knife and a file the haft of golde, with a whetstone tipped with golde.”

Under Charles II. bunches of ribands on the tops of canes were fashionable.

=Wall Painting.= The GREEK temples were brilliantly decorated with painting and gilding internally. “The method has been investigated and is described to be the colouring of the body of the wall of a pale yellow or golden colour, the triglyphs and mutules blue, the metopes and the tympanum red, and some other portions of the building green, and varying these tints or using them of greater or less intensity as the judgment of the artist dictated.” (Hittorf, Essay on the Polychromy of Greek Architecture.) The colouring of the EGYPTIAN bas-reliefs is familiar. The buildings of HERCULANEUM and POMPEII were decorated with frescoes and mosaics, in the Augustan age of Roman art. In the Middle Ages the custom was continued of decorating with colour the architecture of sacred edifices; and many old palaces and mansions in England show relics of the practice of decorating the walls with tempera, especially under Henry III. (See FRESCOES, STEREOCHROMY, WATER-WORK, &c.)

=Wallet.= The badge of the Gueux; two hands clasped through the handles of a beggar’s wallet. (See GUEUX.)

=Wall-plates=, in building. Horizontal timbers, called plates, properly those at the top of a building under the roof.

=Walled=, =Muraillée=, Her. Made to represent brick or stone-work.

=Walling Wax.= The composition with which etchers make a wall round the plate upon which they are proceeding to pour the acid. (See ENGRAVING.)

=Walnut=, Chr. In Christian iconography the walnut is the symbol of perfection. (See NUT.)

=Walnut Oil.= (See NUT OIL.)

=Wambais= (Saxon wambe, the belly). A stuffing of wool in the quilted tunic or GAMBESON. The best illustration is the conventional figure of Punch.

=Wampum=, North American Indian. Strings of shells worn as belts and used for money.

=Wang=, Chinese. Yellow. The sacred colour.

=Wapentake=, O. E. A hundred, or district. The term is derived from weapon-taking (or counting).

=Wapinshaw=, O. E. A review of weapons.

“Et fiat visus armorum, quod dicitur Wapinschaw.” (Scotch Statute.)

=Wappenrock=, Germ. A military cloak, with armorial charges. (See TABARD.)

=Ward=, of a castle. The BAILEY or courtyard. (See BALLIUM.)

=Warnbrace.= (See VAUNT-BRACE.)

=Wassail= or =Wassel=, O. E. (Saxon waes hael, “to your health.”), (1) A drinking-bout generally. (2) A drink made of roasted apples.

=Watchet=, O. E. Pale blue.

“The saphyre stone is of a watchet blue.” (Barnfield’s Affectionate Shepherd, 1594.)

=Water=, of a diamond; its lustre.

=Water-colour Painting= was gradually raised from the hard dry style of the last century to its present brilliancy, by the efforts of Nicholson, Copley Fielding, Sandby, Varley, the great Turner, Pyne, Cattermole, Prout, &c., within the present century. The Water Colour Society’s Exhibition was begun in 1805. (Haydn’s Dict. of Dates.)

=Water-Colours.= The principal are lemon yellow, gamboge, Indian yellow, yellow ochre, chrome, vermilion, light red, Indian red, rose madder, carmine, purple madder, Vandyke-brown, sepia, brown pink, sap-green, emerald green, indigo, ultramarine, smalt, and cobalt.

=Water-gilding.= Gilding with a thin coat of amalgam.

=Water-mark=, on paper. A device resembling a transparency in the texture, which is printed during the process of manufacture, by means of wire or brass plates on the mould of the paper machine.

=Water-scape.= A fanciful term sometimes used to distinguish a sea view from a landscape.

=Water-table=, Arch. A horizontal set-off in a wall, sloped to throw off the wet.

=Water-work=, O. E. Wall painting in distemper.

“A pretty slight drollery, or the German hunting in waterwork, is worth a thousand of these bed-hangings, and these fly-bitten tapestries.” (Shakespeare.)

=Watered= (=silk=) having a shaded or diversified surface; produced by placing two pieces of silk lengthways between metallic rollers, where they are subjected to different degrees of pressure.

=Watteau Pictures.= Idyllic scenes of imaginary Arcadian enjoyment, and a certain fanciful style of costume characteristic of Watteau’s pictures, called in French “scènes de la vie galante.”

=Wattle.= An Australian name for various woods of the Acacia species.

=Wattled=, Her. Having a comb and gills, as a cock.

=Wayn-cloutt=, O. E. A waggon-cloth.

=Wax.= Bleached bees’-wax is the vehicle in encaustic painting.

=Wax painting.= (See ENCAUSTIC PAINTING.)

=Weathercock.= (See FANE.)

=Weathering=, Arch. The slope of flat surfaces, for drainage.

=Webbing Tape.= A kind of broad tape.

=Wedgwood Ware.= The manufacture of Josiah Wedgwood begun in 1759, at Etruria, in Staffordshire. A fine white, cream-coloured ware, having a clear and hard body, with more compact glaze and more perfect substance than the majolica. Many of the groups on Wedgwood vases and plaques were designed by Flaxman. (Fig. 697.)

=Weepers=, O. E. Statues in niches round tombs, representing the mourners.

=Welding.= The union of two pieces of metal together, by heat and pressure.

=Welkin.= The sky; hence welkin eyes, blue eyes. (Shakspeare.)

=Well-staircase.= A spiral staircase. (See NEWEL.)

=Welsh Hook.= A mediæval weapon, a kind of bill with a hook at the back, used to drag a horse-soldier from his saddle.

=Welt.= A joint or fold in a texture. The term is variously explained as synonymous with guard, a facing to a gown; or purfles, i. e. fringes. (Consult Fairholt, s.v.)

=Welted Brocades= and =Quilts=. Articles with folds in the texture; lined and ribbed.

=Weued=, A.S. The altar.

“In chvrche to vore the heye weued Constantyn hym sleu.” (Robert of Gloucester.)

=Whalebone= is the commercial name for the baleen plates found in the mouth of the whale, of which there are about 300 in each animal.

=What-not.= A modern piece of furniture, a light side-board or stand.

=Wheel.= In Christian art, the attribute of St. Catherine, in allusion to the manner of her martyrdom.

=Wheel=, =Catherine Wheel=. Represented in heraldry with curved spikes projecting from its rim.

=Wheel Engraving upon Glass.= (See GLASS.)

=Wheel-lock.= A crude invention in gunnery, of the 16th century, for winding up the trigger of a gun with a hand-winch.

=Whinyard=, O. E. A sword.

=Whipping-tops= are represented in Anglo-Saxon manuscripts; the thongs of the whips are knotted, which would add to the difficulty of the game.

=Whisk=, O. E. A ruff or band.

“A woman’s nec whisk is used both plain and laced, and is called of most a gorget or falling whisk, because it falleth about the shoulders.” (Randle Holme.)

=Whisket=, O. E. A basket. S.

=Whistle.= Prehistoric specimens of whistles made of bones have been disinterred among relics of the Stone Age. The Mexicans in antiquity made curiously grotesque whistles of baked clay representing caricatures of the human face and figure, birds, beasts, and flowers. (Consult Musical Instruments by Carl Engel.)

=White=, in Christian art represented by the diamond or silver, was the emblem of light, religious purity, innocence, virginity, faith, joy, and life. (J.)

=White= is in theory the result of the union of the three primary colours. The principal white pigments are white lead, Lake white, Krems white, zinc white, constant white (q.v.). (See CARBONATE OF LEAD, OXIDE OF ZINC, &c.)

=White Copper.= German silver.

=White Lead= is the white pigment universally used for oil painting; it is considered a good dryer, and is used to render oil more drying. (Consult Merrifield’s Treatise, &c., vol. i. cl.). (See CARBONATE OF LEAD.)

=White Vitriol.= SULPHATE OF ZINC (q.v.).

=Whiting=, as used for wall painting, &c., is pure chalk, cleansed and ground with water.

=Whittle=, O. E. A pocket clasp knife. (Shakspeare.)

=Whole and Halves.= Proportional compasses used for the enlargement or reduction of drawings.

=Whorler.= The wheel of a potter’s lathe.

=Wicker-work.= Texture of osiers, or small twigs; basket-work.

=Wicket= (Fr. Guichet). A small door perforated in a larger one.

=Wigs= (contraction of Periwigs, from Fr. perruque) were brought in from France in the 16th century. They took their greatest proportions in the time of Louis XIV. In the early 18th century also they are described as of immense size, “large enough to have loaded a camel.” And of this date is the celebrated wig-maker’s sign, in which Absalom was represented hanging by the hair in a tree, and King David weeping beneath, exclaiming,—

“O Absalom! O Absalom! O Absalom, my son! If thou hadst worn a periwig Thou hadst not been undone.”

Smaller varieties were called perukes or travelling-wigs; and the campaign wig, which “hath knots or bobs, a dildo on each side with a curled forehead.” These dildos or pole-locks were the origin of the pigtail. (See HAIR.)

=Wilton Carpets= are a kind of Brussels carpeting, with the yarns cut.

=Wimple=, O. E. A nun’s hood, covering the neck and shoulders, adopted by ladies in general, temp. Henry VII.

=Winchester Bushel.= An ancient standard measure of capacity preserved in the Town Hall at Winchester. It dates from the reign of King Edgar. It is 18½ inches wide, and 8 inches deep.

=Windows.= The earliest of stained glass in Italy were painted by order of Pope Leo III., at Rome, in 795. The windows of some churches were closed with valves or shutters of stone, like those of the Duomo of Torcello, erected in 1008. Others were filled with slabs of transparent talc or alabaster. The earliest painted glass in York Cathedral is of A. D. 1200. The use of glass windows in private houses was not general until the 14th century. During the Middle Ages glass windows were in movable wooden frames, and were taken away by families when they travelled. (Consult Hallam’s Middle Ages, vol. iii.) Substitutes for glass were thin parchment or linen, painted and varnished, or even paper. (Le Vieil, de la Peinture sur Verre.) These paper windows may still be seen in villages in the north of Italy.

=Winds= (Latin, Venti). The impersonations of the winds were held in high veneration, especially by the Athenians. The four principal were Eurus or Vulturnus, the east or south-east wind; Auster, the south wind, the Notus of the Greeks, pernicious to plants and men; Zephyrus, the son of Aurora and father of Carpus (fruit), a genial, health-bearing breeze, called also ζωηφόρος, life-bearing; and Boreas, the strong north wind, usually represented with the feet of a serpent, his wings dripping with golden dewdrops, and the train of his garment sweeping along the ground. Inferior winds were Solanus, in Greek Apeliotes, answering to the east, and represented as a young man holding fruit in his lap; Africus, south-west, represented with black wings and melancholy countenance; Corus, north-west, drives clouds of snow before him; Aquilo, north-east by north, equally dreadful in appearance, from aquila, an eagle, type of swiftness and impetuosity.

=Windsor Chairs.= A plain kind of strong wooden chairs, so called.

=Wings=, from time immemorial, have been the Oriental and Egyptian symbol of power as well as of swiftness; of the spiritual and aerial, in contradistinction to the human and the earthly; also in Chaldaic and Babylonian remains, in the Lycian and Nineveh marbles, and on the gems and other relics of the Gnostics. In Etruscan art all their divinities are winged.

=Wings=, in theatres. The shifting side-scenes on the stage. In costume, the projections on the shoulders of a doublet. (See Fig. 91.)

=Wise Men=, Chr. The MAGI. (See EPIPHANY.)

=Wisp=, O. E. A broom.

=Woad.= A dye plant—Isatis tinctoria.

=Wolf.= In Egypt was worshipped at Lycopolis; it figures frequently among hieroglyphic signs. The Greeks had consecrated the wolf to Apollo, the Romans to Mars. In Christian (especially Spanish) art, an attribute of St. Vincent, in allusion to the legend that wild beasts were driven away from his body after his martyrdom, by a raven.

=Wood-carving.= One of the most ancient manifestations of the art instinct of humanity is found in the very earliest relics of every nation. Especially in Egypt specimens remarkable for fidelity of representation have been recently disinterred, and stand in the Boulac Museum. Among Christian countries Germany is the most distinguished in this branch of art, but Holland and Belgium closely rival it in excellence and abundance of early specimens. Illustrious English carvers in wood were mostly of Dutch or German extraction. The most famous of them is Grinling Gibbons, employed by Sir Christopher Wren in the decoration of St. Paul’s Cathedral. He excelled in carving flowers and foliage.

=Wood-engraving= or =Xylography=. Box-wood is the only kind that can be used. The blocks when smoothed and polished are prepared for drawing on, by rubbing the polished surface with bath brick in very fine powder mixed with water. When this thin coating is dry, it is removed by rubbing the block on the palm of the hand; its only use is to make the surface less slippery. There are four descriptions of cutting tools used in wood-engraving. The graver is not very different from that used for copper-plate, but has the point ground to a peculiar form by rubbing on a Turkey stone. Eight or nine gravers, of different sizes, are generally required commencing with a very fine one, which is called the outline tool, and increasing in size or breadth. Tinting is cutting series of parallel lines, which, when engraved, form an even and uniform tint. For this process there is a distinct set of tools called tinting tools. Gouges of different sizes are used for scooping out the wood towards the centre of the block, and flat tools or chisels for cutting it away towards the edges. The earliest known wood-engraving, “The Virgin surrounded by four Saints,” is dated 1418. A print of it is in the Brussels Museum.

=Wood-skin.= An American name for a large canoe made of bark.

=Woof.= The weft, or cross-texture of fabrics.

=Woolsack.= The seat of the Lord Chancellor, in the House of Lords.

=Working Drawings= (Arch.) are enlarged portions of plans with details of a building, for the practical artificers to work from.

=Worsted= (properly Worstead, spelt also “worsett” and “woryst”) was the name given to the cloth woven of the hard thread produced by the peculiar carding process that was invented at Worstead in Norfolk; 14th century.

=Wou= or =Wouwou=, Egyp. The Egyptian name for the dog; it is evidently an onomatopœia, like the name for a cat, which is written MAAOU. (See CANIS.)

=Wreath.= Wreaths have at all times been prominent among symbolical personal ornaments; always with an honourable or pleasant signification; wreaths of ivy distinguished the votaries of Bacchus; appropriate wreaths were invented for sacrifices at the altar for heroic or priestly or literary distinction. (See ORLE, CREST, WREATH, &c.)

=Wrest=, O. E. An instrument for drawing up the strings of a harp. (Shakespeare.)

=Wyn=, O. E. A narrow flag.

=Wyvern=, =Wivern=, Her. A fabulous creature, a species of dragon with two legs, and represented having its tail nowed. (Fig. 700.)

(The syllable ξυν- in Greek is generally rendered Syn, q.v.)

=X.= The Roman numeral for ten.

=Xanthian Marbles.= Sculptures found in 1838 at Xanthus, in ancient Lycia, now in the British Museum. The figures are Assyrian in character, and of a date not later than 500 B.C. Besides the so called Harpy tomb (see HARPIES), there are sieges, processions, and many figures, in the energetic action so remarkable in the Nineveh sculptures. Most of the figures are in profile; but the eyes, like those of Egyptian sculptures, are shown in full.

=Xebec.= A small lateen-rigged three-masted vessel, common in the Mediterranean.

=Xenagia=, Gr. (ξεναγία). A subdivision of the Greek army consisting of 256 men, and subdivided into four tetrarchies, commanded by the Xenagos, an officer appointed by the Spartans, who had the control of the armies of the Greek states.

=Xenia=, Gr. (ξένια, lit. friendly gifts). (1) Delicacies, dainties, or pastry which were sent to one another by the Greeks and Romans as a pledge of friendship, chiefly during the Saturnalia. (2) Decorations to the walls of guest-chambers consisting of paintings of still life representing game, fruits, fish, and flowers.

=Xenodochium=, R. (ξενο-δοχεῖον). A low Latin term for a hospice intended for the reception of pilgrims and sick persons. Childebert founded a xenodochium at Lyons in the 6th century.

=Xerophagia=, Chr. (ξηρο-φαγία). A six days’ fast throughout Holy Week, during which the Christians of the primitive Church ate only bread with a little salt, and drank nothing but water.

=Xestes=, Gr. (Lat. Sextarius). A Greek measure of capacity; very nearly a pint; equivalent to the Latin SEXTARIUS.

=Xoïtes=, Egyp. A nome or division of Lower Egypt, the capital of which was Khsonou; Ammon-Ra was the principal deity there worshipped.

=Xylography.= Wood-engraving (q.v.).

=Xylon=, Gr. (lit. wood). A Greek measure of length, equal to 4 feet and 6·6 inches.

=Xylopyrography.= Poker-painting; the art of burning pictures on to wood.

=Xyneciæ=, Gr. (συν-οίκια). Festivals held at Athens in honour of Minerva, to commemorate the union of the inhabitants of Attica into a single city. These festivals were instituted by Theseus, and held every year in the month of July. Another name for them was Metœciæ (μετοίκιαι).

=Xystus=, Gr. (ξυστός). A covered place situated near a portico, within which, in a palæstra or stadium, athletes went through their exercises. Pausanias tells us that this part of the stadium received its name from the fact that Hercules used every day to clear out the palæstra at Elis in order to inure himself to toil, and that he tore up many weeds by scraping (ξύω, to scrape, ξυστός). The baths and thermæ at Rome were furnished with large xysti, in which young men went through a number of exercises. The term xystus was also generally applied by the Romans to the beds of rare flowers and shrubs in the centre of the peristyle; it also denoted a garden walk perfectly straight, and planted in a regular style; and lastly, an open walk or terrace in a garden attached to any building.

The letter =Y= is called the letter of Pythagoras because that philosopher made it the symbol of life. The foot of the letter, he said, represented infancy, and as man gradually rises to the age of reason, he finds two paths set before him, the one leading to good, the other to evil, portrayed by two forks of the letter. The illustration is the device of Jean de Morvilliers (+ 1577), Chancellor of France; the harrow tied to the Pythagorean Υ, a rebus on his name Mort-vie-liers—“Death and life united.” The harrow is the symbol of Death, which makes all things equal. (Fig. 701.)

=Yacca.= An ornamental Jamaica wood used for cabinet-making.

=Yard= (from the Saxon geard or gyrd, from gyrdan, to enclose). Originally estimated to measure the girth of a man’s body; until Henry I. decreed that it should be the length of his arm.

=Yataghan.= A Turkish dagger or scimitar.

=Yawl.= A man-of-war’s boat, rowed with six oars.

=Ychma=, Peruv. The name for wild cinnabar among the ancient Peruvians; it was employed by them for painting the body and drawing figures on the face and arms.

=Yellow.= One of the three primary colours; producing with green, blue; and with red, orange. The principal yellow pigments are gamboge (bluish), gold ochre (reddish), yellow ochre, Naples yellow, chrome yellow, lemon yellow, Indian yellow, gall-stone, Roman ochre, Mars yellow, terra di Siena, Italian pink, cadmium yellow, &c.

=Yellow=, in Christian art, or gold, was the symbol of the sun; of the goodness of God, initiation or marriage, faith or fruitfulness. In a bad sense yellow signifies inconstancy, jealousy, deceit; in this sense it is given to the traitor Judas, who is generally habited in dirty yellow.

=Yellow Arsenic.= (See YELLOW ORPIMENT.)

=Yellow Flag.= Denoting sickness on board of a ship or quarantine.

=Yellow Lake.= A bright pigment, very susceptible to the action of light or metal. (See PINKS.)

=Yellow Metal.= A composition, two-thirds copper and one-third zinc.

=Yellow Ochre.= An argillaceous earth, coloured by admixture of iron. (See OCHRE.)

=Yellow Orpiment= (auripigmentum). A bright and pure yellow pigment, but not durable, and dries very slowly; called also Yellow Arsenic.

=Yeoman= of the Guard. A beef-eater; one of the British sovereign’s state body-guard; below the gentleman-at-arms. Instituted at the coronation of Henry VII. in 1485.

=Yew.= Taxus baccata. The word is largely used in cabinet-making. The excellence of the wood for making bows led to the trees being planted in churchyards, to preserve them.

=Ymaigier.= (See IMAGIER.)

=Ymaigerie=, =Imagery=, Med. (1) Illuminated borders on missals and manuscripts executed by the miniaturists of the Middle Ages. (2) Bas-reliefs and sculptures on wood and stone.

=Yoke.= A symbolical device assumed by Pope Leo X. in allusion to the text “My yoke is easy,” expressed in the one word of the motto “Suave.” (See JUGUM.) Fig. 702.

=York Collar.= Her. Was formed of alternate Suns and Roses.

=York Herald.= One of the six Heralds of the College of Arms. (See HERALDS.)

=York Rose.= Her. The white rose of the family of York. (See Fig. 589.)

=Yorkshire Grit.= A stone used for polishing marble and engravers’ copper plates.

=Ypres Lace= is the finest and most costly kind of VALENCIENNES.

=Yu=, Chinese. (1) A hard and heavy stone, supposed to be a kind of agate which was used for the ancient musical instrument KING, which was a kind of harmonicon made of slabs of sonorous stone of different sizes. (2) An ancient name for a curious wind instrument of high antiquity, which is still in use and is now called cheng. It consists of a number of tubes placed in a calabash, or bowl, and blown into through a long curved tube.

=Yucatan.= A province of Mexico remarkable for its architectural monuments of a forgotten civilization, described by Stephens, Incidents of Travel in Yucatan. (See MEXICAN ARCHITECTURE.)

=Yufts.= A kind of Russia leather, red and soft, with a pleasant smell.

=Yule=, O. E. Christmas time.

The initials Z and S and Z and C frequently interchange, especially in old words derived from the German, as zither, cither; zentner, centner, &c. The German Z is pronounced ts.

=Zaba=, =Zava=. An Arabic cuirass. (Meyrick.)

=Zabaoth.= (See SABAOTH.)

=Zafferano=, It. Saffron. A vegetable yellow pigment.

=Zaffre= (It. zaffiro). An ancient blue pigment, prepared from cobalt, of a sapphire blue, resembling smalt.

=Zamarilla=, Sp. A loose jacket of sheepskins.

=Zarf.= An oriental saucer for coffee-cups.

=Zauca=, =Zaucha=, or =Zauga=, Gr. and R. A soft and flexible leather boot peculiar to Eastern nations; it was worn under the trousers.

=Zazahan=, Sp. A kind of flowered silk.

=Zebec.= A common form of sailing vessel in the Mediterranean, rigged with a lateen sail.

=Zebra Wood.= The Hyawaballi of Guiana, a beautiful wood for furniture.

=Zebu.= The humped species to which the sacred Brahmin bull belongs, represented in Hindu art.

=Zema=, Gr. and R. (ζέμα). A vessel of earthenware or metal, a saucepan.

=Zemzemeeyeh=, Arabic. A skin for carrying water in the desert.

=Zend-Avesta=, Pers. “The Word of Life” or “Living Word.” The sacred book of the Parsees; it consists of two parts, one of which is written in Zend, the other in Pehloi and Parsee. The first part is called Vendidad-Salé, and the second Boundehech.

=Zenith.= The centre of the arch of the sky overhead. (Cf. NADIR.)

=Zephyr Yarn= is the dyed worsted thread usually known as Berlin wool.

=Zeuxite.= A gem. (See TOURMALINE.)

=Zigzag=, Arch. One of the mouldings frequently used in Norman architecture, running in zigzag lines. (See Fig. 488.) Fig. 123 is an illustration of a variety of this ornament on a column. Zigzig mouldings in connexion with pointed arches are characteristic of the transition period of architecture, from the Norman to the Early English, frequently called chevron.

=Zimarra.= An Oriental robe, called in England also Samare. Described as a lady’s jacket: “it has a loose body and four side laps or skirts, which extend to the knee; the sleeves short, cut to the elbow, turned up and faced.”—Randle Holme.

=Zincography.= Engraving on plates of zinc, introduced in 1817. (See PHOTOZINCOGRAPHY.)

=Zinc White.= A pigment recently introduced as a substitute for the preparations of white lead. It is little liable to change, either by atmospheric action or mixture with other pigments. It is the white oxide of zinc, and is also called Chinese White (q.v.).

=Zipo=, Med. Lat. A shirt of mail.

=Zircon.= A peculiar rare grey and brown earth, found in the true rough and opaque varieties of hyacinth stone, which are met with in Ceylon, Norway, Carinthia, and the Ural. The term hyacinth is applied to the transparent and bright-coloured varieties of zircon, and jargoon to crystals devoid of colour and of a smoky tinge, occasionally sold as inferior diamonds. (Simmonds’ Com. Dict.)

=Zither.= A favourite stringed instrument of a soft and sweet effect, much used in the Austrian Tyrol. It is played lying flat on a table, and the strings struck with a plectrum worn on the thumb.

=Zocle= or =Socle=, Arch. The plinth in classical architecture.

=Zodiacus=, =Zodiac=, Gen. (ζωδιακὸς, i. e. pertaining to animals). The zone of the celestial sphere which extends to eight degrees on either side of the ecliptic. The Egyptians had representations of it in their temples, the most celebrated being that of Denderah, a cast of which is at the Louvre. Other zodiacs have also been found in the great temple of Esneh and at Contra-Lato. Many monuments of the Romano-Byzantine and Gothic periods possess representations of zodiacs. They occur on the doorways and other parts of churches from the end of the 10th century. In particular may be noted the one which figures on the bas-reliefs of the frieze in the side apsides of the Romano-Auvergniate church of St. Paul d’Issoire. One of the largest zodiacs, dating from the beginning of the 11th century, is that of the church of St. Vézelay. The series of medallions which surround the great tympanum representing Christ and the apostles, contain, independently of the signs of the zodiac, representations of the agricultural operations belonging to each month of the year.

=Zona=, Gr. (1) A girdle, used to gird up the skirts of the dress for freedom of action (Fig. 157); on occasions of solemnity, as sacrifices or funerals, the girdle was relaxed, and the folds of the dress allowed to hang to the feet (Fig. 537); as a part of the marriage ceremony it was taken off. Upon the armour of men it supported the kilt, and was worn round the cuirass (Fig. 705; cf. Fig. 44). It was generally used as a purse. The celebrated girdle (cestus) of Venus, which conferred beauty and inspired love, is not represented on the statues of that goddess. There is a town on the Ægean Sea called Zona from the belt of trees upon it, still growing in the processional order in which they arrived when they left their native plantations and followed the music of Orpheus. (2) In Architecture, an entablature which encircles any isolated building. Lofty buildings surrounded by seven zones were described as septizonia. (3) In painted vases, horizontal annular bands often decorated with animals. (See ZOOPHORI.)

=Zonula.= Diminutive of ZONA.

=Zoomara=, Arab. A double clarionet.

=Zoophori.= Bands of ornament on friezes, vases, &c., representing animals. (See Figs. 706, 707.)

=Zophorus=, Gr. and R. (ζωφόρος). Literally, bearing animals, and thence a frieze, decorated with figures of animals, conventional or real.

=Zotheca=, Gr. and R. (ζω-θήκη). A small chamber adjoining a larger apartment, whither the occupant might retire for the purpose of study. (2) A small niche for the reception of a statue, vase, or any other object. The Romans had a diminutive for zotheca, viz. zothecula.

=Zummárah=, Egyp. A musical instrument; a double reed pipe.

THE END.

LONDON: PRINTED BY GILBERT AND RIVINGTON, LIMITED, ST. JOHN’S SQUARE.

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TRANSCRIBER’S NOTES

1. Silently corrected obvious typographical errors and variations in spelling. 2. Retained archaic, non-standard, and uncertain spellings as printed. 3. Moved illustrations to the head of the associated article. If more than one illustration then positioned some after the article. 4. Enclosed italics font in underscores.

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